Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Edited by
A. Almar-Naess
I
B
TAPIR
1985
Editorial Committee
Jan R. Getz
Professor, MARINTEK, Trondheim, Chairman of Committee.
A. Alrnar-Naess
Professor, Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Carl A. Carlsen
Dr.ing., Senior Principal Surveyor, Det norske Veritas, Oslo.
Kristian Haslum
Sivilingenior, MAROTEC A/S, Oslo.
Torgeir Moan
Professor, Dr-ing., Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Per Tenge
M-Sc., Chief Surveyor, Det norske Veritas, Oslo.
Harold S. Tyler
B.Sc. (M.E.), Principal Metallurgical and Corrosion Engineer,
Phillips Petroleum Company Norway, Stavanger.
Authors
A. Alrnar-Naess
Professor, Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Hiikan Andersson
M.Sc., Structural Analyst, VERITEC, Oslo
Einar Bardal
Professor, Dr.ing., SINTEF, Trondheim.
Stig Berge
Professor, Dr .ing., Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Knut Engesvik
Dr.ing., Senior Research Engineer, SINTEF, Trondheim.
StAle Fines
Sivilingenior, Senior Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
M.B. Gibstein
M.Sc., Senior Principal Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
Per J. Haagensen
M.Sc.A., Senior Research Engineer, SINTEF, Trondheim.
Agnar Karlsen
Sivilingenior, Principal Surveyor, Det norske Veritas, Oslo.
Jon Lereim
M.Eng., Principal Surveyor, Det norske Veritas, Oslo.
Inge Lotsberg
Dr .ing., Principal Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
Torgeir Moan
Professor, Dr.ing., Norges tekniske hogskole, Trondheim.
Einar T. Moe
M.Sc., Senior Project Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
Stephen Slatcher
M.A., Ph.D., Research Engineer, A.S VERITAS RESEARCH, Oslo.
Stig Wastberg
Ph.D., Principal Engineer, A.S VERITEC, Oslo.
PREFACE
Soon after oil and gas exploration and production began in the North Sea in the
19603, it became apparent that the steel structure design developed for offshore activities
in the Gulf of Mexico was not adequate when transferred to the more rigorous North Sea
environment. In particular, fatigue cracks evolved as a result of wave action during the
severe winter storms. There were no serious accidents, but it was evident that there was a
great need for better understanding of the fatigue phenomenon so that safer structures
could be built.
In Norway, a vigorous effort to collect wave, wind and current data, and to develop
methods for calculating static and dynamic response in offshore structures started in the
early 1970's. A corresponding, but less intensive activity to determine fatigue capacity
of materials and welded joints in air and sea water, was initiated some years later, However,
everyone concerned recognized that a much greater effort was needed to keep up with
the rapidly developing construction work in progress in the North Sea.
In 1977, concerned materials scientists at SINTEF and Det norske Veritas prepared
a 5 year program for intensified research on fatigue of offshore steel structures. This was
approved by the Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in 1979.
In 1981, it became the National 5 Year Program for Fatigue of Offshore Steel Structures.
The stated objective of the program:
Establishing a more reliable basis for design of welded marine structures with respect to
fatigue, thus contributing to an improved and better defined safety level for such struc-
tures, and developing a basic understanding of mechanisms and conditions governing the
fatigue life of steel structures.
A steering committee was named with responsibility for the organization and
execution of the program. Present members are:
Bjom Lian, Statoil, Chairman
A. Almar-Naess, Norges tekniske hogskole
Einar Horn, Det norske Veritas
Per Tenge, Det norske Veritas
Harold S. Tyler, Phillips Petroleum Company Norway.
During 1981-1985, research work was performed in laboratories at Norges tekniske
hogskole, SINTEF, and Det norske Veritas. This work generally followed the original
program at a total cost of about 25 million Nkr. The main contributors to the program are
the Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and Phillips Petroleum
Company Norway. Supplementary funding is coming from Statoil, Oljedirektoratet, Norsk
Hydro A/S, and Kvaerner Industrier A/S. Close cooperation was established with similar
programs organized by the European Coal and Steel Community and National programs
within the Community.
In order to satisfy the objective of the program, it is important that results are
available to engineering industries, oil companies and certifying authorities without delay,
and in a form that can be understood and utilized by those responsible for the different
stages in engineering, design, fabrication and service of offshore structures. Therefore,
this book was written as one of the projects within the program.
A six member committee with Mr. Kristian Haslum as editor drafted the outline
and gave the initial instructions to the authors. At the final stage of the book, the editorial
work was undertaken by Professor A. Almar-Niess.
It is intended that the book should cover the most important subjects related to
fatigue of steel structures, to an extent and depth which will give the reader a correct
understanding of the main problems, and enable transfer of knowledge into practical
design. Examples of calculation of fatigue stresses and fatigue lives have been included
to illustrate the text.
Much of the editorial work has been to coordinate the eleven chapters so that the
different topics are dealt with in a logical order without unnecessary recurrences, and with
nomenclature and symbols that are essentially consistent. In this, the editor has been only
partially successful.
The editorial work has been a joint effort between the authors, Mrs. Vera Almar-
Naess, who has composed the book and corrected the proofs, Mr. Per Molde and Mr. Ingar
Graneggen, who have drawn the figures, and myself. I want to thank them all for a re-
warding cooperation. I would also like to acknowledge the positive connection with
Professor Jan R. Getz, chairman of the drafting committee, and Mr. Nils Ostlyng, director
of Tapir.
. VIII .
Contents
. IX-
Contents
OVERVIEW OF
OFFSHORE STEEL STRUCTURES
Torgeir Moan
Norges tekniske hsgskole, Trondheirn
ABSTRACT
The main features of various types of offshore steel structures are outlined.
Their construction and fabrication are discussed in relation to their fatigue
strength.
Design requirements for offshore platforms are reviewed, with emphasis
on those concerned with structural integrity. The practical implications of
design requirements are shown, with a semi-submersible being used as the
principal example. In particular, the factors that determine the relative im-
portance of the fatigue design criterion have been discussed.
Lessons learnt from service failures of structures are used to illustrate
how fatigue failures may be avoided by proper design, fabrication and opera-
tion.
t--I- I t ?
Section 1.1.1
is to reduce the effects of wave forces by locating the major buoyancy mem-
bers beneath the surface and therewith the wave action. Sufficient stability
is provided by the columns. Their operation displacement ranges from 15 000-
30 000 metric tons. The ratio between minimum (transit) and maximum dis-
placement is 112 - 213. Several semi-submersible designs have the basic
features displayed in Fig. 1.1 a - b, with a deck supported by two rows of
columns, each connected to a "longitudinal" pontoon. The slender bracing
arrangement varies. Semi-submersibles are commonly used in exploratory
drilling, but also serve as production units in "marginal" oil fields. The buoy-
type platform in Fig. I . 1c is self-explanatory.
Floating platforms are kept on location either by a conventional spread
mooring, or a taut mooring system or a dynamic positioning system. Up to
now spread mooring systems consisting of 6-12 lines with anchors at the ends
have been used. The tension leg platform, Fig. 1.1b, is a semi-submersible type
platform with buoyancy that exceeds its weight, and hence causes a pre-
tension force in the vertical cables. The first tension leg production platform
was installed in the Hutton field in the summer of 1984.
The jack-up is characterized by 3-4 (or more) legs that can be lowered
to serve as bottom support, see Fig. 1.ld. The main platform deck will thus be
raised out of the water on location during drilling. However, the deck unit is
watertight and has buoyancy and stability to serve as a transport unit with
elevated legs during ocean or field transit. The legs may be pipes perforated
with holes, or a truss-work. The jack-up is commonly used as a drilling
plat form.
A (concrete) gravity platform essentially consists of a large cellular
caisson supporting 3-4 towers with a deck on the top, see Fig. 1.1 e. To date,
the upper part of the superstructure has been exclusively a steel grillage,
built of plate girders or as a truss-work, the main reason being the desire for
low self-weight during tow-out. This makes it possible to install more equip-
ment before tow-out, and thus reduce the offshore installation time. The
basic concept of the gravity platform is to attain stability in the permanent
location without special piling.
The jacket or "template" platform is a truss-work tower consisting of
tubular members with a deck on the top and piles into the sea-bed, see Fig.
1.1 f. The deck loads (and environmental loads) are transferred to the founda-
tion through the legs, of which there may be 4 to 16. The legs are stiffened
by a bracing, w h c h will also carry resultant horizontal forces. Most of the
some 2500 jackets in the world are located in shallow waters. There are only
about 50 in water depths over 100 meters.
Section 1.1.1
1.1.2 Joints
Offshore steel structures are commonly composed of thin tubular members
because their closed sections provide buoyancy and high torsional rigidity,
minimum surface for painting and corrosion attack, simplicity of shape and
pleasing appearance. In submerged parts of the structures, circular tubes
are preferred because they result in smaller hydrodynamic forces than mem-
bers with square cross-sections. However, fabrication is easier for the latter
type. Above the splash-zone, hollow rectangular sections or other sectional
shapes may be used.
Colu
shell
a)
I I
I I I
Possible ringstiffener/bulkhead
Fig. 1.4 Transition components for a) small diameter tubes and b) large dia-
meter tubes. Possible vertical T-shape stiffeners are not shown.
Welded Cast
Fig. 1.5 Difference in layout of a) welded and b) cast tubular joints.
bilities include the use of internal bulkheads and stiffeners as shown in Fig.
1.3. Fig. 1.3 a shows a layout applicable when members of very different sizes
are to be joined. Fabricating joints with internal stiffeners obviously requires
a minimum space and thus a minimum diameter of the tubes.
Sometimes, a transition component is introduced between the member
and the joint itself. This may be done to increase the diameter or t o change
Section 1.2.1
The forces and stresses due to external loads are commonly determined
by separately calculating their local and global effects. For instance, the
effect of the distributed hydrostatic pressure on the pontoon plate, stiffeners
and frames of the semi-submersible in Fig. 1.7 are determined by considering
the direct pressure on the pontoon plates. In addition, the hydrostatic pressure
yields a resultant load per unit length of the pontoons , i.e. the buoyancy,
which will balance the own weight of the platform.
The global behaviour of most types of platforms, such as semi-submer-
sibles and jackets is determined by using a frame model of the platform.
The functional loads are directly applied t o the frame. The wave (and wind)
loads fluctuate in a stochastic manner. However, experience has shown that
the extreme effects (stresses, forces) due to waves can be determined accu-
rately enough by the so-called design wave method. The wave forces are
then determined with the platform in a regular extreme wave of appropriate
length and height. In practice, several design wave load conditions (wave
height/-length, direction) have to be applied to obtain the maximum forces
and stresses in each member or joint.
Fig. 1.9 a shows how the stress may vary at a weld joint in an offshore
structure. In welded structures it is the stress reversal o r stress range, Ao, that
causes the crack to grow. Normally, the effect of the sequence of the rever-
sals is not accounted for. Therefore, the stress history in Fig. 1.9 a may be re-
presented by the number of cycles, ni associated with each stress range inter-
val [noi; Aoi + A(Ao)] in a time period T, as shown in Fig. 1.9 b.
If the time period is long e.g. several years, a probability density func-
tion fA,(Ao) may be defined on the basis of relative frequency and informa-
tion of the type given in Fig. 1.9 b.
Time Stress r a n g e Ao
where No is the number of stress cycles in the period T. For many marine
structures, fA,(AO) can be closely represented by the Weibull distribution:
where o, and o,, are the load effect (axial stress due to external loads) and
the strength, respectively. For tensile stresses o,, = Re (yield strength). For
compressive stresses o,, decreases with increasing slenderness ratio, A, due to
buckling. Here, h is L/ri, where L and ri are the buckling length of the brace
and radius of inertia of its cross section, respectively.
In many cases a more general design check than Eq. (1.4) must be
applied. For instance, when a brace is subjected to both axial stresses due to
an axial force (0,) and bending moments (ab), the design check for a semi-
submersible drilling platform may be stated as (Ref. /I/):
k o, + ob < Y1 Re
- where k = Re/oUa
The stresses o, and ob are obtained for an extreme load condition, i.e. by a
design wave approach.
For production platforms, slightly different formats for design checks
are applied (Ref. 121).
b
V)
E
*-'
V) v, - - : R e
v
e Time
Fig. 1.10 a) Stress variation due b) Stress variation due to external load-
to external loading. ing and extreme residual stresses.
contact and can then transmit forces without activating the notch at the
crack tip. It is still a matter of discussion whether a compressive stress (i.e.
below the time axis in Fig. 1.10a) should be considered to contribute to the
fatigue damage. In the presence of residual tensile stresses it is the combined
stresses due t o fabrication and external loads that matter. Residual stresses
adjacent to welds are commonly assumed to be tensile and amount to yield
stress level.
In the case of a one dimensional stress condition, the yield stress repre-
sents the upper limit of stress, and a constant amplitude loading will then
result in stress variations adjacent to a weld, as shown in Fig. 1.10 b. In this
case Ao will be the significant parameter to describe the time variation of the
stress. In weldments with careful stress relief treatment and in cast nodes
where initiation will contribute to the fatigue life, the mean stress om may
also be a fatigue load parameter.
The fatigue crack propagates in a direction normal to the maximum
principal (tensile) stress. This has been observed by comparing fractured
structures and calculated stress distributions.
Fatigue crack growth follows different laws depending upon the level
of the stress reversals. We therefore distinguish between:
- low-stress, high-cycle fatigue
- high-stress, low-cycle fatigue
Fatigue failures that occur after only 1O4 to lo5 cycles are usually
denoted low-cycle. The endurance in high-cycle fatigue is usually several
millions cycles. Since only the latter phenomenon has been of real concern
in offshore platforms t o date, this section will be concerned with high-cycle
fatigue.
Section 1.2.4
Plate
a)
Ring I
stiffen-
LA A-A LA A -A
b
c)
Design check.
The fatigue design check may be performed with a different degree of refine-
ment, namely :
1. Judgement, more or less qualitative, based on experience.
2. Calculation of acceptable fatigue life based on the SN Miner-Palmgren
approach.
3. Fracture mechanics analysis.
As discussed earlier, the first approach should be used with caution, if
it is not supported by significant quantitative experience from similar cases.
Underestimation of the fatigue hazard has led to several accidents.
The second method may be expressed as:
where No is the number of cycles in the design life of the structure (e.g. 20
or 50 years), Aao is the expected maximum value of the stress range in the
design lifetime, and I'( ) is the gamma function.
Clearly, Eq. ( 1.lo) is based on approximations and should be used with
caution.
Section 1.2.5
which resembles Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) for the ultimate limit state (ULS) check.
The principal differences are that Eq. (1 .l Oa) refers to an extreme stress range
due to wave and wind loading, while Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6) involve extreme
stresses due to functional as well as environmental loads. Furthermore, Eqs.
(1.5) and (1.6) refer t o nominal stresses in braces due to beam theory while
the stress range in Eq. (1 .lOa) includes the magnification due to local changes
in the geometry. Finally it is noted that Oo will depend on the shape para-
meter, p, of the distribution of stress-ranges, and hence the total load history.
As in the ULS check, a characteristic value of Ni is applied in Eq. (1.9).
Usually, SN-curves corresponding to a probability of 97.5% of survival are
used. ni in Eq. (1.8) is taken as the expected long-term distribution. The
value of A is chosen such that the probability of failure due to the uncertain-
ties of ni and Ni in Eq. (1.8) is acceptably small. In practice, A lies between
0.1 and 1.0.
The third approach by fracture mechanics may be viewed as a refine-
ment in the determination of Ni in Eq. (1 3).
1.3.1 Semi-submersibles
In the design of semi-submersible platforms for exploratory drilling opera-
tions in the North Sea (Fig. 1.7), the overall layout is determined on the
basis of requirements to floatability/stability, limited motion and strength
for resisting progressive failure.
The scantlings of the deck, columns and pontoons are governed by
ultimate strength criteria. For the braces the situation is different as fatigue
criteria may be important. The procedure will normally be first to determine
the plate thickness of the braces so that the ultimate strength requirement
in Eq. (1.6) is fulfilled, and thereafter check for fatigue. The typical locations
investigated, by applying formulas like Eq. ( 1.1O), are :
- the brace to column connections
- possible transitions in cross-section properties
- longitudinal or transversal stiffeners on the braces
- cut-outs for equipment, port holes etc.
- attachments for equipment
I
?
- Column
0 - -
-
A - W a v e length
I I
fatigue reasons, it is also natural to use steel with a lower yield strength, Re.
This is because the fatigue strength does not depend upon the yield strength,
and the ultimate strength criterion, Eq. (1.6), will be satisfied by a lower Re
when o, and ob are reduced by increased thicknesses. Also, steels with lower
yield strengths usually have better weldability. The extra steel weight in
braces does not represent a serious penalty because their centre of gravity
is low. However, increased thicknesses themselves may cause weldability
problems, and imply more costly fit-up, welding and welding procedures.
By smoothing the geometry as shown in Fig. 1.13, the stress concen-
tration factors (SCF's) are reduced. A reduction of SCF to SCFIa implies a
reduction of the fatigue damage from D to D/am.
According to recent fatigue codes (Ref. /8/), grinding of the weld toe
implies a reduction of D by about 50%. However, grinding should preferably
not be used as a design measure but rather kept as a last resort of improve-
ment after fabrication when for any reason tlus would be necessary. Such a
G r o u n d flush
Im l m proved
M
l m proved
l m proved Improved
P l a t e a i s continuous
l m proved through p l a t e b
measure might be accepted by the authorities, but the benefit might not make
up for the costs. Different methods for improving the fatigue strength of
welded joints are discussed in Chapter 6.
When fatigue requirements, with A in Eq. (1.8) equal to 1.O, are im-
posed on braces in actual semi-submersibles which have been designed to
fulfill ULS requirements, the results have been increases of plate thicknesses
by as much as 50%, local smoothing of brace-column connections by brackets
and cut-outs (Fig. 1-13), and improvements of the weld geometry and quality.
As the requirements have been tightened recently, changes on existing
platforms have also been undertaken, obviously at much higher costs than
when implemented during the initial design and fabrication.
1.3-3 Jackets
In the design of the Mau jacket platform offshore New Zealand (Ref. 11I/), the
fatigue criterion was found to increase the weight of the jacket by about 4%.
Section 1-4.1
For North Sea jackets in up to 180 m water depths, such as the Murchison
jacket (Ref. /12/), fatigue governs plate thicknesses in some joints. For most
platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, fatigue criteria are not governing because
the wave climate is dominated by rarely occurring hurricanes, which induce
large extreme loads, but few stress reversals. However, for the Cognac plat-
form in 300 m of water, fatigue had some influence on the design of some
tubular joints due to dynamic magnification of the response (Ref. 191).
In the first two cases mentioned above, the A in Eq. (1.8) was set
equal to 1 .O, in the latter to 0.5. If A is reduced to 0.1 for joints where
fatigue is governing, then the plate thickness must be increased by 30-50%.
Increasing the thickness may cause fabrication problems and stiffeners may
have to be used.
Only in relatively few cases has the physical cause of the failure, e.g.,
the type of cracking (hydrogen induced, lamellar tearing, fatigue, stress corro-
sion, brittle fracture) been determined. This information can only be revealed
when there is access to the fracture surface. The crack appearance on the
plate surface does not even allow judgement as to whether the crack is fatigue
or otherwise.
Where it is possible for repairs to be effected in situ, failures are fre-
quently not removed from the installation for investigation, so that either
no specific cause is recorded, or where the cause is stated, its veracity must
be open to question. In certain cases, removal of the failed parts for investi-
gation may enhance the existing hazard or create a new one. In any case,
establishing the causes of failures frequently requires quite extensive and
laborous investigations in competent laboratories, together with reanalyses
of fatigue loading etc.
Some case histories and more general experiences regarding fatigue
failures are briefly described in the following section.
In May 1979 the jack-up drilling rig "Ranger I" (Fig. 1.14b) collapsed
in the Gulf of Mexico (Ref. /16/). The accident occurred because a crack
initiated and propagated in the aft leglstiffener weld and stiffenerlmat fillet
weld. The cracks were coincident with the leg/mat bulkhead and structural
bulkheads. This suggests that considerable rigidity in this region resulted in
stress concentration. The approximately 500 mm long fatigue crack appa-
rently developed at position 270' and to a lesser degree at position 90° in
the course of the lifetime of the structure, and led to the collapse of the leg,
with the subsequent falling down of the aft deck, and bending and separation
of the forward legs. Crack indications were also observed near the same loca-
tions on the forward legs. The fatigue crack already existed when the plat-
form entered a shipyard for repairs three months before the accident, but
remained undetected. The rules of the Classification Society involved, were
amended subsequent to the accident, demanding non-destructive testing of
critical connections of support legs at periodic intervals.
In March 1980 the accomodation platform "Alexander L. Kielland"
(Fig. 1.14 c) with 2 12 men onboard capsized in the North Sea (Ref. 1171).
The primary reason for the accident was the failure of a brace mainly due to
a fatigue crack starting from a hydrophone support, followed by a rapid,
unstable fracture. The fillet welds between the hydrophone support and the
brace had a poor shape. Inspections had been performed during fabrication
as well as during operation without discovering the 70 mm long cracks present
already at the time of fabrication. Fatigue life calculations have been carried
out based on Miner's rule as well as on the Paris equation, and the fatigue life
of the brace could be verified within reasonable limits of uncertainty. Frac-
ture mechanics analysis showed that the crack growth in the brace had accele-
rated very quickly from the initial stage. With a through-thickness crack of
about 30 mm length, the remaining life of the brace was found to be less
than one year. Cracks were observed at hydrophone supports in other rigs of
similar design during inspections after the accident.
The failure of this brace was rapidly followed by the failure of other
braces supporting column D. The subsequent loss of column D led to flooding
and capsizing within 20 min.
It is noted that also the design of this platform was conceived in the
1960's when fatigue design checks were not as routinely done as they are
today. However, when the actual platform was built in 1975-76, the general
practice in the offshore industry regarding fatigue design check was different.
But no fatigue checks had been made for "Alexander L. Kielland".
Besides the above cases, where members actually parted, several cases of
Section 1.4.2
/I
Forward
69
A f t horizontal
,Plate o f brace D 6
\
marks
Drainage
/hole
rnm
F i l l e t weld
F r a c t u r e i n a f t leg
- m a t connection
Fig. 1.14 b) "Ranger I" (Ref. /16/).
Jackets.
A case of partial failure of a fixed offshore platform in the North Sea is
reported by Harrison (Ref. 1201). A plan view of the platform, a tubular
structure with four legs joined by sundry tubular bracing members, is illu-
strated in Fig. 1.15 a. The failure involved the complete failure of three
joints between the diagonal bracing and the main legs situated at a level
approximately 0.6 m below the lowest astronomical tide level. Fig. 1.15 a
shows the location of the fractures and cracks. At corners A8, A9 and B9, the
300 mm dia. 12 mm thick bracing tubes were completely detached from the
legs, the failures having occurred through the bracing tubes and initiated
at the toes of the tube-to-leg welds. At corner B8 the fracture had occurred
in the leg material so that a disc of the leg had come off with the bracing.
Cracks were also found at the crossing points of the diagonal members ini-
tiating at the toes of the welds. The welds between the bracing tubes and the
legs were nominally full penetration welds made from the outside and built
up with external fillets of about 10 mm leg length. Observations of the
fracture surfaces revealed that the fractures were initiated at the outside
circumference at the weld toe, by low stress-high cycle bending in the vertical
plane. Underestimation of vertical wave loads seems to be a cause of the
failure. Unusually large amount of marine growth surrounding the members,
which had not been accounted for, was the main underlying cause. The
marine growth amounted to 200 mm at the time of failure, so that the origi-
nal 300 mm dia. bracing tubes were increased t o 700 mm. Taking the marine
growth into account, the fatigue life was calculated t o 4.5-5.5 years.
Ref. /2 1/ reports recent Findings of fatigue cracks at two levels (-6 m,
- 20 m) in the horizontal conductor frame of an eight-leg platform in 110 m
water depth, Fig. 1.15 b. Two reasons were found for the premature appear-
ance of these cracks: Firstly horizontal wave forces had been fully considered
in the original design but only limited allowance had been made for vertical
forces, which were now found to be significant. Secondly, the original ana-
lysis used low stress concentration factors. A reanalysis was performed based
on the new SN T-curve proposed by DOE for tubular joints, and up-to-date
knowledge about loads and stress concentration factors. Good correlation
was obtained for many of the cracked joints.
Other incidents of fatigue crack propagation are referred to in general
terms, for instance, in Refs. 1181 and 1231. Because these cases have been
investigated less, our knowledge is incomplete and yields little information
for the present purpose.
The files of the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate reveal that 163
.., a---Aeue--m,.aes. --
I"' "- ".-
A -- " --e"""w"+m*
Section 1.4.2
Fracture
Fracture
plane
\ = Crack
.-------.
-----
---------
Crack
-
.--
------.
-----
--------
cracks, fairly evenly distributed over the water depth, were detected in 27
North Sea jackets in the four-year period 1980-83. The actual number of
cracks may be greater, as only 5-10% of the nodes are inspected in a four to
five years cyclus. The cause of the cracks is hard to judge, but they are most
Section 1.4.2
Other structures.
Fatigue failure experiences in other structures such as ships, bridges, towers,
etc., may provide useful insight into the fatigue problem for offshore plat-
forms.
Due to the greater structural redundancy in ships, fatigue damage has
generally less severe consequences than in offshore structures. However,
the economical losses may be considerable. It has been found that fatigue
cracks are a dominating type of damage in ships, the total number being
larger in oil tankers than in other types of ships (Ref. 1251).
A very interesting survey of damages in large tankers is given in Ref.
1261, where types and frequency of damages are related to hull areas and
types of constructional details. Most damages occur in the midship part.
Cracks in brackets, at bulkheads and at notches dominate, see Fig. 1.16 a.
No case was found where a crack could be related to an internal weld defect,
although a rather large number of internal planar defects had been found by
NDT. The cause of the surface defects observed was bad workmanship, which
in many cases could be traced back to difficult working conditions for the
welders (bad access). In some cases poorly designed structural details with
excessive stress concentration had been the cause of cracking. Most cracks
were initiated at structural discontinuities. Improvement in design practice
had reduced the earlier experienced rate of such cracks.
Another extensive investigation by the American Ship Structure Com-
mittee is reported in Ref. 1271.
Over a long period Commission XI11 of the Int. Institute of Welding
Section 1.4.2
Longitudinal
stiffener, h,
i Cracks I\.
Side
shell
Realistic
Section 1.4.3
Un-
realistic
Stiffener
% 'plate
Section A-A
Realistic
Stiffener
Gap
Section A-A
Stiffener
Fig. 1.18 Difficult access for the welding stick may increase the suscepti-
bility to welding defects.
a) Steel-plated structure; b) Tubular joint.
Fabrication precautions.
Clearly, the fabrication should closely follow the specifications. However,
brackets and stiffeners are sometimes chosen with more material than speci-
fied at the ends, because it might ease fabrication by reducing the welding
deformations (Fig. 1.19). Such liberty in interpretation of the specifications
might have a significant effect on the stress concentrations, and is not re-
commended.
Stiffener
The design specifications do not define all the factors that influence
the fatigue strength. For instance, start-stop positions of welds are decided
during fabrication. As weld defects frequently occur at start-stop points,
they should be located outside areas with high dynamic stresses as far as
possible. In general, the quality of workmanship plays an important role for
the fatigue life.
Chapter 1. References
REFERENCES
1. "Rules for Classification of Mobile Offshore Units", Det norske Veritas, Oslo, 1981.
2. "Regulations for the structural design of fixed structures on the Norwegian Conti-
nental Shelf' (with guidance notes), Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, Stavanger,
1984.
3. "The Alexander L. Kielland Accident", NOU report 1981:11, (in Norwegian with
English summary), Oslo, 19 8 1.
4. Cottrill, A.:
"Crumpled Frigg Jacket Begins to Recover its Lost Buoyancy': Offshore Engineer,
May 1975.
5. Marshall, P.W.and Luyties, W.H. :
"Allowable stresses for fatigue design", Proc. BOSS Conf., MIT, 1982.
6. Odland, J.:
"Response and Strength Analysis of Jack-up Platforms", Norwegian Maritime Re-
search, Vol. 10, No. 4,1982.
7. Gurney, T.R.:
"Fatigue of Welded Structures", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1979.
8. "Guidance on Design and Construction", 1977, with Amendment No. 8, Fatigue,
Department of Energy, London, 1984.
9. Kinra, R.K. and Marshall, P.W. :
"Fatigue Analysis of the Cognac Platform", Paper No. 3378, Proc. Offshore Techno-
logy Conference, 1979.
Chapter 1 . References
14. "Stricken rigs highlight checking weaknesses", Offshore Engineer, March 1975.
15 . "Mobile platform, SPM repairs completed for Argyll Field", Ocean Industry, June
1978, p. 63.
16. U.S. Coast Guard Marine Casuality Report No. USCG 16732193621, May 1981.
17. Moan, T. et al.:
"Analysis of the fatigue failure of the Alexander L. Kielland", ASME Winter Annual
Meeting, November 1981.
18. Burgoyne, J.H. et al.:
"Offshore Safety", Report of the Committee, HMSO, March 1980.
22. "Safety and Offshore Oil", Committee on Assessment of Safety of OCS Activities
et al., National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington D.C., 1981.
23. Sollie, T.:
"Safety and Quality Assurance of Fixed Offshore Installations. In-service Experiences
and Prospects after some 10 Years of Involvement", 6th European Maintenance Con-
gress, Oslo, June 1982.
Chapter 1 . References
24. "Repairs to North Sea Offshore Structures - a Review", UEG Report UR 21, London,
1983.
25. Petershagen, H.G. et al.:
"Report of Committee 111.1",8th ISSC, Gdansk, 1982.
26. Kjellander, S. and Persson, B.:
-
"Hull damages further investigation and significance of weld defect", (in Swedish),
STU-report 76-3948 and 77-4205, March 1980.
27. Jordan, C.R. and Knight, L.T.:
"Further survey of in-service performance of structural details", Ship Structure
Committee Report No. 294,1980.
28. Harrison, J.D.:
"Lessons from Service Fatigue Failures", The Welding Institute Research Bulletin,
Vol. 21 .,March 1980.
29. Fisher, J.W.:
"Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges. Case Studies". John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1984.
CHAPTER 2
StAle Fines
A.S VERITEC, Oslo
ABSTRACT
The theory of stochastic processes is extensively used for the description of
waves and the associated structural response, and is briefly summed up.
Also some elements of the theory of dynamic systems are discussed, since
dynamic amplification of the structural response of offshore structures may be
significant. The theory of regular and irregular waves and the hydrodynamic
forces on offshore structures caused by the waves are described, using the
deterministic as well as the stochastic approach. Finally the different methods
for arriving at a long time distribution of stress ranges are discussed and
illustrated by examples taken from elements of offshore structures.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
- cross-sectional area
- water particle acceleration
- amplitude
- damping coefficient
- drag coefficient
- inertia coefficient
- added mass coefficient
- parameter in Weibull distribution of individual wave heights
- diameter
- parameter .in Weibull distribution of individual wave heights
- water depth
List of symbols
2.1 GENERAL
An offshore structure will be subjected to a number of loads during its life-
time. These loads may be categorized as:
Permanent loads, which are gravity loads that will not be removed, such
as the weight of the structure, weight of pennanent ballast and equipment
and external hydrostatic pressure of permanent nature.
Live loads, which are loads associated with the operation and normal use
of the structure, such as stored materials, equipment and liquids, operation
of cranes, helicopters and fendering and mooring of vessels.
Deformation loads, which are associated with imposed deformation,
such as prestressing and temperature.
Environmental loads, which are loads due to wind, waves, current, ice,
snow, earthquake and other environmental actions.
All loads that are varying in magnitude and/or direction will cause stress
variations in the structure and may lead to fatigue damage. The live loads
and the environmental loads are especially important in this connection.
The live loads may be the dominating contributors to fatigue damage for
equipment like cranes etc ., whereas the environmental loads, and the wave
loads in particular, are dominating for the main part of the load carrying
structure.
Section 2.1
The expected value is equal to the mean value of the process. In some
cases, the co-ordinate system can be chosen so that the mean value is zero.
The sea surface variation about the mean water level is an example. A zero
mean value is assumed in the following.
The autocorrelation function is defined as:
R,(T) = E[x(t) x(t +r)]
where T is a freely chosen time interval. When the mean value is equal to zero,
the autocorrelation function for T = 0 is equal t o the variance of the process:
Fig. 2.2 A stochastic process x(t) and its energy spectrum S(w).
The spectrum shows how the energy of the process is distributed on
the various frequency bands. The energy within a band Ac;,is equal
to that of a sine wave with amplitude ai.
Section 2.2
The zero order moment gives the area under the spectral curve. This repre-
sents the total energy of the process. The zero order moment is also equal
to the variance of the process:
mo = ox2 (2.8)
It varies between zero and one. When E is close to zero, the spectrum is narrow
and a time history of the process is relatively smooth and regular, Fig. 2.3.
When E is close to one, the spectrum is broad and a time history is more
irregular in shape.
Broad band
Fig. 2.3 Probability density of maxima. A broad band process has many local
maxima and minima. The maxima (amplitudes) are Rice distributed.
A narrow band process has no local maxima. All maxima are positive
and follow the Rayleigh distribution.
The amplitudes of this process are distributed according to the Rice distri-
bution with the following probability density function:
then the component of the response process at the same frequency is given by
T(u) is the transfer function. From Eq. (2.19) we see that the exitation and
response components are proportional. If we consider the above example
with wave forces and stresses, the system will be linear if Hooke's law is
valid, but non-linear if plastic effects are significant.
It was mentioned above that the value of the energy spectrum at a given
frequency was proportional to the square of the amplitude of the harmonic
component at that frequency. Eq. (2.19) above shows that the amplitudes of
the exitation and the response are related through the transfer function. The
energy spectrum of the response process is thus given by (Fig. 2.4)
Fig. 2.4 The transfer function T(w) relates the exitation spectrum S,(o)
I I
and the response spectrum Sy(w). Sy(w) = T(w) 2 S,(w).
