Practical Hazardous Areas

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 Presents

Practical
Hazardous Areas
for Engineers & Technicians

Revision 7

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IDC Technologies Pty Ltd
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First published 2010

ISBN: 978-1-921716-33-1

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 Contents
Preface
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definitions 2
1.3 Investigation after accidents and disasters 4
1.4 History 6
1.5 Equipment certification 9
1.6 Conclusion 10

2 Flammability Characteristics, Ignition Sources and the Use of

Electricity 11
2.1 Flammability 11
2.2 Flammability information (gasses and vapours) 16
2.3 Dusts 17
2.4 Theory into practice 20
2.5 General sources of ignition 20
2.6 Use of electricity and its sources of ignition 21
2.7 Electrical protection (as opposed to explosion protection) 24
2.8 Toxicity hazard 25
2.9 Conclusions 25

3 Area Classification 27
3.1 General 27
3.2 Overview of the principles of safety 28
3.3 Definitions 28
3.4 The process of assessment 29
3.5 Normal and abnormal operation 32
3.6 Classification into zones 33
3.7 Area classification process 35
3.8 Openings 37
3.9 Ventilation 40
3.10 HAC calculation 42
3.11 Area classification of dust hazards 49
3.12 Responsibility and personnel involved 50
3.13 Documentation 50
3.14 Policy and guidelines for implementation 52
3.15 General information 53
3.16 Area classification standards 54
3.17 HAC examples 55
3.18 Dusts 57
3.19 Classification in North America 59
3.20 Conclusions 59

4 Explosion Protection Philosophy and Equipment Classification

Systems 61
4.1 General 61
4.2 Classification concepts 62
4.3 Introduction to equipment certification 62
 4.4 Temperature classification 63
4.5 Equipment grouping 65
4.6 Types of explosion protection 69
4.7 Overview of explosion protection theory 71
4.8 Brief comparison of types of protection 71
4.9 Mixed techniques 77
4.10 Dust explosion protection methods 78
4.11 Selection of the type of explosion protection 78
4.12 Conclusion 80

5 Protection Concepts: Type of Protection; ‘d’ 81

5.1 Name 81
5.2 Standards 81
5.3 Definition 82
5.4 Principle of operation 82
5.5 Types of flamepath joint and uses 85
5.6 Explosion pressure 89
5.7 Certification 90
5.8 Cabling requirements for Ex d 91
5.9 Design and type-testing 97
5.10 Installation and conditions of use 97
5.11 Regional variations in Ex d implementation 99
5.12 Illustrations of mechanical construction 100
5.13 Summary 102

6 Protection Concept ‘e’ 103

6.1 Name 103
6.2 Standards 103
6.3 Definitions 104
6.4 Principles of design for increased safety 104
6.5 Component certification 106
6.6 Internal requirements of Ex e 107
6.7 Ex e enclosures 108
6.8 Rotating electrical machines 109
6.9 Cable and glanding requirements 111
6.10 Periodic inspection requirements 113
6.11 Marking 114
6.12 Applications 114
6.13 Summary 115

7 Protection Concept ‘n’ 117

7.1 Name 117
7.2 Standards 117
7.3 Definitions 119
7.4 Principles of design 120
7.5 Construction 121
7.6 Additional means of protection 122
7.7 Applications 126
7.8 Installation 127
7.9 Inspection 128
7.10 Live working 128
8 Protection Concept ‘i’ Principles 129
8.1 Name 129
8.2 Standards 129
8.3 Definition 130
8.4 Origins of intrinsic safety 130
8.5 Principles 130
8.6 Electrical theory 132
8.7 Implementation of IS 138
8.8 The shunt diode safety barrier 142
8.9 Associated apparatus 153
8.10 Electrical apparatus in the hazardous area 155
8.11 Enclosures 162
8.12 Temperature 162
8.13 The Ex i systems concept 163
8.14 An Ex i ‘system’ 163
8.15 Assessment of safety 164
8.16 Simple apparatus 165
8.17 Safety parameters 165
8.18 Temperature classification of systems 166
8.19 Systems concepts in other standards 166
8.20 Conclusion 167

