TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

Faculty Member: Dr. VIVEK MOHAN

Asst. Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli

Document prepared by: AMAN BARNWAL (107116006)

CHANDAN MOTEKA (107116018)
DEBJYOTI CHATTERJEE (107116024)
GANESH MANDAL (107116028)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu-620015
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.TRANSFORMER FAILURE…………………………………………………………………………………..2

1.1 CAUSE OF TRANSFORMER FAILURE……………………………………………………………… 2

1.2 PREVENTIVE MEASURES……………………………………………………………………………. 3
2. TYPES OF FAULTS…………………………………………………………………………………………...3
2.1 INTERNAL FAULTS………………………………………………………………………………….…3
.2.1.1 CAUSE OF INTERNAL FAULTS……………………………………………………………….3
2.1.2 DETECTION OF INTERNAL FAULTS………………………………………………………….5
2.2 EXTERNAL FAULT……………………………………………………………………………………...5
2.2.1 CAUSE OF EXTERNAL FAULT…………………………………………………………...……6
3. ABNORMAL CONDITIONS IN A TRANSFORMER…………………………………………………….…6
3.1 MAGNETIC INRUSH CURRENT………………………………………………………………...……….6
3.1.1 CAUSE OF INRUSH CURRENT……………………………………………………………………7
3.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF INRUSH CURRENT…………………………………………….………7
3.1.3 DETECTION OF INRUSH CURRENT………………………………………………….……….….8
3.2 VOLT PER HERTZ CONDITION …………………………………………………………..….…….……9
4. TRANSFORMER PROTECTION……………………………………………………………….……….….…9
4.1 PROTECTION FOR LOW-LEVEL INTERNAL FAULTS………………………………………….……10
4.1.1 BUCHHOLZ RELAY PROTECTION…………………………………………….……..…….……10
4.1.2 PRESSURE RELAY PROTECTION………………………………………………………….….…11
4.2 PROTECTION FOR HIGH-LEVEL INTERNAL FAULTS…………………………………………....…12
4.2.1 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION FOR TRANSOFRMERS……………………………..…..…12
4.2.1.1 NEED OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION …………………………………..………...…...13
4.2.1.2 PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION…………………………..………….....…13
4.2.1.3 LIMITATION OF DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION …………………………….…...….…. 17
4.2.2 PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION…………………………….……..……...… 17
4.2.2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY…….…………… 18
4.2.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS CURVE OF PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL RELAY……..…… 18
4.2.2.3 LIMITATION OF PERCENTAGE DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION ………………...…. 19
4.2.3 RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION……………………………………………… 19
4.2.3.1 OPERATION OF REF PROTECTION SCHEME……………………………………..…… 20
4.2.3.3 HIGH RESISTANCE GROUND FAULTS ON DELTA SIDE…………………………… 21
4.2.3.3 HIGH RESISTANCE GROUND FAULTS ON STAR SIDE…………………….………. 22

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1. TRANSFORMER FAILURE
Damages can far exceed the cost of a replacement sometimes. The added expenses may
include the loss of production time, damaged credibility, regulatory fines and civil lawsuits.
Many experts describe failure occurrences in terms of the “Bathtub curve” (shown in Fig 1)
where it is predicted that “transformer failures increase with time”.

The following graph describes the relative failure rate of a transformer. During their life cycle,
transformers will go through three different periods of failure rates, which explains the “Bathtub”
shape.

Fig1: Bathtub Curve

• Infant Mortality: Failures are the least expected. Design, manufacturing or material defects
are common causes and require from the manufacturer a deep analysis of the incidents.
• Normal Life: Also called useful life where random failures may occur. This is the lowest
constant failure.
• End of Life Wear-out: Wear and tear make products fail more often and signal the end of life.

1.1 CAUSE OF TRANSFORMER FAILURE

To track the cause of the failure is the first step to formulate its solution. The origin of the defects
is not simple. Generally, it is the combination of many factors that can be classified in the following
way.
A. Imperfection of the specifications
• A mistake in the selection of the type of insulation.
• Not having an appropriate capacity of the transformer.
• Lack of attention to the conditions in the place of installation (like dampness, temperature,
etc).