Force
The behaviour of the system when no external forces are acting is described
by
M a y = -K.y (2.22)
The phase angle between the exitation (applied force) and the response
(displacement) is
Eqs. (2.33) and (2.34) are plotted in Figs 2.6 and 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 The phase angle @ is the phase lag between the exitation x(t) and the
response y(t). O N = natural frequency, 5 = damping ratio.
Damping.
The damping types of major significance for offshore structures are structural
damping, hydrodynamic damping and, for bottom-founded structures, soil
damping.
The structural damping is due to internal damping in the structural
material, and to friction and slippage in structural joints.
The hydrodynamic damping is of two types: One is due to the forma-
tion of surface waves (radiation damping) and the other to viscous effects.
The soil damping is due to the formation of waves in the ground and
to internal damping in the soil.
Section 2.3.4
-
-
-
"Free-free" bean1 or floating ship
a1
a l = 22.0
a2 = 61.7
a2 a3 = 121.0
a4 = 200.0
a3 as = 298.2
Fig. 2.8 The value of the numerical constant a~ in Eq. (2.35) for some
common structural elements.
Section 2.4.1 - 2.4.2
2.4 WAVES
2.4.1 General
Two different methods are commonly used t o describe ocean waves. The sea
may be regarded as composed of discrete o r individual waves, each described
by its height H and period T (Fig. 2.9) (discrete wave method). Alternatively,
the sea may be described in terms of the statistical properties of the sea sur-
face elevation (stochastic method). In both methods, the calculation of wave
kinematics is based on regular wave theory.
Fig. 2.9 A time history of the irregular sea surface. TI ,T2,. . ., T5 are indivi-
dual wave periods. H I , H z , . . ., H 5 are individual wave heights.
Fig. 2.10 Regular waves. H = wave height from crest to trough, L = wave
length, d = water depth, SWL = still water level, q = free water sur-
face profile.
where: ~ c=
, 2n/T = angular frequency
T = wave period
k = 27rlL = wave number
The wave kinematics beneath a linear wave are given by Eqs. (2.37)
through (2.43) below. Due to the simplicity of these equations, the theory
is well suited for simplified calculations. The linear wave theory is also a
building stone in the description of irregular waves (Sec. 2.4.3). The water
particle motion is illustrated in Fig. 2.1 1.
Surfuce profile
Wave length
b)
vertical az = - x R H . 5inh[?n(z + d)/LI . cos(wt) (2.42)
component L cosh(2n d/L)
Su bsurjace pressure
SWL
I
I I d
TI'
CJY 0.003
depth waves ~ 8 J ~ ~
0.003 0.03 0.3
d
p
Fig. 2.12. The area of validity of various wave theories (Ref. 171).
water level, whereas the wave heights are defined as the difference between
maxima and minima values within the wave periods.
In a short time interval (hours), the statistical properties of the sea-
state may be considered t o be constant, and the sea is termed stationary.
The theory of stationary stochastic processes (Sec. 2.2) is used to describe
such a seastate. The following terms are used in the description:
- The zero upcrossing period T, (average wave period) is the average
value of the wave periods as defined by Fig. 2.9.
- The significant wave height Hs is the average of the highest third of
the wave heights as defined by Fig. 2.9.
- The wave spectrum S(w) is the energy spectrum of the sea surface
elevation.
7.0- 1.090 1.650 3.620 4.240 4.690 5.040 5.280 5.490 5.540 5.870 6.020 6.150 6.300 6.410 6.510 6 . W 6.690 6.770 6.880 6.960
7.99 0.0032 0.0042 0.0055 0.0067 0.0083 0.0102 /0.0119 0.0138 0.0143 0.0185 0.0210 0.0235 0.0269 0.0299 0.0329 0.0359 0.0394 0.0427 0 . M O 0.0520
0.0960 0.0980 0.1050 0.1060 0.1070 0.108010.1080 0.1080 0.1090 0.1090 0.1090 0.1090 0.1100 0.1100 0.1100 0.1100 0.1100 0.1100 0.1110 0.1110
8.0- 1.210 1.960 3.460 4.040 4.460 4.800 5.020 5.220 5.440 5.590 5.730 5.850 5.960 6.110 6.210 6.300 6.380 6.470 6.540 6.610 6.680 6750 6840
8.99 0.0035 0.0044 0.0052 0.0062 0.0074 0.0088 0.0100 0.0114 0.0133 0.0148 0.0165 0.0182 0.0199 0.0227 0.0248 0.0269 0.0290 0.0316 0.0339 0.0363 0.0390 0.0419 0.0460
0.0850 0.0880 0.0920 0.0930 0.0940 0.0950 0.0950 0.0950 0.0960 0.0960 0.0960 0.0960 0.0960 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0970 0.0980
--. - -
9.0- 1.000 1.230 1.770 3.230 3.810 4.230 4.480 4.770 4.960 5.120 5.330 5.470 5.580 5.690 5.800 5.890 5.980 6.110 6.190 6.270 6.340 6.410
9.99 0.0029 0.0036 0.0043 0.0050 0.0058 0.0067 0.0075 0.0087 0.0097 0.0107 0.0123 0.0136 0.0147 0.0160 0.0175 0.0188 0.0202 0.0227 0.0244 0.0261 0.0280 0.0299
10.0
11
I
0.0750 0.0760 0.0780 0.0820 0.0830 0.0840 0.0840 0.0850 0.0850 0.0850 0.0850 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0860 0.0870 0.0870 0.0870 0.0870 0.0870
1.020 1.230 1.560 2.700 3.220 3.650 4.230 4.440 4.710 4.870 5.010 5.150 5.260 5.420 5.540 5.640 5.730 5.810 5880 5960
10.99 0.0030 0.0036 0.0041 0.0047 0.0050 0.0055 0.0067 0.0074 0.0084 0.0092 0.0100 0.0109 0.0117 0.0132 0.0143 0.0154 0.0165 0.0176 0.0186 0.0199
0.0680 0.0690 0.0700 0.0730 0.0740 0.0750 0.0760 0.0760 0.0770 0.0770 0.0770 0.0770 0.0770 0.0780 0.0780 .00780 0.0780 0.0780 0.0780 0.0780
.. -- - -- -. --- -.--.
11.0- 1.010 1.180 1.450 1.920 2.930 3.500 3.910 4.130 4.380 4.580 4.730 4.870 4.970 5.110 5.230 5.360 5.480 5.540
11.99 0.0029 0.0035 0.0040 0.0044 0.0048 0.0053 0.0660 0.0064 0.0070 0.0079 0.0085 0.0092 0.0098 0.0106 0.0114 0.0126 0.0136 0.0143
1 0.0620 0.0630 0.0640 0.0650 0.0670 0.0680 0.0690 0.0690 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0700 0.0710 0.0710
12.0. 1.260 1.540 2.050 3.020 3.450 3.760 4.000 4.270 4.420 4.550 4.650 4.810 4.950 5.090
12.99 0.0036 0.0041 0.0045 0.0048 0.0052 0.0057 0.0061 0.0068 0.0073 0.0078 0.0082 0.0090 0.0099 0.0105
0.0580 0.0590 0.0600 0.0620 0.0630 0.0830 0.0640 0.0640 0.0640 0.0640 0.0640 0.0650 0.0650 0.0650
- -
13.0 1.040 1.140 1.320 1.680 2.150 2.830 3.360 3.710 3.920 4.100 4.250 4.300 4440
13.99 First number: y 0.0030 0.0034 0.0038 0.0043 0.0045 0.0047 0.0051 0.0056 00060 0.0064 0.0068 0.0070 0.0073
Second number: a 0.0530 0.0540 0.0540 0.0550 0.0560 0.0570 0.0580 0.0580 0.0590 0 . 0 5 ~0.0590 0,0590 0.0580
14.0- Thud number: fp 1.190 1.290 1.570 2.030 2.670 3.120 3.440 3.650 3.780
14.99 0.0035 0.0037 0.0042 0.0045 0.0047 0.0048 0.0052 0.0055 0.0067
0.0500 0.0500 0.0510 0.0520 0.0530 0.0536 0.0540 00540 0.0550
15.0- 2.900
15.99 0 0048
I 1
0 0500
Section 2.4.3
that also the wave height will follow the Rayleigh distribution The probabi-
lity density function of wave heights following the Rayleigh distribution
(Eq. (2.14)) is thus given by
Table 2.2 Scatter matrix representative for the Central North Sea.
PROBABILITY I N PARTS P E R
THOUSAND
, 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
AVERAGE Z E R O UPCROSSING P E R I O D , T, (s)
where C and D are functions of y, and Hc and y are parameters in the long-
term distribution of significant wave heights.
The relation between y, C and D is given in Table 2.3.
e(+hs>k.
' 9I ,//- , Q CtL)
- Section 2.4.4
L I
2
t I -
b
>ti5
I
L
,
- H
10
z 3
,
where No is the total number of waves in one year. The above equation is
shown by Fig. 2.16.
Fig. 2.16 (left) Wave exceedance diagram showing the number of waves ex-
ceeding a given wave height in one year.
The sum of the Froude-Krylov force and the added mass force is called
the inertia force. For a fixed body, a, = a and v, = v. If we set A, = A, we
may write
where F is the force, V is the volume of the body, and A is the cross-sectional
area of the body. The coefficients CM and CD are generally dependent on the
shape of the body, the flow conditions and the body surface roughness.
Circular cylinders.
For a circular cylinder, CM and CD are found to be functions of the following
nondimensional parameters:
v, D
Reynolds number Re = -
v
v, T
Keulegan-Carpenter number KC = -
D
Surface roughness = k/D
Section 2.5.2
Mean C D
KC --
Fig. 2.19 Drag coefficient CD as a function of KC. Full-scale test data,
Ref. 11 11.
Non-circular shapes.
Drag and inertia coefficients of sharp-angeled bodies are normally taken t o be
independent of Re. Drag coefficients for members of various cross-sectional
shapes are given in Fig. 2.20. The added mass per unit length for various
members is given in Fig. 2.21, and Fig. 2.22 gives the added mass of some
three-dimensional bodies.
-+'m[-l 01 I
Sect~onshape CD
2.0
0
.
i - 0 . 1 7 0.6
D 2.0
-0 1.5
SHAPE
-1
ADDED MASS
PER U N I T LENGTH
MOTION
--
-
CIRCLE pnc
2 . 1
ll+-2b-i
T
2a RECTANGLE
a/b
10
1.00pna2
1.14
a/b
1
0.5
1.51pna2
1.70 "
5 1.21 " 0.2 1.98 "
b- 2b 4 2 1.36 " 0.1 2.23 "
(Wendel 1950)
DIAMOND 2 0.85 "
ELLIPSE 9ab2
I, 1 0.76 "
c-.)
0.5 0.67 "
0.2 0.61 (Wendel1950)
I-BEAM - c
PmJ
2 0'
... ...
REGULAR
P L Y
n = 3
4
0.654 qaz
0.787
Fig. 2.21 Added mass per unit length of cylinder, Ref. / 1 11.
SPHERE 4 0nR3
ELLIPSOID OF k q pnb3
(Wendel 1950)
REVOLUTION
( B a i 1977)
FLOATING RECTANGLE 4 -
1 .o
(Sarpkaya 1960) 1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.6 ( B a i 1977, Flagg a n d NemMn 1
Fig. 2.23 McCamy and Fuchs theory for a vertical circular cylinder standing
on the bottom and penetrating the free surface.
The response, .y(t), is calculated for two positions in the wave, defined
by t = to and t = to + T/4. The response may then be expressed as
Section 2.5.5
Fig. 2.24 Calculation of the response for various positions of the wave relative
to the structure. q(t) = wave surface elevation, y(t) = structural
response.
where
The method may also be used when the relation between the wave
height and response is non-linear, provided a linearization is carried out. This
is done in the same manner as described for stochastic analysis, cf. Sec. 2.5.5.
Nonlinear force
Fig. 2.25 The non-linear drag force in harmonic waves and various lineariza-
tion techniques.
Section 2.5.5
The above linearization renders the same energy dissipation per wave
cycle as the non-linear force. It is recommended when dynamic effects are
significant. If it is required that the maximum non-linear drag force shall be
equal t o the maximum linearized force, we get
FD(t) = KD vo ~ ( t )
The stochastic linearization is obtained by assuming that the particle
velocity at a given point is normally distributed and finding the function
that minimized the mean square approximation error to the non-linear drag
force :
FD(t) = KD J$ uv ~(t)
2.5.6 Slamming
Members in the splash zone will be hit by the rising surface when a wave
passes. This will cause an impact force, called slamming,on horizontal mem-
bers, as their whole length may be hit by the wave surface simultaneously.
The slamming force per unit length may be calculated as
-First instability
r e g i o n , V R < 2.2
In-iine motion
I
Second instability
r e g i o n , V R > 2.2
Fig. 2.26
Max. amplitude of in-line
motion, Ref. 1181.
Fig. 2.27
4
Max. amplitude of cross-
I I I 1 I I
flow motion, Ref. / 181.
Based on the above data, the following values have been calculated:
Total pipeline diameter Df = 0.283 m
Mass of steel pipe m, = 96.1 kg/m
Mass of concrete coating m, = 12.7 kg/m
Mass of internal oil m, = 37.0 kg/m
Added mass ma = 64.5 kg/m
The added mass is taken equal to the mass of the water displaced by the
pipeline, i.e. the added mass coefficient is 1.O. Total mass:
So Eution.
The pipeline is assumed t o be simply supported at both ends. The first natural
frequency is calculated as (Eq. (2.35))
Substituting the values above, and taking E = 2.1 10' ~ / mwe~ get
,
The reduced velocity determines the current velocity at which oscillations will
occur:
VR = -
v
f, * D
In-line oscillations, 1 . instability region:
1.0 < vR < 2.2 * 0.23 m/s < v < 0.5 m/s
In-line oscillations, 2. instability region:
2.2 < v, < 3.5 =+ 0.50 m/s < v < 0.79 m/s
Cross-flow oscillations:
3.5 < vR * 0.79 m/s < v
Section 2.5.7
Figs 2.26 and 2.27 give the maximum oscillation amplitudes as functions
of Ks :
In-line oscillations. 1. region: A = 0.13 Df
In-line oscillations, 2. region: A = 0.16 Df
Cross-flow oscillations: A = l.lO*r*Df
The mode-shape parameter y is taken as 1.16 according to Fig. 2.27.
The following expression is used for relating the stress amplitude at the
center of the span and the oscillation amplitude (Fig. 2.29):
Fig. 2.30
Calculation of a stress range exceedance
diagram from a wave height exceedance
diagram. Aoi is the stress range induced in
a given wave direction by wave height Hi.
Log N
79
Section 2.6.2
Fig. 2.3 1 Jacket platform with riser clamped t o the platform leg.
The span between -1 5.0 m and -25.0 m is considered in Example 2.
Consider a riser clamped to the leg of a jacket platform (Fig. 2.3 1). The long-
term distribution of stress ranges at the center of the span is wanted. As the
only aim of this example is to show the principles of the calculation, we
introduce the following simplifying assumptions:
- The span is considered as fixed in both ends.
- Wave kinematics are calculated by the linear wave theory.
- All waves are assumed t o approach from one direction.
Solution.
According to Eq. (2.35) the first natural period of the span, fN1, is calculated
to 0.17 s, which is low enough t o make dynamic amplification insignificant
(cf. Fig. 2.7).
Section 2.6.2
The wave force intensity is denoted F(z). The moment at the center of the
span (z = -20 m) is given by
The linear wave theory gives the same maximum wave force in both directions,
thus:
A a = 20,,- -- M .D
I
The wave data are given by the wave diagram in Fig. 2.16 for individual wave
heights with Hc = 2.7, Ho = 0 and y = 1.49. Each height used in the analysis
must be associated with a wave period. This is taken as the most probable
wave period for the given wave height. For North Sea conditions, the following
relation may be used :
-
L'nc %!I
where Hc = 2.7 and C and D are respectively 0.462 and 0.928 for y = 1.49,
cf. Table 2.3.
ii A
The wave forces are calculated by Morison's equation (Eq. (2.5 7)) ,
F = -1* p 0 C D * D * $ + p e C M --•
n * a~ ~
2 4
The coefficients CD and CM are taken as 1.0 and 2.0, respectively.
Applying linear wave theory (Fig. 2.1 I), the wave number k is given by
(Eq. (2.38))
where g = 9.8 1 m/s2 and the water depth d is LOO m. The equation is solved
numerically, giving
k = 0.0296 m-'
When linear wave theory is used, one can simplify the calculations by separat-
ing drag and inertia forces. The moment due to the drag forces alone is given
yielding
MD ( a t ) = MD ,
, sin2 ( a t ) = 4596 sin2( a t ) (Nm)
The moment due to inertia forces is calculated in the same manner:
Section 2.6.2
yielding
MI(mt)= MI, -cos(wt)= 1306*cos(wt)(Nm)
I .
9.8 1 o -~
sin* [at)
Fig. 2.32 Drag force FD ,inertia force FI and total force F, Example 2.
The procedure above is repeated for all waves selected for the analysis.
For each wave height analysed, the corresponding number of waves exceeding
that height is found by Eq. (2.56) or Fig. 2.1 6. Since the calculation proce-
dure implies a unique relation between wave heights and stress ranges, the
number of exceeding stress ranges is found in a similar manner. The final
results are shown in Fig. 2.33.
Section 2.6.3
0 2 4 6 LogN
Fig. 2.33 Deterministic analysis of long-term distribution of stress ranges,
Example 2.
Left: Number of cycles (N) exceeding given wave heights, forces
and stress ranges in one year.
Right: Stress range exceedance diagram, one year.
Solution.
The seastate is described by: Hs = 5 m, Tz = 7.5 s, duration = 3 hours.
The first step in the analysis is to establish the transfer function relating
wave heights and stresses. This is done by calculating the stresses for a set of
regular waves with different periods. The calculation is performed in the
same manner as in the deterministic analysis. The transfer function for a given
wave period is then calculated according to Eq. (2.19). As mentioned in
Sec. 2.5.5, the relation between wave heights and wave forces is non-linear
due to the drag term, and the calculated transfer function is thus a function
of the wave heights used.
We have for the most probable wave period for a given wave height, as ex-
plained in Example 2 :
For periods higher than 16 seconds, the formula gives wave heights higher
than the 100 year wave height (= 29 m). The wave height 29 m is thus used
for all periods longer than 16 seconds.
The transfer function may be expressed by
The procedure is repeated for a set of wave periods within the range 3-25
seconds. The result is shown in Fig. 2.34.
Fig. 2.34 Transfer function relating stress and wave surface elevation.
This transfer function is now combined with the wave spectrum defined
previously in order to obtain a stress spectrum for each seastate, Eq. (2.20):
So(4 = ( T(w) l2 S?)(W)
The stress spectral moments are found by numerical integration of Eqs.
(2.47) and (2.48) :
00
-(MPa
m2 = J w2 ~ , ( w ) dw = 35.74 1 2
0 S
The above method should be used with care. The choice of the para-
meter K should preferably be based on the. results of a detailed analysis
performed for a similar structure. This may be done by a curve-fitting proce-
dure whereby Eq. (2.74) is fitted to the known distribution.
JOINT
distribution of the stress ranges in the indicated welded joint is wanted for a
first evaluation of fatigue damage.
Solution.
The platform is intended to operate in the North Sea. The mean wave period
is assumed to be 6 seconds, i.e. the number of waves in 100 years is:
log N1oo
where N is the number of stress cycles exceeding Ao. Previous analyses have
shown that K = 0.9 is a reasonable value. We therefore get for the long-term
stress distribution
log N)o9
n o = s o - ( 1 ----
8.72
Note that a lower value of the parameter K will result in generally higher
stressranges. A'
Chapter 2. References
REFERENCES
1. Newland, D.E. :
"Random Vibrations and Spectral Analysis", Longman, London, 1975.
2. Bendat, J.S. and Piersol, A.G. :
"Random Data: Analysis and Measurement Procedures", Wiley-Interscience, 1971.
3. Langen, I. og Sigbjsrnsson, R.:
"Dynamisk Analyse av Konstruksjoner", TAPIR, Trondheirn, 1979.
4. Clough, R.W. and Penzien, J. :
"Dynamics of Structures", McGraw-Hill, 1975.
5. Meirowich, L. :
"Elements of Vibration Analysis", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1975.
6. Skjellbreia, L. and Hendrikson, J.:
"Fifth Order Gravity Wave Theory", Proc. Seventh Conference on Coastal Engineering,
The Hague, 1961, pp. 184-196.
7. Dean, R.G.:
"Evaluation and Development of Water Wave Theories for Engineering Application",
Vols. I and 11. U.S. Army, Coastal Eng. Research Center, 1974.
8. Houmb, O.G. and Overvik, T.:
"Parameterization of wave spectra and long term joint distribution of wave height
and period". Proc. Conference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, Trondheim, 1976.
9. Heideman, J .C., Olsen, O.A. and Johansson, P.I. :
"Local Wave Force Coefficients", Civil Engineering in the Oceans IV, ASCE, 1979,
pp. 684-699.
10. "Dynamics of Marine Structures", CIRIA Report UR 8, London, 1977.
11. Sarpkaya, T. and Isaacson, M.:
"Mechanics of Wave Forces on Offshore Structures", Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
New York, 1981.
12. Harnrnersley, J . and Handscomb, P.:
"Monte Carlo Methods", Methuen, London, 1964.
13. Houbolt, J.C.:
"A Recurrence Matrix Solution for the Dynamic Response of Elastic Aircraft",
J. Aeronaut. Science, Vol. 17, 1950.
14. Newmark, N.M. :
"A Method of Computation for Structural Dynamics", J . Eng. Mechanics Div., Vol.
85, ASCE, 1959.
15. Dijk, G.M.:
"Statistical Load Data Processing", National Aerospace Laboratory, Amsterdam,
1971.
Chapter 2. References
Knut Engesvik
SINTEF,Trondheirn
ABSTRACT
This chapter deals with the basic theory of fracture mechanics with emphasis
on its application in fatigue analysis. The fundamentals of fracture mechanics
are presented. The relationship between the stress intensity range and crack
growth is used to evaluate the development of cracks under variable loading.
This approach is related to ordinary SN-curves.
NOMENCLATURE
General rule
Random variables are denoted by capital letters, while their realizations are
denoted by the corresponding small letters.
Roman letters:
a - crack depth, minor half axis of semielliptical crack,
half crack length of through crack
a, - critical a
Chapter 3. Nomenclature
af - final a
initial a
crack aspect ratio (shape)
crack growth rate
major half axis of semielliptical crack
constant, crack growth coefficient
Young's modulus
probability density function (pdf') of X
basic crack shape factor
stress gradient factor
front free surface factors
finite thickness factor
finite width factor
total correction factor
energy release rate
influence function
Rice's J-integral
stress intensity factor
mode I stress intensity factor
mode I1 stress intensity factor
mode 111stress intensity factor
critical stress intensity factor
elastic stress concentration factor
stress intensity factor range
threshold stress intensity factor range
weld leg length
crack growth exponent
crack growth exponent, number of cycles
number of cycles t o failure
initiation part of Nf
propagation part of Nf
polar coordinate
crack tip plastic zone size
radius, stress ratio; R = omin/omaX
plate thickness
plate thickness
plate width
Chapter 3. Nomenclature
Greek letters:
P - empirical constant
r( - gamma function
8 - polar coordinate, weld flank angle, parameter in
Weibull distribution
v - Poisson's ratio
g - parameter in Weibull distribution
P - radius, notch tip radius, weld toe radius
(7 - nominal normal stress
o(x) - crack surface stress distribution
Oc - critical stress
amax - maximum stress
Omin - minimum stress
OX ,OY,OZ- normal stresses referred to a specified
coordinate system
OY
- monotonic, uniaxial yield stress
Ao - stress range
Affeq - equivalent stress range
4 - constant amplitude fatigue limit
7XY - shear stress in X-Y-plane
TXZ - shear stress in X-Z-plane
7Y Z - shear stress in Y-Z-plane
4 - angle
Abbreviations:
CA - constant amplitude
COD - crack opening displacement
EPFM - elastic-plastic fracture mechanics
fcg - fatigue crack growth
IF - influence function
LEFM - linear-elastic fracture mechanics
SCF - stress concentration factor
Section 3.1 .1
Local condltlons
- magnitude and
d i s t r i b u t i o n of
stresses/strains
G l o b a l conditions
- material properties
- geometry; - e x t e r n a l
- crack (shape, size)
- Loading i.e. n o m i n a l s t r e s s
-
Fig. 3.1 Linear-elastic fracture mechanics linking global conditions with local
crack-tip response.
I mode I
opening mode
mode I1
s l i d i n g mode
mode111
t e a r i n g mode
8 sin -
cos - 8 cos3 8
r x =~f i 2 2
uz = TXZ = TYZ = 0 for plane stress (3.1 d)
uz = v[ox + oy]
for plane strain
Txz = Tyz= 0
Section 3.1-.2
Limitations of LEFM
LEFM is based on a linear-elastic analysis of the stresses at the crack tip, and
inherently takes no account of plasticity. Hence, LEFM is not strictly correct
as r + 0.Since infinite stresses cannot exist in a physical body, and as ductile
materials will always show some plasticity at the tip of a crack, the elastic
solution (Eq. 3 .l) should be modified to account for crack tip plasticity.
Section 3.1.3
In general, crack tip plasticity can be assessed, and the effect taken into
account through a correction term. If, however, the plastic zone size (rp)
at the crack tip is small relative to local geometry (for example, rp/t and
rp/a<O. 1,where t is thickness), little or no modification to the stress intensity
factor K is needed. Thus an important restriction to the use of linear-elastic
fracture mechanics is that the plastic zone size at the crack tip must be small
relative to the geometrical dimensions o f the specimen or part.
In the majority of fatigue situations (at least for high-cycle fatigue)
cracking will occur under quasi-elastic conditions. In other words, the size
of any plastic zone at the crack tip will tend to be small compared with the
crack length, and it is possible and adequate to calculate the conditions
around the crack by linear elastic stress analysis. The reason for this is three-
fold. Firstly, the load (i.e. nominal stress) level is low or moderate, and the
crack tip stresses are proportional to the nominal stresses, according to linear
elasticity. Secondly, the triaxiality of the crack tip stress field acts to reduce
plasticity. Thus, crack tip plastic zones are smaller in plane strain than in
plane stress. Thirdly, the cyclic plastic zone size is known to be only about
one quarter the size of the monotonic plastic zone.
Hence, crack tip plasticity usually does not invalidate the practical
application of LEFM to problems involving plane strain and cyclic plasticity,
as e.g. in high-cycle fatigue.
I1 of Ref. /4/), Sih (Vol. I of Ref. 151) and Kobayashi 171. Numerical methods
have also been reported recently /8/.
In practical problems, structural geometries and loadings are often so
complex that the available stress intensity factor solutions are inadequate.
Evaluation of the stress intensity factor for the actual problem using standard
methods may be prohibitively expensive in both time and money. Thus there
is a need to develop simpler methods which will be cheap and easy to use even
if less accurate than most standard methods. Many simple methods have been
suggested, and their relative merits are discussed in 191.
In the following, some techniques for obtaining approximate engineering
estimates are treated.
Tables for the conversion of units related to stress and stress intensity
are given in Appendix 3 .A.
&perpositton methods
Superposition is probably the most common and simplest technique in use for
obtaining stress intensity factors. Complex (load-geometry) configurations are
considered to be a combination of a number of separate simpler configurations
with separate boundary conditions and which have known stress intensity
factors. The stress intensity factors for the simple configurations are then
added to obtain the required solution. Errors from using superposition can
arise when the complex configuration being analysed cannot be precisely
built up from configurations with known stress intensity factors.
An illustration of the use of this technique is shown in Fig. 3.4 191.
a b c
The stress intensity factor for the configuration shown in Fig. 3.4a, is the sum
of the stress intensity factors for the two simpler configurations shown in
Figs. 3.4b and 3 . 4 ~ .
Another important application of superposition, the analysis of pin-
loaded lugs is shown in Fig. 3.5. By using the procedure shown, opening
mode stress intensity factors for non-symmetrical loadings can be found by
adding the more easily obtainable results for simpler symmetrical loadings.
The stress intensity factor for a crack in a loaded body may be deter-
mined by considering the crack to be in an unloaded body with applied
tractions on the crack surface only (Fig. 3.6). These surface tractions are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to those evaluated along the line of
the crack site in the uncracked configuration. This method of determining
stress intensity factors is important in the use of the influence function
method (See later section).
Thus, application of the principle of superposition leads to an important
result about the equivalence o f stress intensity factors resulting from external
loading o n a body and those resulting from internal tractions on the crack
surface.
When employing superposition, it is important to be aware of the
particular restrictions pertaining to the superposition of stress intensity
factors.
1) The stress intensity factors to be superposed must correspond to the
same mode of crack deformation (I, I1 or 111).
Section 3.1.3
Load
Fig. 3.8 Crack between two holes in an infinite sheet subjected to a uniaxial
tensile stress.
Fig. 3.10 Crack near the edge of a half plane subjected to a uniform tensile
stress; ancillary configuration for Fig. 3.7 (d 2 c).
where K, is the stress intensity factor for a crack in the presence of a single
boundary B,, and K is the stress intensity factor in the absence of all boun-
daries.
This compounding technique has been extensively used on aerospace
problems. However, the methodology has general applicability and potential
for providing engineering estimates of K for complex configurations. The
technique has been used in very local as well as more global applications,
e.g. to cracks in stiffened sheets /11/. This might be of interest in the assess-
ment of residual strength in a structure, and closely related to considerations
on inspection and structural reliability.
(Compressive
L o a d i n g on
(Tensile stress
a c t u a l crack face)
on c r a c k f a c e
Fig. 3.1 1 The reduction of a problem into two simpler problems, ( 1) and (2)
for computations of stress intensity factor.
where a is the half crack length and uo is the applied uniform stress. It has
been shown 1121 that, for any symmetric stress field, o(x) = o(-x), the in-
fluence function for the infinite plate is given by
1
0 < x < a defines -La
2
Eqs. (3.4) and (3.6) reduce to Eq. (3.5) for the case of constant o(x) = oO.
Thus, we see by example that the IF method can correctly quantify
the crack-induced redistribution of the uncracked elastic stress field.
Section 3.1.3
a) "Through" crack
b) "Edge" crack
I 1
C) "Surfacen crack
Broek /21/ concludes that there is little basis for arguments about the
usefulness of the various empirical expressions proposed. The scatter in
Section 3.2.1
actual data implies that many empirical expressions may have certain merits,
i.e each one may be found reasonably satisfactory in a limited region or
for limited sets of data. Therefore no particular expression for da/dN vs AK
will have significant advantages over another. A best polynomial fit may be
the most suitable in view of computer processing.
Log aK
Fig. 3.17 Schematic crack growth rate curve showing sigmoidal variation
of fatigue crack propagation rate da/dN with the alternating stress
intensity (AK). A&h is the threshold stress intensity for crack
growth, and Kc the stress intensity at final failure (terminal K).
Section 3.2.1
Some of the most common crack growth relationships are given in the
following, together with comments indicating how they adapt to the general
sigmoidal shape of the crack growth rate curve (Fig. 3.17).
Region B : -,
\JJ
Regions A and B :
= C~AK* - A K ~ )
dN
Crack
growth None
I
Log A K
where A and B are constants for the particular type of material. Experimental
results on steels tested in air at R * 0, confirm that log C and m are linearly
related in plane strain fcg. Gurney 1291 analysed several published crack
propagation results and found as a best fit relationship (considering results
for structural - and high strength steels together):
Some results are available for calculation of stress concentrations and stress
intensities of welded joints. They may be used to obtain:
- an approximate solution, where this is sufficient
- a first estimate, pending a more elaborate and accurate analysis
- a fairly accurate solution, if the actual case resembles closely one of
the underlying cases.
Some of the published results are given in the following.
+
where: w = II T/2 (Fig. 3.20)
Ao = nominal stress range in the main (longitudinal) plates
2a = length of internal weld root crack
Restrictions :
0.2 < Q/T < 1.2
0 < a/w < 0.7
9FI-
Weld t o e c r a c k
Weld r o o t c r a c k
Fig. 3.20 Transverse load-carrying fillet welds.
Section 3.2.1
The constants in the decay function (Eq. 3.26) are given in Table 3.1.
Weld detail d 9
I I
a . Section b.Plan view
F i [ l e t weld
T Cover p l a t e
a Section
I
b . P l a n view
Groove weld
Point of
W,/2 t r a n s i t ion d
Flange tangency
Through Embedded
Crack crack
penny
shape shaped Ratio
Stress Y
distribution
1.o
a 1 .ooo 1 .ooo 1 .ooo
5. r
rn
b 0. 548
assumed, described by the half-axis ratio, or the aspect ratio a/2c. Predictions
of the (a/2c)-evolution during crack growth might be done empirically or
theoretically. Empirical a-c-relations may be based on measurements on the
fractured surface of welded joints (without parameterization of the influen-
cing factors). Some of the published crack shape relations are given in the
following. These are valid only for the specific welded joint considered,
i.e. with the actual geometry, loading, material, and welding method. How-
ever, lacking relevant data they provide easy-to-use practical information, if
available for a case similar to the actual case.
4a lower bound
20a a < 1 mm
upper bound
20aoe3 a > 1 mm
Cmck propagation
Having the means of determining the crack growth rate (Section 3.2.1), one
is able to make various estimates concerning crack growth, e.g. the time or
number of cycles required to grow a crack from one size to another:
Section 3.2.2
This may be required when the structure is in service. E.g. a crack may
be detected and reported through the in-service inspection programme, and
decisions have to be taken whether this crack should be stopped, or allowed
to grow further, with due consideration to the actual material specification,
loading conditions, repair possibilities, and costs.
The crack propagation part of the fatigue life may be expressed as:
By inserting the relevant expressions for crack growth rate and stress
intensity, one is able to obtain an estimate of the fatigue crack propagation
life. Thus, by employing Eqs. (3.7,3.13) :
Thus, for this simple case one obtains the following closed-form ex-
pression for the constant amplitude fatigue (crack propagation) life:
whenm # 2.
For structural steels and aluminium alloys 2 < rn < 6. For welded steel
joints 2.5 5 m 54.5. Thus, if ai 4 af, an approximate estimate of the constant
amplitude fatigue life is:
1-m/2
Np " -
ai
(3.45)
c Aom rmI2 P (m/2 - 1)
- , > ;-r ,.