9 Protection Concept Ex p 169

9.1 Name 169
9.2 Standards 169
9.3 Principle of operation 171
9.4 Purging 173
9.5 Pressurisation 175
9.6 Variations 176
9.7 Application notes 178
9.8 Certification and documentation 180
9.9 Pressure / Flow failure 180
9.10 Ex p protection type px, py and pz 182
9.11 Conclusion 183

10 Other types of Ex Protection and their use in Combination 185

10.1 General 185
10.2 Ex o 185
10.3 Ex q 187
10.4 Ex m 188
10.5 Ex s 190
10.6 Multiple-certification 192
10.7 Selection of certification method 194
10.8 Equipment certified for dust 194
10.9 Conclusion 195

11 Earthing and Bonding 197

11.1 Earthing 197
11.2 Personnel safety 198
11.3 Hazardous area considerations 199
11.4 Earthing and bonding 200
11.5 Static electricity 203
 11.6 Clean and dirty earthing 206
11.7 Electrical interference 207
11.8 Earthing terminology 209
11.9 Connection of earthing systems 212
11.10 Power supply systems 214
11.11 Portable equipment using batteries 216
11.12 Earthing arrangement standard solutions 216
11.13 Earth loops 219
11.14 Computer earthing 220
11.15 Surge protection systems 223
11.16 Summary 225

12 Installations 227
12.1 Introduction to installations 227
12.2 Selection and installation in general 228
12.3 IEC 60079-14: 2007 contents 230
12.4 Other relevant installation standards and codes 230
12.5 Verification dossier 231
12.6 General requirements of the standard 231
12.7 Selection of electrical equipment 234
12.8 Dusts 237
12.9 Electrical supply systems 240
12.10 Commissioning 244
12.11 Installed arrangements 244
12.12 Summary 245

13 Inspection and Maintenance 247

13.1 Introduction 247
13.2 Standards 247
13.3 Scope of IEC 60079-17 249
13.4 Definitions 249
13.5 Layout of the standard 250
13.6 Types of protection 253
13.7 Insulation testing 254
13.8 Maintenance 255
13.9 Testing 256
13.10 Unauthorised modification 256
13.11 Earthing integrity verification 256
13.12 Need for inspection and maintenance 257
13.13 IEC inspection tables 263

14 Safe Working Practices 269

14.1 Introduction 269
14.2 Risk assessment 270
14.3 General rules 270
14.4 Danger signals of electrical malfunctioning 271
14.5 Recording of incidents and observations 272
14.6 Maintenance and safe practices 272
14.7 Training of personnel 275
14.8 Electrical fire and shock 275
14.9 Summary 277
15 Fault Finding and Testing 279
15.1 Fault finding 279
15.2 Fault finding routine 279
15.3 Electrical testing in hazardous area 281
15.4 Earth testing in a hazardous area 284
15.5 Repairs 285
15.6 Competency assessment 287
15.7 Summary 287

16 Standards, Certification, Marking, ATEX and DSEAR 289

16.1 Introduction 289
16.2 Harmonisation of standards 290
16.3 A brief history of certification and approval 291
16.4 Introduction to ATEX 294
16.5 Product directive 295
16.6 Bird’s eye view of ATEX product directive 310
16.7 Summary of marking 316
16.8 The workers directive 317
16.9 Dangerous substances and explosive atmospheres
regulations 319
16.10 Summary 320
16.11 Conclusion 320

Appendix A 321

Appendix B 329

Appendix C 331

Appendix D 335

Appendix E 339
 Preface

This book provides delegates with an understanding of the hazards involved in using electrical
equipment in potentially explosive atmospheres. It is based on the harmonised IEC79 Series of
International Standards that have now replaced the older national Standards and are directly
applicable to most countries in the world (including North America). Explosion-Protected
installations can be expensive to design, install and operate. The wider approaches described in
these standards can significantly reduce costs whilst maintaining plant safety. The book explains
the associated terminology and its correct use. It covers from Area Classification through to the
selection of explosion protected electrical apparatus, describing how protection is achieved and
maintained in line with these international requirements. Standards require that engineering staff
and their management are trained effectively and safely in Hazardous Areas and this book is
designed to help fulfill that need.