B. Imperfections on the operation and maintenance of the equipment

• Deterioration of the insulating oil.
• Excessive load in the connection of the cables.
• A mistake in the operation, and carelessness in the arrangement of the protection circuits.
• Poor maintenance of the components of transformers.

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1.2 PREVENTIVE MEASURES
Maintenance is the key to avoid transformer failure. A preventive maintenance schedule consists
of regular inspections and component replacements according to the product-specific maintenance
schedule. Additional measure-+s may include:

• On liquid-cooled units, check the radiators for leaks, rust, accumulation of dirt and
mechanical damage that would restrict the oil flow
• Keep the bushings and insulators clean
• Keep electrical connections tight
• Inspect tap changers on a regular basis
• Transformer windings, bushings and arresters should have a power factor test on a 3-year
basis

2. TYPES OF FAULTS

Faults in the transformer are classified as internal faults and external faults.

2.1 INTERNAL FAULTS

These are the faults which occur inside the transformer which may seriously damage the insulation
of the transformer and causes break down in the transformer. If an internal fault does occur, the
transformer must be immediately switched out of service. Isolated differential protection provides
the best protection against internal faults.

2.1.1 CAUSE OF INTERNAL FAULTS

• INSULATION BREAKDOWN
Every electric wire in your plant – whether it’s in a motor, generator, cable, switch, transformer,
etc. – is carefully covered with some form of electrical insulation. Statistics show that about 30-
50% of the total number of dielectric failures have been associated with damage to the windings.
Insulation breakdown is also called an electrical breakdown or dielectric breakdown. It
occurs when the voltage across the electrical insulator exceeds the breakdown voltage. This
results in the insulator becoming electrically conductive. The electrical breakdown may be a
momentary event as in an electrostatic discharge or may lead to a continuous arc if protective
devices fail to interrupt the current in a power circuit.
The One-Megaohm Rule
For many years, one megohm has been widely used as a fair allowable lower limit for insulation
resistance of ordinary industrial electrical equipment rated up to 1000 volts.
The rule states that “Insulation resistance should be approximately one megohm for every 1000
volts of operating voltage, with a one megohm minimum”.

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• DETERIORATION OF THE INSULATING OIL, OIL LEAKAGE & OIL
CONTAMINATION
The primary function of transformer oil is to insulate and cool a transformer. The insulating oil
deteriorates gradually with use. The main cause is the absorption of the moisture in the oil. Each
time the moisture is doubled in a transformer, the life of the insulation is halved.
Paper insulation has a much greater affinity for water than does the oil. The water is absorbed by
the paper even from the oil, making it dry.
In addition to serving as insulation, oil serves to transfer the heat generated in the windings and
the core toward the walls of the tank and the radiators. If the oil leaks from the transformer tank
due to some reason, the oil level in the tank will drop. In power transformer, the conservator tank
is provided with an oil level indicator having an alarm facility. If the oil level drops below a
predetermined level, the alarm will ring. It allows the operator to initiate necessary actions.
• COOLING SYSTEM FAILURE
The cooling system reduces the heat produced in transformers due to copper and iron losses. The
cooling system contains cooling fans, oil pumps, and water-cooled heat exchangers. The failure
in the cooling system causes the heat to build up in the transformer which affects different parts of
the transformer and also it causes more gas pressure to be built inside which may cause the
transformer to blow.
The more easily the heat can be dissipated, the better the working of the transformer. The
role of the cooling system is to increase the capacity of the transformer to carry the load without
reaching critical hot spot temperature.

• OVERHEATING DUE TO OVER-EXCITATION

Overexcitation of a transformer means the Magnetic flux in the core is increased above the
normal design level. This will cause an increase in the magnetizing current and the transformer
can be damaged if this situation isn’t taken care of. Overexcitation of transformers is caused by
over-voltages in the network. “The overexcitation is not an internal transformer fault,
although can lead to one”.