&
,
-?
.
If the failure condition is brittle fracture, the critical crack length may
be estimated from Eq. (3.7):
-
Kmax - Omax * * F
which reads at failure:
exist.
Results from deterministic fatigue calculations, as treated above, are
meaningful in a qualitative and relative sense, but must be used with care
and judgement when interpreted in an absolute sense. This is partly due to
the numerous uncertainties involved in a fatigue life computation, i.e. un-
certainties/weaknesses in the fatigue model, uncertainties linked with input
Section 3.2.2
Cy cle-by-cycle approach.
Crack length after n cycles:
these models in general improve a fatigue life prediction. Hence, before taking
the step of including interaction in the computations, one should give close
consideration t o the stress history (irregularity factor, frequency and sign of
"overload" stress peaks, etc.), to decide whether significant interactions
are likely or not. Besides, neglecting retardation gives conservative results,
while accounting for retardation but not for acceleration might yield non-
conservative results.
interval
(3.5 1)
or as (Fig. 3.27b):
where: r ( ) = gamma-function
Thus,
AU,, = {eo r ( i + p/g) = e { r ( i + pig)
The r-function may be approximated by simpler functions. The
following expression is a functional fit to the I'-function in the argument
range x c (3 .-6 .) ;
r(x) r 0.0076 exp (1.60 x ) + 1.26 (3.5 6)
and hence an approximate expression is:
Ao,, % 0 (0.0076 exp {1.6 x ) + 1.26)ltP (3.57)
where: x = 1 + PI,$.
i
\ *
\,
t d 2
"' I ' *
and
III
// Kmar=K c
(a) $-curve
m
/
/
-
/
,/
log C I
log AK
Log ad
(b) SN-curve
Log a 6
I
The close relationship between crack growth rate curves and SN-curves is
shown in Fig. 3.28 and Table 3.2.
tttt
Res i dua 1
stress
-
Example 3 Cracking in transverse stiffener weld.
Estimate K for a surface crack with depth 3 mm.
Data: i) Geometry . . . . - T = 40 mm
- assumed weld flank angle, 8 = 45"
- weld leg length, II = 20 mm
- a = 3mm
ii) Loading ... . - axial load, omax = 300 N/mm2
Section 3.3
+
SCF= 1.62 1 log(20/40) 3.963 = 3.5 Eq. (3.28)
FG = 3.5 { 1 + 0.3602-' (3/40)OS2 13 ' r1 Eq. (3.26), Table 3.1
= 1.41
2c = 2.59 (3)OSg4 = 7.32 mm Eq. (3.33)
+= a/2c = 3/7.32 = 0.41
+
FE = { l 4.5945 (0.41)"~ }.'5 = 0.70 Eq.(3.9)
fs = 1-0.16*(0.41)= 0.93 Eq. (3.10)
F; = 0.98 Fig. 3.14
FS = 0.98 0.93 = 0.91 Eq. (3.1 1)
a/T = 3/40, -+ FT = 1.0 Fig. 3.16
KI = a - - * 0 . 9 1 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 7 0 - 1 . 4 1 Eqs.(3.7)and(3.8)
= 2.76 a = 829 ~ m m - ' .=~ 26.2 M P a r m
-
VB!
Let us assume that a very wide SAE 1020 plate is subjected to a constant
amplitude uniaxial cyclic loading that produce nominal stresses varying
from omax = 200 MPa to omin = -50 MPa. ,----6t;
What fatigue life would be attained if an initial through the thickness
edge crack were no greater than 0.5 mm in length? Kc = 104 MPafi.
Before we can solve this problem, several questions must be answered.
Namely,
- What is the applicable stress intensity factor expression for this com-
ponent and loading?
- What crack growth rate equation should be used?
Section 3.3
which is above threshold levels and hence the Paris equation is applicable.
Eq. (3.48)
1 I A. A '
0.068)-~.~ - (0.0005)-~'~ Eq. (3.44)
, N~ = (-0.5) :6.9 10-I 2 ) ( 2 0 0 ) ~ (n)1.5 ( I . I 213
s. -
Consider a joint of the type in Example 3. How many fatigue loading cycles
can the joint endure without getting a "through crack", i.e. a crack that
completely penetrates the main plate?
The computations are tabulated on the next pages. The fatigue life
integral I is evaluated numerically (Simpson).
This computation is too rough for general use, but shows the method.
Section 3.3
169.575
Np = 5.8 10-17 . .
(200)3 .
.nl.5
= 656 325 cycles Eq. (3.41)
, REFERENCES
M P a 6 ksifi ~ m m - ~ kp
' ~ mm-3'2
Stress
Fig. 3.C.19.
Fig. 3.C.20.
Where :
a. When the local in-plane transverse displacement near the cracked
section is not restrained Fig. 3 .C. 1 9.
(3.C. 15)
2w
(Exact)
Appendix 3 .C
Fig. 3.C.18.
It should be noted that the solutions illustrated above are valid only
when the displacement of the strip is free from constraint. In actual structures,
any connected structural member is under constraints imposed by the connec-
tions. When a crack occurs in a certain component, its compliance increases
and load and deformation are redistributed between members. Thus, the
boundary condition is not displacement-free but displacement-limited.
Fig. 3.C.15.
-
d d
-
I A
C
a
- -
a
,
W
Fig. 3.C.16.
-6 -6
Fig. 3.C.17.
Appendix 3.C
(3.C. 10)
When b = 0
+ 0.03S2+ 0.89S3
F(0,S) = 1.10- 0.60ss3/2
Fig. 3.C.14.
Stress intensity factor solutions are known for various loading conditions for
this geometry. Only approximate formulas and their accuracies are given for
several basic cases. For more information se /I/, pp. 2.10-2.2 1 and 2.25-2.29.
Appendix 3.C
Fig. 3 .C. 1 2.
Fig. 3.C.13.
Appendix 3 .C
Fig. 3.C.10.
is relatively small, the solutions for the configuration shown in Fig. 3.C.10
may be of some value for estimating stress intensity factors.
Fig. 3.C.11.
Fig. 3.C.8.
c Crack
Fig. 3.C.9.
Appendix 3.C
Fig. 3.C.6.
Fig. 3.C.7.
Appendix 3 .C
Fig. 3 .C.5.
2P
K= - 1 F (b3
6 ,hi (better than 2% for any b/a) (3.C.4)
b E 1.30 0.30
FG) - (-b-) 3/2
Note:
1. For any non-uniform stress distributions, stress intensity factors are
obtained by integration of Equation (3.C.4).
2. Equation (3.C.4) shows that the correction factor for a single free
surface
for any normal stress distribution as long as the normal stress has the
same sign over the entire crack length.
K, is the solution for the infinite plane with geometry and loading
configuration reflected across the free boundary, Fig. 3 .C.6.
For the infinite plane problem, the exact Green's function is known
(in Eq. (3.C.4), F(b/a) = 1) and K, calculations are considerably simpler.
3. In engineering practice, when only the rough idea with acceptable
accuracy will suffice, one can simply estimate K as
without causing substantial error. The error is never beyond 15% and
usually much less. (When the normal stress has the same sign over the
Appendix 3.C
Fig. 3 .C.3.
K = 0.439 o f i
(accurate)
= 1.210 (1 - +) o f i -
The factor representing free surface influences is 1.2 10.
Fig. 3.C.4.
K = 2 o+ (sin-'
7T
(better than 2% for any b/a) (3.C.3)
b -)" 1.30 -0.18 b 5/2
F(T) (T)
Fig. 3.C.1.
Stress intensity factors for various loading conditions are known for this
geometry. Only approximate formulas and their estimated accuracies will be
presented for several basic stress distributions. For more information see / 1/
pp. 8.1-8.8.
Fig. 3 .C.2.
Textbooks
Knott, J.F.:
Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics, Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd., 1973.
Frost, N.E., Marsh, K.J. and Pook. L.P.:
Metal Fatigue, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974.
Broek, D. :
Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics, Noordhoff Int. Publ., 1974.
Rolfe, S.T. and Barsom, J.M.:
Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures. Applications of Fracture Mechanics,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1977.
Gurney, T.R. :
Fatigue of Welded Structures, 2nd ed., Cambridge Univ. Press, 1979
Hellan, K. :
Bruddmekanikk, Tapir, Trondheirn, 1979 (in Norwegian).
Cherepanov, G.P. :
Mechanics of Brittle Fracture, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1979.
Fuchs, H.O. and Stephens, R.I.:
Metal Fatigue in Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1980.
Parker, A.P. :
The Mechanics of Fracture and Fatigue, W. & F.N. Spon Ltd, 1981.
Journals
- Engineering Fracture Mechanics
- Fatigue of Engineering Materials and Structures
- International Journal of Fatigue
- International Journal of Fracture
- Journal of Applied Mechanics, ASME
- Journal of Strain Analysis
- Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE
- Metal Construction
Appendix 3.C
Equation (3 .C. 14) is 12 to 30 percent larger than Equation (3.C. 15).
When the strip has attachments such as stiffeners, Equation (3.C.15) is ex-
pected t o give reasonable estimates for stress intensity factors. An edge crack
in the flange plate of a beam is a typical example in practical structures.
h# = h&,y,afiA) +- .*.R
= nw2 , Q2
J a T
(3.C.16)
(1-k2 - C O S ~ # ) ~ . ~ ~
where: $ = angle (Fig. 3 .C.2 1)
R,r,R= lengths (Fig. 3 C.22)
k2 = 1 - ( a / ~ ) ~
a2 = ( ( ~ / a +
) ~( y / ~ ) ~
x,y = coordinates for point B
itting
ces P=l
B
hj(a,c,x,~)= 6 .C
nl.s * Q;
where: (next page)
Appendix 3.C
j = 1 , 2 corresponds to Q, = n/2 , O .
+
r = (x2 y2 )Oa5
+
C = la)^ (y/cl2 )-' - 1)0-5= { a - 2 - 1 }0-5
The influences of free surfaces might be taken into account through correc-
tion factors.
Eq. (3.C.16) is exact for k = 0 (a = c), and the loss of accuracy for
moderate increases of k is expected to be relatively small. Numerical inte-
gration trials and comparisons with known solutions indicate that Eq. (3 .C. 16)
yields an upper bound estimate of K. The accuracy (within +(5-lo)%) is best
when q5 is close to ~ / 2 .
CHAPTER 4
Stig Berge
Norges tekniske hsgskole, Trondheim
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this chapter is to give a basic understanding of the fatigue
properties of metals in general and of welded steels specifically. The following
topics are discussed :
- Basic fatigue mechanisms, characteristics of fatigue failures, and metho-
dologies for fatigue strength assessment.
- Constant amplitude (SN) testing, types of tests, test specimen vs.
structural behaviour in fatigue loading.
- Cyclic strain and material response, total strain response to fatigue
loading.
- Variable amplitude loading, cycle counting methods, load spectra.
- Cumulative damage, the Miner summation, equivalent stress range.
- Fatigue of welded joints, effects of geometry, residual stresses, material
properties.
- SN data for welded joints, classification of joint types, statistical
analysis of SN data, assessment of design curves.
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Unless otherwise indicated, symbols in this chapter are according to the
following standards, cf. Annual Book of ASTM Standards Part 10:
E6 -81 Methods of Mechanical Testing
E206-72 (1979) Fatigue Testing and the Statistical Analysis of Fatigue
Data
E5 13-74 (1980) Constant-Amplitude Low-Cycle Fatigue Testing
E6 16-8 1 Fracture Testing
Chapter 4. List of symbols
elongation at fracture (ISO/DIS 82-1 972)
cross sectional area of unstressed specimen
cross sectional area at fracture
crack length
fatigue strength exponent
crack growth rate parameter
fatigue ductility exponent
modulus of elasticity
engineering strain
irregularity factor
stress intensity factor
fracture toughness
plain strain fracture toughness
fatigue notch factor
stress intensity maximum in one cycle
stress intensity minimum in one cycle
elastic or theoretical stress concentration factor
range of stress intensity in one cycle
threshold stress intensity range for crack growth
gauge length of unstressed specimen
increment of gauge length
crack growth exponent
fatigue life, number of cycles to failure
number of stress cycles endured
number of cycles with same stress range
load at fracture
fatigue notch sensitivity
stress ratio = omin/oma = Kmin/Kmax
notch root radius
nominal stress
stress amplitude
variable component of stress
equivalent stress range
fatigue limit
mean stress
steady component of stress
maximum stress in one cycle
minimum stress in one cycle
Section 4.1
A fatigue process will go through several stages, from the initial state
of the material t o final fracture, each stage characterized by the nature of
the fatigue process. For a smooth or notched (machined) component of
a metallic material, the stages are commonly denoted
Stage I: Initiation or crack nucleation
Stage 11: Crack growth
Stage 111: Final failure
Fig. 4.2 The development of persistent slip bands, extrusions and intrusions
by cyclic slip.
As has been discussed in detail Sec. 3.2.1, the stress and strain fields
in the vicinity of a sharp crack under essentially elastic conditions is uniquely
characterized through a single parameter, the stress intensity factor K, which
is a function of the applied load (or nominal stress), crack length and shape,
and external geometry. Assuming the crack growth increment in a load cycle
to be a function of stresses and strains at the crack tip, then crack growth
rates should correlate to the range of the stress intensity factor AK. This
has indeed proved to be a valid assumption, and the general crack growth
rates for Mode I cracks in metals are as shown in Fig. 4.3.
/ R e g i o n 111
UnstabLe
fracture
R e g i o n 11
Stable
crack
Region I
Inltlation
threshold
*Kt h Log A K
Fig. 4.3 Crack growth rate curve showing the three regions
discussed in the text.
The virtue of this discovery is that it allows for fatigue crack growth
life calculations of any geometry, provided a crack growth rate curve for
the particular material has been established by simple specimen tests. The
details of such analyses are discussed in Secs. 3.2.2, 3.3, 10.3 and 1 1.5.
The sigmoidal shape of the crack growth curve in Fig. 4.3 suggests a
subdivision into three regions. In Region I, the crack growth rate goes asymp-
totically to zero as AK approaches a threshold value AKth. This means that
for stress intensities below AKth there is no crack growth, i.e. there is a
fatigue limit. The threshold effect is believed to be caused by a complicated
synergism of processes which leads to crack blocking for small stress inten-
sities. Corrosion deposits in the crack, surface oxidation, fracture surface
microroughness, and residual plastic strains from the crack tip zone are
believed to be important mechanisms contributing t o the threshold. The
threshold level depends on stress parameters like mean stress, residual stresses,
and stress interaction (stress memory) effects. Environmental effects are also
very important. Sea water submersion, particularly under cathodic protection
Section 4.1.2
c
lo5,
c
lo9, 10 20
50 100
10 20 50 K)O
AMPLITUDE OF STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
AMPLITUDE OF STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR
A K / 2 kglmm)i7
AK12 kglrnrf?''
Fig. 4.4 Crack growth rate as a function of stress ratio for two high tensile
steels (Ref. 171).
AK,ff = K,, - AK
- -
1 -R
where
This indicates that the negative part of the load cycle is nondamaging.
It is generally assumed that crack closure is responsible for this effect. For
R > 0,i.e. tensile stresses, the threshold effects cannot be explained by simple
concepts.
Section 4.1 -2
This part of the curve is the basis of most finite life fatigue analyses of welded
joints, cf. Secs. 3.2.1, 10.3 and 11.5.
AK, k s l K
10 15
I I X) 25
This means that the stress which gives equal fatigue crack growth rates
in these two materials, is three times larger in steel than in aluminium. From
this fact, and from fatigue testing of aluminium weldments, fatigue design
rules for welded aluminium structures have been assessed by simply taking the
design SNsurves for corresponding welds in steel and divide the stresses by
three (Ref. /lo/). This corresponds to the ratio of specific weight between
steel and aluminium, which indicates that in terms of weight-saving, alumi-
nium has no advantage over steel in fatigue design of welded structures.
This has led to the conception of parametric crack growth laws covering
Region 111, like the Forman's equation, which is much used in aircraft design,
The material constants C and m in Eq. (4.8) are not necessarily equal t o those
of Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4).
log A K
Fig. 4.7 Actual da/dN curve (solid) and two approximations for the threshold
region commonly applied in engineering calculations.
Section 4.1.2
Table 4.la Fatigue crack parameters C and m (Eq. (4.4)) for C-Mn structural
steels BS 4360 Grade 50 or similar, in air.
Table 4 . l b Fatigue crack growth thresholds compiled in Ref. 1451. Air data.
AKth (MPaJm)
Sy (MPa) Material
R = 0.0 R = 0.8
8.2 3 .O 309 Mild steel
7.8
12.3
7.7
12.5
3 .O
3.7
3.3
2.5
232
:ii
399
1 Mild steel
Medium carbon
steels
8.2 2.6 479 ASTM A 533 B
Section 4.1.3 - 4.1.4
Fig. 4.10 Fatigue crack growth from the toe of a cruciform joint, as obtained
by computer simulation.
Fig. 4.1 1 (left): Crack growth from a cut-out. A short crack will sense the hot
spot stress at the cut-out as a homogeneous field. A long crack will
sense the average stress, but with the cut+ut as a part of the crack,
leading to an accelerated crack growth rate, cf. Fig. 4.12.
Fig. 4.1 2 (right): Crack growth from a circular cut-out in a tubular brace
(Ref. 1111).
Fig. 4.13 Fatigue loaded stiffened plate (a) and stress intensity factor for a
crack growing perpendicular to the stringers (b). Crack growth rate
(c) and crack length (d). Also shown in Fig. (d) is crack growth for
an unstiffened plate.
rate when the crack tip approaches a stiffener. This general effect of stiffening
and load shedding is one reason why fatigue cracks may be tolerated in ship
structures to an extent which is not allowed in tubular offshore structures.
Tubular joints are a category of welded joints which warrant a closer
consideration. Unstiffened tubular joints feature large stress concentrations
and a very complicated stress distribution with large gradients, Fig. 4.14.
In this case, contrary to the case of a cut-out, the stress intensity of a crack
growing out of the hot spot region will not increase. The crack growth rate
will therefore be fairly constant throughout a large part of the fatigue life.
A typical crack length vs. time history for a tubular joint is shown in
Fig. 4.15. From initial microscopic defects along the weld at the weld toe or
Section 4.1.4
I I I
I Region 111 I
I (circum- I
I ferentlal I
I growth) I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
1 I
I I
I I
Prototype testing.
Prototype or component testing is the most direct way of assessing fatigue
strength for a particular structure or structural component. The method
is in common use in the automotive industry, in the design of for example
crankshafts, bearing pins, etc. Also in the aircraft industry, pro totype testing
is a standard technique, even in full scale testing of entire aircraft structures.
Prototype testing is very expensive, and is cost-effective only for
fatigue critical structures, and/or structures which are produced in large series.
Moreover, the fabrication procedure and load conditions need to be well
defined, otherwise the inherent uncertainties in the test conditions may
invalidate the findings of the testing.
Obviously, prototype testing is not feasible for welded offshore struc-
tures, except for selected components of novel design or in new applications.
Examples are cast tubular joints and tendons for tension-leg platforms. Even
in these cases, the test programs have generated data more of a comparative
nature, with reference to standard components or materials tested under
the same (simplified) conditions, rather than prototype lives under realistic
loading and environmental conditions.
SN-curves.
An SN-curve is a plot of fatigue life versus stress. The stress parameter, which
Section 4.1.5
for welded joints is the stress range, is normally plotted as the ordinate.
Fatigue life is generally defined as the number of cycles to failure.
Most SN plots are based on constant amplitude loading, in which case
the parameters of stress and fatigue life are easily defined. Variable amplitude
data may also be plotted on an SN format. As will be discussed in Sections 4.4
and 4.5, stress and fatigue life in variable amplitude loading may be defined
in various ways.
Fatigue cracks in welded structures will be confined to the welded
joints or to flame cut edges. Only in very rare cases will fatigue cracks be
initiated in plain rolled material. The reason for this should be obvious:
The welds provide notches and initial defects which even in the most opti-
mized designs will give a much lower fatigue strength than the adjacent plain
material. The appropriate SN-curves for welded structures are therefore
SN-curves for welded joints, including flame cut edges.
Exceptions to this rule are cast or forged components which are welded
into the structure. In such cases, stress raisers in the cast or forged part may
be such that cracks will initiate from plain material surface rather than from
the adjacent weld, e.g. cast tubular joints. The design will then be based on
an SN-curve for the plain material, with an (elastic) stress concentration
factor for the detail in question.
In some codes, generally not of the latest developments, this last
approach is applied to welded joints as well. The fatigue strength of each
joint is based on a fatigue notch factor relative to plain material. This notch
factor is empirical, and takes into account the geometric, metallurgical, and
other factors which may have an influence on the fatigue strength of welds.
The method has several weaknesses, and is not applied in recent codes.
length, the calculated endurances can be brought into accord with experimen-
tal values by calibration. Provided the initiation conditions remain unchanged,
fracture mechanics can then be used for calculating the influence of different
parameters (geometrical, environmental, etc.) on the endurance. In this sense,
fracture mechanics has been used extensively as a research tool, employed
in order to generalize experimental data.
For assessment of the significance of defects, the situation is more
in favour of fracture mechanics analysis. Engineering defects, i.e. defects
which can be found by non-destructive testing techniques, are generally so
large that linear-elastic fracture mechanics with a crack growth power law
works reasonably well.
Cyclic strain.
The cyclic strain approach was originally developed for machined smooth
or lightly notched components in which fatigue life is dominated by a crack
initiation period. The method is of limited use in the design of welded struc-
tures, in which fatigue life is dominated by crack growth. It may be used
in low cycle fatigue assessments of structures where functional loads may
cause plastic strains (ship structures, crane pedestals, pipelines during laying
operations, etc.).
The prime parameter of the loading is the stress amplitude S,, or stress
range S, (cf. Fig. 4.16). Besides, the mean level of stress Sm is of interest,
often denoted by the stress ratio
Typical load histories in SN testing are shown in Fig. 4.17. Note the
singularity in the stress ratio for pulsating compression stresses. In certain
codes, stress ratio is defined differently in order to avoid this problem.
In an SN test, several identical specimens are usually tested at different
stress or strain ranges, in order to obtain an SN-curve as shown in Fig. 4.18.
Usually, either the mean level or the stress ratio is kept constant in one test
series. The general effect of the stress ratio is shown in Fig. 4.19. High ratios
tend to reduce the fatigue life at a given stress range. It is t o be noted that
testing with Sm = const. or R = const. will in general give different SN-curves.
Section 4.2.2
''I1 Pulsating P u l s a t i ng
compression tension
I Compression-
compression
Alternating Tension-
tension
Fig. 4.18 SN-curves for sharply notched specimens of mild steel and alumi-
nium (Ref. / 121).
10
log N
Fig. 4 .19 SN-curves for a notched high tensile stainless steel (18 Cr - 9 Ni)
at varying stress ratios (Ref. / 131).
In the Haigh type diagram of Fig. 4.21, this amounts to a straight line,
which limits the allowable combinations of S, and S,. Outside the allowable
region, the material would break during the first one quarter of a cycle, and
cyclic stresses are of course not possible.
This idealized description of the combined effect of S, and ,S is valid
only under monotonic loading. In fatigue, Eq. (4.12) will be distorted by
the cumulative effects of cyclic loading, which in general will cause a change
in material properties. Empirical formulas have been established, based on
Section 4.2.2
Log N
Fig. 4.20 The difference between R = const. and S, = const. testing, and the
influence on the SN-curve (schematic).
Fig. 4.21 The Haigh diagram showing allowable combinations of stress ampli-
tude and mean stress.
Section 4.2.2
Fig. 4.22 The Modified Goodman, Gerber, and Soderberg relations for the
effect of mean stress on fatigue strength for N = lo7 cycles, with
data for a high tensile stainless steel (Ref. 1131).
the same simple idea as displayed in Fig. 4.2 1. In Fig. 4.22 are shown three
commonly used expressions in the Haigh diagram. The limiting point on the
alternating stress axis is the stress Sa,N at a given fatigue life under reversed
loading (S, = 0 or R = -1). The lines are drawn for a given fatigue life and
exhibit empirical combinations of stresses S, and S, which will give that
life.
Soderberg relation:
None of the models are generally valid, as they are based on experi-
mental data obtained under different conditions. Moreover, the concept of
using monotonic tensile properties in defining fatigue strength is fundarnen-
tally wrong. As will be discussed in Section 4.3, the stress-strain relation of
materials may be very different under cyclic loading as compared to monoto-
nic strain, thus invalidating the concept of S,, and S, as material parameters
in fatigue.
Section 4.2.3
Fig. 4.23 The data shown in Fig. 21 plotted in a Smith diagram for
N = 1o7 cycles.
Fig. 4.24 Typical specimens for fatigue testing of plain material in predomi-
nantly elastic loading (ASTM E 466-82 Constant Amplitude Axial
Fatigue Tests of Metallic Materials).
In this type of test, most of the fatigue life is spent in the crack initia-
tion stage. After crack initiation, the remaining fatigue life is relatively short.
An SN plot will have a general form as shown in Fig. 4.1 8.
SN data of this form are not very useful in design. One reason is the
sensitivity to surface conditions as mentioned above. Another fact t o bear
in mind is that fatigue cracks usually are initiated in areas of local stress
concentrations, and that stress gradients and stress concentrations are impor-
tant parameters in fatigue. Stress gradients define the volume of stressed
material, which will be different in bending as compared to tension. Stress
concentrations raise the stress level, usually by a geometry dependent factor
which may be non-linear due to local yielding as shown in Fig. 4.25.
Fig. 4.25 Specimens loaded to the same nominal stress but with different
geometries and loading conditions will in general give different
fatigue response, due to effects of stress gradients and of local
yielding.
o Fracture
I I I I
1 o5 1 o6 1 o7 Io 8
log N
Fig. 4.26 Typical specimens and SN data for welded joints (Ref. 1141).
Section 4.2.4
For most types of small scale specimens, the difference between the
fatigue life at "end of test" and at a more realistic assessment of tolerable
crack size is negligible, as shown in Fig. 4.10. In large scale structural testing,
however, the situation is more complicated. Considering crack growth in a
tubular joint, F'&. 4.15, there is a significant amount of fatigue life from a half
Section 4.2.5
through thickness to a through thickness crack, and the choice of fatigue life
criterion may become important in the evaluation of fatigue data.
A rational basis for assessing critical crack length is given in Chapter 9.
i) The stress range at the fatigue limit found in constant amplitude testing
of welded specimens is very low, typically in the range 50-1 00 MPa
depending on type of joint and test conditions. It would be very
uneconomical to design offshore structures with design loads below
the initial threshold level, since in practical design, there will always
be some stress cycles above the threshold which will cause crack
growth. Also, with growing crack lengths, the stress level correspond-
ing to the crack growth threshold will be gradually lowered, thus
allowing a greater part of the load spectrum to lie above the threshold
level.
ii) The fatigue limit determined in small-scale testing is not representative
of fatigue limits in large scale structures, since the limit is strongly
linked to the size and occurrence of initial defects. In large-scale
structures, the probability of exceeding a certain size of defect will
be much greater than in a test series with small scale specimens. More-
over, localized corrosion may create pits and crevaces in the region of
welds, causing a time-dependent growth of initial defects.
iii) The fatigue limit, or crack growth threshold, is strongly dependent
on various factors like mean stress, load history, and environment.
Environmental effects are in particular difficult to handle, due to a
general lack of data. Assessment of the fatigue limit of real structures
is therefore subject to large uncertainties.
Fabrication effects.
Most laboratory specimens are purpose-made, and are not production-line
welds. The specimens are invariably produced in the most favourable con-
ditions for welding, in a dry, clean, indoor environment, and with carefully
controlled welding procedures. The liability of most experimentalists to
discard "rare events" from their collection of data should also be mentioned.
The test specimens should therefore be expected to display a much smaller
scatter and a larger mean fatigue strength than production-line structural
welds.
' 1
' & - - - - -
F u l l scale
Log N
Fig. 4.28 The effect of increasing the weld length tested per specimen.
Section 4.2.6
Structural redundancy.
Considered as load-carrying members, test specimens either carry the full
load or no load at all. Structural welded joints, however, will in most cases
be part of a redundant structure. If a fatigue crack starts growing, the com-
pliance of the joint will increase and the load will decrease. For part-through-
thickness cracks, this effect is of little importance, because a main part of
the fatigue life is spent in the growth of very short cracks with negligible
influence on the compliance. For other failure modes, where a certain amount
of cracking is allowed, the effect of redundancy may become significant.
Residual stresses.
Residual stresses in structures may be separated into two types (Fig. 4.29):
.' 1 . Short-range stresses exist only in and close to a weld, and are self-
balanced over the cross section of one member. The cause of these
stresses is the thermal contraction of parts of the cross section, under
restraint from the cooler portions. Stresses will generally be large, at
or above yield magnitude, and with large through-thickness gradients.
Due to the short range, the stresses will be associated with small end
displacements. Hence, they may fairly easily be reduced by heat treat-
ment, or by local yielding caused by peak loads.
Section 4.3.1 - 4.3.2
Fig. 4.30
Tensile test, typical specimen and
stress-strain relation in monoto-
nic loading.
shown in Fig. 4.30. The data provided by such a test are well-known to all
engineers, and constitute the most basic characterization of the strength
of a material.
Sy - yield strength Strength
S, - ultimate strength parameters
A - elongation at fracture Ductility
Z - reduction of area at fracture parameters
In a tensile test, engineering definitions of stress and strain are applied.
S = P/Ao - engineering stress (4.16)
e = AL/Lo - engineering strain (4.17)
True stress and strain may be derived by
o = S(l +e)
e = Qn(1t e )
For small strains, the difference between engineering values and true values
is small and is neglected in most instances.
Fig. 4.31
The effect of strain hardening when unload-
ing and reloading a plastically deformed
material (schematic).
When a material is stressed beyond the elasticity limit, the unloading curve
will follow Hooke's law (Fig. 4.3 1). After yielding, there will be a permanent
offset in strain and an increase in the yield strength due to strain hardening.
After unloading, the next load cycle will therefore follow the previous un-
loading curve. The significant feature is the memory effect -the stress-strain
curve in one load cycle depends on the previous stress-strain history.
If the material is cycled further, a gradual change in the stress-strain
relation will take place, generally along two possible courses - cyclic harden-
ing or cyclic softening, Fig. 4.32. For most engineering materials, a fairly
stable state is reached after some few hundred cycles, or at a number of
cycles which is small compared to the fatigue life. This means that for a
major part of the fatigue life, a proper description of the flow properties of
'I
Controlled functton, stress Controlled function, strain
0 0 t
t 0
Fig. 4.32 Material response under cyclic loading in stress control (left) and
strain control (right).
Section 4.3.4
the material must be based on the cyclic stress strain relations, and not on
the monotonic stress-strain curve shown in Fig. 4.30.
Fig. 4.33
Stabilized cyclic stress-strain hysteresis
loop for a mild steel.
For completely reversed testing (zero mean stress) the amplitude is equal
to one half the range
Stress resistance.
A plot of the fatigue life vs. true stress amplitude for a metal gives in general
a curve of the Basquin form (Ref. 1161)
N - cycles to failure
2N - load reversals to failure
oi - fatigue strength coefficient
b - fatigue strength exponent - the sign of b is negative
The fatigue strength coefficient is the stress intercept at one load
reversal (2N = I), hence it is related to of,the true fracture strength in mono-
tonic loading. For most materials it turns out that
#
of 2 of (4.27)
is a good approximation. But many steels fall far below this prediction, and
a range of values has been found (Ref. / 19/),
Section 4.3.5
The total strain life curve approaches the plastic strain life curve in the
low cycle region, and the stress life curve in the high cycle region as shown
in Fig. 4.34. Data for a high-strength steel are shown in Fig. 4.35 t o follow
this trend (Ref. / 191).
The significance of the cyclic strain properties in fatigue is illustrated
in Fig. 4.36. In the high cycle region, strong materials will have a greater
fatigue life. In the low cycle region, ductile materials will be superior. A tough
material with an optimum combination of strength and ductility will give the
best overall fatigue resistance.
It appears that the crossover point in Fig. 4.34 is nearly the same
for many materials and is found at a strain amplitude of 0.01 and a life of
about 2000 reversals. Therefore, at this strain range, the fatigue life is quite
insensitive to material properties.
1 Log (2N')
I
Fig. 4.34 Representation of elastic, plastic, and total strain resistance
fatigue loading.
18ZNi Maraging ( 3 0 0 )
w
\ v Load control
Fig. 4.35 Test data and strain resistance curves for a high tensile steel
(Ref. / 171).
Fig. 4.36
Fatigue of notched members. Fatigue life is
assumed to be equal to the life of an unnotched
specimen undergoing the same stress-strain
loading as the most highly strained material.
Section 4.4.1
--
Time
Reversal is the occurrence where the first derivative of the load-time history
changes sign.
Peak is the occurrence where the first derivative of the load-time history
changes from positive to negative sign.
Valley is the occurrence where the first derivative of the load-time history
changes from negative to positive sign.
Range is the algebraic difference between successive valley and peak loads
(positive range) or between successive peak and valley loads (negative range).
Note that range may have different definitions, depending on the counting
method used. "Overall range" is defined by the algebraic difference between
the largest peak and the smallest valley of a given load-time history.
Section 4.4.1
Mean crossings (or zero crossings) is the number of times that the load-time
history crosses the mean load level during a given length of the history. Nor-
mally, only crossings with positive slopes are counted.
Irregularity factor is a measure of the irregularity, or the bandwidth of the
signal, defined as the ratio of mean crossings with positive slope to the num-
ber of peaks or valleys in a given load history. In fatigue analysis of welds,
mean stresses are generally neglected, and mean-crossings are commonly
referred to as zero-crossings. The irregularity factor I is linked t o the spectral
bandwidth factor e (Eq. (2.9)) by
For narrow band loading, the irregularity factor will be close to unity (c % 0).
Typical load histories for fixed offshore structures have an irregularity factor
in the range 0.6 < I < 0.8.
Root-mean-square (RMS) may be defined in two ways, either by a weighted
average of the fluctuating stress itself
where m is the slope of the crack growth curve (cf. Sec. 4.1.2 and Table 4.1).