This book is aimed at anyone involved in design, specification, installation, commissioning,

maintenance, inspection or documentation of industrial instrumentation, control and electrical
systems. This includes:
• Tradespersons working in potentially explosive areas
• Electrical and Instrument Tradespersons
• Instrumentation and Control Engineers
• Electrical Engineers
• Instrumentation Technicians
• Design Engineers
• Managers with responsibility for hazardous areas

We would hope that you will gain the following from this book:
• A good understanding of terminology used with Hazardous Areas
• An understanding of the hazards of using Electrical equipment in the presence of
flammable gases, vapours and dusts.
• A basic knowledge of Explosion Protection to IEC Standards
• The ability to do a simple hazardous area classification
• Details of the types of apparatus that can be used in a given hazardous area
• How to design and install safe working systems in hazardous areas
• An understanding of the safety and operational aspects of hazardous areas
• Knowledge of the system limitations in using hazardous areas protection
• A brief review of the key areas of the national codes of practice

You will need a basic understanding of instrumentation and electrical theory for the book to be of
greatest benefit. No previous knowledge of hazardous area installation is required.
2 Practical hazardous areas
 1
Introduction

This manual accompanies the Hazardous Areas training course presented by IDC Technologies. In
this first Chapter we begin by examining the legacy of learning from previous accidents. We
present an overview of the background and history of Explosion Protection.

Learning objectives
• To learn from previous disasters
• To realise the risk posed by electrical equipment in hazardous areas
• To understand the need for the development of Standards

1.1 Introduction
Any threat to ‘life, property and investment’ is said to constitute a ‘hazard’. In modern
manufacturing industries there are many types of hazard. These are encountered in various ways.
Each hazard poses a different level of threat.

Where materials that can be ignited are used as part of any industrial process, they are referred to as
‘flammable materials’ and precautions must be taken to prevent the inadvertent occurrence of
explosion and fire.

In the design of a plant, the flammable material which may be in the form of a gas, vapour, mist or
dust, can be confined, transported, processed or possibly released under different circumstances. In
each situation, if it can form a ‘potentially explosive atmosphere’ (PEA) by mixing with air then
the simultaneous presence of sources of ignition must be eliminated or adequately controlled. The
design of an industrial plant or facility and the equipment and procedures used must render the
plant as safe as is reasonably practicable.

The combination of scientific research, technological development and practical experience are the
three key considerations in human endeavour to minimise risk. Risk Assessment is the process by
which this learning is applied to the concept of safety to achieve what is judged to be at an
acceptable level.

This course will study current thinking and practise on the protection of industrial plants to train
delegates on the technical and organisational measures required for safety purposes. It focuses on
the use of explosion protected equipment operating in hazardous areas. It is suitable for personnel
involved in the following activities on industrial plant and equipment:-
• Process Design
• Selection
2 Practical hazardous areas

• Installation
• Operation
• Inspection
• Maintenance
• Repair and overhaul and
• Troubleshooting

1.2 Definitions
It is important to define and understand some of the key terms used in this subject:-

1.2.1 Fire and explosion

FIRE (Combustion) is the process of a flammable material undergoing a rapid oxidation reaction
that results in the production of heat (and, generally, visible light).

EXPLOSION is the violent and sudden expansion of gases produced by rapid combustion. It is a
strong force, producing noise and supersonic shock waves that can cause extensive mechanical
damage by the uncontrolled release of energy.

Examples are: -
• boiler explosion
• combustion of a gas/air mixture
• detonation of explosives

1.2.2 Hazard
Hazards are of two types, either ‘Natural’ or ‘Manmade’.

Natural ‘Hazards’, such as blizzards, flash floods, earthquakes, heat waves, hurricanes, tornadoes,
volcanic eruption etc, cannot be prevented. Countermeasures can only be taken to minimise the
consequences.

Manmade ‘Hazards’, such as the potential occurrence of explosion and fire in industrial situations,
are that which this course seeks to address.