• CORE OVERHEATING
The transformer core provides a magnetic path to channel flux. Fault in the core directly affect the
transformer windings, causing faults in them. The lamination of the core can become defected by
poor maintenance, old oil or corrosion.
The over-heating reaches the core surface which is in direct contact with the windings. As a result
of this, the windings are damaged by the heat. This heat also damages the oil in the transformers
resulting in the release of a gas from the oil that damages other parts of the transformer.

• PHASE-TO-PHASE FAULTS
Phase-to-phase faults are rare in occurrence. Short circuits between the phases will give rise to
substantial fault current.

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• PHASE TO GROUND FAULTS
The impulse voltage or the deterioration of the insulation can cause a short circuit to the grounding
of the winding or of its terminal to the core or to the tank.

2.1.2 DETECTION OF INTERNAL FAULTS

As additional protection, we generally use the different relays that the transformer has to detect
and be protected of failures. The below devices are attached directly to the transformer and detect
mechanical failures:
• Buchholz relay
• Pressure rise relay
• Pressure relief device
The below devices are indirectly attached to the control cabinet and detect electrical failures:
• Differential relay
• Overcurrent relay
• Ground current relay

Interesting Facts:

● Winding failures - 51%

● Tap changer failures - 19%
● Bushings and Insulator failures - 9%
● Terminal board failures - 6%
● Core failures - 2%
● Miscellaneous failures - 13%

2.2 EXTERNAL FAULTS

They are also known as “Through Faults”. These faults can’t be generally prevented by
maintenance. The transformers are subject to things like lightning strikes, or other damage from
the outside that cannot be prevented. External faults are those faults that occur outside the
protective zone of the relay in a transformer and cleared by the downstream components
Normally these faults are cleared by Over-current Protection which is placed on the primary side
of the transformer. Since these things like lightning strikes, etc cannot be predicted, it is important
to have a plan in order to make repairs as fast as possible. These can also be fairly minor in nature
but can cause damage to the insulation and cause problems over time to the inside of the
transformer.

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2.2.1 CAUSE OF EXTERNAL FAULT
1. OVERLOADING
Overloads cause the transformer to overheat and have the potential to cause permanent damage or
loss of life to the unit. The time constant for overheating is long, however, and it may take many
hours of exposure for the condition to become serious. In most cases, no protection is provided for
overload, but an alarm will often be used to warn operating personnel of the condition. One cause
of overload may be due to unequal load sharing of parallel transformers or unbalanced loading of
three-phase banks.
2. OVERVOLTAGE
Over-voltage can be either due to short-term transient conditions or long-term power-frequency
conditions. These transients are protected against by surge protective devices that are designed
for this purpose. Such conditions of the over-voltage result in rapid heating of the iron circuits of
the transformer, with possible damage to core lamination insulation and even to winding
insulation.
3. EXTERNAL SYSTEM SHORT CIRCUITS
System faults that are external to the transformer protection zone, but causes high transformer
currents, can cause transformer winding damage. Large external fault currents cause high
mechanical stress in the transformer windings. This short time frame makes it almost impossible
to protect the transformer from experiencing these stresses. The protection strategy for these events
is, therefore, a matter of transformer design.
Usually, the ratio of voltage to frequency should not be allowed to exceed 1.1 per unit, which
is usually called a "Volts per hertz" limit.

3. ABNORMAL CONDITIONS IN A TRANSFORMER

There are two major abnormal conditions in the transformer which may cause unnecessary
operation of the differential relay.
1. Magnetic Inrush Current
2. Volts Per Hertz limitation

3.1. MAGNETIC INRUSH CURRENT

The transformer inrush current is the maximum instantaneous current drawn by the primary of the
transformer when we energize the transformer and its secondary is open circuit. Inrush current will
have a very high magnitude of 2nd harmonic and same for consecutive harmonics.
Why Inrush Current Restrain Required?
The inrush current does not create any permanent fault, but it causes a differential current in
operating coil of a relay which results in unwanted switching in the circuit breaker of the
transformer.

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3.1.1 CAUSE OF INRUSH CURRENTS
Any event on the power system that causes a significant increase in the magnetizing voltage of the
transformer core result in magnetic inrush current.