For welded joints the value of m is commonly taken as m = 3.
The equivalent stress defined in Eq. (4.38) is often referred to as RMC or
y'root-mean-cube"of stress. This stress entered into an SN diagram gives the
number of cycles to failure for the corresponding irregular load history.
Section 4.4.2
U n c l i p p e d random Loading;
---Clipping level
----Clipping level
4.4.2
For cumulative damage analysis, the stress-time history is broken down into
individual cycles which are summed up to a distribution of stress ranges.
Various procedures commonly referred to as cycle counting methods have
been devised. The problem of cycle counting is illustrated in Fig. 4.39. The
load history may be broken down into individual cycles in several ways,
leading to different assessments of fatigue damage. In many cases it is there-
fore important to apply a counting method which gives the physically most
correct representation of the fatigue process. Several such methods will be
discussed. - Cycle counts are normally represented by spectra:
Occurrences spectrum is a representation of variable amplitude loading by
the number of times a particular loading parameter (peak, range, level, etc.)
Section 4.4.2
Fig. 4.39 With narrow band loading, individual stress cycles are easily identi-
fied and counted, and most counting methods yield similar results.
In broad band loading, large cycles are interrupted by small cycles
with varying mean level, and the resulting cycle count may depend
significantly on the counting procedure.
t
- I -
Occurrences of Level crossings
Exceedances of peaks/valleys
d
m
Time- -
----
a ) L e v e l crossing coun t i n g
---- ---
Time- -
( b ) L e v e l crossin counting
w i t h 1 l e v e l leeadband
( l e v e l s counts
-0-1 ----- 4
0
1
1 2
Fig. 4.41 Level crossing counting of a broad-banded load history (a). The
resulting distribution of ranges is shown in (c). In many cases,
small stresses may be assumed to be non-damaging, and are there-
fore disregarded. In level crossing counting, this may be achieved
by introducing a dead band, as shown in (b).
Section 4.4.2
B
C
I O c c u r r e n c e s of
Time Cycle count
level crossings
Fig. 4.42 By level crossing counting, stress cycles with a mean level different
from the overall mean level (a) will be accounted for in an unrealis-
tic way (c).
Reversal points are assumed to occur halfway between levels. By this method,
narrow-band processes are represented in a realistic way. For broad band
loading, stress ranges with mean values different from the mean level of the
loading, are combined in an unrealistic way, cf. Fig. 4.42. For broad band
load histories, the level count method therefore tends to be conservative.
Peak counting.
Peak counting is illustrated in Fig. 4.43. Peaks are counted above, and valleys
I Peak I~ounts]
( a ) Peak counting
uRan
n \ ? es Cycle
counts
3 15
Fig. 4.43 Peak count of a broad banded load history (a). The resulting cycles
are shown in (b).
Section 4.4.2
Fig. 4.44 Peak count of the same load history as shown in Fig. 4.55, but
counting only extreme peaks and valleys between reference (mean)
level crossings.
are counted below the mean level. Results for peaks and valleys are usually
reported separately. A variation of this method is to count all peaks and
valleys without regard to the mean level.
In some cases it may be justified to disregard small variations in stress
("ripples"). One practical way in which to do that is to count as peaks and
valleys only the extreme values between successive mean level crossings,
cf. Fig. 4.44.
Similar to level counting, peak counts are combined by constructing
the largest possible cycle, then the second largest, and so on. In this way, a
conservative count is obtained. An alternative method is to combine pairs
of peaks and valleys in a random way.
I Ranges counted
Method 2
1-4
Fig. 4.45 Part of an irregular load history and two methods of counting
ranges. With Method 1, each range between reversals is counted.
With Method 2, small reversals are ignored. The difference in terms
of cumulative damage may be significant.
Section 4.4.2
ranges. If the mean of each range is also counted, the method is called range-
mean counting. If only positive ranges are counted, each range is counted
as a cycle. If both positive and negative ranges are counted, each range is
counted as one half-cycle.
One problem with range counting is how to take care of small cycles
within large cycles. The sequence shown in Fig. 4.45 may be counted as three
individual and small half cycles, or as one large half cycle. The resulting
damage summation will depend significantly on the choice of threshold
level for counting small cycles.
Rainflow counting.
Rainflow counting is often used as a common name of a large class of count-
ing methods: range-pair counting, the Hayes method, the original rainflow
method, range-pair-range counting, ordered overall range counting, racetrack
counting, and hysteresis loop counting. The various methods are summarized
in Ref. /20/. If the load history begins and ends with its maximum peak, or
with its minimum valley, all these methods give identical counts. In other
cases, the counts are similar, but not generally identical. Only one method
of this class will be reviewed here, rainflow counting (Ref. 1211).
This counting procedure is designed to count reversals in accordance
with the material's stress-strain response, cf. Sec. 4.3. The principle may be
illustrated by the strain history shown in Fig. 4.46 and the corresponding
stress-strain path. The individual cycle 2-3-2' does not effect the remainder
Fig. 4.46 Part of a strain history (a) and the stress-strain response (b) of a
material being subjected to this history. Note that the small cycle
2-3-2' forms a closed hysteresis loop within the large range 1-4,
the latter being undisturbed by the interruption.
Section 4.4.2
of the stress-strain history. Each time the hysteresis loop is closed, a cycle
count is made. The method is illustrated for a more complicated strain history
in Fig. 4.47.
2-3-2'
Cycles 8-9-8'
5-6-5'
Half 1-2-4
cycles 4-5-7
7-8-1 0
Fig. 4.47 A more complicated strain history (a) and the corresponding stress-
strain response (b). The rainflow counting method counts small
cycles within large cycles similar to the way closed hysteresis loops
are formed. The cycle count is thus reflecting the way in which the
material is responding.
Rainflow counting has obtained its name from an analogy of rain falling
down a pagoda roof, Fig. 4.48. The strain history in Fig. 4.48 is the same as
in Fig. 4.47.
The rules of rainflow counting are as follows,
1. Rain will flow down the roof initiating at the inside of each peak or
valley. When it reaches the edge it will drip down.
2. The rain is considered to stop, and a cycle is completed, when it meets
another flow from above.
3. Starting from a peak, the flow also stops when it comes opposite a
more positive peak than that from which it started. Starting from a
valley, the flow stops when it comes opposite a more negative valley
than that from which it started.
Section 4.4.2
Strain
Counting t
Time
Fig. 4.48 The same load history as in Fig. 4.47 (a) illustrating the pagoda
roof rainflow analogy.
4.4.3: w=*
The most common way of representing irregular load histories for fatigue
analysis is by an exceedances diagram of stress ranges, Fig. 4.40. This diagram
is often called the stress spectrum. Note that for a given load history, the
stress spectrum may depend on the counting method applied.
Typical stress spectra are given in Fig. 4.49.
l o g ( E x c e e d a n c e s of s t r e s s ranges)
Fig. 4.49 Typical forms of exceedances spectra of stress ranges, cf. text
for discussion.
where: Sr,0 - stress range which is exceeded once out of no stress cycles
no - total number of stress cycles
n - number of stress cycles equal to or exceeding S,
K - shape parameter
This spectrum is shown for various shape parameters in Fig. 4.50.
Eq. (4.39) is a convenient formula for cumulative damage calculations, in
particular for simplified analyses at the early design stage as explained in
Secs. 10.2.2 and 1 1.4.
Fig. 4.50
Exceedances of stress ranges repre-
sented by the Weibull distribution
with different shape parameters.
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
log n (Eq. (4.39))
with the failure criterion still given by Eq. (4.4 1). The procedure is shown in
Fig. 4.5 1.
Jell log N
Fig. 4.51 The Miner summation procedure for one particular stress block
with stress range exceedances diagram (a) and SN-curve (b).
the number of cycles in each block may be expressed as (Sec. 3.2.2, Eqs.
(3.38-3.42))
Section 4.5.2
Ni = 1 laf da
C (S, ,i)m a(] [(na)Om5 * F ] ~
and
If this load history causes failure, the right hand of Eq. (4.46) will equal
unity which it also should according to the Miner rule.
Eq. (4.50) now has the form of Eq. (4.47) for the SN-curve with an equivalent
stress range given by
and the fatigue life given by the total number of cycles N. Thus, the Miner
sum at fracture may be represented by an equivalent stress SN-curve, which
for a weld detail with a given constant amplitude SN-curve will depend on
the shape of the load spectrum.
The Weibull distribution function has been shown to fit many stress
spectra for marine structures. For this particular distribution, a closed form
expression for Eq. (4.5 1) may be calculated, giving a simple method for com-
puting Miner sums (Ref. /24/), cf. Sec. 10.2.2. With this procedure, no account
is taken of any fatigue limit, leading to conservative estimates of fatigue life.
in the Miner sum, which may be accounted for by the so-called relative Miner
sum. This quantity may be established by testing, and used as a reference
which is valid as long as certain conditions of similitude are complied with.
The load history of offshore structures is characterized by a randomly
varying stress around a constant mean level, with a cumulative stress spectrum
as shown in Fig. 4.50. For this type of loading, the interaction effects tend to
give Miner sums less than unity. A mean value of 0.5 has been assessed from a
large collection of data (Ref. 1261). This value has therefore been suggested
as a relative Miner sum to be applied in design. However, all current design
codes seem t o be based on a Miner sum of unity as a failure criterion, which
means an overestimation with a factor 2 on cumulative fatigue life.
The Miner sum is an assessment of cumulative damage. The uncertainty
associated with the relative Miner sum seems to be no larger than the inherent
uncertainty in SN data. In fact, test series have shown a reduced scatter in the
Miner sums as compared to the basic constant amplitude data (Ref. 1271).
Calculated against a design SN-curve, the Miner sum procedure based on the
relative sum should thus give the same probability of failure as the SN-curve.
In design codes, the required Miner sum is often set much lower than
unity. The reasons are not effects of cumulative damage, but the need for an
additional factor of safety. For example, the Miner sum for submerged parts
of the structure may be set to 0.1, whereas identical weld details above the
water may be set much higher (Ref. /28/). The rationale for this is accessibility
for inspection and repair. For similar reasons, redundant and non-redundant
parts of the structure may be designed to different Miner sums. In this way
the Miner sum is not only used as a measure of cumulative damage, but also
as a general safety factor in order t o optimize structural reliability.
I
~ a c kof f u t l o n Root d e f e c t
Hydrogen
cracking
Fig. 4.53 Various types of weld defects which significantly affect fatigue life.
Stag intrusions
Fig. 4.54 Even in sound welds, microscopic defects are present, acting as
crack nucleation sites. The fatigue notch factor of a weld is there-
fore much greater than what can be predicted from the external
geometry.
Section 5.2.1
Solidification cracks may appear in the centre-plane of the weld. They are
often caused by a high sulphur content in the weld (generally supplied by
melted base material). High carbon content also increases the tendency
towards solidification cracking, while basic electrodes remove sulphur from
the pool and are beneficial.
Fig. 4.55 Stresses in an unnotched plate (left) and a plate with a circular
cut-out (right).
Fig. 4.56 Stress distribution across the plate at a weld showing the nominal
stress (B - B) and the stress distribution across the weld toe (A - A).
Section 4.6.3
ww
In addition to the structural stress concentration, the weld reinforcement
also is a stress concentrator in most cases, Fig. 4.56. Even welds which are
longitudinal to the loading direction act as stress concentrators, due to the
rippled surface of a weld layer. Only by careful machining of the weld surface
may this local stress concentration be eliminated.
Using welds transverse to the loading direction as an example, weld
shape may be defined by the following parameters, Fig. 4.57,
8 - weld toe angle
p - notch root radius at the weld toe
s - throat thickness, overfill
L - leg length, an alternative parameter to s
tl - thickness of load-carrying plate
t2 - attachment thickness
types described in Fig. 4.54. For this reason, the fatigue notch factor Kf
of a weld (Eq. 4.33) is significantly greater than the theoretical (ideal) stress
concentration factor Kt which can be calculated from elastic theory.
The role of Kt is t o give trends with regard to fatigue strength of various
welded geometries. The actual fatigue strength can only be found by fatigue
testing.
I ', , Local nominal stress.
Fatigue design is based on the local nomi~zalstress approach. The term nomi-
nal means that the stress concentration created by the shape of the weldment
is to be disregarded. For example, the stress in Section A - A (Fig. 4.56) is
assumed to be the same as it would be in the absence of the weld, and the
relevant stress for design purposes would be S. The effect of the stress con-
centration caused by the weldment is included in the SN-curve as an implicit
fatigue notch factor.
The effects of stress concentrations due t o the overall geometry must,
however, be taken into account. Thus, in Fig. 4.55, the fatigue design stress
will be the nominal stress magnified by the stress concentration factor caused
by the hole, hence the term "local".
It is to be noted that the local nominal stress approach has been adopted
also in fatigue design of tubular joints. The stress concentration effect of the
overall shape of the joint is taken into account, but the notch effect of the
weldment is disregarded by an extrapolation procedure of the stresses close
to the weld, cf. Sec. 8.3.2.
The one exception to the local nominal stress approach is cases when
design is based on the stress in load-carrying transverse fillet welded joints.
Then the design stress is the nominal shear stress on the minimum weld throat
area, unless this requirement is overruled by the design stress for the plate,
cf. Fig. 4.58.
Stresses to be considered when SN-curves are used for fatigue life
calculations are also discussed in Sec. 10.2.4.
Fig. 4.58 In load-carrying transverse fillet welds, fatigue cracks may develop
from the weld toe (design stress S) or through the fillet (design
stress r1).
Fig. 4.60 Roof-topping of seam-welded tubulars with a formula for the stress
concentration factor.
A useful model for describing the thickness effect in weld toe fatigue
failures is obtained by the following assumptions (Ref. 1361):
a) Welded joints of the same type in various plate thicknesses are geo-
metrically similar (typical for load-carrying welds).
b) Initial conditions of fatigue crack growth is independent of plate
thickness (ai = const .).
for
and
Fig. 4.61 Geometric model for the effect of plate thickness in fatigue of
welded joints. @q taltial d e b t in the thicker joint will experience
a larger stma than a corresponding defect irr the thinner joint.
ii) The gradient of the stress in the plane of crack growth (mainly deter-
mined by the plate thickness).
iii) The number of cycles in crack growth through the region of a steep
stress gradient, relative to the total number of cycles t o failure (mainly
determined by the size of the initial crack and the crack ellipticity).
Using this model, it has been shown that the effect of plate thickness
can be assessed by the following correction formulas (Ref. 1371):
N = No (-)tto 314 (4.52)
where No and SN,o refer to fatigue life and strength for a reference plate
thickness to.
The corrections expressed by Eqs. (4.52) and (4.53) have been included
as mandatory clauses in current design codes (Ref. 1381). The reference plate
thickness t o , assumed to be a mean plate thickness in the tests from which
the design SN-curves have been derived, is 22 mm for plane joints and 3 2 mm
for tubular joints.
In Fig. 4.62 are shown a collection of SN data on the thickness effect
of welded joints, and the correction curves for two arbitrary stress levels.
200 -,
Fig. 4.62 Data showing the effect of thickness on fatigue strength for various
types of welds (Ref. 1361).
Section 4.6.4 - 4.6.5
In Sec. 4.2.6 residual stresses in welded structures were discussed. The main
conclusion was that in large welded structures, tensile residual stresses must
be accounted for, even in parts of the structure which have been subjected
to stress relief.
On this basis, the so-called stress range approach has been adopted in
fatigue design of welded structures. In the design SN-curves, endurance is
given in terms of stress range S,. The mean stress, or stress ratio, does not
appear explicitly. However, the SN-curves are assessed on the basis of large
tensile mean stresses being present, hence the effect of residual stresses are
taken into account implicitly. The procedure applied in including the effect
is described in Sec. 4.7.3.
Machined p l a t e
As rolled plate
Butt welds
Fig. 4.63 Fatigue strength of machined steel plate, as-rolled steel plate, and
steel butt welds, as functions of yield stress.
The invariance of fatigue strength to the yield strength has some severe
implications on design. The rationale for using high strength steels is to be
able to increase the allowable stresses. In design against an ultimate load,
this may well be acceptable. A consequence of an increased stress level is,
however, a reduced fatigue life. Therefore, the use of high strength steels
may lead to fatigue problems. For structural components which are fatigue
critical, there is no advantage in using high strength steel.
Particular fatigue problems in a structure may be solved by lowering
of the stress level, by improvement of the fatigue strength by post weld
L 1
, ,,
I,, ,, treatment (Chapter 6), or by inserting cast components in the critical areas.
If lowering of the stress level is mandatory, this may be achieved by improved
design of the weld details, or by increasing the plate thickness. In many
cases the latter is the only method viable.
Great Britain, and has formed the basis for several fatigue design codes for
offshore structures. Other design codes may differ in certain respects. How-
ever, as revisions are being made, different codes should be expected to con-
verge towards the same design criteria, as they indeed should - test data and
methods of analyses being generally the same.
Weld geometry.
Weld geometry may be described on a nominal level, a local level, and a
"microscopic" level. Considering for example butt joint of two plates, this
may be accomplished in several ways, cf. Fig. 4.64. On a nominal level, all
these joints are butt joints. In terms of fatigue strength, the various joint
designs may vary considerably, depending on the local geometry. On a "mic-
roscopic" level, the same local geometry may again be given various geome-
tries, cf. Fig. 4.57, leading to a considerable variability in fatigue strength.
Fig. 4.64 Various forms of butt joining of plates and the different flows of
stress.
Section 4.7.2
In the fatigue classification of welded joints, only the local weld geo-
metry is specified. The "microscopic" geometry is assumed to follow from
the weld method and is not defined explicitly.
Loading direction.
The design rules are in general based on test data obtained with uniaxially
ti
stressed specimens with welds either traniverse or longitudinal to the loading
direction. Hence the terms "longitudinal" and "transverse" welds. The load-
ing to consider in fatigue design is the fluctuating component of stress.
In plated structures, nominal stresses are in general bi-axial. A basic problem
is then t o define which component of stress to use, and the direction of this
stress relative to the weld.
As shown by Fischer (Ref. 1401) in his experiments on welded beams
with attached stiffeners, fatigue cracks tend to grow in a direction normal to
the largest principal stress. Principal stress may thus be taken as the "driving
force" in fatigue, and not e.g. the von Mises equivalent stress. For design,
the differences are in many cases negligible, but in some cases a detailed
analysis may be required.
The maximum principal stress range may not always be normal or
parallel to the weld direction, but at some other angle. With the common
type of classification of welds (Chapter 11, Appendix A) it may be difficult
to decide which class is applicable. It has been proposed that if the maximum
principal stress direction deviates more than 25' from the direction of the
weld, the classification is "transverse" (Ref. 1411).
A particular problem arises if the direction of the principal stress
changes during each load cycle. If the fluctuations are periodic, design should
be based on the direction of the peak value of the principal stress (Ref. /41/).
If, however, the stress components are not correlated in phase, as is often
the case for offshore structures (superposition of local and global loads,
multidirectional waves), no recipe seems t o exist.
In general, design rules describe the maximum principal stress range
as the appropriate stress component. This is in accord with the reference
(uniaxial) stress in fatigue testing, and corresponds to Mode I crack growth.
The von Mises equivalent stress may be used, according t o some rules (Ref.
1411). The directionality of stress with regard to the weld is obviously subject
to engineering judgement.
Manufacturing factors.
The main effect of manufacturing methods is due to geometry. Different weld
processes may lead to different "microgeometry" for nominally identical
Section 4.7.3
welds, cf. Fig. 4.57, and a subsequent effect on fatigue strength. The initial
defects from which fatigue cracks are nucleated may also be a factor of pro-
duction methods. A typical geometrical effect is the irregularity in weld pro-
file caused by interruptions in a weld pass, often called stoplstart positions.
In manual welding these interruptions are unavoidable whereas automatic
welding may be performed without them. The stoplstart positions tend to
lower the fatigue strength, particularly in longitudinal loading, and this is
reflected in the classification of welded joints with regard to welding methods.
Statistical analysis.
The SN data were analysed on the basis of a linear SN-curve on log-log scale,
using standard methods of statistics. A mean line was fitted by regression
analysis, and confidence intervals for individual test results were calculated.
The confidence interval is a measure of the scatter of the individual
results. The regression line is defined by two parameters, which may be taken
to represent the slope and the abscissa intercept of the line respectively.
Both these parameters are identified with an uncertainty, leading to a total
uncertainty which increases at an increasing distance from the centre of
gravity of the experimental data. The resulting confidence limits are hyper-
bolae, cf. Fig. 4.65.
The shape of the confidence limits is reflecting the fact that SN data
tend to be concentrated in an interval of fatigue life which is relatively small
as compared to the scatter. The increased width of the confidence interval
is therefore not reflecting the physical behaviour of welded joints in fatigue,
but is rather a result of the particular statistical method employed.
Section 4.7.3
Consistency of data.
In some data collections it was found that the individual test series were
systematically different from the trend shown by the joint regression ana-
lysis. The cause for this was believed to be differences in weld procedures,
specimen geometry, etc., in combination with differences in mean fatigue
life for the different series. This would give a bias in the regression line which
was adjusted for by analysing the data using a fixed slope taken to be the
mean slope for the individual test series.
Section 4.7.3
Fig. 4.66 Regression line giving the mean fatigue life (a), mean minus one
standard deviation (b), and minus two standard deviations (c)
(schematic).
Number of
standard deviations 1 2 3
below mean line
Confidence level 63.2 94.5 99.0
(per cent)
Probability of survival 84.1 97.7 99.5
(per cent)
Residual stresses.
In welded structures, residual stresses are found to be large. Even in structures
with post weld heat treated welds, the residual stresses are significant in rela-
tion to fatigue stresses due to assembly welding and various other effects.
For this reason, design criteria must take into account that the mean stresses
are large and tensile.
The specimens used in ordinary SN testing are in many cases too small
to contain residual stresses representative of full scale structures. This is
particularly true for welds which are transverse to the loading axis, in which
the whole cross section is heated simultaneously in the welding process, with
little restraint on the subsequent thermal contraction. For longitudinal welds,
residual stresses are in general much larger, due to greater constraint. Local
residual stresses will in general be relaxed by cyclic loading if the total stress
- applied plus residual - exceeds yield. Residual stresses are therefore insigni-
Section 4.7.3
07
9
I I
I I
1 o5 2A06
Log N
----- -
Local stress history
a t weld
Nominal stress
history
Fig. 4.68 Nominal stress history and local stress history at a weld with large
residual stresses (schematic).
Section 4.7.3
Design SN-curves.
Based on corrected SN-curves, various types of welded joints for which SN
data have been compiled, have been allocated to classes with regard to fatigue
strength. For plane joints, the classes are termed ByC, D, E, F, ~ 2G,: and W,
and a joint regression line and standard deviation have been calculated for
each class. Details of the various types of welds are given in Chapter 11,
Appendix A.
The design SN-curves are assessed on the basis of a consideration of
the probability of failure. Thus, in BS 5400, the mean minus two standard
deviations is applied for safe life design, whereas for fail safe design the mean
Section 4.7.3
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
105 106
Endurance, cycles
Fig. 4.69 SN data for non-load carrying transverse butt welds, showing
regression line corrected for slope (Ref. 1391).
The safe life design SN-curves generally applied for bridges and off-
shore structures and based on the mean minus two standard deviations are
shown in Fig. 11.4. As can be seen a higher value of m has been adopted
for structures in air when N > lo7 cycles. Numerical data for a and m are
given in Tables 11.1 and 11.2.
REFERENCES
Most of Chapter 4 is of general nature, and specific references are kept to a minimum.
Suggestions for further reading on topics related to basic fatigue properties of materials
are given as references 1-6 below.
1. Dieter, G.E. :
Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill, 1977.
2. Hertzberg, R.W. :
Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials, John Wiey & Sons,
1976.
3. Sandor, B.I.:
Cyclic Stress and Strain, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1972.
4. Fatigue under Complex Loading: Analyses and Experiments, Wetzel, R.M., ed., Society
of Automotive Engineers, 1977.
5 . Frost, N.E., Marsh, K.J., Pook, L.P.:
Metal Fatigue, Clarendon Press, 1974.
6. Gurney, T.R.:
Fatigue of Welded Structures, Cambridge University Press, 1979.
7. Ohta, A., and Sasaki, E.:
Influence of Stress Ratio on the Threshold Level for Fatigue Crack Propagation in
High Strength Steels, Engn. Fract. Mech., Vol. 9, 1977, pp. 307-315.
8. Rolfe, S.T. and Barsom, J.M.:
Fracture and Fatigue Control in Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1977.
9. Maddox, S.J.:
"Assessing the Significance of Flaws in Welds Subject to Fatigue", Welding Journal,
53, No. 9, Sept. 1974.
10. CP 118, Proposed fatigue design rules for welded aluminium structures, British Stan-
dards Institution.
Chapter 4. References
Chapter 4. References
36. Berge, S . :
"Effect of plate thickness in fatigue design of welded structures", Offshore Tech-
nology Conference, OTC 4829, 1984.
37. Gurney, T.R.:
The influence of thickness on the fatigue strength of welded joints, Behaviour of
Offshore Structures, London (1979).
38. Offshore Installations: Guidance on design and construction, Department of Energy,
United Kingdom, 1984.
39. Gurney, T.R., and Maddox, S.J.:
"A Re-Analysis of Fatigue Data for Welded Joints in Steel", Welding Institute Report
No. E/44/72, 1972.
SIGNIFICANCE OF DEFECTS
ABSTRACT
The first two sections describe common defects and other undesirable features
that reduce the fatigue life of welded structures. Section 5.4 explains how
weld quality may be described in statistical terms. Section 5.5 describes
nondestructive inspection for detecting and sizing defects, and discusses
the reliability of these methods. The final section gives a general view of the
fitness-for-purpose approach to deciding whether disclosed defects should
be repaired or not, and discusses the relative severity of defects of various
size and shape.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Defects in structures and components may act as initiation sites for fatigue
cracks. Because a fatigue crack grows slowly initially, and then accelerates
as the crack length and the stress intensity range increase, the initial size and
shape of the defect have a much larger influence on the total fatigue life than
the final crack size at which failure occurs. If a defect is large and/or the
material is brittle, the defect itself may be capable of initiating unstable frac-
ture without preceeding fatigue crack growth.
0'
Fig. 5.1 Lack of fusion defect in MMA-weld (x7.5).
A two-dimensional defect located on the line between weld metal and base
material or between individual weld passes. This type of defect may occur
when using gas shielded metal arc welding (MIG, TIG), and is generally caused
by too low heat input or by oxidation of weld metal in the arc.
Incomplete penetration.
Incomplete filling of the weld root, generally caused by inappropriate welding
parameters such as low heat input or by faulty groove preparation.
6
Fig. 5.2 Slag inclusion in MMA-weld (x4).
on the fatigue behaviour. However, if located at the surface, they may signifi-
cantly reduce the fatigue strength. Elongated slag inclusions may be of a two-
dimensional form and are considered more dangerous than the spherical
types.
Solidification cracks may appear in the centre-plane of the weld. They are
often caused by a high sulphur content in the weld (generally supplied by
melted base material). High carbon content also increases the tendency
towards solidification cracking, while basic electrodes remove sulphur from
the pool and are beneficial.
Casting defects.
The defects mentioned so far were welding defects. Also castings may exhibit
defects which can affect the fatigue performance. During solidification, mode-
rate stresses can create cracks due to segregations, non-metallic films, etc.
During the cooling period shrinkage stresses may cause cracks, for example in
fillets. Castings may also contain small internal cracks induced by hydrogen.
Pores and inclusions located at the surface may have a significant influence
on the fatigue strength especially if located at sites with high stresses. Such
defects can be caused by segregation of non-metallic inclusions, by moisture
or by high gas content in the melt.
Fig. 5.6 Corrosion pit in weld metal. A fatigue crack has developed
at the bottom (x4.5).
Fatigue cracks.
Common in-service defects, and the subject of this handbook. Once dis-
covered, they should be treated like any other sharp defect.
Fig. 5.8 The relation between misalignment and fatigue strength (Ref. / 11).
2E
Z\ 300 Plain plate
-cn (machined),,
-
-
N
C
0
@. \ ,
a, s
L
-c, 100
5 Plain plate
YOOL\
\ * \
.-
L
ul
( w l th m i 1 l s c a l e )
-
Reinforcement angle,@ (deg.)
Fig. 5.9 The relation between reinforcement angle and fatigue strength
(Ref. /I/).
Section 5 -4
X X=a X=b X
0.5 1.0
D e p t h of undercuts a (mm)
Fig. 5.12 Relative frequency of measured depths of undercuts and the applied
density function (Ref. 131).
5 10
Height of internal defects, (mm)
----- Planar d e f e c t
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2
D e f e c t height ( m m )
Fig. 5.14 Weld defect height distributions (Ref. 141).
Magnetic particles.
This is another technique suited for revealing surface flaws, and it will also
indicate flaws just below the surface. Only ferro-magnetic materials can be
inspected. Magnetic particle inspection does not require a clean surface,
which gives it a practical advantage over liquid penetrant techniques as surface
flaws often contain grease.
Section 5.5.1
Eddy currents.
Eddy current techniques are most commonly used for automatic quality
control of sheet, tube and wire. They primarily detect surface flaws, and are
most simply applied t o non-ferrous metals. The method is based on the fact
that eddy currents will be induced in a specimen subjected to an alternating
magnetic field produced by a coil. The eddy currents produce a magnetic
field which tends t o reduce the current in the coil. The degree of reduction
depends on the magnitude of the induced currents which in turn depends on
the electric resistance in their path. This resistance is a function of the con-
ductivity of the material and the length and cross section of the current
path. A defect which changes the current path will thus affect the induced
magnetic field and consequently the current in the coil. The current is the
measured quantity during testing. For various reasons the method is difficult
to apply t o welds.
Radiography.
Radiography is a method of detecting internal defects. Radiation (x or y) is
passed through the region to be inspected, and some of it is absorbed. Rays
traversing a defect is less absorbed than those passing through homogeneous
material. The intensity variations due to defects are generally recorded on
photographic film. Thus, the image on the film is a "shadow picture" of the
defects (Fig. 5.15). To obtain a uniform assessment of welds, the Interna-
X-ray source
r:,
Defect
Dark oreb on
photographic f i l m
Ultrasonics.
Ultrasonic inspection is the most flexible and convenient way of detecting
and sizing internal defects. The main disadvantage as compared with radio-
graphy is that a permanent record of the inspection is not easily obtained.
Ultrasonic signals are generated by piezo-electric crystals contained in
probes that can be moved over the surface in the region to be inspected.
The waves are reflected by the surfaces of the examined body, and also by
any defects that might come in their way. These echoes are usually detected
by the same probe that generates the signal. By measuring the time delay
between the emission signal and the reception of each reflection, the source
of reflection can be located, and the position of defects identified. The
signals are usually registered on a cathode-ray tube (Fig. 5.16).
@
Cathode-ray tube
Reflected signal
\
welds were inspected by several operators (Ref. 151). After inspection the
welds were broken up and the real size of the defects was measured. It
appeared that the ultrasonic echo amplitude was the only parameter which
could be correlated with defect height and which was recorded during con-
ventional ultrasonic examination. In Fig. 5.17 the average ultrasonic echo
amplitude is plotted versus defect height. The uncertainty in predicting the
defect height is seen t o be rather great.
1 10
D e f e c t height, (mm)
Fig. 5.1 7 Average ultrasonic amplitude for twelve ultrasonic operators versus
defect height for lack of root penetration and lack of fusion
defects. The broken curves indicate the 95% confidence limits for
the regression line (Ref. 151).
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Defect height, mm
IIW
degree
0Lack' ( 5 ) - 00
Blue ( 4 ) -00
Green ( 3 ) - p 080 o
Brown ( 2)-- a h 0 0 o
I
1 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ 1 1 ~ 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
D e f e c t height (mm)
Fig. 5.19 IIW degree versus defect height for lack of root penetration
(Ref. 151).
AK, and AK, are the stress intensity factors in the thickness direction, respec-
tively along the surface, and dependent on a/2c and the ratio between a and
the plate thickness b.
The results are shown in Table 5.1 for C = 2 10- l 3 mm and
m=3. (MPam)m
Table 5.1.
N a c
Section 5.6.2
1. For embedded elliptical cracks, the stress intensity factor is given by:
where @ = 1 + 4.595 -)
(2ac
It is seen that equal severities exist for constant stress when the ratio
a/@ is kept constant. Thus the following embedded cracks have equal
severities :
3. For the same a and c values, surface defects are about 12%more severe
than embedded defects.
I
Weid t o e d e f e c t
depth assumed
to be 0.1 mm
-
p
Fig. 5.21 Diagram showing whether fatigue cracks will develop from the toe
or root defects (Ref. 171).
weld geometry, these small cracks experience high local cyclic stresses and
may therefore grow by fatigue at lower applied cyclic loads than needed to
extend substantially larger root defects. In that case the root defect need
not be repaired. In Fig. 5.2 1 it is not expected that fatigue failure will occur
from root defects of size less than 0.5 5 P if a/P is around 0.7.
KI is the stress intensity factor for a sharp crack of length equal to that
of the notch and subjected to the same loading. The second term represents
the influence of the blunt notch with radius p. From these equations it is seen
that the maximum stress at the bottom of the notch is:
This equation indicates that the severity of blunt notches and other rounded
defects may be compared by the ratio K I / f i .
ferritic-pearlitic steels
martensitic steels
austenitic steels
REFERENCES
1. Gurney, T.R. :
Fatigue of welded structures. Cambridge University Press. Second Ed. 1979.
2. Berge,S. andMyhre,H.:
Fatigue strength of misaligned cruciform and butt joints. Norwegian Maritime Re-
search, April 1977.
3. Bokalrud, T. and Karlsen, A. :
Control of fatigue failure in ship hulls by ultrasonic inspection. Norwegian Maritime
Res. No. 1. Vol. 10. 1982.
4. Wong, W.K.and Rogerson, J.H.:
Weld defect distributions in offshore structures and their influence on structural
reliability. OTC, Houston, 3-6 May 1982.
5. Fsrli,O.:
Reliability of ultrasonic and radiographic testing. Conference on Fitness for Purpose
Validation of Welded Constructions. The Welding Institute. London, 17-19 Nov. 1981.