1.2.3 Hazardous area

A HAZARDOUS AREA in the context of this subject is:-
• An area in which a flammable gas or vapour may be present in sufficient quantity to
form a ‘potentially explosive atmosphere’

One is reminded that this may be only one of many ‘areas’ on an industrial site which might be
prone to an accident or the onset of a potentially dangerous situation in a defined region, owing to
the presence of other predominant risks. The ‘hazard’ about which this subject is concerned is for
when a ‘fuel’ in the form of a gas, vapour mist or dust is present in ‘atmospheric air’ and a ‘source
of ignition’ caused by the presence of electrical equipment occurs simultaneously.

1.2.4 Hazard
An explosion occurs when there is a convergence of three basic ingredients as depicted in the
classic Fire Triangle analogy (see Figure 1.1):-
• Fuel, any combustible material
• Air with 21% Oxygen
• Ignition source

Where electricity is in use, it is known that heat and sparking at sufficient levels can provide an
adequate source of ignition.
 Introduction 3

Wherever combustible or flammable materials are stored, handled or processed there is an

increased likelihood of leakage or ‘availability’ of the fuel and so it is necessary to be able to
predict the circumstances of presence of the elements of the fire triangle. This is a form of Risk
Assessment. Proper application is necessary to manage the hazard safely.

In practical terms, with the abundance of air around a process plant, adequate control must be
exerted over the other two elements to reduce risk of explosion to acceptable levels.

O2
Fuel:
Air Gas
(21% Oxygen) Vapour
Mist
Dust
!
Fire

Source of
Ignition
Heat or Sparks

Figure 1.1
The explosion triangle

1.2.5 Risk assessment

The process of Risk Assessment applied to Hazardous Areas is to define its nature and presence in
a given location. Electricity is essential to industry but its use can generate heat or sparks that can
ignite a potentially flammable atmosphere. Once defined, equipment and procedures suitable for
use in such a hazard can be selected and operated safely. Examination of the issues and acceptable
solutions are discussed in this course. The use of electrical equipment protection measures are well
established but risk from non-electrical sources are now being included into Standards to be
discussed.

Risk assessment must cover all sources of ignition.

After the occurrence of accidents and disasters, the human quest for safety forces thorough
investigation by diligent scientific means to reveal likely or actual causes. “Root Cause Analysis”
ensures that the set of conditions that has occurred to cause the disaster, are adequately understood.
Appropriate precautions can then be taken to ensure that they cannot occur under the same
circumstances again. In this way risk is managed and reduced.

The investigation must also take into account the actions of humans in relation to the circumstances
of the accident. Causes of accidents have been shown to be by:-
• Improper installation and selection
• Lack of proper maintenance
• Improper use
4 Practical hazardous areas

• Carelessness or oversight
• Ignoring warning signs of failure
• Inadequate training and supervision

Such foreseeable and avoidable human errors must therefore be the subject of scrutiny and
prevention.

1.3 Investigation after accidents and disasters

Industrial accidents involving explosion and fire will always be the subject of investigation.
Lessons can be learned and so prevention knowledge and techniques can be further developed and
improved. Cumulative knowledge now helps to fertilise the thinking processes and the approach
taken on an international footing.

The Piper Alpha oil platform disaster occurred on 1st June 1988 in the North Sea off the coast of
Scotland and is shown in Figure 1.2. The subsequent investigation uncovered how and why it
happened exposing many bad practices owing to poor management. The report was responsible for
initiating a dramatic change in the oil and petrochemical industries attitude to the management of
safety.

Figure 1.2
The explosion triangle

This is one of many risks that the Owner of any industrial process on commercial premises must
consider. The Owner, often referred to as the ‘Duty-holder’ in Law, must ensure that risks are
adequately understood and therefore adequate precautions are in place to ensure safety to life,
property and investment.

The term ‘Loss Prevention’ is a modern title applied to any body within an organisation responsible
for overseeing the wider implementation of safety. The ‘loss’ could be to any one or more of the
three critical values of life, property and investment.