• Energization of the transformer

This is the typical event where magnetizing inrush currents are a concern. When the excitation
voltage on one winding is increased from 0 to full voltage, the transformer core typically saturates,
with the amount of saturation determined by transformer design, system impedance, the residual
flux in the core, and the point on the voltage wave when the transformer is energized. The current
needed to supply this flux may be as much as 40 times the full load rating of the transformer.

• Magnetizing inrush current during fault clearing

An external fault may significantly reduce the system voltage, and therefore reduce the excitation
voltage of the transformer. When this fault is cleared, the excitation voltage returns to the normal
system voltage level. The return of voltage may force a dc offset on the flux linkages, resulting in
magnetizing inrush current. This magnetizing inrush current will be less than that of energization,
as there is no residual flux in the core. The current measured by the differential relay will be linear
due to the presence of load current and may result in low levels of second harmonic current.
3.1.2 Characteristics of Inrush current
We know that,

emf, 𝑒(𝒕) = 𝑬max𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜽), then flux

is defined by,
𝝓(𝒕) = 𝝓𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝜽) + 𝝓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Where 𝑒(𝑡) = Instantaneous excitation
voltage
E max = Peak excitation voltage
𝜔= System frequency
𝜙(𝑡) = Instantaneous flux
𝜙max = Peak flux
θ = Voltage angle
Fig 3. Excitation voltage and Flux vs Time
In Fig 3, we can see that flux lags excitation voltage by 90 degrees, so when a voltage is at its
minimum (angle 90), flux is maximum which is added with residual flux and exceed the saturation
value which results in magnetic inrush. (as inrush current is proportional to flux).
• The magnitude of the inrush current depends on the point on the AC wave the transformer is
switched on.
7
• If turn-on occurs when the AC voltage wave is at its peak value, there will be no inrush current
drawn by the transformer. The magnitude of the current, in this case, will be at normal no-load
value.
• If at turn-on, the AC wave is going through its zero value (zero crossing), then the current
drawn will be very high and exceed the saturation current.

3.1.3 DETECTION OF INRUSH CURRENT

Modern microprocessor-based relays have inbuilt restrain feature for magnetic inrush current. It
will self-desensitize during magnetic inrush period and become sensitize whenever a fault occurs
inside the transformer. Operation of this relay is based on different waveforms of inrush current
and fault current. Inrush currents have harmonic waveform while fault currents have sub-transient,
transient and then steady state current waveform.
Fig 4. shows that there is a significant magnitude of 2nd harmonic of inrush current which indicates
inrush current will not settle immediately but it will take some time to settle.

Fig 4. Inrush current Vs Time

Fault current during different time periods is presented in Fig 5. There is a large magnitude (almost
double) of fault current during the sub-transient time and it will reduce by some amount in the
transient period and finally we have steady state fault current. It is clear from the waveform that
there is no harmonics in fault current and its characteristics are different from inrush current.

8
 Fig 5. Fault current Vs Time

3.2 VOLT PER HERTZ CONDITION (OVEREXCITATION VOLTAGE)

• The transformer core flux is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to
the frequency. The measured V/Hz ratio is, therefore, an excitation indication. When the
allowable V/Hz ratio is exceeded, the magnetic core saturates.
• During saturation, excessive core flux increases the inter-lamination voltages, causing iron
damage (burning, pitting). At this high level, the normal magnetic path cannot accommodate
the increased flux, which flows in leakage paths not designed (not laminated) to carry it,
causing heat damage.
• For almost all transformers, damage occurs at an overexcitation (volts-per-hertz) level of1.25
p.u.
• The type 59F volts per hertz relay is used to protect the transformer against overexcitation.

4. TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
Depending upon the nature and degree of the transformer faults, the suitable protection schemes
need to be selected. According to the magnitude of fault current Transformer faults can be
classified into -
1. Low-Level Internal Fault
2. High-Level Internal Fault

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4.1 PROTECTION FOR LOW-LEVEL INTERNAL FAULTS

A small arc (at the initial stage of insulation failure) may cause heat inside the oil immersed
transformer which results in gas formation inside the transformer. We have two mechanical
Inbuilt relays to detect this type of condition and protect our transformer.
1. Buchholz Relay Protection
2. Pressure Relay Protection

4.1.1. Buchholz Relay Protection

The Buchholz protection is a mechanical fault detector for electrical faults in oil-immersed
transformers. The Buchholz (gas) relay is placed in the piping between the transformer main tank
and the oil conservator. The conservator pipe must be inclined slightly for reliable operation.
Construction of Buchholz Relay
Buchholz relay in the transformer is an oil container placed into the connecting pipe from the
main tank to conservator tank. Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber. There are two
hinged floats, one at the top and other at the bottom in the chamber. Each float is accompanied by
a mercury switch. The mercury switch on the upper float is connected to an alarm circuit and that
on the lower float is connected to an external trip breaker. The construction of a Buchholz relay is
shown in the below figure.

Fig 6. Buchholz Relay

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Working of Buccholz Relay
Whenever a minor fault occurs inside the transformer, heat is produced by the fault currents. The
produced heat causes decomposition of transformer oil and gas bubbles are produced. These gas
bubbles flow in an upward direction and get collected in the Buchholz relay. The collected gas
displaces the oil in Buchholz relay and the displacement is equivalent to the volume of gas
collected. The displacement of oil causes the upper float to close the upper mercury switch which
is connected to an alarm circuit. Hence, when a minor fault occurs, the connected alarm gets
activated. The collected amount of gas indicates the severity of the fault occurred. During minor
faults, the production of gas is not enough to move the lower float. Hence, during minor faults, the
lower float is unaffected.
During severe faults the heat generated is high and a large amount of gas is produced. This large
amount of gas will flow upward, but its motion is strong enough to tilt the lower float in the
Buchholz relay. In this case, the lower float will cause the lower mercury switch to close which
will trip the transformer from the supply. So, the transformer is isolated from the supply.

Fig 7. Buchholz Relay

4.1.2. Pressure Relay Protection

This protection detects a sudden rate-of-increase of pressure inside the tap changer oil enclosure.
It has a piston – spring adjustment which works on the balance between piston and spring force.
• There are two types of pressure sensors in a transformer, one for sensing oil pressure and
another one for sensing the pressure of the gas above the oil.
• When the pressure in front of the piston exceeds the counter force of the spring, the piston
will move to operate the switching contacts.

11
• By providing the transformer with a pressure relief valve, the overpressure can be limited to a
magnitude harmless to the transformer.

Fig 8. Pressure Sensor

4.2 Protection for High-Level Internal Faults

It is common practice to provide Buchholz relay protection to all transformers of 0.5 MVA and
above. While for all small size distribution transformers, only high voltage fuses are used as main
protective device. For all larger rated and important distribution transformers, overcurrent
protection along with restricted earth fault protection is applied. Differential Protection
should be provided in the transformers rated above 5 MVA.

4.2.1 Differential Protection for Transformers

Almost all the medium and big size conventional transformers from either the distribution or the
transmission are protected by current differential protection. The minimum data that one provides
to the transformer differential relay include transformer capacity (kVA or MVA), winding phase-
phase voltages, current transformer ratings, selection of transformer winding connections, phase
shifts.
More settings would be needed if the relay has provisions for on-load tap changer (OLTC)
monitoring, which could impact the normal operation of the main differential protection.
Generally, differential protection is provided in the transformer which is rated more than 5 MVA.

12
4.2.1.1 Need of Differential Protection of Transformer

• Buchholz relay detects the velocity of the gas and works on the principle of mechanical
working and time taken, which is considerable for low-level fault. But for high-level fault, the
fault must be cleared in a very short time which is not possible by Buchholz relay. Hence, we
need the differential relay.
• The differential relays normally respond to those faults which occur inside the differential
protection zone of the transformer.

4.2.1.2 The principle of Differential Protection

The differential relay compares between primary current and secondary current of the
transformer. If any unbalance is found between primary and secondary currents, the relay will
actuate and inter trip both the primary and secondary CB of the transformer.
In other words, both CTs should be connected to the same current coil of a differential relay in an
opposite manner such that there will be no resultant current in that coil in a normal working
condition of the transformer. But if any major fault occurs inside the transformer, there will be a
mismatch in the primary current and the secondary current and the resultant current will flow
through the current operating coil of the differential relay, which will actuate the relay and inter
trip both the primary and secondary circuit breakers.