Per J . Haagensen
SINTEF, Trondheim
q- ABSTRACT
In this chapter several methods for improving the fatigue strength of welded
joints are reviewed. An evaluation of existing test results shows that improved
weldments made from high strength steels have consistently higher fatigue
strengths than mild steel connections having been treated with the same
methods. In a comparison of improvement methods it is shown that each
method has its strength and weakness when considering service loading, cost,
case of application and quality control. Thus the most effective method
depends on the type of structure and type of welded joint.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.1 .1 General
Any weld in a structure usually represents a weakness both with regard to
brittle fracture and fatigue strength. The low fatigue strength of welded joints
is a limiting factor for the design of more efficient structures, in particular
since the fatigue strength normally does not increase with static strength.
m
Cn
C
0
'too-
VI
VI
0
I
G sa-
R=O
Steel to BS 4360
I Grade SOB
Cycles
Fig. 6.1 Relationship between endurance limit and ultimate tensile strength
for some components (Ref. / 11).
The use of higher allowable stresses for welded joints in higher strength
steels entails other benefits as well: The thickness effect in fatigue is reduced,
bringing about a further reduction in weight as compared with a lower strength
steel joint with the same load bearing capacity. A reduced section size in
general also improves the brittle fracture properties of the joint. The lower
welding, handling and erection costs may partially offset the higher fabrica-
tion expenses incurred by the improvement methods.
In this survey the emphasis is on the degree of improvement in fatigue
strength that is possible to obtain using the various improvement techniques.
However, from a practical point of view other consideration such as costs and
reliability of the treatment (quality assurance) may be important. Various
aspects of quality control and costs are discussed briefly at the end of the
chapter.
ln
400 600 800
?
3; ULtlmate tensile strength o f steel, MPa
it is useful to look at the reasons for the poor fatigue performance of welded
joints. The low fatigue strength of welded joints as compared with other
notched components is illustrated in Fig. 6.2. Welded joints differ from other
notched components in several ways even if the elastic stress concentration
factors Kt are similar. It is important to identify the main factors that tend
to reduce fatigue life in order to choose efficacious methods for improving
the fatigue performance mmnm beCw^mbatBed and wnwelded,
notched cornpanents are :
c n l of the weld toe region
1. Mo&h s e e curd defem l!/k % a ; ~ ~ ~ f Mnotoh
which ~Od;laflYis the m&t fatigue critical are* is generally less uni-
form than notches in a machined component, see Fig 6.3. Moreover,
welded joints contain an assortement of defects, most of which are so
sharp that they start growing as fatigue cracks when the structure is
subjected to dynamic loads, 'thus reducing or bhinating the crack
a&atksnstage of the fatigue life;.
2. MetafIurgical chaages in the base material. The material in the heat
effected zone (HAZ), in which the fatigue crack is likely to initiate
and propagate, undergoes metallurgical changes that may affect the
local fatigue properties. Thus the softened material in the HAZ of a
higher grade steel whose high strength has been obtained by thermo-
mechanical treatment, may limit the fatigue strength that is possible
to obtain by improvement techniques.
3. RddtasC #tI"esesare set up in and near the weld due to the contraction
of the weld metal as it cools to ambient temperature. These local
Section 6.1.3
clm
f, aE
CONCENTRATION
:cT
CRACK-LIKE
\
/ /HYDROGEN
'
CRACK
FUSION L I N E
LACK OF FUSION
- LACK OF PENETRATION
Fig. 6.3 Factors affecting fatigue life of welded joints: a) 1 - cracklike defect;
2 - undercut; 3 - hydrogen crack; 4 - lack of fusion; 5 - lack of pene-
tration, b) residual transverse stress field across the weld.
residual stresses due to welding which may attain yield stress magni-
tude, affect the fatigue properties in a similar manner as externally
imposed mean loads, i.e. a tensile residual stress reduces fatigue life
while a compressive stress increases life. The distribution of transverse
residual stresses in a welded plate of simple shape is shown in Fig.6.3 b).
Residual stresses do not arise only from the thermal strains associated
with the welding process and subsequent cooling. Global or long range
residual stresses are introduced in a structure whenever members are
forced together due to misfit, uneven thermal expansion or when
restraint is being used. Long range stresses act over large areas and are
therefore not relaxed by peak loads at stress concentration or by local
treatment. They are generally of smaller magnitude than welding
stresses.
4 . Environmental effects. A corrosive environment may have a strong
adverse effect on fatigue life as discussed in Chapter 7. The fatigue life
of common welded joints are typically reduced by a factor of two to
four under free corrosion in seawater. However, the prevention of
corrosion by either cathodic protection or protection coatings, which
may restore the air fatigue properties of a welded joint, are not re-
garded as improvement methods per se because corrosion protection
is part of normal practice for the construction and operation of off-
shore structures.
1A- GRINDING
)
MACHINING
METHODS 5L.y ;n9
REMELTING w DRESSING
DRESSING
- SHOT
PEENING
- PEENING
METHODS
-
HAMMER OR
- WIRE BUNDLE
PEENING
- MECHANICAL -
METHODS I
INITIAL
OVERLOADING
- OVERLOADING
METHOOS
- LOCAL
COMPRESSION
- STRESS
THERMAL
RELIEF
+
THERMAL
METHODS HEATING
GUNNERTS
METHOD
R o t a r y burr
grinder 1L
Full profile
grinding
\ ~ o e g r i nding
0.5-1.0 mm
Fig. 6.5 a) Two grinding methods: 1 - rotary burr grinding; 2 - disc grinding.
b) 3 - full profile grinding; 4 - toe grinding.
500' \\ '\
\ \
Heavy d l r c ground
400-
Toe burr ground
0
IJ,
5
L
300-
ul
240-
-C
Ln
200-
K.y
1 8 0 - B S 4360 (+ 43A
( 2 4 5 MPa yleLd
160- strength)
140-
-- SuporeLso 7 0 ( 6 8 5 MPa
yield strength)
120-
100 I I I I r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1o 4 1 o5 lo6 1o7
Endurance, c y c l e s
Fig. 6.6 Fatigue strength improvements due to burr toe grinding and disc
grinding, data from Ref. 131.
air r e s u l t s -
Number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , Nf
Fig. 6.7 he effect of free corrosion in sea water on the fatigue strength of
as-welded and ground specimens (Ref. 151).
Section 6.2.2
see Fig. 6.7. This was attributed to the formation of corrosion pits. The pits
would act as stress raisers and thus shorten the fatigue life considerably,
whereas the more sharply notched as-welded specimens would be less affected
by corrosion.
The variation of improvement with base material strength for ground
specimens is shown in Fig. 6.8. The data show that high fatigue strengths are
obtained consistently for the higher strength steels. For medium and high
strength steels the increase is always greater than two classes in the design
curve system of BS-5400.
Polish
----
cycles
50 1- 0
200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0
Ultimate tensile strength, R,(NPa) Ultimate tensile s t r e n g t h , R,(MPa)
TIG dressing.
TIG dressing is performed with standard equipment for thin plate TIG weld-
ing. The material in the toe region is melted to a shallow depth without the
addition of filler material, Fig. 6.9a). Slag particles are brought to the surface
and the remelted zone is essentially defectfree. Optimum conditions have
Section 6.2.2
been proposed by Kado (Ref. 191) and Millington (Ref. /lo/). The heat input
should exceed 1.0 kJ/mm (Ref. 171) to obtain a good profile. A high heat
input should also be maintained to obtain a low hardness in the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) of C-Mn steels. Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas,
but results by Fisher (Ref. / 1 11) indicate that helium would be a better choice
as higher heat input (about 14%) and greater depth of penetration (about 40%)
were obtained with helium. Fisher (Ref. 1111) found the deep penetration
of the helium-shielded TIG arc particularly useful for the repair of welded
joints containing small fatigue cracks. Using a penetration depth of about
6 mm, he found that 3 mm deep fatigue cracks could be removed successfully.
Reduced hardness in the HAZ can also be achieved by a double-run
TIG dressing technique, Fig. 6.9 b). The heat from the second TIG pass made
on the weld metal tempers the HAZ from the first and brings the hardness
level down to an acceptable level of about 300HV10 for C-Mn steels, (Ref.
1121).
The weld and plate should be clean in order to avoid pores and irregu-
larities in the remelted metal; this can be achieved preferably by sandblasting
or light grinding. A particular problem with the TIG and plasma remelting
techniques is that of stopping and restarting the remelting run which tends
to give very irregular bead profiles. Stopping and reinitiating the arc on the
weld surface is one solution to this problem, see Fig. 6.10.
Section 6.2.2
Fig. 6.10 Restarting technique for TIG remelting run after accidental stop
(Ref. /lo/).
Bateriak FG 47 CT
Loading; const. amplitude
Environment; lab. air
Frequenc. 5 Hz
Load r a k ; R=0.1
TIG dressed
welded
8=
0-0-
Number o f c y c l e s
Fig. 6.1 1 Effect of TIG dressing on the fatigue strength of a medium strength
steel (Ref. / 171).
Fig. 6.13 shows results from tests in sea water (Ref 1171) indicating a
strong influence of free corrosion on the fatigue lives of TIG-dressed speci-
mens; however, significant improvements were still evident. Similar results
were found in Japanese (Ref. 1151, / 16) and Dutch (Ref. 161) tests, but not in
the British (Ref. 151) which showed no improvement in sea water.
Section 6.2.2
50 1
200 400 600 800 I 0 0 0 O ' zbo 460 d o d o lob0
Ultimate tensile s t r e n g t h , Rm(MPa) Ultimate tensile strength , Rm(MPa)
Material; OX602
Loading; constant ampli tude
Environment; sea water
Frequency; 1Hz
Load ratio; 0.1
50 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Fig. 6.13 Influence of sea water corrosion on the fatigue strength of as-
welded and TIG-dressed specimens (Ref. 1171).
and the resulting improvement in fatigue life is generally larger than for TIG
dressing (Ref. 171). Test results from several investigations (Ref. 161, 171, and
119-2 1/) are summarized in Fig. 6.14. The data in Fig. 6.14 indicate that the
improvements in the fatigue strength of plasma dressed specimens increase with
static strength, i.e. the same trend as for TIG dressed specimens (Fig. 6.1 2).
0 Ref. 6
R e f . 21
A Ref. 20
v " " "
X Ref. 19
+-
0 a 200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0 O 200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0
U l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h . R.(MPa) U l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , R,(MPa)
In one investigation (Ref. 1211) weld metal was added to the toe during
plasma dressing, this gave an increase similar to those obtained by conven-
tional plasma dressing.
profile and a smooth transition at the toe, see Fig. 6.1 5. In the latest modifi-
cation to API RP2 (Ref. /23/), the use of non-profiled welds is discouraged
through use of a lower SN-curve.
1 mm wire shall
Fig. 6.15 The American Welding Society (AWS) improved profile weld and
"dime test" (Ref. 1221).
electrodes.
Systematic investigations of the effect on fatigue strength of special MMA
electrodes designed to give a smooth transition profile at the toe have been
carried out only in Japan (Refs. 171, /8/ and 126-281). These electrodes were
developed specifically for use in the final weld pass at the toe of joints made
from high strength steels in the 500 to 800 MPa yield strength range to avoid
Section 6.2.3
0 Pass
e
l
?
.
Endurance, cycles
Fig. 6.16 Results from fatigue tests on tubular joints with improved weld
profiles according t o AWS (Ref. 1241).
A .. .
V R e f . 15
.,
0 Ref. 2 8
..
n n n
0 .,
- 3 - 4
200 400 600 800 1000 O 200 400 600 800 1000
Ultimate t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , Rm(MP.) Ultimate t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , Rm(t'lPa)
A s welded
Hammer peened
PLate f a i l u r e away
Plate failure from
No failure
60 0 1 I I 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~
1 o4 1 o5 1 o6 1 0'
Cycles
Fig. 6.18 Improvement in fatigue strength due t o hammer peening (Ref. 1291).
' 0 0 0
200 400 600 800 1 0 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Ultimate tensile s t r e n g t h , R,(MPa) Ultimate t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , R,(mPa)
0 1
200 400 600 800 1000 O ' zoo 460 6i0 860 l o b 0
Ultimate tensile strength, Rm(MPa) Ultimate tensile strength , R,(MPa)
The size of shot is also important. In order to reach the bottom of all
notches the shot should be small, but the peening intensity decreases with
decreasing shot size. Typical shot size is in the range of 0.2 to 1.0 mm, typical
velocities are 4 0 to 60 m/s.
Test results from three separate investigations (Refs. / 181, 1301, 13 1/)
are summarized in Fig. 6.20, which shows that shot peening produces large
improvements in fatigue strength, particularly for high strength steel joints.
2;:.
Scat ter band for speci&n
In the as-welded condl tion
A Welds f u l l y ground
Welds f u l l y round,then
hamrnw poene8
Endurance, cycles
Improved
profile
E 460 30 mn
Air, R=0.1 10-20 Hz
inlt. failure
As welded o
Shot peened
50 ! l l l l I I , 1 1 1 1 1 I I l l l l l r l
1 o5 1 o6 10
'
Number o f c y c l e s
Endurance, cycles
Plasma dressed
\. -c ----------
TIG dressed
\.-Ground
----
As welded
HT 60 steel
R, = 589 MPa
50 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Fatl ue improvement
by AG a piasma
arc dressing
Fatigue improvement
by shot-or
hammer-peening
1 2 0.8 1 2 4
Ratio 6i/%,50z R a t i o 6; /6A,S0x
Type of joint
Probability onaly s i s
of characteristic
fatigue strength UA
Fatigue improvement
by machining
0.01
1 2 30 50 100 150
R a t i o 6; /d,,50x Characteristic f a t i g u e strength (MPa)
Section 6.7
RELATIVE COSTS
METHOD
Ref. /38/
Ref. 1371 Ref. 1301 Ref. /3/ .
Butt w. T-joint
TIG dressing 1 1 1 1
Hammer peening 113 3 1
Toe burr
3 3-4
grinding
Full profile
37 15 12
burr grinding
Heavy disc
2 0.7-1 -1 0.4-1.7
grinding
Large uncertainties are associated with the figures in Table 6.2. It is not
clear, for instance, if the costs of checking that the treatment has been cor-
rectly performed are included. However,Table 6.2 indicates that the costs of
TIG dressing, hammer peening and disc grinding are of similar magnitude,
while full profile burr grinding is extremely expensive. In a Swedish study
on the economics of disc grinding and TIG dressing (Ref. 1381) it was found
that the type of joint had a strong bearing on the costs. Thus disc grinding
which was found to be generally faster and cheaper than TIC dressing when
applied to butt welds, was the more expensive method when access to the
weld was limited.
Section 6.8.1 - 6.8.2
( aI (b)
Fig. 6.25 Stress distribution in a) small joint with peak stress in toe region
affecting material in one weld pass only; b) large scale weld with
peak stresses including several weld passes.
Chord wall
The stress distributions in Figs. 6.25 and 6.26 have important impli-
cations for the choice of improvement methods for large scale joints. Firstly,
removing material by grinding the toe region of a weld in a tubular joint
means that the leg length is reduced and the stress distribution is altered as
shown in Fig. 6.27. The resulting peak stress may well be higher at the toe of
the ground weld and the improvement in fatigue life marginal. Thus a weld
which is to be improved by toe grinding must have a sufficient large leg length
to avoid moving the new toe into a higher stress field.
Fig. 6.27 Stress distribution in the weld of a tubular joint prior to and after
toe grinding.
Section 6.8.3
6 3 . 3 Inspection criteria
Although the many test programmes surveyed here have verified that it is
possible to obtain large increases in fatigue strength by various improvement
techniques, it is still necessary to establish procedures and inspection criteria
to ensure consistent results. The depth of grinding, Fig. 6.2, at the weld toe is
a simple inspection criterion. However, cracks at the bottom of deep under-
cuts could possibly remain after grinding, and such cracks would be difficult
to detect because of the heavily deformed surface, particularly after heavy
disc grinding.
To ensure consistent improvements following a remelting treatment,
it would probably be necessary to establish remelting procedure qualification
tests for welders, similar to the procedure tests used for welding, to ensure
sufficient heat input and low hardness in the HAZ. Visual inspection would
probably be sufficient to detect pores and defects that tend to result from
improperly deslagged welds or contaminated electrodes.
For hammer peening the indentation depth is a simple and reliable
inspection criterion. Shot peening, however, presents a more difficult problem
because recent work (Ref. 1301) has shown that there is a poor correlation
between Almen strip intensity and the resulting fatigue strength following
shot peening. To ensure adequate coverage the erosion of an ultraviolet
sensitive coating may have to be used (Ref. 1301).
6.9 CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of a large number of results from many test programmes, the
following conclusions are drawn:
1. All techniques gave improvements in air corresponding to a shift of at
least two design classes in the BS 5400-SN-curves.
2. In free corrosion most improvement techniques gave small but signifi-
cant increases of fatigue strength.
3. The full potential of the weld toe improvement techniques can be
realised only if premature failure from other sites, e.g. the weld root,
can be avoided.
4. The amount in increase in fatigue strength due to post weld improve-
ment is larger for higher strength steels than for mild steel.
285
Chapter 6. References
REFERENCES
1. Maddox, S.J. :
"Avoiding fatigue failure by good design and construction practice." Welding Institute,
Seminar, Bradford, April 1980.
2. Gurney, T.R.:
"Fatigue of welded structures." 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1979.
3. Knight, J.W.:
"Improving the fatigue strength of fillet welded joints by grinding and peening."
Welding Research Int'l, 8 ( 6 ) , 1978.
4. Booth, G.S.:
"Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed on welded steel joints in air."
Select Seminar "European Offshore Steels Research", Abington, 27-29 November
1978, Paper 4.
5. Booth, G.S.:
"Constant amplitude fatigue tests performed on welded steel joints in sea water."
Select Seminar "European Offshore Steels Research", Abington, 27-29 November
1978, Paper 9.
6. deBack, J. et al.:
"Fatigue and corrosion fatigue behaviour of offshore steel structures."
72 10-KB/6/602 (5.7.1 f/76) Final report, April 1981.
7. Hanzawa, M. et al.:
"Improvement of fatigue strength in welded high tensile strength steels by toe treat-
ment." IIW Doc. XIII-829-77.
8. Ikeda, K. et al.:
"Improvement of fatigue strength of fdlet welded joint for 80 kg/mm2 high strength
steel." IIW Doc. XIII-835-77.
9. Kado, S. et al.:
"Influence of the conditions in TIG dressing on fatigue strength in welded high tensile
strength steels." IIW Doc. XIII-77 1-75.
Einar Bardal
SINTEF,Trondheim
ABSTRACT
This chapter deals with various effects of marine environment and cathodic
protection on fatigue of structural steels. The mechanisms of different effects
are reviewed. Environmental effects and influence of cathodic protection on
SN-curves and crack growth data are quantitatively treated in separate sec-
tions. The significance of weld type and quality, materials properties, load
variables, environmental factors and corrosion protection measures are re-
viewed. Based on crack growth data the effects of corrosion and cathodic
protection on fatigue life have been shown by calculation examples for typical
crack-load conditions. The main trends of the results are discussed and
compared with British design guidelines.
k Sea water+CP
P l a ~ n
specimen
Sea water+CP
Specimen
<:.\:\,\A ir
w ~ t hw e l d
or n o t c h
x ? ~ P l a ~ ns p e c ~ m e n
S e a watey?%- /
free corrosion <,: ' With
or
weld
notch
Fig. 7.1
Effects of sea water corrosion and
cathodic protection on a) SN-curves
d and b) crack growth rate curves.
aKth Log nK
log ( s t r e s s i n t e n s ~ t y r a n g e A K)
For corrosion fatigue and fatigue of welded joints it has been shown
that the crack growth period represents the major part of fatigue life (Sec-
tion 7.2). Much attention is therefore given to crack growth data. Compared
with the growth in air, free corrosion in sea water accelerates the crack growth
rate to a higher or lower degree (Fig. 7.1 b). Cathodic protection reduces
crack growth at lower AK-levels and increases it at higher levels.
Both corrosion and cathodic protection influence fatigue by different
effects and mechanisms (Refs. / 1, 2, 3 /) . Some of the effects are counter-
acting, and the total effect on fatigue data depends on the prevailing condi-
tions. The main mechanisms acting on structural steels in sea water, and the
typical conditions favouring each mechanism are briefly reviewed below.
Section 7.1
a) Corrosion pits and grooves act as stress raisers and thus contribute t o
crack initiation at an earlier stage and at a lower nominal stress than
initiation in air (Fig. 7.1 a). For ordinary welded joints this mechanism
is probably less important because weld defects may be more effective
stress raisers than corrosion defects. In the case of improved welds,
however, corrosion defects o n the surface are more significant.
For low carbon steels in chloride solutions, the significance of pitting
corrosion as the initial stage of corrosion fatigue has been questioned
(Refs. 11, 21). Pits are often found near fatigue cracks but they might
have been formed after the cracks had started.
b) Corrosion fatigue is governed by a synergistic mechanism : Local plastic
flow and the creation of new, active surfaces at the initiation site or at
the crack front accelerate anodic dissolution, and vice versa, local
anodic dissolution promotes plastic flow. This mechanism is responsible
for easier and accelerated initiation as compared with fatigue in air,
with marked effect on the SN-curves for plain specimens (Fig. 7.1 a). It
also favours the conditions for crack growth. The reduced threshold
value AKth in corrosive environment (Fig. 7.1 b) may be explained by
this mechanism.
c) Particularly during stressfree periods, corrosion may blunt the crack
front and retard crack growth for some time after the stressfree period,
and thus counteract mechanism b. Under variable load amplitudes the
resulting effect of mechanisms b and c are difficult to assess.
d) Sea water corrosion at or near the crack front may make the crack envi-
ronment acid. This allows hydrogen development to take place inside
the crack, and the development is further stimulated by the enhanced
anodic dissolution mentioned under item b. At medium to high load
levels the crack growth may therefore increase by hydrogen embrittle-
ment (Fig. 7.1 b).
e) Full cathodic protection eliminates the mechanisms a, b and c. In deep
cracks, however, the effects under items b and c and the cathodic
polarization to prevent them, may not be 100% effective (Ref. 141).
Also compare mechanism h.
f) At medium to high load levels hydrogen embrittlement due to cathodic
protection may increase crack growth (Fig. 7.1 b).
g) Under cathodic protection, calcareous deposits may be produced on the
Section 7.2.1
air results -
Number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , Nf
I o4 1 o5 1 o6 I o7
Number of cycles t o failure Nf
Fig. 7.3 Effects of corrosion on SN-curves for butt welded joints in steel
BS4360-50D, exposed in synthetic sea water, compared to air data.
t = 10-12"C, f = 1 Hz (Ref. 171).
Section 7.2.2
1 o4 1 o5 1 o6 1 o7
Number of cycles to failure Nf
Fig. 7.4 As Fig. 7.3, but with saline atmosphere instead of synthetic sea
water (Ref. 171).
(Ref. 171). A saline atmosphere has a smaller effect (Fig. 7.4). Cathodic
protection at -780 and -1 100 mV vs SCE (approx. -800 and -1 120 mV vs
Ag/AgCl/sea water) gives fatigue lives similar to those in air (Ref. 171).
For other types o f welded joiuzts which have generally larger defects,
the corrosive effect is smaller, mostly with a life reduction factor from 2 to 3
(Refs. 18, 91). Examples are shown for different ioints and stress ratios in
Figs. 7.5 and 7.7 for 20°C and in Fig. 7.6 for 5 " ~ These . results are from
small scale tests, but a similar reduction factor has been found for tubular
joints (Ref. /lo/).
Cruciform non-load
) c a r r y i n g f u l l penetration
weld , B - t y p e s a s welded
Air
Sea water------
T-form, non-load c a r r y i n g
f u l l p e n e t r a t i o n we.Ld,
A-type,as welded
Air
Base series -
Sea water
Cruciform load
)carrying full penetration -.---
weld, C-type, as welded A
...........
50 1 I 1
0 Air
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I I ~
16 1 o6 1 o7 I o0
Number o f c y c l e s t o failure, N f
Fig. 7.5 Fatigue results for different joints in air and sea water. t = 20°C,
R = 0.1 ,f = 0.2 Hz in sea water tests. Steel Euronorm 1 13-72, Grade
FeE 355 KT (Refs. /8,9/).
- 400
0
a
200 -
1 o4 1 o5 1 o6 1 o7
Number of cycles t o failure, Nf
Fig. 7.6 SN-data for welded joints of B4360-50D steel in air and sea water
under free corrosion, intermittent immersion and cathodic protec-
tion. t = 5" C, R = -1, f = 0.167 Hz (Refs. /5,8/).
Section 7.2.2
F u l l p e n e t r a t on w e l d , as w e l d e d
1 sea w a t e r
air
sea w a t e r
Air
Sea w a t e r
Number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , Nf
Fig. 7.7 Fatigue behaviour of T-shaped specimens in air and sea water at
stress ratios R = 0.1 and -1. t = 20°C, f = 0.2 Hz in sea water tests.
Steel Euronorm 113-72, Grade FeE 355 KT. As welded (Ref. 191).
(Fig. 7.4). Under sea water drip at t = 20°C and f = 0.125-1 Hz, an average
life reduction factor of about 2 compared with air was found for the as
welded condition, but with a larger scatter than usually observed under free
corrosion (Ref. / 1 11).
Temperature is an important variable to consider. Som British SN tests
of welded joints at 5OC have shown very little effect from sea water compared
with air, while similar Dutch tests at 20°C have resulted in the typical reduc-
tion factor 2-3 mentioned earlier (Ref. 181).
Hydrostatic pressure in the range of 70-140 bar gives a significant but
not very large reduction of corrosion fatigue strength, as compared with
usual values under atmospheric pressure (Ref. / 11).
Variation of oxygen content and pH over wide ranges affects corrosion
fatigue. However, the real variations of these properties are small in marine
environments and their effects are not significant (Ref. / I/). Water velocity
may be of some importance when the specimen is under cathodic protection.
(Section 7.3 -3)
As seen in Fig. 7.6, cathodic protection restores the air fatigue life,
and may even give longer lives than in air at the lower stress levels. This is a
result obtained in several investigations, but less benificial effects of cathodic
protection have also been observed. E.g. in one case, cathodic protection of a
tubular joint gave the same life as free corrosion, but with slower initiation
Section 7.2.3
-
F u l l p e n e t r a t i o n w e l d , PWHT
0.1. a i r
0.
water 0 . 1 sea water
-1 air
-1 sea water
Air
Number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e , N f
Fig. 7.8 As Fig. 7.7, but with stress relieved specimens (Ref. /9/).
The effect of sea water under variable amplitude loading is also insuffi-
ciently studied. However, a similar fatigue life reduction factor as reported
for constant amplitude seems to exist. An average factor of 2.2 was found
with a narrow band spectrum and with Raleigh and Gaussian peak distribu-
tions (Ref. 181). Ref. 1121 reported a factor of less than 2 under realistic
stress sequences. In this work it was interesting to observe that the loading
frequency did not significantly influence fatigue life in the range between 0.2
and 10 Hz, and that appropriate cathodic protection completely eliminated
the damaging effect of sea water (small specimens, f = 1-10 Hz, R = -1).
3 4 6 10 20 40 60 90 3 4 6 10 20 406090
Stress ~ntensity Stress intensity
r a n g e n K (MPaCrn) r a n g e A K (MPaTrn)
Mean crack growth curves at R = 0,5,based on results from Ref. /13/ with
high crack growth rates and from Refs. /14,15/ with low growth rates, are
shown in Fig. 7.9. The effects of sea water and cathodic protection at diffe-
rent growth rate levels were also discussed in Section 7.1. Fig. 7.10 shows
growth rates under free corrosion, supplying background data for Fig. 7.9.
1 A r
Free c a r r
1 2
d
.
3
mY
.4
.v
i CP I - Garwood
2 - Br siol
3 - Bardal
4 - Booth
Scatterband
(Lfndley and R ~ c h a r d s )
66
i7
-8
0
0'
Const.rnean/Stat.rms
6'" --
S e a water t e s t s ;
Gauss
Const.rnin./Stat.rrns
Const.rnin./Stat.rrns
Linear
Const.mean/Stat.rrns
0
L
-L i n e a r
Const.mean/Var.rrns
I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 3 10 30 90
Stress i n t e n s ~ t yf a c t o r aKrms(~PalTm)
Fig. 7.13 Comparison of different crack growth curves for variable amplitude
loading of BS4360-SOD steel in air and sea water. Constant mean or
constant minimum load, and stationary o r variable root-mean-
square values. Gaussian spectrum with an irregularity factor of 1
and a crest factor of 4.5. Omission level 15% of maximum load.
Log linear spectrum composed of four Gaussian spectra.
f = 1 Hz, t = 12OC (Ref. 1251)
dic protection (Ref. 1301). In sea water saturated with H2S, the crack growth
is accelerated by a factor varying from 9 to 570 compared with growth in
air at AK = 30 M P a f i for R = 0 . 0 5 , and at AK = 12.5 M P a r m for R = 0.7.
The effect of H, S decreases with decreasing concentration (Ref. /31/). How-
ever, no information has been found on the effect of low H qS concentrations.
where the values of A, m and AKth are taken from Fig. 7.9.
The following environmental conditions are considered: Air, free
corrosion, and cathodic protection with two different polarization levels,
viz. -800 to -850 mV and -1 I00 rnV (Ag;Agcl/sea water). The latter poten-
tial is considered the most unfavourable possible when sacrificial anodes
are being used.
The load spectrum constitutes a linear plot of AolAcr,, versus logN
Section 7.4
and is divided into 73 blocks at 30 different load levels. The block succession
used in the integration process is drawn randomly and independently for
each return period of 1.6 15.604 cycles. Incremental crack growth Aa for each
individual block is calculated, and AK is updated for the new crack length
+
ai+l = ai Aa.
Crack growth lives have been calculated for three different defect-load
conditions:
A. A small initial defect, a ,constant nominal stress spectrum as the crack
propagates, and load levels giving life times of 20 - 200 years corre-
sponding to 1o8- 1o9 cycles. Such conditions apply to fixed platform
elements, where large defects have been disclosed by inspection and
repaired. The calculation has been carried out for an edge crack propa-
gating from a plane surface, and from a semi-circular stress raiser as
shown in Fig. 7.14. Initial and final crack lengths are respectively
ai = 1 mm and af = 10 mm, notch radius r = 2 mm.
Results.
Figs. 7.15 to 7.17 show the calculation results when the crack grows from a
plane surface. Similar results are obtained in the case of growth from the
semi-circular stress raiser. For case A with long life conditions (Fig. 7.1 S ) ,
corrosion decreases the life by a factor of three while a normal and high
degree of cathodic protection increase life by the same factor. Both compari-
sons refer to air life.
For case B with short life conditions (Fig. 7.16), the relative effect of
free corrosion is the same as in case A, that is a life reduction factor of three.
However, a moderate degree of cathodic protection does not increase the
life above that of free corrosion, and overprotection reduces it to two third
of the free corrosion life.
In case C with a stress redistribution during crack propagation, the
relative effect of free corrosion and normal cathodic protection is the same
as in case B, in that they both reduce life by a factor of three with respect
to air. However, overprotection is even more serious in this case since it
lowers the life by a further factor of two compared with free corrosion.
In case C the effect of overprotection is extreme: High stress ratio R, stress
intensities nearly as high as possible for variable amplitude loading, and a
very low protection potential.
- Q Q
N=16.4~10~.*..:.~
-
'~=1.86x10~ '. ~ = 5 . 6 5 x 1 0 ~ ~=16.7x10~..'
-
4'
-
2 1 3/
-
1 1
50
1 1
100
1 1 1
150
1 1 1
200
1 1
' Years a t 10 cpm)
250
1 1 1
300
1 1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16x10~
N (cycles)
Fig. 7.1 5 a-N curves for a crack of initial length 1 mm under long life condi-
tions. Crack from a plane surface in air (1), under free corrosion in
sea water ( 2 ) , and with cathodic protection at -850 mV (3) and
-1 100 mV (4) (Ag/AgCl/sea water). Ao,,, = 28.4 MPa.
Section 7.4
50
1 End o f c u r v e s ;
F r a c t u r e at AK,, =40MPa Tm
- . - - - - ~. = 0 . 0 7 3 ~ 1 0 ~
5 30- ...... N=o.(~s~(oB
m i ir ~ = 0 . 1 2 3 x l 0 ~ ..- ~ = 0 . 3 2 9 x 1 0 ~
c
( Y e a r s at I O c p m )
2 4 6 8 10
0 1
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I'
0 0.2 0.4 0 . 6 ~ o1 8
Fig. 7.1 6 a-N curves for a crack of initial length 10 mm under short life
conditions. crack from a plane surface in air (I), under free corro-
sion in sea water (2), and with cathodic protection at -850 mV (3)
and at -1 100 mV (4). Ao,, = 23.2 MPa.
ZOO
mV / //
250
/ ( Y e a r s at 10 c p m )
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
I I I I I I I 1
I I I I I I I I
Fig. 7.1 7 a-N curves for a crack of initial length 10 mm, grown from a plane
surface. Constant AK-spectrum with AK,, % 37.5 MPacm.
These results tally with SN test results concerning the effect of free
corrosion. As for cathodic protection they clearly show some features which
have also been revealed in a few SN tests: Normal cathodic protection is no
better than free corrosion at short lives (Ref. / lo/), but better than air at long
lives (Fig. 7.6). The calculation results may also explain the often contra-
Section 7.5 - 7.6
dictory conclusions on effects of cathodic protection drawn from SN tests.
The applied geometrical model is simplified. The calculation of the
relative effects of corrosion and cathodic protection is, however, thought to
be relevant for other geometries as well (Ref. 1141). The possible sequence
effects not considered may be an uncertainty. The main trends in the calcula-
tion result are, however, in agreement with SN tests with variable amplitude
loading (Ref. 1351). As mentioned earlier, the effects of corrosion and catho-
dic protection under variable amplitude loading are little different from those
under constant loading.
REFERENCES
22. Vosikovsky, 0 .:
"Fatigue-Crack Growth in an X-65 Line-Pipe Steel at Low Cyclic Frequencies in
Aqueous Environments", Trans. ASME, J. Eng. Mater. and Technol., Series H, 97(4),
298-304 (October, 1975).