Accidents in the mining industry are still common with other recent deaths in China and other Far
Eastern countries. Closer to home in the UK, the Senghenydd disaster, in South Wales on 14th
October 1913, killed 439 miners. Investigation into this disaster and the subsequent research taught
the mining industry a great lesson that was passed on internationally.
 Introduction 5

This has led to extensive research and detailed studies to assimilate knowledge in order to prevent
explosions and fires in all types of industrial, commercial and domestic circumstances. ‘Hazardous
environment’ found in various industries.

Globally, expertise is now shared to educate and prevent accidents. This is culminated in the
International Standards to which industries work to maintain safety. The technology is currently
based on the identification of the risk of an explosive atmosphere being present in a particular
place. This is coupled with the identification of the likelihood of electrical equipment within the
explosive atmosphere malfunctioning in a way that would cause it to become a source of ignition
coincident with the presence of that explosive atmosphere. The objectives are not just to identify
these coincidences but to utilise the information so obtained to influence the design of particular
process plants and similar operational situations. This will help to minimize the risk of an
explosion due to electrical installations. In this approach, the areas normally prone to have an
explosive atmosphere due to the requirement of varies processes involved, are identified.
Similarly, the areas where its likelihood is low but identifiable are marked up. It is needless to say
that this is not an end in itself but should be deployed as a part of ‘Overall Safety Strategy’ for the
plant.

1.3.1 Emergence of standards

The ability of electricity to cause ignition and trigger explosions has been understood since the turn
of the twentieth century. Measures to control and minimise the risks have become part of the
engineering discipline of design and to meet legislation for safety ever since.

Initially, countries developed their own regional practices independently of each other. The types
of industry which were developed in that region depended on the natural resources available and
hence the development of local expertise to deal with the hazards. In those early days the rules or
practices were created by different organisations often depending on the system of Law in the
country.

These have evolved into ‘Standards’ which will be introduced and discussed in this manual. Local
Standards such as British Standards have merged into Regional Standards such as from Europe and
then have become International Standards. This is discussed in detail in the Chapter on Standards.
Examples are:-
UK: BS5501
North America: NFPA70 – NEC Article 500
Europe: CENELEC EN50 Series
Global: International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 79 Series

1.3.2 Methodology
The Standards impose a methodology that looks not only at technical issues but management and
control issues. Under the European ATEX Directives, discussed in detail later and adopted by
many institutes, the route to safe analysis is based on:-
• First step : identification of the risk of an explosive atmosphere being present in a
particular area
• Second step : eliminating the use of electrical equipment in such areas
• Third step : if installation becomes essential: identify the likelihood of electrical
equipment malfunctioning

Thus precautions can be taken to assess and prevent ignition occurring in such areas in the most
logical and effective way.

An overall plant safety strategy must be developed of which Area Classification, the outcome of
the risk assessment, must be part to ensure safety. Thus Explosion Protection techniques can be
applied where equipment must function in the possible presence of a hazard.
6 Practical hazardous areas

1.4 History
The use of electricity in a potentially explosive atmosphere was first encountered in the coal
mining industry and it is there where the first precautions were developed and implemented. Even
before this the hazard of ‘fire-damp’ [methane] was recognised.

Miners observed that the presence of fire-damp would make the flames of the miners’ naked-flame
lighting sources (oil lamps and candles) burn a different colour. This was also inadvertently the
original hydrocarbon ‘gas detector’. Unfortunately, this was also the source of ignition causing
many deaths. The mining authorities realised that burning off the methane collected in the seams of
the mines would deal with the immediate problem at the start of a shift. Young miners were
covered in wet sacking and would be induced to crawl down the tunnels with a long lighted taper
held up towards the ceiling in the highest points thereby setting light to the gas. In later years,
penitents, prisoners for serious crimes, were released to perform this service. This made the mines
safe for miners to work. Although this was an effective method, it was somewhat barbaric in nature
and fell into disrepute. Subsequently, methane and other noxious gasses were removed by
improving ventilation.

After a disaster at the Feeling Coal Mine in Northumberland, UK on 25th May 1815 during which
92 miners died, Sir Humphry Davy (assisted by the young Michael Faraday) invented the Davy
Safety Lamp (see Figure 1.3) which was first tested underground in the Hepburn Colliery, Tyne
and Wear, on the 9th January 1816. This invention must have saved innumerable lives over the
years.

