Distributed Generation

Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION

Distributed generation is a new trend in the generation of heat and electrical power. The
concept permits the "consumer", who is generating heat or electricity for their own needs, to
send their surplus electrical power back into the power grid or share excess heat via a
distributed heating grid.

Distributed generation is an approach that employs small-scale technologies to produce

electricity close to the end users of power. DG technologies often consist of modular (and
sometimes renewable-energy) generators, and they offer a number of potential benefits. In
many plants and can provide power onsite with little reliance on the distribution and
transmission grid. DG technologies yield power in capacities that range from a fraction of a
kilowatt [kW] to about 100 megawatts [MW]. Utility-scale generation units generate power
in capacities that often reach beyond 1,000 MW.

Historically, central plants have been an integral part of the electric grid, in which large
generating facilities are specifically located either close to resources or otherwise located far
from populated load centers. These in turn supply the traditional transmission and
distribution grid that distributes bulk power to load centers and from there to consumers.
These were developed when the costs of transporting fuel and integrating generating
technologies into populated areas far exceeded the cost of developing T&D facilities and
tariffs.cases, distributed generators can provide lower-cost electricity and higher power
reliability and security with fewer environmental consequences than can traditional power
generators.

In contrast to the use of a few large-scale generating stations located far from load centers--
the approach used in the traditional electric power paradigm--DG systems employ numerous,
but small

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DISTRIBUTED GENERATION TECHNOLOGIES:

Distributed generation takes place on two-levels: the local level and the end-point level.
Local level power generation plants often include renewable energy technologies that are site
specific, such as wind turbines, geothermal energy production, solar systems (photovoltaic
and combustion), and some hydro-thermal plants. These plants tend to be smaller and less
centralized than the traditional model plants. They also are frequently more energy and cost
efficient and more reliable. Since these local level DG producers often take into account the
local context, the usually produce less environmentally damaging or disrupting energy than
the larger central model plants.

Phosphorus fuel cells also provide an alternative route to a DG technology. These are not as
environmentally reliant as the previously mentioned technologies. These fuel cells are able to
provide electricity through a chemical process rather than a combustion process. This
process produces little particulate waste.

At the end-point level the individual energy consumer can apply many of these same
technologies with similar effects. One DG technology frequently employed by end-point
users is the modular internal combustion engine. These modular internal combustion engines
can also be used to backup RVs and homes. DG technologies can operate as isolated
"islands" of electric energy production or they can serve as small contributors to the power
grid.

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Chapter-2 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTED ENERGY

RESOURCES
Distributed energy resource (DER) systems are small-scale power generation technologies
(typically in the range of 1 kW to 10,000 kW) used to provide an alternative to or an
enhancement of the traditional electric power system. The usual problem with distributed
generators is their high initial capital costs.

2.0 MODES OF POWER GENERATION:-

 DER systems may include the following technologies:-

 Combined heat power(CHP)

 Fuel Cells
 Micro combined heat and power (Micro CHP)
 Micro turbines
 Photovoltaic Systems
 Reciprocating engines
 Small Wind power systems
 Tri generation

2.1 COGENERATION / BIOGAS AND BIOMASS POWER:-

Distributed cogeneration sources use steam turbines, natural gas-fired fuel cells, Micro-
turbines or reciprocating engines to turn generators. The hot exhaust is then used for space or
water heating, or to drive an absorptive chiller for cooling such as air-conditioning. In
addition to natural gas-based schemes, distributed energy projects can also include other
renewable or low carbon fuels including bio fuels, biogas, landfill gas, sewage gas, coal bed
methane, syngas and associated petroleum gas. In addition, molten carbonate fuel cell and
solid oxide fuel cells using natural gas, such as the ones from Fuel cell Energy and the Bloom
energy server, or waste-to-energy are used as a distributed energy resources.

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fig (2.1)

2.2 SOLAR PANEL:

A primary issue with solar power is that it is intermittent. Popular sources of power for
distributed generation are solar heat collection panels and solar panels on the roofs of
buildings or free-standing. Solar heating panels are used mostly for heating water and when
the water is heated into steam it can effectively and economically used in steam turbines to
produce electricity.

Some "thin-film" solar cells have waste-disposal issues when they are made with heavy
metals such as Cadmium telluride and Copper indium gallium selenide and must be recycled,
as opposed to silicon solar cells, which are mostly non-metallic. Unlike coal and nuclear,
there are no fuel costs, operating pollution, mining-safety or operating-safety issues. Solar
power has a low capacity factor, producing peak power at local noon each day. Average
capacity factor is typically 20%.