For comparing the value of primary current and secondary current, two major factors we need to
take care of.
1. Phasing Compensation
2. Magnitude Compensation

• Phasing Compensation
In the past, the phase shift compensation has been done externally, by connecting the CTs from
the Wye winding in Delta, and the ones from the Delta winding in Wye as shown in Fig 9.
The impact of the Delta and the Wye connected CTs placed respectively on both the Wye and the
Delta sides of the transformer is as follow:

Fig 9: Differential Protection Scheme

13
• Perform external phase shift compensation introducing currents with 180° phase shift to the
relay ready for magnitude matching and differential summation.
• Eliminate zero sequence currents (Delta connected CTs) from the grounded Wye winding
and match the zero sequence free currents measured from the Wye connected CTs on the
Delta winding.

Star connected windings have current lagging that of the delta connected winding current by 30
degrees as shown in the above figure.

Since there is a 180-degree phase difference between the two current transformers, current through
CT will be inverted as shown in the above figure.

14
Star connected winding transformer is always connected to the delta type current transformer and
hence current will again lead by 30 degrees and phasing is done.

Fig. 10 Phase shift compensation stages

In the modern time, the external phase shift compensation is not so common, as the new digital
relays can perform the phase shift compensation automatically. The CTs from both sides of the
transformer are connected in Wye, meaning that the currents introduced to the relay terminals have
the same transformer phase shift plus 180 degrees incurring from the mirrored polarity of both
winding CTs. These relays measure the shifted winding currents and apply a set of equations to do
the phase shifting correction.

15
• Magnitude Compensation
The second most important factor to take in to consideration is magnitude compensation, otherwise
instead of having correct phasing, mismatch current will flow through operating coil and trip off
the primary and secondary circuit breaker of the transformer. The magnitude of the current can be
compensated by the tap settings of the current transformer, which is the CT ratio. CT ratio can be
set on comparing the ratio of secondary current and primary current as shown in the figure.
Always it is not possible to have the correct CT ratio corresponding to secondary and primary
current ratio, so there may exist slight mismatch between them. Mismatch factor can be calculated
as shown in the figure given below. This mismatch factor should not exceed 30% of base current
in normal working condition, otherwise considered as a fault condition.

16
4.2.1.3 Limitation of Differential Protection Scheme in Transformer
There are situations when a differential current flow through the relay in normal operation also
and this current is enough to trip the coil though it is not a fault condition.

• Mis-match in Current Transformers turn ratio.

• The flow of No-Load Current through the primary of transformer even when the secondary is
open circuited.

Because of the above reasons, a differential current will flow through the Differential Protection
Relay. So Differential Protection will operate which is not expected to operate for the above-said
reasons. So, what to do to prevent tripping because of the differential current caused by the
above-mentioned reasons?

To prevent the Differential Protection scheme from picking up under such conditions, a
Percentage Differential Protection scheme is used.

4.2.2 Percentage Differential Protection

As shown in Figure 11, the percentage differential relay (PDR) consists of the restraining coil for
overcoming the trouble due to the flow of differential current in normal condition. The
operating coil is connected to the mid-point of the restraining coil. Figure 2 shows the connection
of Percentage Differential Relay in a Delta-Star Transformer.

Fig 11: Percentage Differential Relay Connection

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Significance of Restraining Coil
The restraining coil controls the sensitive characteristic of the relay and ensures the security of the
system in the cost of sensitivity. It restricts the unwanted tripping of the transformer due to the
imbalance current. The restraining coil also restrains the harmonics in the inrush current.