Gauze barrier:
air enters to support
flame burning.

Combustible gas
enters and ignites.
Burning gas cannot
pass back through
gauze

Flame behind
glass cylinder

Oil Reservoir

Figure 1.3
Davy Safety lamp designs

Around the late nineteenth century and in the early part of the twentieth century the use of
electricity in mining began, using d.c. supplies for lighting and motive power. The early equipment
produced sparks and some explosions were caused, igniting methane and coal dust. Before World
War II, extensive research work was done in Germany and the UK to prevent this and so came the
development of a crude form of ‘flameproof enclosure’ suitable for sparking equipment. As a result
of the Welsh Mining Disaster, mentioned earlier, the ignition capability of control and signalling
systems was realised and so the concept of energy limited circuits became understood and was
developed. The concept of ‘Flameproofing’ was to contain an ignition, preventing it from
propagating into a hazardous area. Scientists and engineers, however, also knew that if the power
and energy levels in circuits were regulated and limited then it could not cause ignition. This
subsequently became known as ‘Intrinsic Safety’.
 Introduction 7

Originally these crude types of protection were developed specifically for the mining industry to be
safe in methane and coal dust, but it was realised that the same approach could be used for the
developing surface industry.

1.4.1 ‘Surface’ industries and area classification

It became apparent over time that, whereas in mines only coal dust and methane gas presented the
hazardous conditions, on the surface a myriad of situations depending upon the type of industry and
processes used. To ensure that appropriate precautions were taken, a risk assessment technique
evolved to classify each ‘Hazardous Area’. This led to the process of ‘area classification’, that of
defining where the hazard might be present, and equipment classification. This was to identify the
risks associated with each type of explosive atmosphere and to choose equipment that was known
to be safe in those areas.

1.4.2 UK and Europe

In the United Kingdom the first legislation covering the use of electrical equipment in explosive
atmospheres came into being through ‘The Electricity (Factories Act) Special Regulations 1908
and 1944, Regulation 27, which states that –

‘All conductors and apparatus exposed to the weather, wet, corrosion, inflammable surroundings
or explosive atmosphere, or used in any process or for any special purpose other than for lighting
or power, shall be so constructed or protected, and such special precautions shall be taken as may
be necessary adequately to prevent danger in view of such exposure or use.’

Even Regulation 6 of ‘Electricity at Work Regulation 1989’ is in the same spirit of placing the
responsibility of achieving the objective on the owner of industry without specifying the methods
to be adopted. In the UK, it was legal to use uncertified equipment in hazardous areas provided that
it could be shown to be safe. Thus, as long as owner maintains adequate records of plant safety this
clause gets satisfied.

This is in variance to the one being followed in USA and Germany and other parts of Europe,
where specifics are also formulated. Both approaches have withstood the test of time and there is
not much evidence of putting one method over the other.

In the UK much work has been done in the area of electrical installation safety in hazardous
atmosphere by the Safety in Mines Research Establishment, the Electrical Research Association
[now ERA Technology Ltd.], the Fire Protection Association, Institution of Fire Engineers, Loss
Prevention Council and The Institute of Petroleum.

With the advent of automobiles and airplanes in the early 1920s, fuel refining began and increased
in capacity very quickly. Volatile vapours from oil by-products and electrical sparks and heat did
not mix safely! Fires and explosions were common in the industry. So the first hazardous area
classification was invented about this time but it is thought that the Imperial Chemical Industries
(ICI) Company had started to evolve the notion of Divisions. Division 1 described areas being
normally hazardous.

In the wake of the mining disaster in South Wales, investigation into the cause and then further
research pioneered by Newcastle University began the understanding of how Explosion Protection
could be harnessed. Thus, a new industry with the goal of protecting electrical equipment in
hazardous areas was born. Flameproof enclosures and simple intrinsically safe circuits were now
being used, the first Standard for FLP (BS229) equipment being issued in 1928. Oil immersion
followed and, together, these were the first types of protection developed.