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fig (2.2.1)

fig (2.2.2)

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2.3 WIND TURBINE:

Another source is small wind turbines. These have low maintenance, and low pollution,
however as with solar, wind energy is intermittent. Construction costs are higher than large
power plants, except in very windy areas. Wind towers and generators have substantial
insurable liabilities caused by high winds, but good operating safety. Wind also tends to
complement solar. Days without sun there tend to be windy, and vice versa. Many distributed
generation sites combine wind power and solar can be monitored online.

fig (2.3.1)

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fig (2.3.2)

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2.4 WASTE-TO-ENERGY:

Municipal solid waste (MSW) and natural waste, such as sewage sludge, food waste and
animal manure will decompose and discharge methane-containing gas that can be collected
as used as fuel in gas turbines or micro turbines to produce electricity as a distributed energy
resource. Additionally, a California-based company has developed a process that transforms
natural waste materials, such as sewage sludge, into biofuel that can be combusted to power a
steam turbine that produces power. This power can be used in lieu of grid-power at the waste
source (such as a treatment plant, farm or dairy).

fig (2.4)

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2.5 FUEL CELLS:

There are many types of fuel cells currently under development in the 5-1000+ kW size
range, including phosphoric acid, proton exchange membrane, molten carbonate, solid oxide,
alkaline, and direct methanol.

Although the numerous types of fuel cells differ in their electrolytic material, they all use the
same basic principle. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anode of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell
through the cathode. With the aid of a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton (H+)
and an electron. The proton passes through the electrolyte to the cathode and the electrons
travel in an external circuit. As the electrons flow through an external circuit connected as a
load they create a DC current. At the cathode, protons combine with hydrogen and oxygen,
producing water and heat. Fuel cells have very low levels of NOx and CO emissions because
the power conversion is an electrochemical process. The part of a fuel cell that contains the
electrodes and electrolytic material is called the "stack," and is a major contributor to the
total cost of the total system. Stack replacement is very costly but becomes necessary when
efficiency degrades as stack operating hours accumulate.

Fuel cells require hydrogen for operation. However, it is generally impractical to use
hydrogen directly as a fuel source; instead, it must be extracted from hydrogen-rich sources
such as gasoline, propane, or natural gas. Cost effective, efficient fuel reformers that can
convert various fuels to hydrogen are necessary to allow fuel cells increased flexibility and
commercial feasibility.

fig (2.5)

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2.6 RECIPROCATING DIESEL OR NATURAL GAS ENGINES:

Reciprocating engines, developed more than 100 years ago, were the first among DG
technologies. They are used on many scales, with applications ranging from fractional
horsepower units that power small tools to enormous 60 MW base load electric power plants.
Smaller engines are primarily designed for transportation and can usually be converted to power
generation with little modification. Larger engines are most frequently designed for power
generation, mechanical drive, or marine propulsion.

Reciprocating engines can be fueled by diesel or natural gas, with varying emission outputs.
Almost all engines used for power generation are four-stroke and operate in four cycles (intake,
compression, combustion, and exhaust). The process begins with fuel and air being mixed. In
turbocharged applications, the air is compressed before mixing with fuel. The fuel/air mixture is
introduced into the combustion cylinder and ignited with a spark. For diesel units, the air and fuel
are introduced separately with fuel being injected after the air is compressed. Reciprocating
engines are currently available from many manufacturers in all size ranges. They are typically
used for either continuous power or backup emergency power. Cogeneration configurations are
available with heat recovery from the gaseous exhaust.

fig (2.6)

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2.7 MICROTURBINES:

Micro turbines are an emerging class of small-scale distributed power generation in the 30-400

kW size range. The basic technology used in micro turbines is derived from aircraft auxiliary

power systems, diesel engine turbochargers, and automotive designs. A number of companies are

currently field-testing demonstration units, and several commercial units are available for

purchase.

Micro turbines consist of a compressor, combustor, turbine, and generator. The compressors and

turbines are typically radial-flow designs, and resemble automotive engine turbochargers. Most

designs are single-shaft and use a high-speed permanent magnet generator producing variable

voltage, variable frequency alternating current (AC) power. Most micro turbine units are

designed for continuous-duty operation and are recuperated to obtain higher electric efficiencies.

fig (2.7)

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2.8 COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES:

Combustion turbines range in size from simple cycle units starting at about 1 MW to several

hundred MW when configured as a combined cycle power plant. Units from 1-15 MW are

generally referred to as industrial turbines (or sometimes as mini turbines), which differentiates

them both from larger utility grade turbines and smaller micro turbines.. Historically, they were

developed as aero derivatives, spawned from engines used for jet propulsion. Some, however, are

designed specifically for stationary power generation or compression applications in the oil and

gas industries. Multiple stages are typical and along with axial blading differentiate these turbines

from the smaller micro turbines described above.