4.2.2.1 Working Principle of Percentage Differential Relay

The differential current which is required to operate this relay is of a variable quantity. The
differential current in the operating coil is proportional to (I1-I2) and unbalance current in the
restraining coil is proportional to the (I1+I2)/2. The operating coils connected to the mid-point of
the restraining coil. The torque due to the restraining coil prevents the closing of the trip
circuit while the torque due to the operating coil tends to close the trip circuit contacts.
• Under normal operating conditions and through load condition the torque developed by the
restraining coil is greater than the operating coil torque. Thus, the relay remains inoperative.
• When an internal fault occurs, the operating torque exceeds the restraining torque or bias torque
then the trip circuit contacts are closed to open the circuit breaker. The biasing torque may
adjust by varying the number of turns of the restraining coil. Thus, it provides more flexibility.

4.2.2.2 Characteristics Curve of Percentage Differential Relay

Fig 12: Characteristics curve of Percentage Differential Relay

Operation characteristic of such a biased differential relay is shown in Fig 12. The characteristics
show that except at low currents, the ratio of differential operation current to average restraining
current is a fixed percentage. Hence the relay is called the percentage differential relay.

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4.2.2.3 Limitation of Percentage Differential Protection in Grounding Fault
• A percentage differential relay has a certain minimum value of pick-up for internal faults.
Faults with fault current below this value are not detected by the percentage differential relay.
• Winding-to-core faults (as shown
in Fig 13), which are of the single
phase-to-ground type, involving
high resistance, fall in this
category.
• Therefore, we must have a more
sensitive relaying scheme to cater
for high resistance ground faults.
Further, the reach of such protection
must be restricted to the winding of
the transformer; otherwise, it may
operate for any ground fault,
anywhere in the system, beyond the Fig 13: Winding-Ground Fault in Transformer
transformer. Hence, such protection is known as Restricted Earth Fault Protection.

4.2.3 Restricted Earth Fault (REF) Protection

Restricted earth fault protection is
provided in electrical power
transformer for sensing internal earth
fault of the transformer. In this scheme,
the CT secondary of each phase of an
electrical power transformer is
connected together as shown in Figure
14. Then common terminals are
connected to the secondary of a
Neutral Current Transformer or
NCT and Restricted Earth Fault
Relay is connected in this closed path. Fig 14: Restricted earth fault protection
In Restricted Earth Fault scheme, the common terminals of phase CTs are connected to the
secondary of Neutral CT in such a manner that secondary unbalance current of phase CTs, and the
secondary current of Neutral CT will oppose each other. If these both currents are equal in
amplitude there will not be any resultant current circulates through the said closed path
Reach of this relaying scheme is limited to internal faults only; relay will not operate for
external faults. That’s why it is called ‘Restricted Protection’.

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4.2.3.1 Operation of REF Protection Scheme

• An external fault (Fig 15) in the star side will result in current flowing in the line current
transformer of the affected phase and at the same time, a balancing current flow in the neutral
current transformer, hence the resultant current in the relay is zero. So, this REF relay will not
be actuated for external earth fault.

Fig 15: Operation of REF for external fault

• But during an internal fault (Figure 16), the neutral current transformer only carries the
unbalance fault current and operation of Restricted Earth Fault Relay takes place. This
scheme of restricted earth fault protection is very sensitive for internal earth fault of the
electrical power transformer.

20
 Fig 16: Operation of REF for external fault

4.2.3.2 High Resistance Ground Faults on the Delta Side

Figure 17 shows the earth fault protection for the delta side of a delta-star transformer. If there is
a fault on the star side then the currents flow in the lines connected to the delta side in such a
way that there is no unbalanced current through the relay on the CT secondary side, thus the
reach is automatically restricted to the delta side.
Since this is a current balance scheme, it is independent of the load current and hence can be
made as sensitive as desired.

Fig 17: High Resistance Ground Faults on the Delta Side

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4.2.3.3 High Resistance Ground Faults on the Star Side
Fig 18 shows the restricted earth fault protection whose reach is limited to the star side of the
transformer. Ground faults beyond the star side CTs, anywhere in the system, do cause current to
flow on the secondary of the CTs. However, the currents circulate through the CT in the neutral
path and the CT in the faulted phase. Thus, no unbalanced current flows and the scheme remains
stable on external faults.

Fig 18: High Resistance Ground Faults on the Star Side

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