Lecture 5: Ash Content in Solid Fuels

Ash is the general term used to describe the

inorganic matter in a fuel.

Gaseous fuels are relatively ash free, followed by

liquid fuels, while solid fuels have relatively high
and varying concentrations of impurities.
Objectives of this lecture are to:

 Identify the sources of impurities of solid fuels

 Pinpoint the undesirable effects of impurities
in fuels
 Identify methods of ash disposal and possible
use
Composition of Coal
Coal is composed primarily of carbon and
hydrogen, but all coal also contains some
mineral matter (for example, clays, silica, shales,
quartz, calcite, etc.).

The percentage varies by coal type and source.

Coal ash is the mineral manner that is collected

after the coal is combusted, along with some
unburned carbon.
Coalification and Rank
The formation of coal from a variety of plant
materials via biochemical and geochemical
processes is called coalification.
The nature of the constituents in coal is related
to the degree of coalification, the measurement
of which is termed rank.
Rank is usually assessed by a series of tests,
collectively called the proximate analysis, that
determine the moisture content, volatile matter
content, ash content, fixed-carbon content, and
calorific value of a coal.
Moisture Content
Moisture content is determined by heating an air-
dried coal sample at 105–110 °C under specified
conditions until a constant weight is obtained.
In general, the moisture content increases with
decreasing rank and ranges from 1 to 40 percent
for the various ranks of coal.
The presence of moisture is an important factor in
both the storage and the utilization of coals, as it
adds unnecessary weight during transportation,
reduces the calorific value, and poses some
handling problems.
Fixed Carbon Content
Fixed carbon is the solid combustible residue
that remains after a coal particle is heated and
the volatile matter is expelled.

The fixed-carbon content of a coal is determined

by subtracting the percentages of moisture,
volatile matter, and ash from a sample.

Since gas-solid combustion reactions are slower

than gas-gas reactions, a high fixed-carbon
content indicates that the coal will require a
longer combustion time.
Minerals (Ash) Content
Coal contains a variety of minerals in varying
proportions that, when the coal is burned, are
transformed into ash.

The amount and nature of the ash and its

behaviour at high temperatures affect the design
and type of ash-handling systems employed in
coal-utilization plants.

At high temperatures, coal ash becomes sticky

(i.e., sinters) and eventually forms molten slag. The
slag then becomes a hard, crystalline material
upon cooling and resolidification.
Specific ash-fusion temperatures are
determined in the laboratory by observing the
temperatures at which successive characteristic
stages of fusion occur in a specimen of ash when
heated in a furnace under specified conditions.

These temperatures are often used as indicators

of the clinkering potential of coals during high-
temperature processing.
Sources of Impurities

As mentioned earlier, ash content of coal is the non-

combustible residue left after coal is burnt.

It represents the bulk mineral matter after carbon,

oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, other combustibles and
water has been driven off during combustion.

The mode of occurrence and relative

concentrations of mineral impurities in different
strata reflect the geological environment in which
the fuel deposits were laid down.
Analysis of ash content is fairly straight forward,
with the coal thoroughly burnt and the ash
material expressed as a percentage of the
original weight.
It can also give an indication about the quality of
coal.
Ash content may be determined as on air dried
basis or on oven dried basis.
The main difference between the two is that the
latter is determined after expelling the moisture
content in the sample of coal.
Formation and Physical Characteristics of Ash
The physical and chemical properties of coal ash
are determined by reactions that occur during the
high-temperature combustion of the coal and
subsequent cooling of the flue gas.
Residual ash can be classified as fly ash or bottom
ash.
Fly ash refers to the lightweight particles that
travel with the flue gas as it exits the furnace and
moves away from the high-temperature
combustion zone.
Bottom ash (also known as boiler slag)
consists of heavier particles that fall to the
bottom of the furnace.
Effects of Ash in Solid Fuels
In combustion systems, the heat released from
the fuel oxidation is typically transferred to a
working medium, such as steam or hot water,
which is used for power, heat or cooling
demands.
The hot flue gas is not in direct contact with the
working medium, and the energy transfer is
achieved through heat exchanging equipment,
such as tubes.
Optimally, both sides of the tube should be
clean in order to achieve the maximum rate of
heat transfer under the conditions.
In practice though, deposits do get formed,
especially on the flue gas side.
This problem is most common in solid fuel
combustion systems, due to their high ash
content compared to liquid or gaseous fuels.
Deposits add a thermal resistance between the
flue gas and the working medium and as a result
reduce the heat transfer between them.
Thus, the flue gas exits the combustion system
at higher than the design temperatures and
energy losses to the environment are increased.
Deposits also tend to accumulate over time and,
if the flue gas path is narrowed enough, these
deposits may even block it completely.