Combustion turbines have relatively low installation costs, low emissions, and infrequent

maintenance requirements. Cogeneration DG installations are particularly advantageous when a

continuous supply of steam or hot water is desired.

fig (2.8)

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Chapter-3 INTEGRATION WITH THE GRID AND

ITS STUDY

For reasons of reliability, distributed generation resources would be interconnected to the

same transmission grid as central stations. Various technical and economic issues occur in
the integration of these resources into a grid. Technical problems arise in the areas of power
quality, voltage stability, harmonics, reliability, protection, and control. Behavior of
protective devices on the grid must be examined for all combinations of distributed and
central station generation. A large scale deployment of distributed generation may affect
grid-wide functions such as frequency control and allocation of reserves. As a result smart
grid functions, virtual power plants and grid energy storage such as power to gas stations are
added to the grid.

fig (3)

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How Distributed Generation Differs from Conventional power

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Which type is best-suited to the power???

 Gas turbines work well at high and medium powers, while reciprocating engines fill
the gap to fuel cells

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Chapter-4 BENEFITS OF DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

As mentioned above, basic tangible benefits that may be derived out of such sort of
distributed or dispersed or decentralized generation are the following.

• Easy and quicker installation on account of prefabricated standardized components

• Lowering of cost by avoiding long distance high voltage transmission
• Environment friendly where renewable sources are used
• Running cost more or less constant over the period of time with the use of renewable
sources
• Possibility of user-operator participation due to lesser complexity
• More dependability with simple construction, and consequent easy operation and
maintenance

Of course the issue of intermittent supply may be a big issue, particularly when backup
supply from grid does not exist. Initial cost too may be high depending upon location in a
number of cases.

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Chapter-5 ISLANDING OF POWER AND TRENDS

“Islanding” occurs when a small region of the power grid is isolated by broken lines, etc.,
and yet local sources provide enough power to keep the voltages up

 This situation is precluded by automatic protection circuits in invertors

 There may be a potential hazard to line workers
 Surges might cause equipment damage

fig(5)

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5.1 ISSUES AND TRENDS

 Licensing of grid intertie equipment remains variable across the United States; safety
issues predominate
 Use of independent power increases availability when extreme weather or extremists
cut transmission lines
 Independent power is being marketed to purchasers of expensive remote homes
 Distributed power works well with solar power roofs
 Hurricane outages of 11 days caused many to buy gasoline engine-powered
generators
 They may not realize what 4.5 hours per tank means
 They may not have planned for extra gasoline, or might have a garbage full of plastic
gasoline jugs

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CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

Conclusion:-
Distributed generation (DG) has much potential to improve distribution system performance.
The use of DG strongly contributes to a clean, reliable and cost effective energy for future.
The range of DG technologies and the variability in their size, performance, and suitable
applications suggest that DG could provide power supply solutions in many different
industrial, commercial, and residential settings. In this way, DG is contributing to improving
the security of electricity supply. However, distribution system designs and operating
practices are normally based on radial power flow and this creates a significant challenge for
the successful integration of DG system. As the issues are new and are the key for
sustainable future power supply, a lot of research is required to study their impact and exploit
them to the full extent.

Future scope:-
Possible future methods include risk-based planning and advanced monitoring schemes
combined with curtailment of production and consumption.

Future generations of electric vehicles may have the ability to deliver power from the battery
in a vehicle-to-grid into the grid when needed. An electric vehicle network could also be an
important distributed generation resource.

The developed dynamic model of SOFC based DG system can be used along with micro-
turbine based DG system for combined operation to increase the efficiency of the complete
system

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Chapter-6 CASE STUDY

Distributed Resource source:-

DG should not be exclusively confused with energy generation. Considering environmental

issues in today’s scenario and the limited availability of the fossil fuels, renewable energy
resources are very much encouraged over non-renewable energy resources for exploitation in
distributed generation system .The goal of distributed generation system is to minimize the
adverse effect of energy production on the environment and introduction of renewable energy
sources to the distributed network.