Chapter 7. References
37. Background to new fatigue design guidance for steel welded joints in offshore struc-
tures, Dept. of Energy, London 1984.
38. Dower, W.D. and Dharmavasan, S.:
"Fatigue of offshore structures - a review", Proceedings of Fatigue 84, University of
Birmingham, Ed. C.J. Beevers, EMAS 1984, pp. 1417-1434.
'y-ABSTRACT
Special aspects of fatigue life evaluation of tubular joints are treated in
this chapter. Procedures far the determination of stress concentration factors
and hot spot stresses are described. SN-curves for welded tubular joints are
presented, and a design procedure for the fatigue life verification of tubular
joints is outlined. In-service experience with welded tubular joints is discussed.
Furthermore some considerations have been given on the design of heavy
duty joints.
NOMENCLATURE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Offshore steel platforms are usually constructed as truss frameworks in
which tubular members constitute the structural elements (Fig. 8.1).
Tubes are well suited as structural members for offshore steel plat-
forms. Waves and currents generate comparatively small forces on tubular
members because of their low drag coefficient. Due to their uniform and
symmetrical cross section, tubular members exhibit minimal stress concen-
trations, outstanding buckling strength, and no sensitivity to lateral load
direction. The latter is especially important in the offshore environment,
where wind and wave forces can come from any direction. However, inter-
connections and joints, which in the case of offshore platforms usually are
welded, represent structural discontinuities which give rise to very high stress
concentrations in the intersection area (Fig. 8.2).
Lowered fatigue strength due to high stress concentrations at the
weld toes of the connecting welds is a major problem in welded tubular
joints. Proper design of tubular joints against fatigue failures must therefore
be based upon detailed knowledge of the magnitudes of the stress concen-
tration factors (SCF) and the corresponding values of the peak stresses at the
weld toes of the connections, and on empirical data obtained from fatigue
tests on tubular joints.
Section 8.2
P
NUMBERS DENOTE S C F VALUES G / G N , GN = ~ ~ d f
.... INDICATES PHOTOELASTIC ANALYSIS
. .. .
INDICATES FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Fig. 8.2 Stress analysis of a cross joint under axial brace load.
member tubes. The former, which are larger in diameter, are denoted as
chords, and the latter, which consist of smaller sized tubes, are denoted as
braces (Fig. 8.3).
Tubular nodes may be classified and grouped in accordance with their
geometrical configuration, the action and transfer of loads, and the design
types. The design types fall into the following categories:
- simple welded joints
- overlapping joints
- complex joints
- cast steel nodes 1 heavy duty joints
A
X- j o i n t
-- .+, .-
in reduced shear force and smaller ovalization of the chord, and consequently
smaller stress concentrations and improved fatigue life.
Complex joints include :
- joints with internal stifferners
- joints with external stiffeners
- grout reinforced tubular joints
- less readily categorized joints of complex geometry and load transfer
mode
Complex joints are often "heavy duty" type nodes which possess substantial
improvements in fatigue and static strength performance, see Section 8.4.
,.'I)( A .
Section 8.3.1
Cast steel joints are nodes which have been fabricated by casting. The
connection weld bracelchord is thereby eliminated and replaced by fillet
transitions. Cast steel nodes (CSN) can be designed to exceptional efficiences
in terms of fatigue strength performance, see Section 8.4.3.
Fig. 8.4 shows the geometrical parameters which define simple welded
joints. They are :
- chord outside diameter D
- brace outside diameter d (cont. next page)
Section 8.3.1
The y ratio gives an indication of the chord radial stiffness, and it plays
a dominant role in the SCF formulas and the ultimate strength of tubular
joints.
- wall thickness ratio T = t/T
AL I PB OPB
8.3.2 Definition of the hot spot stress, and stress and strain concentration
factors
Hot Spot L o c a t i o n
Strain A
The stress distributions at the intersection of tubular joints are very complex.
Fig. 8.6 shows the strains along the brace and chords of a Y-joint as well
as the stresses along the intersection line of the same joint. The locations, or
Section 8.3.2
points at which the highest stresses occur, are called hot In welded
joints two diffemnt hot spots are found, one at the weld toe on the brace side,
the other on the chord side. The maximum stress value may be on the chord
side or brace side dependent on the design and geometry of the joint.
The stress concentration factor (SCF) is defined as the ratio of the hot
spot stress om, to the nominal stress in the brace:
the measurements
- -- - - -- --- -from
- gages placed at-
the end of
--
the notch influence--zone.
-
This requires a knowledge of the limit of influence of the notch on the
stress distribution close to the weld toe. At present the manner and distance
of stress extrapolation to the weld toe are handled somewhat differently by
different research institutions resulting in slight differences in the values of
experimentally determined hot spot stresses.
Extensive research indicates that the hot spot stress definition should
be based upon extrapolation from a point located 0.25 T from the weld toe
on the chord side, and 0.25 t on the brace side. Furthermore, this distance
should not be less than 4 mm (Fig. 8.7).
b.) ,: ': - y
1
. f Strain
, 1 >,, ,
t
, ,
,-7 1
1 ' I i a- , ,
( r ; , '7 ,
#
C x I d , e. -;
Chord
Fig. 8.7 Determination of the hot spot strain value eHs at the weld toe by
linear extrapolation from the end of the notch affected zone.
The hot spot stress measured in this manner provides SCF values which
are in very good agreement with the values, obtained from finite element
(FE) calculations. Furthermore, and most important, it provides consistent
fatigue life results independent of the type and complexity of the tubular
joint design tested, see Ref. 1181 and Fig. 8.8.
The conditions at the weld toe, although not quantified by SCF defini-
tion, have a significant influence on the fatigue life. They can be graded as
follows (Ref. / 181) :
Section 8.3.2
T-JOINTS
T - JOINTS, SEA WATER
D=508 T=l6mm
0=300 T=lOmm
2000-
..
1000-
-- ---
AW S - X 197 5 % SURVIVAL
500
A
200
\
--
100 ,
10 10 lo6 1 o7 lo8
CYCLES
Fig. 8.8 VERITAS fatigue test results based on VERITAS's SCF - and hot
spot definition. Note consistency and small scatter.
- Nafch fie, i.e. continuous stress distribution extending into the weld
toe (Fig. 8.9). Such conditions are found in ground welds, or quite
often on the brace side of the weld where smooth weld toe transitions
are more readily obtained in fabrication.
- Notch effect, weld toe discontinuity. The welds should be provided
with regular and smooth transitions. However, discontinuities at the toe
are to be expected. Fig. 8.10 shows the strain distribution resulting
from different notch effects. The majority of the welded tubular joints
tested at VERITAS showed an average notch No of about 1.2. (For
definition of notch No see Fig. 8.10.)
- Micro cracks. Micro cracks at the weld toe may be too small to be
detected by ordinary NDT-methods. Their presence is discernible from
their typical influence on the adjacent stress pat tern (Fig. 8.1 1). Micro
cracks or severe notches reduce the fatigue crack initiation period of
the fatigue life of the joint. Grinding of the weld toe may be a preven-
tive action. G,a x ( -f-,>,o ;
-
y
Hot spot location (l@U is the location of the very ma-urn stress at
the weld toe of the brace or chord members of the joint. In one and the
same joint the location is different for different loads. The locations
may also vary, to a lesser extent, depending on the geometrical para-
meters of the joint.
- Hot spot stress OH denotes the maximum value of the stress at the weld
toe at the hot spot obtained in the case of notch free weld conditions.
tj(1, lrJ~\c
- -:'Y/' ?? {2(dT+-, ;/*f,? ;
"-
Section 8.3.2 e
-ri
fi :, n
.*d 1 i
,
- t
4 CHORD CHORD
5s
AXIAL LOAD = 7 TON AXIAL LOAD = 7.5 TON
500-
500-
300 - 300 \\
[ NOTCH NO. *
440
= 1.02
200- .
2
.
4
. -
6 8
-
10
,
12
2 0 0 - I
2 4
I
I
.
6
3
8 10
.
12
-
mm FROM WELD TOE mm FROM WELD TOE
I
BRACE BRACE
AXIAL LOAD = 10 TON OOP LOAD, M = 0.88 TON M
E SCF
I SCF = 8 6
1 L
0 1.6 3.6 5.6 7.6 9.6 0 1.6 3.6 5.6 7.6 9.6
mm FROM WELD TOE mm FROM WELD TOE
Fig. 8.9 Notch free stress and strain distribution at the weld toe of tubular T-
joints with D=508mrn, d=244.5 mm, T = 16mm, t = 10 and 12mm.
The strain concentration factor SNCF is defined as the ratio of the hot
spot strain eHs divided by the nominal brace strain eN . That is:
SNCF = eH s , (8.2)
1
The corresponding concentration factor for the hot spot strain perpeGdicular
to the weld front, SNCFN,is defined as:
Section 8.3.2
CHORD CHORD
AXlAL10AD=15T(*1 AXIAL LOAD = ISTON
Y- JOINT
300 , ,I , , , , - 300J , , , , ,,
7 4 6 8 10 12 2 I b 8 1 0 1 2
mrn FROM WELD TOE rnm FROM WELD TOE rnrn FROM W E L D TOE
Fig. 8.10 Effect of notch on the strain distribution at the weld toe of tubular
joints. D = 508 mm, T = 16 mm, d=244.5 mm, t = 10 mm, a=4S0.
Most design calculations are based on the SCF values although the
fatigue tests and SN-curves are based on the SNCFN values. Even where
SN-curves are given in terms of stress range, the latter are based on uniaxial
strain, i.e. o = E H S E. Assuming that the hot spot strain, which is perpendi-
cular to the weld front direction, coincides with the direction of the prin-
cipal stress at the hot spot, the following conversion formula between SCF
and SNCF can be used:
1+ e2 /eHSN
SCF = SNCF
1 -v2
where: e2 = hot spot strain normal to eHsN
v = Poisson's ratio
In a similar manner, the conversion between the biaxial hot spot stres.:
and the uniaxial stress E E H s ~used in SN-curves reads :
400 -
30,- I
I
NOTCH
ZONE ,
I
I I Fig.8.11b)
I
I
, ! . , , , -
MICRO 2 6 '0 O 2 L 6 0 1 0 1 2
CRACK DISTANCE FROM TOE mm DISTANCE FROM TOE mm
1
E I
v= I
'HS 440 Axial load 2.5 ton
t = 12mm llmm DZSOII
400-
T = 16 ))
1
I I
L---J
NOTCH ZONF
300-
I I
1
I
Fig. 8.1 1 a) and 8.11 b) S U P E R IMPOSED
FIG. 8.1 1~
20
0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2
DISTANCE F R O M TOE mm
ml dd l e sur face
Node a t middle
surface Intersection
Fig. 8.12 Model representation based on thin-shell elements. Note that the
weld cannot be accounted for with this element type.
The shell elements have traditionally been ones with mid-plane nodes
only (Fig. 8.12). This allowed no possibility of modelling the geometry in
the weld region which in this case is idealized to the intersection line. Fig.
8.13 shows a typical thin-shell element mesh for a T-joint.
-
BRACE
PLUG
7
CHORD
Gibstein, Ref. /15/, compared steel model tests and thin-shell FEM
calculations and found that the experimental chord SCF's were well approxi-
mated by the values in the integration points immediately adjacent to the
mid-plane intersection line. On the brace side he found that the FEM stresses
at the corresponding points exceeded experimental values by 20%.
FEM analyses of tubular joints have previously been very expensive,
mainly due to the man hours involved in generating the finite element mesh.
Since the beginning of 1980, finite element analysis of tubular joints has
undergone a spectacular and rapid development. It is currently the most
efficient, reliable and economical tool for detailed stress analysis of tubular
joints. The main reasons are:
- The increased efficiency of equation solvers, requiring less CPU-time.
- The very large reduction of the cost of computers.
- The introduction of programs featuring automatic (and semiautomatic)
meshing of tubular joints, thus eliminating very time consuming manual
work.
- The possibility of weld modelling and the inclusion of 3-D solid ele-
ments at the intersection.
PMBSHELL
PMBSHELL is a FEM program designed for effective stress analysis of tubular
joints. PMBSHELL was developed by PMB SYSTEMS ENGINEERING INC.,
and features automatic mesh generation of simple joints with or without over-
laps. Complex joints, such as stiffened joints and multiplane joints, can be
effectively modelled semiautomatically. Fig. 8.14 shows the element con-
figuration used in PMBSHELL. Chord and brace are modelled with 16 node
shell elements, each having two nodal planes. The weld is modelled with
either eight or twelve node solid elements according to AWS specifications,
Ref. /2/. The program has efficient post processors, which facilitate the ease
and efficiency of representation of analysis results, such as:
Section 8.3.3.1
- nodal displacements
- surface stresses (principal and von Mises)
- strain at the integration points
- principal stresses extrapolated into the weld toe
- summary of stresses along the intersection lines, and indication of
maximum and minimum stresses and their location.
WJAP
TUJAP is an interactive semiautomatic mesh generator developed by SINTEF
and VERITAS, and is the latest and most efficient dedicated program for
tubular joint analysis. Being interactive, TUJAP represents a further enhance-
ment over PMBSHELL. The semiautomatic approach is more efficient than
the automatic mesh generation featured in PMBSHELL, and furthermore
extends to all types of joints. TUJAP also models grouted joints and includes
also fracture mechanics applications.
The finite element scheme, utilized in TUJAP, is shown in Fig. 8.15.
It consists of eight node mid-plane shell elements for the tubular members,
twenty node solid elements in the weld, and transition elements adjacent
Section 8-3.3.2
Number of
Group Illustration Name and description
nodes pr.node
d.0.f.
S
H SCQS, Subparametric 8 6
E curved quadrilateral
L thick shell
L
TRSI, Transition
element between
T
R
A I HEXIIPRI elements
N may be coupled with
S the SCQSISCTS
I elements. Three
T versions of the
I transition element
0 are needed:
N TRSI 18 316
TRS2 15 316
TRS3 12 316
TRS3
S IHEX, Isopararnetric 20 3
0 hexahedron
L
I
D
Because the strain at the weld toe may vary significantly over just a
few millimeters and because it is difficult to measure the strain at the weld
toe due to the physical size of the gage, an extrapolation procedure is re-
quired. The hot spot stress or strain has to be determined by extrapolation
from measurements taken some distance away from the weld toe.
The stress gradient close to the weld toe may be very steep. Therefore
the value of the extrapolated hot spot stress may be very sensitive to the
position of the strain gages, which should be located just outside the notch
affected zone as indicated in Figs. 8.9, 8.10 and 8.1 1. It follows that due
attention should be paid to the extrapolation methods as well as t o the
stress calculations when reviewing tubular joint fgtigue test results or com-
paring results from different investigators.
Testing of steel models is a highly specialized undertaking which also
requires complex and costly test rigs and instrumentations.
8.3.4 concentrationfactors
8.3.4.1 *m @f IiPfiemntpmmetde f o m l a d
In Appendix A four tables with parametric formulas for stress concentration
factors developed at different institutions are presented.
6 < 0.5. The Kuang formulas also tend to be overconservative for the SCF in
the braces independent of 6. Therefore in the recommended design formulas in
Table A4 the SCF on the brace side is reduced according to Marshall, Ref. 171.
.-
STRAIN DISTRIBUTION
WITH BRACE B
REMOVED
Fig. 8.18 Strain distribution in joint with axial load on brace A. Broken lines
indicate strain distribution with brace B removed. Ref. 1261
'p2
-PI =2P+P2 PI sine, =-P s l n 0 2 - 2 P
X-joint for s m a l l v a l u e s of P K - j o i n t f o r r m a f l v a l u e s of P
T - j o i n t for s m a l l v a l u e s of P 2 Y - j o i n t for s m a l l v a l u e s of P2
Fig. 8.19 The effect of load configurations on the joint type evaluation.
by the parametric equations, an ad. hoc. analysis of the joint in question must
be carried out.
Fig. 8.20 The influence of y on the principal stress distribution at the chord
side of a T-joint. Ref. / 151
Section 8.3.4.5
brace, Ref. 1151. According to Kuang, Gibstein and Marshall, Refs. /7,14,15/,
the SCF is a power function of y, while Smedley has assumed a linear relation-
ship.
Fig. 8.21 Influence of P on the SCF at the chord side of a T-joint for axial
load in the brace. Ref. 1151
The influence of 0. The influence on the SCF is parabolic (Fig. 8.21), Ref.
/ I S / . This figure shows the SCF at the chord side and has been derived for
T-joints with axial loads in the brace. Similar shapes are obtained at the
brace side and for the other loading conditions. Maximum SCF is measured
for p in the region around 0.5, and SCF approaches a minimum as 0 approaches
1.O. These observations are generally valid for all tubular joint types.
The influence of T . The SCF increases with increasing T (Fig. 8.22). In this
figure the SCF is a power function of r. The Kuang formulas show corre-
sponding relations, while Smedley has assumed a linear relationship.
CfiORD Y :20
I
AXIAL LOAD IN BRACE
i
Gibstein has shown that the value of the SCFb may become equal to,
or even larger than the SCF, when the thickness ratio T is about 0.4-0.5 or
smaller. Furthermore, SCFb may become larger than SCFc when SCFc is
less than 3 .O-3.5. mm pwthah attention must be given to the SCFb when:
The basic values of log Z and m for the different curves are given in
Table 8.2 for structures in air and in sea water with cathodic protection.
Table 8.2.
Curve log a m Remarks
MIX 15.06 4.38 cut off level at N = 2 x 10'
VERITAS X 14.57 4.10 cutofflevelatN=2x10'
DEn T 12.16 3.00 f0rN>10~:10~Z=15.62,m=5,00
The AWS X-, API X-, VERITAS X- and DEn T-curves are shown in Fig.
8.23. The AWS- and API-curves are lower envelopes of fatigue test results,
while the VERITAS- and DEn-curves are determined through statistical
analysis of fatigue test results, and represent a 97.6% probability of survival.
DEn, NPD and VERITAS intend to incorporate a size effect in their
next revision of the fatigue design rules. This size effect, or wall thickness
effect, can be justified theoretically as explained in Chapters 4 and 10, and
has also been observed in some fatigue tests on plate specimens.
Fig. 8.23 SN design curves for tubular joints according to AWS, API,
10'
The number of cycles to failure is given versus the hot spot stress range,
although generally in experimental results, the strain range is reported. The
stress range has been obtained on the basis of uniaxial stress, i.e. by rnulti-
plying the strain range with the Young's modulus, i.e.
It was shown in Section 8.3.2 that the biaxial stress is about 1.2 times
the uniaxial stress at the hot spots of ordinary tubular joints. Thus, when
ENDURANCE (CYCLES)
entering SN-curves with calculated hot spot stress ranges, the results contain
an inherent underestimation of the fatigue life of about factor 2.
The fatigue crack growth in tubular joints shows a rather different
behaviour from that of less complex welded connections. In the latter, a
fatigue crack grows rather slowly in the beginning, but accelerates rapidly
towards the end of the fatigue life. In tubular joints, the growth rate is nearly
constant throughout the fatigue life, even when the crack depth represents a
considerable fraction of the chord wall thickness. This means that even if a
large crack is found in a tubular joint, a significant part of the fatigue life may
still remain. Thus the presence of a sizable crack may not be immediately
critical provided no significant load shedding to adjacent members has taken
place and that the remaining static capacity is still sufficient to sustain the
forces occurring during the design storm. In brittle materials, however, even
shallow cracks may be critical.
10 10 10'
ENDURANCE ( CYCLES)
Figs. 8.24 and 8.25 are taken from Ref. 1121 and deal with simple
non-overlapping unstiffened joints. Fig. 8.24 shows the number of cycles
g. 8.25 the number of cycles to end of test.
which may be partially explained as follows:
- A consistent method to measure the hot spot stress has not always
been used by the experimental workers. Furthermore, inappropriate
definition and approach to the measurements may lead to serious
misrepresentation of the results, and to "fabrication" of undue in-
fluences. Thus, if the manner of measuring the hot spot stresses is
inappropriately related to the joint dimensions, the results will "intro-
duce" an undue fatigue size effect. Indeed, for this same reason, serious
doubts have been expressed concerning the validity of the "size effect"
which some of the fatigue test results seem to indicate.
Side B 1 Side A Side B I Side A
- The influence of the notch, i.e. the stress peaks due to local discon-
tinuities at the weld toe are not included in the hot spot stress. This
local stress concentration will vary from specimen to specimen due to
differences in welding process, weld shape etc., as explained in Section
8.3.2.
- Different workers have used different failure criteria, such as through-
thickness crack, crack branching into the chord wall, length of crack,
specimen becoming too flexible, etc.
1 I
T= c h o r d t h i c k n e s s Tzchord t h i c k n e s s
N= 696 420 N= 796 220
I I
ox, any and a, are maximum nominal stresses due to axial load and
bending loads respecti-l ss shown in Fig. 8.2**& 106 yi m y be under-
st& as variabla reflecting that the hot spot stresses may occur at different
places along the periphery dependent on the loading situa ig. 8.30).
b b b 3.27
AXIAL LOAD OUT - OF - P L A N E IN - PLANE -
BENDING BENDING
Fig. 8.30 Distribution of principal stress in chord in a T-joint for the three
basic load cases. a = 5.3,P = 0.65,y = 30,T = 0.71.
Section 8.3.8
As the SCF is only given as a maximum value without specifying the location,
it is recommended that all the ai,Pi and Ti factors be set equal t o 1.0 when
using the equations for design purpose. In that case maximum stresses will
occur at point Nos. 2, 4, 6 and 8 , and therefore a Miner analysis should be
performed with respect to these points.
The calculation procedure for the Miner-analysis is described in Chap-
ters 10 and 1 1, and the corresponding SN data for tubular joints (T-curve)
are shown in Tables 1 1.1, 1 1.2 and 8.2. For unprotected joints in corrosive
environment, Table 1 1.1 may be used when the resulting number of cycles
is reduced with a divisor of 2. No cut off level is allowed. The thickness effect
should be accounted for as described in Chapter 1 1.
Overlapping joints are such in which part of the brace forces are directly
transferred between the overlapping braces through their common weld (Fig.
8.3 1). They can be designed as uniplane - or multiplane joints. K-joints with
equal brace diameters are the most common types.
The geometric parameters defining an overlapping K-joint are given in
Fig. 8.32 and Fig. 8.4. The joint consists of a through-brace and an over-
lapping brace. The gap g between the braces is negative. In the literature
P = g/D, gld or *
the nondimensional gap parameter is defined variously as:
sin 8
The dimensions l1 and l2 are often used to define the weld length as
shown in Fig. 8.3 2.
Section 8.4.1
1 Through
brace
Over l a p p i n g
brace I
We l d concea l e d
by the o v e r l a p
N e g a t i v e gap "g"
Parametric formulas for the SCF in overlapping joints are presently not
available in the literature (1984). To obtain the most benefits of the design, it
is recommended that numerical stress analysis by FEM is carried out. Com-
puter programs in which the weld is included and modelled by 3-D solid ele-
ments should be preferred. Where FEM results are not available, it has been
common practice to substitute the gap parameter p = g/D in the ordinary
K-joint formulas (see Kuang's formulas in Table A l ) by the value p = 0.0 1
which will give a conservative estimate of the SCF in overlapping K-joints.
Systematic research into the fatigue behaviour of overlapping K-
joints were carried out at VERITAS in the years 1982-1 984. Stress analysis
was carried out with the object of deriving parametric formulas for SCF.
Fatigue tests were conducted in order to verify the validity of the hot spot
definition and the applicability of the SN-curves to overlapping joints. Parti-
cular attention was given to the study of crack propagation rates and mode of
failure of such joints. The following general comments and recommendations
are based on the investigation :
- Overlapping K-joints represent a heavy duty joint type and can be
designed to provide improved fatigue strength properties compared to
ordinary joints.
- Overlapping joints do not seem to represent a superior alternative to
ordinary K-joints when the /3 ratio is greater than 0.85.
- A gap parameter, p = g sine Id, greater than 0.8 should be avoided.
- The stress level of the "concealed" part of the joint, i.e. the throug-
brace chord intersection which is covered by the overlapping brace,
is generally quite moderate and does not seem to represent an hazard
to the safety of the connection.
- Overlapping K-joints tend to have the maximum SCF at the brace.
And, the joints tested failed due to cracks developing on the brace
side.
- The mode of failure was typical for brace failures in as much as the
joint failed shortly after the cracks had passed the through-thickness
stage.
- The application of overlapping joints can provide considerable bene-
fits, provided that the design is undertaken with the necessary exper-
tise.
Section 8.4.2.1
8.4.2 Complex joints
8.4.2.1 General
Complex joints are joints in which the chord has been reinforced by various
systems of welded plates or by grouting.
Figs. 8.33, 8.34,8.35 and 8.36 show a number of methods of stiffening
by welded reinforcement. They include:
- internal ring stiffeners
- external ring stiffeners
- internal longitudinal stiffening ribs
- internal diaphragms
- through gussets
- external gussets
- external wing plates
Generally, welded reinforcement influences the joint behaviour iri two
ways:
- The reinforcement increases the joint stiffness, reduces ovalization and
reduces the general stress level.
- The reinforcement, if not properly designed, can produce high local
stiffness. This can attract force, and give rise to high local stresses.
353
Section 8.4.2.1
r d l agona 1
Internal ring stiffeners are the most frequent forms of welded stiffeners.
Longitudinal stiffeners are often used in conjunction with internal ring stiffe-
ners in large complex joints as, for instance, in semi-submersible rigs.
External ring stiffeners may be used in cases where access for internal
welding is difficult, or in situations when post fabrication upgrading is carried
out.
Through gusset plates are occassionally used at lifting points. External
gussets and wing plates have been used to strengthen tubular joints when
static strength upgrading was deemed necessary. Gusset plates are not re-
commended when fatigue strength is important, because high stress concen-
trations may be generated at the gusset plate welds. Further research on this
point is needed.
r)
AXIAL LOADS:
One stiffener : Place stiffener at the saddle position.
Two stiffeners : Locate the stiffeners at a distance of 0.7 d/sine symmetri-
cally about the brace axis intersection with the chord.
Three stiffeners : Place one stiffener at the saddle position and the other two
at, or near, the ends of the intersection line bracelchord.
MOMENT LOADS :
One stiffener : One stiffener is quite efficient for out-of-plane bending
loads. However, one stiffener is not recommended in the
case of in-plane bending loads.
Two stiffeners : Locate the stiffeners as for axial loads.
Three stiffeners : Locate the stiffeners as for axial loads.
Parametric formulas for ring stiffened joints are not available. Finite
element analysis or tests are required in order to determine the SCF and
stress distributions. A number of "equivalent thickness" - and "smear out"
Section 8.4.2.3
In new platform designs, DSGR joints can be used to very great ad-
vantage whenever a combination of superior ultimate strength and fatigue
strength is required, and where added weight is not a serious detriment.
Many existing structures have tubular piles driven through and grouted
into the legs of the structure, thus creating a large number of DSGR joints
along the legs as shown in Fig. 8.38, where the circled locations represent
DSGR joints.
Section 8.4.2.3
Fig. 8.38 Locations circled represent double skin grout reinforced tubular
joints in a jacket stmcture due to grouted piles throughout the leg.
Section 8.4.2.3
- DSGR joints can be numerically stress analyzed. This requires the use
of non-linear FEM calculations. Otherwise the SCF must be determined
by laboratory tests.
- The use of "equivalent thickness" approach to analyze DSGR joints
is unsafe and should be avoided.
- During the fatigue tests, the crack growth was found to be stable,
slow and non-accelerating during the major part of the life.
REFERENCES
9. Bouwkamp, J.G.:
"Tubular Joints under Alternating Loads". Proceedings, Third Conf. on Dimensioning,
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest 1968.
Chapter 8. References
AXIAL LOAD
- 3.88(0 - 0.47)~1. .
z X 1.35 -
7 r W2.42 2.28 p2.2) ~ i n f l ~ ( ~ ' - ~ ~ . ~ f l ) O
C
kU
U
m ~-1 1.51 .yo.67. p-o.s9, ,1.1, po.067, sh1.52 e ,30°<e<900
.
1-83 y0.54. p . 1 2 . 71.07,
RANGE OF VALIDITY
Brace
SCF = 4.076 . yo-55. e - 1 . 3 5 ~ 3 . ,. 2 . sinl.94 8
I - I Chord
/ - 1 Brace
.
SCF = 1.301 y0.23. 0-0.38. +).38. si,0.21 8
Chord
.
SCF = 1.024 +.014. 0 0.787. 70.889. ,i,1.557 8
S C F = 0.462 . r l . 0 1 4 . p-0.619. ,0.889, sinl.557 8
Brace
SCF = 1-52. y0-852. 00 .801. 70.543. ,i,2.033 8
/ Chord
APPLICATION KUANG'S STRESS CONCENTRATION FORMULAS
Chord
VALIDITY RANGE
I1 +
I
I
SCF= 1 8 3 . y o - 5 4 . P 0.12. ,-1.068, oO G e c 900
Brace normal to chord and inclined I1 +
SCF = 4-80. y0-123. P-0.396. ,0.672, @1+p2)0.1S9. sin2.267 8 2
1 I Chord
Table A2
Table A2
Table A3
CHAPTER 9
UNSTABLE FRACTURE
ABSTRACT
Various failure modes that may represent the end of the fatigue lifetime are
mentioned. Most of the chapter concentrates on the failure mode of unstable
fracture. Simple methods for calculating the critical combinations of load and
crack length are described and illustrated by examples. The material property
that is required in these calculations is fracture toughness, the definition of
which is very closely linked to the testing procedures. For this reason the
testing procedures are briefly described, and examples of test result calcula-
tions are included. Because fracture toughness can be very sensitive to small
changes in conditions (e.g. temperature), some of the factors that influence
fracture toughness are discussed in the final section of this chapter.
A i s the displacement
b e t w e e n two points
( e . g . A , B ) on either
s ~ d eo f the c r a c k
/ Fracture
Elastic-plastic
behav i our
------
t Linear-elast i c
behav i our
P o i n t where f i b r o u s
crack s t a r t s t o extend
Fig. 9.4 Failure by fibrous crack growth and plastic collapse - macroscopic
behaviour, and fractograph showing a ductile fracture (see Fig. 9.1
for definitions of P and A).
energy absorbing mode that involves ductile fracture and considerably more
plastic deformation. One way of characterising a steel by the Charpy V-notch
test is to determine the temperature at which this transition in properties
takes place.
The Charpy V-notch test is also applied as a simple quality control test
by merely specifying a minimum allowable energy absorption at a particular
temperature. It is used in a similar way as a welding procedure acceptance
test. For this purpose, the required Charpy toughness should depend on the
strength of the weldrnent, and the test temperature should be related to the
design temperature.
It should be emphasized that the only way that Charpy test results may
be used in design is through empirical methods based on prior experience.
It is not advisable to extrapolate these empirical methods to new situations.
For quantitative engineering design against fracture, it is preferable to use an
approach based on fracture mechanics.
F o r z e r o load, t h e r e On a p p l i c a t i o n o f load,
i s no c r a c k opening the c r a c k opens
critical value of CTOD. Unlike the stress intensity factor which is usually
related t o stresses acting on the body, the CTOD is conventionally related
to strains. Rigorous relationships between the CTOD, strains and crack size
are unfortunately not readily available for most geometries, but by making
suitable approximations, the CTOD has proved to be valuable in establishing
defect acceptance criteria (see Section 9.5).
The principle behind the use of fracture mechanics is the same for
both the K and the CTOD approach. Namely, the critical values of K or
CTOD are determined using small scale tests. Then, by using these critical
values and a knowledge of the defect sizes and shapes present, critical loads
may be calculated for the structure of interest. Alternatively, knowing the
loads to which the structure will be subjected, maximum allowable defect
sizes can be calculated. These procedures will be discussed in more detail in
Sections 9.4 and 9.5.
9.4.1 KI,testing
According to the standards, two test piece types may be used; the compact
tension test piece or the bend test piece. The bend test piece uses somewhat
more material, but is cheaper to machine. If welds are being tested, then the
compact tension geometry usually gives no saving in the length of weld per
test piece, making the bend test piece the usual choice. In Figs. 9.7 and 9.8
these test pieces and the modes of loading are illustrated, and the symbols
describing the test piece dimensions are defined.
Width = W
Thickness B 0.5W
Half loading s an = L = 2W
E f f e c t i v e cracR length = a 0.45~-0.55~
Load = P
Fig. 9.7 Standard bend test piece for fracture toughness testing.
Net w i d t h = W
Total width C = 1.25W
B r e a d t h = B = 0.5W
H a l f h e i g h t = H = 0.6W
E f f e c t i v e crack length
= a = 0.45W-0.55W
Load = P
Fig. 9.8 Standard compact tension test piece for fracture toughness testing.
Section 9.4.1
Before testing, a sharp fatigue crack is grown from the notch to a depth
of approximately 0.5W.To ensure consistent KI, values, the standards specify
maximum fatigue loads. Then the test piece is loaded monotonically at a
rate that is slow enough to avoid dynamic effects. The displacement across
the notch mouth is measured by means of a clip gauge (Fig. 9.9) and plotted
against load on an X-Y recorder. This is done for two reasons; to verify that
the test piece behaves in a linear elastic fashion prior to fracture (as in Fig.
9.2), and to help determine the load at which fracture initiates.
gauge Output
x-ax i s
plotter
Fig. 9.9 Schematic diagram of the knife edge and clip gauge arrangement
used to measure the notch-mouth opening displacement in a
fracture toughness test.
a and I3 2 2.5I?[ 2
If all the requirements of a KIc testing standard have been met, the KQ
value may then be called a ISI, value.
Section 9.4.1
A valid KIc value is a material property that may depend on the orien-
tation of the test piece. However, if the ISI, value is invalid, it may be depen-
dent on parameters such as the test piece thickness or the fatigue pre-cracking
loads. Invalid KIc values may be useful, but they should be employed with
great caution and a knowledge of the errors likely to arise. If a KI, test has
proved to be invalid, it is usually preferable to calculate a CTOD value for the
material, rather than merely quote an invalid KIc value. The KIc and CTOD
test procedures are almost identical, so it is no problem to reanalyse an
invalid KIc test in terms of CTOD, providing the displacement axis of the
test record is calibrated.