In some cases, after the accumulation of

significant deposits, chunks may fall off and
damage the boiler.

All in all, deposits tend to decrease the

efficiency of a combustion system, and increase
the operating and maintenance cost.
Slagging and Fouling
The deposit problem is typically classified in two
broad terms: slagging and fouling.

Slagging
Slagging refers to deposits formed on sections of
the boiler exposed mainly to radiant heat, such
as the furnace walls.
Slagging deposits are formed from molten or
half molten ash particles that stick to the hot
furnace walls.
They are not formed immediately upon firing up
the boiler, but accumulate slowly after an initial
layer has been formed over the walls.
Fouling
Fouling is used to characterize the deposits
formed on the convective pass, such as the heat
exchanger tubes.
In this case, deposits are formed by inorganic
vapours that condense on the relatively cooler
surfaces of the heat exchanger tubes.
In practice, the alkali content as well as the
chlorine content affects its fouling behaviour.
Alkali chlorides facilitate the transport of alkalis
in the gas phase, are very volatile, and are
released in the gas phase in the combustion
zone.
In the convective zone, they condense on the
cooler surfaces.
The condensed ash particles are molten and
form sticky deposits that tend to enhance
deposition of even coarse fly ash particles that
would normally bounce off the surfaces.
The presence of alkali chlorides also decreases
the overall ash melting temperature to values
between 700 – 800 °C or lower.
Although the mechanisms of formation for
slagging and fouling are not the same, both are
closely linked with the tendency of the fuel ash
components to melt or vaporize at low
temperatures.

The ash melting behaviour is greatly affected by

the ash composition. Typically, elements such as
calcium and magnesium increase the ash
melting temperature, while silica, potassium and
sodium decrease it.
Corrosion
Corrosion occurs when the protective oxide
layer that is formed on tube walls is attacked
primarily by chlorine or sulphur containing
compounds.
The sulfidation and chloridation of the tube
surfaces results in the formation of an outer
layer that does not have the protective
properties of the oxidised one.
Its defective structure means that it can be
scaled off easily due to erosion and thus become
subject to further corrosion.
Contrary to slagging/fouling, which can be
controlled to some extent by cleaning
procedures, such as soot-blowing even while the
boiler is operating, corrosion is permanent and
severely affects the lifetime of the equipment.

Smog Formation
Because of its fine-grained texture, dry fly ash is
susceptible to blowing under windy conditions.
If fly ash is allowed to escape to the atmosphere,
the result is air pollution which in extreme cases
can lead to smog, and can be detrimental to
health.
 Removal of Residual Ash

In power plants, fly ash is captured using

electrostatic precipitators or baghouses.
Dry fly ash collected is then either pneumatically
conveyed to a hopper or storage silo (dry
management), or mixed with water and sluiced
through a series of pipes to an on-site
impoundment (wet management).
Bottom ash consists of heavier particles that fall to
the bottom of the furnace. Whether collected from
dry-bottom or wet-bottom boilers, bottom ash is
usually mixed with water and conveyed away from
the furnace in a sluice pipe.
Possible uses of Fly Ash and Bottom Ash
The physical and chemical properties of coal ash
make it suitable for many construction and
geotechnical uses.
The primary use for fly ash is as an ingredient in
concrete. Fly ash act as a pozzolan, a siliceous
aluminous material that develops cementitious
properties when combined with calcium hydroxide
and water.
Fly ash can be used as a direct replacement for
portland cement in concrete.
The use of fly ash can significantly improve many
concrete qualities, for example, strength,
permeability, and resistance to alkali silicate
reactivity.
In addition to concrete, applications that make
use of fly ash are structural fills, cement
production, waste stabilization, and mine
reclamation.
The primary uses for the coarser bottom ash and
boiler slag are for structural fills and road base
materials, as blasting grit/roofing granules, and
for snow and ice traction control in snowy
regions of the world.
Disposal
Coal ash that is not beneficially used is placed in
landfills and impoundments.
Dry fly ash is typically loaded on trucks, wetted to
prevent dusting, and then transported to a
dedicated landfill facility.
The landfill may be located on or off the power
plant property. Wet-managed fly ash is typically
sluiced to an on-site impoundment or series of
impoundments, where the fly ash settles to the
bottom of the ponds.
In some cases, treatment chemicals may be
added to the ash pond to improve settling,
remove dissolved constituents, or control pH.

The settled ash solids may either be dredged for

beneficial use or for disposal, or may be left in
place.

One of the primary environmental concerns at

large storage and disposal sites is leaching and
release of trace constituents to groundwater
and surface water.