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Benefits of DG system:-
DG system offers potential benefits to electrical system planning and operations. On a local
basis there are opportunities for electric utilities to use DG to reduce peak loads, to provide
ancillary services such as reactive power and voltage support and to improve power quality.
Using DG to meet these local system needs can add up to improvements in overall electric
system reliability. Utility deregulation and rural electrification are also the reasons for the
high level of interest in Distributed Generation. Other important benefits associated with
distributed generation are:

i. Flexibility:- In today’s liberalized market, due to the small size and the short
construction lead times compared to most types of larger central power plants,
flexibility could allow the participants to respond to changing traditional method of
power generation. Important aspects of the above mentioned flexibility of distributed
generation technologies are operation, size and expandability.
ii. Reliability:- Reliability is the most important feature of electric power distribution
system. It can be seen as the degree of assurance in providing customers with
continuous service of satisfactory quality power supply. It is the probability of non-
failure of the system over time. There are many indices for measuring reliability. The
three most common are referred to as SAIFI, SAIDI, and CAIDI.
iii. Environmental benefits:- Environmental issues are probably the major driving force
for the demand of distribution generation in the electrical power system. Since the
renewable energy sources are by nature small-scale and dispersed over the grid,
installing DGs provides the opportunity to exploit the cleaner energy within
proximity. The avoided emissions are in a first approximation similar to the amount
of energy saving.
iv. Cost Efficient:- The concept of onsite production could result in cost savings in
transmission and distribution of about 30% of electrical energy costs. The smaller the
customer size, the larger the share of transmission and distribution costs in electrical
bill. The IEA estimates the grid losses reduction potential for 6.8% in the OECD
countries leading to cost savings of about 10-15%.

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IMPACT OF DG SYSTEMS ON INDIA POWER SYSTEM

1. Need of DG system:- India, being the world’s second largest populated country,
is currently facing heavy energy demand. Regardless of its rapidly growing economy
and massive addition in generation, transmission and distribution capacity over six
decades, demand has always left the increase in generation capacity behind. The total
installed capacity of India has reached 2, 88,664.97 MW in which plants consisted
28% of total installed capacity and non-renewable power plants constituted the
remaining 72%.

Rural electrification in India has long been regarded as a pre-requisite for

socio-economic development. Grid connectivity is considered as the most common method
of rural electrification of villages. In a large and diverse country like India, with its unique
geography and village habitations, grid connectivity is neither feasible nor cost effective.
India’s T&D losses are almost 20% of the generation, more than twice the world’s average.

2. DG system in India:-India, having a diverse landscape and geographical

condition, promises a resilient implementation and advancement of DG system as it
has unexploited renewable energy sources in abundance, including a large land mass
that receives among the highest solar radiation in the world, a long coast line with high
wind velocities that provide ample opportunities for both land based and offshore
wind farms, significant annual production of biomass and numerous rivers and
waterways that have potential for hydropower.

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3. Indian govt. schemes and projects:-Recently many renewable energy

technologies and scheme are being employed in a number of projects
approved by government of India. Some of them are
a) Solar power
b) Wind power
c) Biogas and biomass / Cogeneration
d) Small hydro power (up to 25 MW)
e) Others

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New technologies in DG system around the world

Realizing the need of clean, efficient and sustainable power for future, many organisations
and agencies are focusing on the advancement of the technologies used in grid connected and
off grid power generation system relating to renewable source of energy. A significant
number of research and development projects are persevering with the aim to achieve
maximum efficiency, effectiveness and reliability. Some of them are:

1. Concentrated solar power (CSP).

2. Hybrid co-generation (CSP and Biomass).
3. PETE (photon enhanced thermionic emission) solar panels.
4. ROV for automated measurement of defects on the offshore wind turbines using a
sensor ring to encourage industries towards offshore wind power harvesting.
5. “INVELOX – A Sheerwind’s technology” with multiple wind turbine generator
systems.

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REFERENCES

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_generation
 Distributed Generation - Basic Policy, Perspective Planning, and Achievement so far
in India- Subrata Mukhopadhyay, Senior Member, IEEE, and Bhim Singh, Senior
member, IEEE.
 Integration of Distributed Generation in the Power System By Math H. Bollen,
Fainan Hassan

http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/2342/16/16_chapter%206.pdf

 G. Pepermans, J. Driesen, D. Haeseldonckx, R. Belmans, W. D’haeseller,

“Distributed generation: definition, benefits and issues”, Energy Policy Vol. 33,
pp.787-798, 2005.
 “Distributed Generation in Liberalized Electricity Markets”, International Energy
Agency, 2002.
 “Load Generation Balance Report 2014-15”, an annual report by CEA India.
 “India Energy Outlook “, World Energy Outlook / special report, IEA 2015.
 “Growth of Electricity Sector in India from 1947-2015”, CEA, India.
 “Sustaining Growth-Future of India Power Sector”, a CII-A.T. Kearney report,
October 2009.
 “Physical Progress”. Ministry of New Renewable Energy, Govt. of India.
 Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, http://www.mnre.gov.in/
 Ministry of power, http://powermin.nic.in/, http://ujwalbharat.gov.in
 “Installed capacity” a monthly report by central electricity authority, India.

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