Solution.
a/W = 0.5 14, therefore using the table in E 399 or BS 5447, Y = 11.1 1.
We must now ascertain whether or not the test is valid. We will assume
that all the necessary checks on the maximum fatigue load, quality of the
fatigue pre-crack, and the linearity of the test record have been made.
As both the crack length and test piece thickness are greater than 4 mm,
the test piece is large enough to make the test valid, and the KQ value may be
quoted as a Krc value.
Section 9.4.2
Load 1 P
,/Measurement p o i n t
( f i r s t attainment
, o f maximum l o a d )
ine constructed
, p a r a l l e l t o Loading line
Fig. 9.1 1 Schematic test record for a CTOD test that gives a ,6 value.
examined. There was a small amount of fibrous crack growth before the
cleavage fracture, and the distance from the notch mouth to the tip of the
fibrous crack was 22.5 1 mm. The load at which the cleavage instability
occurred was 18.2 kN, and the plastic notch-mouth opening displacement
was 0.81 5 mm. The knife edge height was 3 mm. What was the critical CTOD
value of this steel?
a = 22.51 mm Vp= 0.815 mm
W = 40 mm (W = 2B) R e = 450 MPa
B = 20 mm Assume :
z = 3mm E = 200 GPa
P = 18.2 kN v = 0.3
SoEution.
a/W = 0.563, which according to the table in BS 5762 gives Y = 13.14.
As there was some fibrous crack growth prior t o the cleavage fracture,
the critical CTOD value should be quoted as a 6, value.
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............................................................................-......... .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. ..
............
. . . ......
. . ......
, . . ,.......... ,. . . . . . . * ..................
. . . . ... . . .. -.- .
. . . -..."
a.. 2 ..a*..-
. . .......
.........I.....
............................................................................
. . a.. ...............................
. . . . . . . . . ...........................................
. . . -..- . .
..............
.. .. -. .. .. .. .. ..-. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
- 4 . .
..............
.. .. .. ..........
. .. .. --
. .. .. .. .. .............. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...
............................................. .
. . . . . .
...............___..........._...._. . . . .
.......-......
.
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . ..
..........................................
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. .. ... ... . .. . .. . ... ...
. . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
1 I 1 1 1 1 a - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Fig. 11.18 Tubular joints in air. Surface cracks at the weld toe.
m = 3.1. Ref. /8/.
Section 9.5.1
9% Ni steel. Fracture mechanics testing was carried out on the steel at the
design temperature of -155°C. At the lower bound of a large scatter band,
valid KI, values of 75 MPa fi were obtained. If the design stress, od, of the
tank is 150 MPa, at what length could a through-thickness fatigue crack be-
come critical?
Solution.
We will assume here that the case may be treated as a through-thickness crack
in an infinite plate subjected t o uniform tensile stresses (F= I):
i.e. the total length of the critical crack is 160 mm. This value is unacceptably
small; after the discovery of a crack, there should be enough time for the
tanker to get to a harbour before the crack grows to a critical size. It may be
concluded that another steel should be selected for the LNG tank. Note that
assuming F = 1 actually gives an slightly unconservative analysis (see Fig. 20 1
of Ref. / 191).
Solution.
We will use the notation in Fig. 9.1 3 (Ref. /19/). The rotor forging is large,
therefore c/b is approximately zero. Also the crack is semi-circular, so c/a = 1.
From Fig. 9.13 it can be seen that in this case &/KO = 0.65. From the equa-
tion in Fig. 9.13 it can be seen that
Section 9.5.1
which is actually Equation 9.5 with different notation. The critical form may
be written:
KIc = (KI/Ko) Od '4-
KI, - ] ' = + . 0.65
[ ~ ~800
] ~ . 1 0 3 = 1 6 ~ ~
cc=l .[
(KI/Ko) Od
-
Fig. 9.14 The CTOD design curve, 8 = Sc/2 T ey am.
Solution.
As the design stress does not exceed the elastic limit:
Solution.
e/ey = 0.75
Now if the cracks of half-length and depth c are of equal severity for the
same stress,
Section 9.5.3
In this example the aspect ratio of the crack will remain reasonably
constant as it grows. According to Fig. 9.13, F is approximately 0.7 for
a/c = 1, and c/b values of about 0.75. Therefore, the maximum allowable
crack depth c is 100 mm.
Like the CTOD design curve, the R6 failure assessment diagram has a
semi-empirical basis. It is based on a 'strip yielding model' that, strictly speak-
ing, is only applicable to thin sections of materials that do not work-harden.
However it has been demonstrated that the R6 diagram provides an approxi-
mate lower bound solution for practical situations. It takes the form of the
failure locus that is illustrated in Fig. 9.1 5 and expressed mathematically by
u
0 . 2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
sr
Fig. 9.15 The R6 failure assessment diagram. K, is the ratio of K to KIc and
S, is the ratio of load t o limit load (Ref. 1111).
where OA and OB are defined in Fig. 9.1 5 for a given K, and S, . The load
factor is the safety factor on the applied load, and enables the relative safety
of various situations to be quantified. If L is less than one, the situation is
unsafe. If L is greater than one, the situation is safe and the higher the value
of L the greater the degree of conservatism.
Solution.
We will calculate S, and K, for the crack depths: a = 0.08, 0.09, 0.10, 0.11
and 0.12 m.
The S, values for the various crack lengths are shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1.
Section 9.5.3
Fig. 9.16 Stress intensity factors for an external radial edge crack subjected
to a uniform internal pressure (Ref. / 191).
Section 9.5.4
To calculate K for the various crack lengths, use Fig. 9.16 (Ref. 1191). From
this figure it can be seen that K (called K1 in the figure) is given by
R1/R2= 0.95, therefore the factor KI/KO, as a function of a/(Rz - R1), must
be read off this curve in Fig. 9.16. The K, values for the various crack lengths
are shown in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2.
Each crack length thus corresponds to a point (S,, K,) on the R6 failure
assessment diagram. These points are plotted in Fig. 9.17, where it can be
seen that the failure boundary is reached when the crack reaches a depth
of approximately 0.105 m. Also it may be seen that the pressure vessel is
predicted to fail at a load considerably lower than its plastic collapse load, and
at a K value slightly lower than its KI,.
'3r
Fig. 9.17 The R6 failure assessment diagram with points representing a grow-
ing crack at constant load.
growing from a circular hole in an infinite plate (Fig. 9.18). Here, the stress
concentration factor is 3; i.e. the stresses at the edge of the hole are raised
by a factor of three. Thus the situation in Fig. 9.18 may be approximated
by that in Fig. 9.19 for which the F factor is readily available (F = 1 .12 for an
edge crack in a semi-infinite plate with remote tensile loading). However, as
the distance from the edge of the stress concentrator increases, the stresses
fall off rather rapidly, so this approach can be very conservative for longer
d
d
Fig. 9.18 Small crack at a large hole in an infinite plate with a uniaxial tensile
stress, o.
Section 9.5.4
Fig. 9.19 Equivalent situation to that in Fig. 9.18 - small edge crack in a semi-
infinite plate with a uniaxial tensile stress of 30.
cracks. If the crack is long compared with the size of the stress concentrator,
the effect of the stress concentrator may be ignored completely; e.g. if a crack
at the toe of a fillet weld is greater than 0.15 of the thickness of the plate it
is growing into, the stress concentrating effect of the weld geometry may be
ignored (PD 6493, Ref. /I/). For cracks of intermediate length a knowledge
of the F factors for the geometry in question are necessary for an accurate
analysis.
When using the CTOD design curve for cracks in the presence of a stress
concentrator, the nominal applied strain is usually assumed to be raised by a
factor equal to the SCF, providing this does not increase the strain to a value
greater than 2ey (PD 6493, Ref. / 1I),in which case a full elastic-plastic stress
analysis should preferably be performed.
It is also important to consider residual stresses in design against brittle
fracture. For welds that have not been stress relieved, it is common practice
to assume that the residual stresses are of yield strength magnitude. The
residual stresses must be added to the applied stresses to give the stress that
is to be used in the calculation of the stress intensity factors. Adding the
residual stresses to the applied stresses will probably give stresses that are
high enough to cause extensive crack tip plasticity, invalidating a K based
design approach. Therefore 'plastic zone correction factors' may be used
to allow for the plastic deformation, as described in the R6 procedure (Ref.
/11/) for example. When using the CTOD design curve, it is recommended
that the estimated residual stresses, o, be converted to strains using Young's
modulus, and added to the applied strain eapp, to give the E to be used in
the procedure.
Section 9.6 - 9.6.1
Solution.
E = (eapp SCF) + ((rres/E)= 0.6 cy 2.5 + ey = 2.5 ey
-a, = 0.018 m = 18 mm
This defect size must then be converted to a surface crack defect size of the
appropriate geometry using the procedure given in Example 6, Section 9.5.2.
9.6.1 Thickness
If toughness is defined as the K value, Kc, at which the initiation of fracture
occurs, then the toughness can vary with test piece thickness (Fig. 9.20).
However, for test pieces greater than a certain thickness, the Kc value is con-
stant and called the plain strain fracture toughness, KIc. Similar effects are
also found if critical CTOD values are plotted against plate thickness (Fig.
9.21, Ref. 1201). This variation of CTOD with thickness partly explains why
the thickness of the preferred CTOD test piece is equal to the plate thickness.
Section 9.6.2
50 100
0 , t h i c k n e s s (mm)
Fig. 9.21 Variation of critical CTOD values with test piece thickness.
Data for a ship hull steel (~ef.'/20/).
9.6.2 Temperature
The comments here apply primarily to bcc metals, an important class of
materials that includes most engineering steels apart from austenitic stainless
steels. Austenitic stainless steels, aluminium alloys and other fcc metals show
a less marked temperature dependence.
The fracture toughness (Kc or critical CTOD) varies with temperature
in a similar fashion to the Charpy energy (Fig. 9.22, Ref. 121). That is, there
is a high temperature regime of relatively high toughness values, a low tempe-
rature regime of low toughness, and a transition regime in which there is a
Section 9.6.3
-1 5 0 -50 50
Test temperature ( O C )
Fig. 9.22 Variation with test temperature of critical CTOD values of the weld
metal of an E7016 type weld metal (Ref. 121).
Fig. 9.23 Variation of maximum load CTOD values (6) with the CTOD
rate (5). Data for a ship hull steel (Ref. /2 I/).
9.6.4 Metallurgy
It is difficult to cover briefly such a wide topic as the effect of metallurgical
variables on toughness. However, two broad generalisations may be made.
One is that most microstructural features that contribute to strength
tend to reduce the toughness. This often leads to an inverse correlation be-
tween strength and toughness (Fig. 9.24, Ref. /23/). An exception to this
rule is that refining the grain size improves both strength and toughness. Note
that higher strength materials are also expected to carry greater stresses. Thus
the introduction of high strength materials can lead to smaller critical defect
sizes and unstable fracture problems, due both to a reduced fracture tough-
ness and to greater design stresses.
The second generalisation is that increasing the non-metallic inclusion
content usually lowers the upper shelf toughness. Because the volume fraction
of inclusions increases with the content of sulphur and oxygen in the steel,
varying the sulphur content of a steel can affect the fracture toughness (Fig.
9.25, Ref. 1241). In plate material, the inclusions are usually elongated in the
rolling and transverse directions, and this can lead to marked anisotropy in the
upper shelf toughness properties, as shown in Table 9.3 for a case hardening
steel (En 32 B, which is approximately equivalent to B.S. 970 080 M 15).
The notation used to describe the test piece orientations is standard and given
in Fig. 9.26 (Ref. / 2 5 / ) .
Section 9.6.4
0 I I I I
500 1000 1500 2000
R,(MPal
Fig. 9.24 Figure illustrating the inverse relationship bet ween strength and
fracture toughness that is usually found for particular alloy systems
(Ref. 1231).
Table 9.3.
REFERENCES
$ - ABSTRACT
The importance of fatigue life estimation at the design stage is pointed out
in order to arrive at feasible and cost-effective solutions considering the total
lifetime of the structure. of fatigue lives by use of SN-data and
Miner-Palmgren approach have been discuss&, Constant and variable arnpli-
tude loading have been considered. Closed form equations for fatigue life
predictions have been derived. Stresses to be used for calculation of fatigue
lives are defined. Prediction of fatigue lives based on crack growth analysis
has been discussed. Examples of fatigue life predictions and crack growth
analysis are given. Some of the main uncertainties associated with fatigue life
prediction are discussed. Three formats for fatigue design are presented. Some
practical guidelines and considerations on the application of the allowable
stress format are given. At the end the effect of yield strength and relieving
of residual stresses on fatigue is discussed.
During the design period it should be kept in mind that the need for in-
service inspection is rather depending on the calculated fatigue lives for the
different joints. The extent of in-service inspection with respect to fatigue
cracks is normally based on the calculated damage ratio during design, Ref.
/ 1/. It should be mentioned that the reliability of in-service inspection may be
rather uncertain and depends on several factors. Thus, the considered areas
must be cleaned in order to ensure a reliable inspection, and the associated
costs are rather large. Also, inspection for fatigue cracks below water level is
generally very expensive. The effort of required in-service inspection should
therefore be considered at an initial design stage, in order to achieve a cost-
effective design solution.
To obtain a good design, the total costs should be considered, i.e. costs
of the fabricated structure including control and inspection during design and
fabrication, and inspection costs during service. The expected costs associated
with a structural collapse may also be included. Such cost optimization may
be carried out with requirements to structural reliability as a boundary con-
dition. The optimum cost may be found for stricter requirements to structural
reliability than those specified as a minimum in the design codes. This may for
example be relevant for new types of structures in deep waters, Ref. 121.
In order to arrive at a cost optimal design, it is therefore necessary that
fatigue life estimates are carried out for the different design solutions. Such
estimates are also important at an early design stage for verification of the
code requirements. A change of design parameters is most easily carried out
at the beginning of the project. At this stage simplified assumptions of the
long term stress range distribution may be used (two-parameter Weibull-
distribution). For the final design, however, the stress range distribution
must be determined with sufficient accuracy, see Chapter 2.
i=k
where: Lo is the time for the total number of stress cycles no = Z ni.
i= 1
For constant amplitude loading the number of cycles to failure for a
given stress range AD, is determined by going into the SN-curve as shown in
Fig. 10.1. Different SN-curves are reproduced in Chapter 1 1. It may also be
calculated from the analytical expression for the SN-curve:
LO^ N = log a - m logAa (10.3)
N 6 log N
Log n
EXAMPLE 1
What is the fatigue life of a tube welded from one side and subjected
to the long term stress range distribution in Fig. 10.2? The tube weld is shown
in Fig. 10.3.
The tube thickness t = 40 mm. The tube is part of a structure in sea-
water. It is assumed that the cathodic protection is working.
= 1 1 . 6 3 - p3*0
a log(--)40 - 3 .O logAo
4 .o 22
l o g N = 11.44 - 3 . 0 logAo
Combining Eqs. (10.6) and (10.7) yields for the damage ratio:
Introducing
we get
The interpretation of Q(Ao) is shown in Fig. 10.4. The total area below the
f(Ao) curve is equal t o 1-0.
Combining Eqs. (1 0.7) and (1 0.13) and integrating, yield for the exceedance
function:
Section 1 0.2.2
The probability that the maximum stress range Aa, is reached or exceeded
for a total of no stress cycles is:
and finally when Aoo in Eq. (1 0.1 6) is substituted into Eq. (10.14):
"
Q(Ao) = no = exp -[(&
A00
lh inn,]
Section 10.2.2
Fig. 10.5 Probability of exceedance of the stress range Au for the Weibull
distribution in Fig. 10.4.
and
Ao = AD,[ 1 - logn ] l I h
1% no
n = number of stress cycles that exceeds Ao
Ao, = maximum stress range for a total of no cycles
no = total number of stress cycles
The long term distributions of stress ranges corresponding to waves
in a 20 year period with no = lo8 cycles according to Eq. (10.19), is shown
in Fig. 10.6 for different values of the Weibull parameter h.
I: 0
,
1
hz0.5 Q7 a9 1.0 1.1 1.3 15
,--,
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
log n
Sometimes Eq. (10.1 9) is written with K = l/h, see e.g. Chapter 2 and
Ref. 151.
When no and Aa, are introduced instead of q, Eq. (10.16), we get for
the damage ratio (Eq. (1 0.12)):
"0
Number o f cycles
Fig. 10.7 Long term stress range distribution divided into a stress histogram.
" 0
Number o f c y c l e s
Fig. 10.8 Equivalent stress range distribution giving the same fatigue damage
as the long term stress distribution in Fig. 10.7.
which by definition is constant through the total number of cycles and gives
the same damage ratio as that of Eq. (10.2 1). The damage ratio for this stress
distribution is:
Requiring that the two stress distributions in Eqs. (10.2 1) and (10.22)
result in the same fatigue damage, we obtain for the equivalent stress range:
If the stress distribution can be described by Eq. (10.1 7), the equivalent
stress range may be derived by setting equal the damage ratios of Eqs. (10.20)
and (10.22). It leads to:
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the equivalent stress range and damage ratio for t term stress
distribution in Fig. 10.2. Use Eqs. (10.22) and (10.23).
Solution.
From Table 10.1:
11
no.= z n i = 411110 = l\i =
i=1
11 m
B AO:''* n i = 8.68 10" - C: ; - A(T 'QG-~~-.CL'C-.S { r r ~
i= 1 1 1 L
.
,68 10' 011/3.0
= 59.5 MPa
(8_411110
From Eq. (10.22)
n r(n+ 1) log n n + 1)
5.10 142.451 2.153668
5.20 169.406 2.228929
5.30 201.813 2.304949
5.40 240.833 2.381717
5.50 287.885 2.459219
Fig. 10.9 Local stress when the weld is situated in a region x of stress concen-
tration resulting from the gross shape of the structure.
stress. For example, for the weld shown in Fig. 10.9 a) the local stress would
be the tensile stress, AD, on the cross-section, whereas for the weld shown
in Fig. 10.9 b) it would be SCFglobal Ao, where SCFglobal is the stress
concentration factor for the hole. Another example of stress concentration
due to the gross shape of the structure is that produced by misalignment
during fabrication.
We have in general:
&IOC~ SCFglobal ' &*om inal
Values of SCFglObal is given in Chapter 11.
It is emphasized that the AulOol shall be used in connection with
Skurves D,E,F,F2 and G (Section 10.1.5).
@$g$&wrjoints, i.e. brace to chord connections, the local stress to
/ be used lisr iBt the i d d b d hot spor srrem sdjmt to the weld toe.
/ It is defined as the stress value produced by the extrapolation to the weld
toe of the maximum principal stress distribution immediately outside the
Section 10.2.4
EXAMPLE 3
Solution.
a) Fatigue cracks most likely develop at the transition between the weld
and the base material due to possible fabrication imperfections and geometric
stress concentrations. Fatigue cracks may therefore start at the butt weld
toe between plate A and B, Cracks may also start at the fillet weld toe in
plate A and most likely at the ends of plate C.
b) Chapter 11 Appendix A advices that SN-curve C be used for butt welds
and curve F for fillet welds. But as the fillet welds are going out to the edge
of the plate, G is the correct choice. (See detail 4.2 in Appendix A.)
c) Due t o the misalignment of the butt joint, a bending moment will arise
in the plates, Fig. 10.1 1. The corresponding bending stress range at the butt
weld is:
i
I
For a unit width of the plate: i
i
This yields:
S t a t i c system;
ad
1
c)
38
A x i a l +bending
stress range
ad[l+ )
ad
-
Fig. 10.11 Misalignment and stress distribution in the plates in Example 3.
Section 10.2.5
The local stress range at the fillet weld, Fig. 10.1 1 c), d), e), is:
In any welded joint, there are several locations at which fatigue cracks
may develop, e.g. at the weld toe in each of the two parts joined, at the weld
ends, and in the weld itself. Each location should be classified separately.
The basic SN-curves are based on statistical analyses of appropriate
experimental data. The design curves are linear relationships between log Ao
and log N, and are defined as the mean minus two standard deviations of
log N. Thus the SN-curves can be written
logN= l o g a - 2 logs-m -log(Ao) (10.26)
or
-
log N = log ii m log (Ao)
: where: a
<
= crack depth
n = number of cycles
I
I[---
(
m = material constants
AK= range of stress intensity factor in mode I fracture = K,,, - Kmin
K = a * f l - F
o = nominal stress in the member normal t o the crack
i F = correction factor depending on the geometry of the member and
the crack
The crack length is found by integration of Equation (10.28).
Provided that the threshold stress range intensity factor AKth can
be sufficiently documented, a modified formula can be used for the crack
growth:
AKth is the stress range intensity factor below which no growth takes place.
Eq. (10.29) results in lower da/dn values than Eq. (10.28).
where ai is the initial crack depth and af is the crack depth at unstable frac-
ture or yield of the remaining section (Chapters 3 and 4). An example of
crack growth in a simple butt joint without reinforcement is given below.
EXAMPLE 4
Crack
7
What is the number of stress cycles that the butt weld connection in Fig.
10.12 can endure before it fractures? The member is subjected to a constant
stress range Ao = 20 MPa.
The material properties are:
fracture toughness KIC = 70 MPa- ( K b-u-dd
m = 3.1
c = 3.3 lo-l3 mm
( M Pm~m)3.1
SoEution.
For the geometry in Fig. 10.12 when a < 0.7 W, Ref. 181:
As K < KIC for a = 0.7W, fatigue crack growth according to Eq. (10.28)
may take place up to this depth. Setting the crack depth at failure t o af = 0.7W
= 35 mm will therefore give a safe value for the fatigue life.
The initial crack depth will depend on several factors as for example
welding procedure and workmanship. Even with good workmanship under-
cuts of a depth of 0.2 mm may result. In the bottom of undercuts micro-
cracks may be present. As no other information about initial crack depth
has been given, ai = 0.5 mm is assumed.
Eq. (10.30) was derived assuming constant F. For real structures, e.g.
that in Fig. 10.1 2, F is not constant and Nf is calculated by dividing the
crack growth into intervals, where F is assumed constant within each inter-
val. The number of cycles for crack growth from aj to aj+ 1 is then:
Number o f cycles
is evaluated for the specific geometry and boundary conditions. The geometry
correction factor, F, may be a relatively complicated function of the crack
size and obtained by numerical analyses, e.g. finite element calculations.
Other methods are discussed in Chapter 3. The boundary conditions used
Section 10.3.4
EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the number of cycles to failure for the joint in Example 4 using
Eq. (1 0.34) and Fig. 1 1.12.
Section 10.4.1
AD = constant = 20 MPa
W = 50mm
Solution.
From Eq. (10.38) it is seen that the fatigue life is inversely proportional
to the maximum stress range Aoo in third power. Thus a moderate error
of the stress range may have a significant impact on the fatigue life.
From wave theories and the Morison equation it follows that the force
and hence the stress in the structure is proportional to the wave height for
inertia dominated structures. Correspondingly the stress is proportional to
the wave height in square for drag dominated structures, like jackets in
moderate water depths. As the wave heights become smaller, however, in the
region where the waves give the largest contribution to fatigue damage, the
force becomes inertia dominated also for these structures. Thus errors in
wave period, wave height, wave theories and hydrodynamic coefficients lead
to corresponding errors in the stresses. This may also be the case for marine
growth as the member diameters are increased. Marine growth may also
effect the value of the hydrodynamic coefficients depending on type of
species.
It is evident from Eq. (10.35) that the fatigue life is very sensitive to
the Weibull parameter h. This parameter depends on:
- distribution of waves
- water depth
- type of structure including structural behaviour
- position of the joint in the structure -J 1
For further consideration, see Section 10.6.2.
I I
1 .O 1.5
Weibull parameter h
differ from the simplified analysis if the local flexibility at the tubular joint
is included in the analysis. The uncertainties associated with calculation of
stress concentrations are also rather dependent on how they are derived.
Calculation of stress concentration factors of tubular joints is frequently
based on parametric equations, as discussed in Chapter 8. The different
equations may produce a great scatter in the calculated SCF values, and the
equations leading t o the safest design are recommended. Also the combina-
tion of stresses due t o axial loading and bending about the two axis is some-
what uncertain. However, the procedure given in Chapter 8 should give results
on the safe side. If the combination of loads is known, the error may be
reduced by direct finite element calculation of the stress concentration
factors. Also the stress concentration factors are believed to be more accuratly
determined by finite element analyses carried out today than by parametric
equations which were established some years ago.
The uncertainty of calculated stress concentration factors depends
on the type of elements used, refinement of element mesh and the method
Section 10.4.4
applied for extrapolation of stresses back to the weld toe. For a normal
analysis the results are considered to have an accuracy within + 20%. The
effect of this error on the calculated fatigue life is given by Eq. (10.35).
It should also be mentioned that the parametric equations for stress
concentration factors of tubular joints have been derived for "theoretical"
joints with members in one plane only. Several joints have members in diffe-
rent planes. This increases the uncertainty of the calculated hot spot stresses.
Another uncertainty is the determination of the type of tubular joint.
The behaviour of the joint is dependent not only on the geometry, but also
on how the joint acts in the structure, i.e. how the forces are transferred
through the joint as discussed in Chapter 8.
10.4.4 SN data
There is a rather large uncertainty associated with the determination of SN-
curves. The ratio between calculated fatigue lives based on the mean SN-
curve and mean minus two standard deviations SN-curve is therefore consider-
able. Using Eq. (10.35) to calculate the fatigue lives based on the mean SN-
curve and the design SN-curve, the following ratio is obtained:
For the F2-curve with a = 10' *.' and ii = 10' ',a/Z = 2.9.
The probability of having fatigue lives above that of the design F2-
curve for a given stress range is 97.6%,considering only the uncertainties of
the SN-data. Also it should be remembered that SN-curves are derived from
laboratory experiments. In real structures the fabrication tolerances are
likely to be larger.
There are few experimental SNdata for N > lo7 cycles. The uncer-
tainties associated with fatigue calculations with SN-curves are therefore
very large when the curves are extrapolated beyond lo7 cycles. Three diffe-
rent extrapolations are recommended, and the choice of curve influences
the calculated fatigue life as shown below, Ref. 1141.
Consider the basic F2xurve for N < 10' and three different extra-
polations for N > 10' ,~ i10.1
~ 5. .
1. Prolongation of the F2-curve beyond lo7 cycles. No cut-off level.
2. Prolongation of the F2-curve up to 2 lo8 cycles, then cut off. This
curve is recommended for cathodicly protected areas in sea water
(Chapter 11).
Section 10.4.4
I
I I I I
6 7 8 9 log N
G F2 F E F a t i g u e curve
The failure criterion used when SN-data are obtained, is another un-
certainty which should be kept in mind. Especially for tubular joints the
SN-data may be influenced by the chosen criterion. For the new design curve
for tubular joints (Chapter 1I), the failure criterion is crack growth through
the thickness. Other criteria such as crack growth along a larger part of the
circumference of the weld have also been proposed. In a real structure, the
load amplitude is variable, and one single load may be high enough to cause
unstable fracture even before the crack has grown through the thickness of
the considered chord or brace. The probability of that event depends on the
long term stress distribution, the stress gradient in the joint and the fracture
toughness of the material. For joints of normal thickness and fracture tough-
ness this type of failure has so far not been considered in design.
life is derived from an SN-curve with a cut-off level, in that stresses falling
beyond the cut-off level may be raised to values that give contribution to the
fatigue damage, if a misalignment is introduced. It is therefore recommended
that due attention is given to stress raisers produced by misalignment and
secondary deformations due to local restraint. For butt welds in tubulars the
misalignment effect is not as severe as in the example above. However, it's
importance increases with increasing diameter-thickness ratio D/T.
Misalignment of tubular joint connections is discussed in Ref. / 6 / .
The effect must be evaluated and quantified during design.
In section 10.2.4 the importance of correspondance between the
SNdata and the stresses calculated during design was pointed out. This state-
ment may now be enlarged by expressing that there should be correspondance
between the SN-data and the stresses "felt" at the considered hot spot. It
means that the weld shape of the fabricated structure should correspond to
that of the SNdata. Thus use of a specific SN-curve automatically implies
requirements to weld shape and workmanship. Determinations on weld shapes
and profiles for tubular joints are specified in the API-code API RP 2A
(Ref. /1 61) and in the Veritas-rules (Ref. 161).
EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the probability of failure as a function of the design damage ratio
for a class F detail with a stress range Aa = 70 MPa. Only the variability due
to the uncertainties in the SN-data should be considered. A normal distribu-
tion of the SN-data is assumed.
Solution.
Neglecting the thickness term, we have for the design SN-curve, Eq. (10.26):
Inserting for an F detail values for log a, log s, and m according to Chapter 11,
Table 11.1 :
The probability of failure for a normal distribution of log N is, Fig. 10.17:
log N
and
Pf = 0(-4.2) = 2 10-5
(10.42)
EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the maximum allowable stress range for a semi-submersible with a
long term stress range distribution as described by Eq. (10.19) and the Weibull
parameter h = 1.l. Total number of stress cycles no = lo8, allowable damage
ratio q = 1-0, class F weld with plate thickness less than 22 mm.
Solution.
The max. allowable stress range happening once is obtained from Eq. (10.42):
1.0. 1011.80 113.0. (1n10811/l-l
Aoo = ( -1 - 160 MPa
lo8
Hi
1 y p n, e s
---------
s i: :
----
Ti T llog nl log n o
I log n
c 1 I
T I
log ni log no
log n
I
Fig. 10.20 Procedure for establishing the long term stress range
distribution in deterministic fatigue design.
f) After the stress at the considered joint has been determined for several
wave positions, the stress range Aoi is identified, Fig. 10.20 d).
g) The stress range Aai corresponding to ni cycles is now plotted in a
diagram for long term stress range distribution, Fig. 10.20 e).
h) The procedure c) - g) is repeated for a number of different wave
heights. At least four heights should be used for determination of the long
term stress range distribution. The number however, depends on the struc-
tural behaviour.
i) The procedure b) - h) is repeated for the other sectors, and the stress
range distribution for all sectors is determined.
Section 10.5.4 - 10.6.1
j) The cumulative damage ratio Eq. (10.40) is now calculated for each
stress range distribution, as shown in Section 10.2.1 , Example 1. The sum-
mation is normally carried out numerically, in that the stress distribution
is divided into a number of blocks that may vary between 20 and 100, depen-
dent on the integration procedure.
k) Finally the damage ratios for each sector are added, and a total cumu-
lative damage ratio for the considered joint is obtained.
Fat i gue c l a s s
Fig. 10.21 Allowable extreme stress range as function of fatigue class for
different values of the Weibull parameter h. The usage factor
q = 1 and the total number of cycles no = lo8.
m is the negative inverse slope of the SN-curve for the considered fatigue
class, see Chapter 1 1 .
It is emphasized that the stresses in Fig. 10.21 are local stresses at the
detail as defined in Section 10.2.4.
EXAMPLE 8
In order to arrive at the first dimensions of a joint in a semi-submersible, we
want to calculate the maximum allowable stress range Ao, . We assume that
Section 10.6.2
the joint is designed with stiffeners and that it is a class F2 joint. Further
assumptions:
Weibull parameter h = 1.1 (usual for a semi-submersible)
design life L = 20 years
usage factor q = 1.0
plate thickness t = 40 mm
Solution.
From Fig. 10.2 1 for class F2 the maximum allowable stress range :
Aa, = 140 MPa
The value of the Weibull parameter depends upon such factors as:
1. wave climate (long term distribution of wave heights)
2. water depths
3. type of structure (e.g. drag versus inertia dominated)
4. dynamic amplification
5. position of the joint in the structure
A first estimate of h for pre-engineering purpose can be obtained
from Fig. 10.22, which is the result of an investigation by Marshall and
Luyties, Ref. 1221. The figure shows h for the Gulf of Mexico and for a
homogenous wave climate, that is a climate where the design storm wave is
Section 10.6.2
D e p e n d s on s h o a l i n g
(shelf profile)
Depends on
nat. period
Very narrow
0.5
Broad
Gulf of Mexico
I I I I I 1 1 I
10 20 30 40 60 80 120
(A) Water d e p t h ( m )
1.0 --
L
a
-
-l-J -
E -
0
L
0.5 --
0 Gulf of Mexico
n -
Water depth L 3 0 m
I I I I I I I I f
a,
a
o 5 MSL -5 -10 -20 -30 - 4 0 -60
L
U)
Gulf of Mexico
(C) N a t u r a l period ( s )
the extreme wave of frequently occurring weathers during for example a 100-
year period. A homogenous wave climate prevails in the North Sea. It is seen in
Fig. 10.22 that h depends on the shelf profile when this is a relevant para-
meter. For structures in the North Sea the other parameters listed are more
important. Contribution from draglinertia in the Morison equation seems
to have the largest influence. As the natural period exceeds the 3-s. region,
this also becomes an important factor. The influence of the depth below
water level of the considered joint is also noted.
limited possibilities for thermal movements to occur freely. This will install
new residual stresses.
e) Should a fatigue problem arise in service, there may be no possibility
to make weld repairs which include stress relief treatment.
f) Even if stress relieving has been carried out successfully so that residual
stresses are relieved, stress concentration in the joints may imply that the
stress range at a hot spot becomes fully tensile after some loading with plastic
yielding.
Reduction
factor ,
u
6, = d d,=O cj = -ad
2 2 6,"
Compression Tenslon
original design, and the ring was to be welded into the buoyancy tank-funnel
transition, possibly after a stress relief heat treatment. A section of the
improved design cross joint is shown in Fig. 10.24 c). The highest stresses
were found at location 3.
The fatigue life of the redesigned cross joint is required.
Selection of SN-curve
The fabrication regulations demand that the weld fillet at location 3 is ground
with a radius of 30 mm, and that the joint is inspected by ultrasonics. Defects
disclosed by the inspection are to be repaired.
The stress range distribution in Table 10.6 refers to the local stresses
at the surface. From a fatigue point of view, the joint can thus be com-
pared with a transverse butt weld with no overfill of type 3.1 in the Joint
Section 10.8
Table 10.6 Long-term stress distribution in one year and resulting damage for
the cross joint at location 3. SN-curve D has been assumed.
Fig. 10.25 Long-term stress range distribution at location 3 in the cross joint.
Thickness effect
The effect of plate thickness discussed in Secs. 4.6.3 and 11.2.4, can be dis-
regarded if true local stresses are used in the calculation of accumulated
damage. However, the argument given for the choice of the D curve above,
involves that the true stresses may rise above those in Table 10.6, because of
local deviations from the ideal weld geometry, or of stress concentrations
around undetected weld defects. Therefore the SN-curve must be corrected
for the thickness effect.
Damage calculation
As welded.
We have for the SN curve D for joints in sea water and cathodic protection
(Table 11.2) :
Section 10.8
The cut-off stress So = 20 MPa, which means that stress ranges below 20 MPa
can be ignored. The result of the calculation is shown in Table 10.6, giving the
accumulated damage in one year as
D = 0.085
Most codes specify an allowable damage ratio of 113 for critical members
whose sole failure would be catastrophic. Thus the fatigue life becomes
L= 1 - 3.92 years
0.085 3
Limiting the allowable damage ratio to 113 should not be regarded as intro-
ducing a safety factor of 3. The Miner-Palmgren rule disregards the sequence
effect of the stress cycles, and experience shows that fatigue failure occurs
for a Miner's sum between 0.4 and 1.O.
Stress relieved.
Obviously a design life of 4 years is too short. A recalculation based on the
9N-curve C will give a design life of 12 years, or 25 years if the thickness
effect is disregarded. If curve C applies, true stresses have been assumed, and
logically, the thickness effect factor should be set equal to 1. However, it
is unrealistic to expect that the C curve will apply. Curve C might come closer
to realisation if a method could be developed for machining the weld surface
to the exact shape determined for the stress calculation.
Stress relieving of the joint will reduce the mean stress and thereby
increase the fatigue life. The various codes are, however, reluctant in giving
credit for stress relieving of joints as explained in Sec. 10.7.2. If we assume
that the complete welded ring shown in Fig. 10.24 b) is heat treated in one
piece, and caution is exercised when it is welded into the buoyancy tank, so
that long range stresses are kept within reasonable limits, then the stress
range for calculation of the damage increments can be reduced by the factor y
in Fig. 10.23. For zero mean stress, y = 0.8, which will decrease the damage
by a factor of ( 0 . 8 ) ~= 0.5 12. A further decrease results because the first two
damage increments in Table 10.6 are now below the cut-off stress level, and
Section 10.8
1
do not count in the damage summation. We therefore have for the damage
and
-
Lstress relieved - 0.0423
1
.3 = 7.9 years
As welded.
The CTOD approach yields for the allowable crack length, Sec. 9.5.2:
*= ~ .
6c
T ~
-
E
E
-
~
EY
- 0.25
~ & ~ ~
@ = nondimensional CTOD
6, = CTOD at fracture, measured to 0.23 mm
= yield strain of steel = 355/200 000 = 1.775 lo-'
ey
E = strain around the crack, including welding strain
imaX
= allowable half-lengt h of a through-thickness crack
It is assumed that the crack has run out of the stress concentration area
when fast fracture is initiated. The stress that drives the fast fracture is there-
fore close to the maximum nominal stress in the funnel wall, which has been
calculated to 55 MPa.
Stress relieved.
We will make the conservative assumption that stress relief heat treatment
reduces the weld stresses to 5 5 MPa, that is to the value of the max nominal
stress in the funnel wall. That gives
Consulting Fig. 9.13, we find that F = 1.6 for a through-thickness crack with
c/a = 0.2 and -
We may therefore conclude that if the joint is stress relieved, the fatigue
crack may grow through the plate thickness without becoming critical.
13 mm - (Table 11.4)
C = crack growth rate factor = 3.3 10-
(MP~ m)m
m = crack growth rate exponent = 3.1 (Table 1 1-4)
W = plate thickness = 50 mm
Also in this case the life must be reduced by the utility factor 113,
since we base the calculation of the equivalent stress on the Miner-Palmgren
principle.
The design life calculated by SN-curve D was 4 years, so the two
methods give comparable results. The crack growth rate life depends on the
assumption made for the stress gradient in the thickness direction, a para-
meter which is generally not part of the stress computation.
Stress relieved.
We have concluded that for a stress relieved joint, the crack may grow through
the plate thickness without becoming critical. Furthermore, stress relief
reduces the part of the stress range that produces fatigue by a factor of 0.8,
thereby increasing the fatigue life by a divisor of 0.8'.'. The design life of
the stress relieved joint is therefore (Table 10.7)
- - 2.513- lo7 -- -- 2 1 years
LstreSSrelieved 7.851.105.0.501.3
which should be compared with 7.9 years found by the SN-curve approach.
Chapter 10. References
Table 10.7 Crack growth through the cross joint.
Number of stress cycles.
*
Crack a 1
Accumu-
- Ci
2
+ Aoeq,& lated
depth - ci M P ~ Ii Ii - Ii+ 1 of cycles number of
ci (mm) 50 ci+ An
cyclesn
0.5 0.01 2.40
0.75 43.7 0.9 2.605 E6 2.605 E6
1.0 0.02 I
1.50
1.5 42.4 0.59 1.875 6 4.480 6
2 0.04 0.91
2.5 40.6 0.25 9.090 5 5.389 6
3 0.06 0.66
3.5 39.0 0.15 6.178 5 6.007 6
4 0.08 0.5 1
4.5 37.1 0.10 4.808 5 6.488 6
5 0.1 0.4 1
5.5 35.4 0.06 3.335 5 * 6.821 6
6 0.12 0.3 5
6.5 33.6 0.05 3.269 5 7.148 6
7 0.14 0.30
7.5 31.9 0.05 3.839 5 7.532 6
8 0.16 0.25
8.5 30.1 0.04 3.677 5 7.900 6
9 0.18 0.21
9.5 28.4 0.03 3.030 5 8.230 6
10 0.20 0.18
12.5 23.1 0.1 2.086 6 1.032 7
15 0.30 0.082
17.5 14.4 0.04 3.613 6 1.393 7
20 0.40 0.040
35.0 10.0 0.04 1.120 7 2.513 7
50 1.O 0
i
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
This chapter produces a brief review of the various building codes for fatigue
design. Simple joints and tubular joints have been examined. Recently de-
veloped design codes are presented with examples explaining fatigue design
based on fatigue strength tests. Similarly, new fatigue design regulations based
on crack growth tests and fracture mechanics are produced and discussed.
Damages caused during installation or service are debated, and repair and
reinforcement methods are described.
At the present time several fatigue design codes and regulations are
being revised. A revision of the Department of Energy's Guidance Notes
has been going on for the last few years, Ref. / 7 / . For simple joints the
fatigue design in these notes is still based on the work presented by Gurney,
Refs. 11, 21. In Refs. 13, 4, 5 / the slope of the SN-curves is kept constant
below N = 2 l o 8 , with a horizontal cut-off level at this number. In Ref. /7/
the slopes are constant and equal to the values in Ref. / 1/ and Table 1 1.1
up to 10' cycles, where they all change to -115. In Ref. /7/ also a thickness
effect has been included. This will be further discussed in Section 1 1.2.
The new proposal by the Department of Energy on new fatigue design
guidance, has been the basis for the revision of the Veritas' rules for design
of offshore structures, Ref. /8/ and NS 3472, Design rules for steel structures,
Ref. /9/. In a coming revision of the regulations of the Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate, reference will be made to NS 3472 regarding fatigue design.
This means that the fatigue design codes in U.K. and Norway will be equal,
except for cathodicly protected areas when N > l o 7 , Section 11.2.
The SN-curve for design of tubular joints in the Department of Energy's
Guidance Notes and the Veritas' Rules, Refs. 14, 51, is identical to that of
the AWS of 1972, Ref. /lo/. In the Guidance Notes this curve is denoted Q,
Ref. 141, and X in the Veritas' Rules. The AWS X-curve has later been modi-
fied. The X-curve of AWS of 1980, Ref. 11 11, is shown in Fig. 11.1 together
with the modified AWS X-curve of 1983, Ref. 1121. Except for the c u t ~ f f
level, the X-curve of API, Ref. 1131, is equal to that of the modified AWS
X-curve. Two SN-curves recommended by API are shown in Fig. 11.2. For
further use of the AWS and API curves the reader is referred t o Refs. 112, 131.
C y c l e s of load, N
Fig. 11.1 SN-curves for tubular joints from AWS, Ref. 1121.
Section 11.1
0
t- Permissible cycles of load N
The API X-curve results in a fatigue life which is in the order of 30%
less than that of the X-curve and Q-curve in Refs. / 10,5,4/. Certain require-
ments to the shape of the weld must be fulfilled when the API X-curve is
employed. If this requirement is not satisfied, the API Xt-curve should be
used. It reduces the calculated life by a factor of approximately 2.2 for
typical offshore structures as compared to the API X-curve.
The reason for API to modify the AWS X-curve for large values of
N is the uncertainty about the behaviour of cathodicly protected joints
in sea water. Experiments indicate that below N = lo7 cycles, fatigue lives
of cathodicly protected joints are of the same magnitude as of joints in
air. No test has been carried out for N > lo7. Due to uncertainties about the
efficiency of the cathodic protection, such as shielding effects etc., and of
threshold effects during crack propagation, it has been decided by API that
a more conservative SN-curve should be used for design of joints in sea water
than for joints in air when N > 10" cycles. The same uncertainties are also
considered in the revision of the Norwegian fatigue design codes, Refs. /8,9/.
In the last years, rather large test programs on tubular joints have been
conducted. The test results have been taken into account by the Department
of Energy in the establishment of a new design curve for tubular joints,
namely the T-curve, Ref. 171. The T-curve will also be used in Norway, Refs.
18, 91. The slope of the T-curve is -1 13, while that of the older X-curve and
Q-curve was -1 14.1, Refs. / 10, 5, 41. The curves are intersecting at approxi-
Section 11.2.1 - 11.2.2
mately N = 4 lo5 , which implies that the calculated fatigue lives for typical
offshore structures will not be much different for these two SN-curves,
provided the thicknesses of the considered joints are about 32 mm. As the
thickness increases, the T-curve with the included thickness effect will result
in shorter calculated fatigue lives than those of the X-curve.
Fatigue life considerations based on da/dn - AK curves and fracture
mechanics are included in the Veritas rules for design of offshore structures,
Refs. /5,8/.Application of the rules is discussed in Section 1 1.4.
at the weld toe, the relevant stress is the maximum principal stress range
adjacent to the potential crack location. For a tubular joint, the stress is the
idealized hot spot stress range defined as the greatest value of the extra-
polation to the weld toe of the maximum principal stress range distribution
immediately outside the region effected by the geometry of the weld. For
examples see Chapter 8 and Chapter 10.
Number o f cycles
SN design curves for non-tubular and tubular joints in air and sea water
with cathodic protection are drawn in Figs. 1 1.4 and 11.5.
For unprotected joints in sea water, the basic SN-curves are reduced
by a factor of 2 on life for all joint classes, Fig. 11.3. However for steels
with yield strengths larger than 400 MPa, a penalty factor of 2 may not be
sufficient. The curves are continuous with a constant slope equal to that in
Table 1 1.1 for N < 1O7 cycles.
EXAMPLE 1
At an early design stage simplified analyses are used to determine approximate
member dimensions. Assume an F2 detail, a life time of 20 years, a Weibull
two-parameter stress distribution and a utility factor q = 1.0. What is the
maximum allowable stress range?
Solution.
The equivalent stress range giving the same damage as the Weibull stress
distribution is, Eq. (1 0.24):
4.8
SCF
F2 curve:
log N = log Z - m log Ao
log lo8= 11.63 - 3 logAoeq
Aoeq.= 16.22
Finally :
16-22 = 141 MPa
no, = -
0.1 15
If the thickness of the plate is larger than 22 mm, the max. stress range is
reduced to :
EXAMPLE 2
F a t i g u e f a i l u r e in
weld startin
from the roo?
Consider the fatigue life of the cross joint in Fig. 11.7. The joint is subjected
to lo6 stress cycles with a constant stress range Ao = 60 MPa. The effective
throat length of the weld a = 10 mm. Is the design fatigue life of the joint
accept able?
Solution.
According to Appendix A, Joint Classification Type 5.4, the joint belongs to
class W.
Section 11.4
and
..--
..
A ~ = - L . L = 60 30 - 63.6 MPa
fl.2 a fi.2 10
which gives :
N = 4.9. lo5 and
= 106/4.9 los = 2.0
EXAMPLE 3
Suppose that the weld in Fig. 1 1.7 is made with full penetration. Is the design
fatigue life now acceptable?
Solution.
With full penetration the weld is of type number 5.1, Class F. Eq. (1 1.3)
yields:
logN = 11.80 -3.0 log(-)30 - 3.0 log 60.0 = 6.36
4 22
which gives:
Whether the design is acceptable or not will depend on the usage factor q
required in the fatigue design code. It varies with the importance of the
member and the possibilities for inspection and repair.
Section 1 1.4
EXAMPLE 4
A steel structure in a water depth of 147 m in the North Sea shall be checked
for fatigue at a conceptual stage. The structure is assumed t o be fixed t o a
foundation at mudline level. The design life is 40 years.
The preliminary geometry of the structure based on static strength
calculation is shown in Fig. 11.8. Conductors, conductor frames and risers
are deleted. The joint and cone dimensions are as follows:
Chord : outside radius
wall thickness
gap
Brace: outside radius
wall thickness
inclination angle
Cone: outside radius, upper
outside radius, lower
wall thickness
length
Geometrical parameters:
a) The braces between levels 0 and +35 transfer the largest axial wave-
and current load forces. Due to a rather small P ratio, it shall be checked
if the fatigue joint design at +35 m is acceptable.
b) At level +35 the fluctuating stresses in the chords are also large, and
the designer wants to know if the fatigue design of the cone transition
in this region can be accepted.
Dynamic analysis.
The structure in Fig. 11.8 is rather slender and it must be checked that its
natural period is not too close to the wave period. The structure is therefore
Section 1 1.4
xi 35000
$+
Plan .Levatton
4
140.00
C)
@-
9
@--
Kmy p I a n
modelled for a computer analysis accounting for' its stiffness and mass.
A suitable computer program such as SESAM 80 (Ref. 1191) is used. This
calculation shows that the first natural period is 2.8 s, and is so low that a
deterministic fatigue analysis is appropriate (Chapter 2). It is seen in Fig.
10.22 c that the Weibull shape parameter h is nearly constant up to a natural
period of 3 s.
4 ' Joint to
analysed
be
474
Section 11.4
Aa and Aao can be calculated, using the force- and moment ranges in Table
11-3:
Cone cross section area A, r
2 n R, T = 2 n 1750 90 = 98.96 lo4 mm2
Chord side
Axial load :
SCF, = 1-51 .y0.67. P-0.59. T1.lO. 0.067. sin1.52e
P
.
= 1 - 5 1 23-30.67. 0.43-0.59. 0.441.10. 0.390.067. sin1-52450
= 4.60
Section 1 1.4
In-plane bending:
.
S C F ~= 1.82 70.3 8. ~ 0 . 0 6 T0-94.
. sin0.9e
= 1-82 23.30-38 0,430.06. 0,440.94* sin0.945~
= 1.94
Out-of-plane bending :
-
SCF, = [ l .O1 - 3 . 3 6 ~ 0.641~1 rl-l8 * ~ i n l . ~ ~ f 3
= [1.01 - 3.3610.43 - 0.641~1 23.3°.95* 450
= 3.79
Brace side
Axial load :
SCF, = 0.92 .r0.16. P-0.44. T0.56. P 0.058. ,1.45*sin8
= 0.92. 23.30.16. 0.4~-0.44. 0.440.56*0.390.058. ,1.45*sin45O
= 3.68
In-plane bending:
.
S C F ~= 2-83 p-0.3 5. T0.35. sin0.58
= 2-83 .0.43-0.35* 0.440.35. sin0.545~
= 2.40
Out-of-plane bending :
SCFz = [0.76 - 1.92(P - 0.72)~] . T ~ sin2-03f3
. ~ ~
The greatest SCF values are found on the chord side, therefore, further
calculations are limited to that side.
The extreme hot spot stress range Aoo can now be calculated by Equations
8.7, Section 8.3.7. We have for wave direction 2 :
Question a.
Total number of stress cycles with a period of 6 s in direction 2 in 40 years:
Accumulated damage ratio for wave direction 2 can now be calculated using
Equation 10.20, Section 10.2.2. Values of Z and m for the T-curve are found
in Table 1 1.2 and for the gamma function in Table 10.2.
Since the chord thickness is much greater than 32 mm, the damage ratio
should be corrected for the thickness effect as explained in Section 10.6:
The wall thickness of the chord is already rather high, so the second
alternative may be the best choice. 0 may be increased by increasing the brace
radius over the total brace length or by inserting a cone, thus locally in-
creasing the radius.
Question b.
The maximum fluctuating stresses in the considered chord occur for wave
direction 2, for which the data in Table 11.3 apply.
The stress concentration factor at the chordlcone transition may be
calculated based on elastic shell theory, see e.g. Ref. 1221. The stress at the
transition can also be calculated by the following formula (Ref. 1131):
Comments
- on Example 4.
The example shows how fatigue lives may be predicted at an early design
stage. It is noted that even a small check involved numerous calculations.
The calculation of fatigue lives is therefore best suited for computers using
efficient preprocessors for handling of geometrical data and postprocessors
for automatic calculation of SCF's and fatigue lives. During the last years
a large effort has been made to make efficient programs for deterministic
and stochastic fatigue analyses. At the same time the efficiency of the com-
puters has increased and the costs associated with large analyses have been
largely reduced.
In many cases it is therefore preferable to let the computer do the
work even at an early stage of the design as described in Section 10.5.3.
Never-the-less it is important that the designer understands how fatigue lives
are computed in the program. It is also important that he understands which
factors influence the fatigue life. That enables him to make the best modi-
fications to the design if the calculation results in unacceptable fatigue lives.
Section 11.5.1 - 11.5.2
with
when failure was defined as crack growth through the thickness. The different
parameters in Eqs. (1 1.5) and (1 1.6) are as follows:
C = crack growth coefficient, Table 11.4
m = crack growth exponent, Table 11.4
W = width of. plate
Aa = stress range
Ui = ai/W
ai = initial crack depth
F = geometry correction factor
C --
[(MP,">m)m]
m Mean value Mean + 2 st.dev.
Welds in air 3.1 1.1 10-l3 3.3 -10-I
Welds subjected
to seawater 3 -5 3.4*10-l 1.6- 10-I
11.5.3 Crack growth calculation for butt welds, cruciform joints and tubular
joints
The integral I defined in Section 11.5.1 has been calculated for a buttweld,
a cruciform joint and a tubular joint assuming infinitely long cracks. The
results are shown in Figs. 11.1 1 - 11.19 (Ref. /8/). The values apply to crack
propagation from an initial crack depth, ai, to a depth af equal to the plate
thickness, i.e. a = 1. The number of stress cycles to failure follows from
Eq. (1 1.5). If the crack grows from a, to a,, the answer results when the
difference between I(a,) and I(az) is inserted as numerator in Eq. (1 1.5).
Figs. 11.1 1-1 1.19 are based on local tension stresses as defined in
Chapter 10, Section 10.2.4. If the stresses are mainly due to bending, I must
be calculated according to Eq. (1 1.6). The appropriate F function may be
derived by finite element analyses of the considered structure, see e.g. Ref.
1151 and Chapter 3 in this book.
For surface cracks the integral I is shown for two values of the crack
growth exponent m. m = 3.1 is relevant for non-corrosive environments
or corrosive environments with an effective corrosion protection system.
Without corrosion protection and especially for high values of the stress
ratio R, m = 3.5 is relevant. Residual stresses should be considered when R is
determined.
In Figs. 1 1.1 1-1 1.16 the integral is shown for two different strain
conditions marked: No restriction to bending and restriction to bending.
The former means that the plate is free to bend as the crack propagates
and the crack opens, the latter that bending is rendered impossible.
The values of the integral in Figs. 1 1.1 1-1 1.19 refer to infinitely long
cracks. For internal defects close to the surface in cruciform joints, the
number of cycles to fracture is calculated in two steps: First Fig. 11.17 is
used for growth to the surface, thereafter Fig. 11.15 or Fig. 1 1.16 until
complete fracture takes place. In the first step, equal growth at both crack
Section 1 1.5.3
. - . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . ..
. . . . . . ..
. . . . ....
. . . . . . . .
. . ....
. . ....
. . ....
. . . . ...
. . . . . . . .
.. .. .. .
.
.. .. ..
.. .. .. ..
.. - . - - . - - - - -
-......
- - - - - - - 0 - - . - -
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
..-....I...--
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. I
. . . . . . . .
......................................
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-.-I
. . . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
....................e..................................................... . I
. . . . . .
',.....--.-.-....
\y
I 1 1 1 1 & 1 I , 1 1 1 1 1
.................................. -. ..................................................
~ . . . . . .., . .. . ~. 0 ., . ... . ... . ., . ... . , . . . . . . . ... , .. . ... . ... . ... . .. . ... . . ..........-...-.....-.
. . . . . . .
6..
........................................................................................
.. . . . .. . . . .
r..--.r --a-.-.-
#
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
......................................................................................
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... .. .. . ..- .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . .
. -
...........................
L A
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.........................
........................
........................... .%
.......... ."..........................
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
a- ........ .. ........................
.....
.. .. .. .. .. .....--..-. .. .. --.-
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......... .._ ...................
... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. .............
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......... .-.............................. . . .----.
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. . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
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- - .- . - . ...................................
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............-....-..
ec
.....
....... .............
. . ....
. . . . . .
....... .. .. ...............
a..
.. ...,.
2.. L-...
......... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...........
............................................... .. .. .. .. ..
......... . . . . . . .
.................................. . . .,. .................
. . . . .
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......... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
...............................................
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.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
....................................................................................... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
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. . . . . . . .
..........................................
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. #.
t
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
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......................................................................................
............................................................................-......... .. .. .. .. .. .. ....... .. ..
..... ......,......,...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * .................
. . . ....
. . . . . .
*.*-.-
. . . -..."
a. . ..
a. 2. .a*..-
. . .......
..................I...
-..-
d.
............................................................................
. . a.. ...............................
. . . . . . . . . ...........................................
. . . . .
..............
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. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
- 4 . .
..............
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .............. -- .. .. .. .. .. .. ...
............................................
.. .. . . . . . .. .. .. .
. . . . . .
...............___..........._...._. . . . .
.......-...... . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
..........................................
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. . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
1 I 1 1 1 1 a - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Fig. 11.18 Tubular joints in air. Surface cracks at the weld toe.
m = 3.1. Ref. /8/.
Section 1 1.5.3
Fig. 1 1.1 9 Tubular joints in seawater. Surface cracks at the weld toe.
m = 3.5. Ref. 181.
Section 11.6
tips is assumed. Cracks situated less than 0.15 B from the weld toe should
be treated as surface cracks and evaluated by the curves in Figs. 1 1.15 or
11.16.
Welded tubular joints may be of varied designs. Figs. 11.18 and 1 1.19
are based on upper bound values for crack growth in simple unstiffened T-,
Y- and IS-joints and are relevant for growth of surface cracks in the thickness
direction in the hot spot region. Hot spot stresses shall be used in Eq. (1 1.5).
EXAMPLE 5
1 2 3
S h a r p under c u t
Solution.
We presume a long crack and that the length of the loaded plate is large
compared with its thickness. This way, the plate is free to bend as the crack
develops and the graph in Fig. 11.15 with e/W = 0 and "no restriction to
bending" applies.
For different values of the initial defect ai, the curve in Fig. 11.20 results,
showing the fatigue life in relative units as function of the initial defect depth.
EXAMPLE 6
j~s-T+-
-7
A6
Solution.
It is assumed that the plates are long, so that bending stresses due to crack
opening are limited and Fig. 1 1.13 applies.
The relative misalignment e/W = 0,08. Since the nomograph in Fig.
11.13 is not drawn for this value, we calculate the local stress range at the
Section 11.6
By trial and error procedure it has been found that af r 5 mm and F 1.4
satisfy the two equations:
We then read in Fig. 11.13 for 0 =30°, e/W = 0, and a/W = 1/25 ~ 0 . 0 4 :
I. = 4.2 lo-'
and for a/W = 5/25 = 0.2:
If = 6.0 lo-'
For a structure in sea water without cathodic protection, the codes generally
recommend a usage factor of q = 0.3 when the fatigue life calculation is based
on SN-curves. Logically, the same factor must apply in crack growth calcula-
tions. The design life of the joint is therefore:
during installation and service. Accurate alignment and rigging generally call
for a considerable amount of expensive underwater operation.
Repair - and reinforcement methods based on grouting technique
appear promising, mainly because a moderate amount of underwater work
is needed and because cracks and unfavourable residual stresses are not intro-
duced in the structure. The application of grouted confining sleeves around
defective joints, as shown for a T-connection in Fig. 11 2 2 , is however not
without practical problems, such as the varying and complicated geometry
of the joints, and the rather difficult task of securing tightness of the assembly
during grouting.
REFERENCES
1. Gurney,T.R.:
Fatigue of Welded Structures. Cambridge University Press, Second edition, 1979.
2. Gurney, T.R.:
Fatigue Design Rules for Welded Steel Joints, The Welding Institute Research Bulletin.
Volume 17, Number 5, May 1976.
3. Regulations for the structural design of fixed structures on the Norwegian Continental
Shelf, Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, 1977.
5. Rules for the Design, Construction and Installation of Offshore Structures, Det norske
Veritas, 1977.
6. BS 5400 Part 10, 1980. Code of Practice for Fatigue. Steel, Concrete and Composite
Bridges. British Standard Institution.
7. Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction. New Fatigue Design
Guidance for Steel Welded Joints in Offshore Structures. Recommendations of the
Department of Energy "Guidance Notes" Revision Drafting Panel. August 1983,
Issue N.
8. Classification Note No. 30.2. Fatigue Strength Analysis for Mobile Offshore Units.
Det norske Veritas, 1984.
(c) A s (b) but with any flame-cut edges B Any re-entrant corners in flame-cut
subsequently ground o r machined t o edges should have a radius greater
remove all visible sign of the drag lines than the plate thickness
(d) As (b) but with the edges machine C Note, however, that the presence of
flame-cut by a controlled procedure t o a re-entrant corner implies the exis-
ensure that the cut surface is free from tence of a stress concentration so
cracks that the design stress should be taken
as the net stress multiplied by the
relevant stress concentration factor
Type 2. Continuous welds essentially parallel to the direction of applied stress
Notes o n potential modes of failure continuous, and (b) if they are attached by unwelded edges as a result, for example, of
With the excess weld metal dressed flush, welding those welds must also comply with undercut, weld spatter, or accidental over-
fatigue cracks would be expected to initiate the relevant class requirements (note par- weave in manual fillet welding (see also
at weld defect locations. In the as-welded ticularly that tack welds, unless subse- notes on joint type 4). Although an edge
condition, cracks might initiate at quently ground out or covered by a con- distance can be specified only for the
stopstart positions or, if these are not tinuous weld, would reduce the joint to 'width' direction of an element, it is equally
present, at weld surface ripples. class F, see joint type 6.5. important to ensure that n o accidental
undercutting occurs on the unwelded cor-
General comments 2 . Edge distance. An edge distance cri- ners of, for example, cover plates or box
1. Backing strips. If backing strips are used terion exists to limit the possibility of local girder flanges. If it does occur it should
in making these joints: (a) they must be stress concentrations occurring at subsequently be ground smooth.
(a) Full penetration butt welds with the B The significance of defects should be
weld overfill dressed flush with the surface determined with the aid of specialist
and finish-machined in the direction of advice andlor by the use of fracture
stress, and with the weld proved free from mechanics analysis. The NDT tech-
significant defects by non-destructive nique must be selected with a view to
examination. ensuring the detection of such
significant defects.
(b) Butt or fillet welds with the welds C If an accidental stopstart occurs in a
made by an automatic submerged or open region where class C is required
arc process and with no stop-start positions remedlal action should be taken so
within the length. that the finished weld has a similar -
surface and root profile to that
intended. *
'a
(c) As (b) but with the weld containing
stopstart positions within the length. This
D For situation at the ends of flange
cover plates see joint type 6.4.
3E
tn X
0 class includes welds made manually.
W 3
u
P Type 3. Transverse butt welds (i.e. essentially perpendicular to the direction of applied stress) a
Notes on potential modes of failure
With the weld ends machined flush with fatigue conditions), at the weld root. approximate method of allowing for eccen- ??
the plate edges, fatigue cracks in the as- Unless made on a permanent backing (type tricity in the thickness direction is to multi- X
welded condition normally initiate at the
weld toe, so that the fatigue strength
3.3) welds made entirely from one side are
not classified for fatigue purposes, since
ply the nominal stress by (1 + 3elt), where
e is the distance between centres of thick-
>
depends largely upon the shape of the weld adequate control cannot be exercised over ness of the two abutting members (if one of
overfill. If this is dressed flush the stress the profile of the root bead which is where the members is tapered, the centre of the
concentration caused by it is removed and fatigue cracks would be likely to initiate. untapered thickness must be used); and t is
failure is then associated with weld defects. the thickness of the thinner member. With
In welds made on a permanent backing Design stresses connections which are supported laterally,
strip, fatigue cracks initiate at the weld In the design of butt welds of types 3.1 or e.g. flanges of a beam which are supported
metallstrip junction, and in partial penetra- 3.2 which are not aligned the stresses must by the web, eccentricity may be neglected.
tion welds (which should not be used under include the effect of any eccentricity. An
(c) Welds made other than in (a) or (b). E In both (b) and (c) the corners of
the cross-section of the stressed ele-
ment at the weld toes should be
dressed to a smooth profile.
Continued.
7jpe nrtmber, descrlprion and
. ~ rr~odeof failure
r ~ o t eon Class E~ylannroryc o n ~ m e r ~ t s Examples, including failure modes 2>
a
5
3.2. Parent metal adjacent to, or weld E Note that ~t the b a c k ~ n gstrlp is flllet
-- ;- I - E
metal in, full penetration butt joints made welded or tack welded t o the
*
X
on a permanent backing strip between
plates ot equdl width and thlckneqs or wlth
d~tferences In wldth and th~ckness
machlned to a smooth transition not
steeper than 1 in 4
joints made from both sides between plates tion plates, arranged so as to enable
of unequal width, with the weld ends butt welds to be made between
ground to a radius not less than 1.25 x the plates of equal width.
thickness r .
ru'ote that for this detail the stress
concentration has been taken into
account in the joint classification.
4.1. Parent metal (of the stressed Butt-welded joints should be made
member) adjacent to toes or ends of with an additional reinforcing fillet
bevel-butt or fillet-welded attachments, so as to provide a toe profile similar
regardless of the orientation of the weld to to that which would exist in a fillet-
the direction of applied stress, and whether welded joint.
or not the welds are continuous round the
attachment.
(a) With attachment length (parallel to the F The decrease in fatigue strength with
direction of the applied stress) < 150 mm increasing attachment length is
and with edge distance LlOmm. because more load is transferred into distance
the longer gusset, giving an increase
in stress concentration.
4.2. Parent metal (of the stressed G Note that the classification applies to
member) at the toes or the ends of butt- or all sizes of attachment. It would
fillet-welded attachments on or within therefore include, for example, the
10 mm of the edges or corners of a stressed junction of two flanges at right
member, and regardless of the shape of the angles. In such situations a low
attachment. fatigue classification can often be
avoided by the use of a transition
plate (see also joint type 3.3).
Continued. *
Sc
0
00 Type number, description and
notes on mode of failure Class Explanatory comments Examples, including failure modes
4.3. Parent metal (of the stressed Note that this classification does not
member) at the toe of a butt weld connect- apply to fillet-welded joints (see joint
ing the stressed member to another type 5.lb). However it does apply to
member slotted through it. loading in either direction (L o r T in the
sketch).
(a) With the length of the slotted-through F
member parallel to the direction of the
applied stress ~ 1 5 mm
0 and with edge
distance 310 mm.
(b) Joint made with partial penetration o r F2 In this type of joint, failure is likely
fillet welds with any undercutting at the to occur in the weld throat unless the
corners of the member dressed out by local weld is made sufficiently large (see
grinding. joint type 5.4). -/71
P
'a
z
3
wl
E
X
0
\O Continued. P
Appendix A
Type 6. Details in welded girders
Notes on potential modes of failure enhanced when these features occur at o r shown, in a more general form, in joint
Fatigue cracks generally initiate at weld near an edge o f a part (see notes on joint type 4; they are included here for conveni-
toes and are especially associated with type 4). ence as being the joints which occur most
local stress concentrations at weld ends, frequently in welded girders.
short lengths of return welds, and changes General comment
of weld direction. Concentrations are Most of the joints in this section are also
G
Edge distance refers t o distance trom
a free, i.e. unwelded, edge. In this
example, therefore, it is not relevant
as far as the (welded) edge of the
web plate is concerned. For reason
for edge distance see note on joint
type 2.
( ~3
Examples, including failure modes
- G
-z-
Edge d~stance
/- --
--(
4
)'
Y'
6.2. Parent metal at the end of a weld E This classification Includes all
connecting a st~ffener,diaphragm, etc. t o a attachments to girder webs.
girder web in a region of combined bend-
ing and shear.
Continued. *
'dl
+ 9
'a
w Type number, description and
notes on mode of failure Class Explanatory comments Examples, including failure modes 2
EL
6.3. Parent metal adjacent t o welded shear
connectors.
whether the plate has square o r tapered However, such a detail is not
ends a n d whether o r not there are welds recommended because it will almost
across the ends. inevitably result in undercutting of
the flange edge where the transverse
weld crosses it, as well as involving a
longitudinal weld terminating on the
flange edge a n d causing a high stress
concentration.
6.5. Parent metal adjacent t o the ends of E This also includes tack welds which
discontinuous welds, e.g. intermittent are not subsequently buried in a con-
web-to-flange welds, o r tack welds unless tinuous weld. This may be particu-
subsequently buried in continuous runs. larly relevant in tack-welded backing
strips.
As above, but adjacent to cope holes. F Note that the existence of the cope
hole is allowed for in the joint classi-
fication; it should not be regarded as
an additional stress concentration as
far as the web-to-flange welds are
concerned.
SUBJECT INDEX