World War II brought many changes in Europe and North America. Metal shortages in Europe
prompted more plastic use in electrical equipment, and the first construction standards for
explosion-protected electrical equipment appeared in Germany.
8 Practical hazardous areas

At about the same time, North American industries determined that hazardous area classifications
needed to be expanded. A Division 2 was needed to describe locations that were not normally
hazardous to allow use of less expensive equipment and less restrictive wiring methods.

1.4.3 The USA

In the United States of America the NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) was formed in
1896 with the aim to reduce the burden of fire on quality of life by advocating scientifically based
consensus codes and standards. It also carries out research and education for fire and related safety
issues. The Association was incorporated in 1930 under laws of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts.

The Electrical section was added in 1948. The National Electricity Code (NEC) under NFPA 70
defines rules and regulations regarding use of electrical equipment. The sections 500 through to
517 deal with installation, testing, operation and maintenance of electrical equipment in hazardous
area.

In addition, various government laboratories, university laboratories, private and industrial

laboratories do research and education in USA. One of the most prominent is the Underwriters
Laboratories Inc. This was founded in 1894. It was originally conceived to serve the insurance
industry as an arbitrator for safe practice but is now a not-for-profit corporation having as its sole
objective the promotion of public safety through the conduct of –

“…scientific investigation, study, experiments, and tests, to determine the revelation of various
materials, devices, products, equipment, constructions, methods, and systems to hazards
appurtenant thereto or to the use thereof affecting life and property and to ascertain, define, and
publish standards, classifications, and specifications for materials, devices, products, equipment,
constructions, methods, and systems affecting such hazards, and other information tending to
reduce or prevent bodily injury, loss of life, and property damage from such hazards.”

The role of Federal Government was minimal in Fire protection prior to 1974. However, in 1974
Congress passed the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act. Under this act 12 Executive Branch
departments and 10 independent agencies are supposed to administer the various provisions of the
Act. The NFPA enjoys a co-operative relationship with these agencies. A number of agencies rely
upon NFPA Standards and participate in the NFPA standards-making process.

In 1970, the Congress established the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
within Department of Labour to oversee development and implementation of mandatory
occupational safety and health standards – rules and regulations applicable at the workplace. The
Mine Safety and Health Administration was established in 1977 with a functional scope similar to
that of OSHA, but with a focus on mining industry.

In order to understand how the electrical code is evolving and what guides this evolution we need
to look back in history and their development till date. In the early 1900s, when contractors were
busy electrifying industrial buildings, electrical wires were run through existing gas pipes, resulting
in today's conduit system of wiring. This formed the basis of wiring in North America and the
codes and standards were made to suit the safety requirement pertinent to these practices.

While this was being done on the American continent, the International Electro technical
Commission (IEC) was founded in Switzerland in 1906. The IEC is supposed to be the “United
Nations” of the electrical industry. Its ultimate goal is to unify worldwide electrical codes and
standards. Few IEC practices were incorporated into the NEC or CEC mainly because North
America operated on different voltages and frequencies than most of the rest of the world.

1.4.4 Advent of hazardous area in surface industries

In the 1960s, the European community was founded to establish free trade through Europe. To
reach this goal, technical standards needed to be harmonized. As a result, the European Community
 Introduction 9

for Electro technical Standardisation (CENELEC) was established as the Standards writing body
for Europe.

By this time the German chemical industry had departed from the traditional conduit or pipe wiring
system and migrated towards cable as a less expensive alternative. This wiring-method change led
to the zone classification system later adopted in 1972 by most European countries in a publication
known as IEC 79-10. This action led to the different methods of classifying hazardous areas as well
as protective, wiring, and installation techniques, which form the basis of present IEC
classification.

1.5 Equipment certification

It would be a very costly and time-consuming affair to test each electrical installation for safety.
Standards could not be written for design validation and conformance of plant as it varies
dramatically from one application to another. The nature of the flammable chemicals used would
be different. Thus, in Europe, a system of certification evolved for the use of electrical equipment
to be installed in a hazardous atmosphere of a Plant.

This technology primarily consists of –

• The classification of the area of the Plant where the electrical equipment is needed.
• The classification of the electrical equipment used in that area of the Plant.

The classification systems used for both must be the same so that it would be easy to determine if a
particular piece of equipment would or would not be safe in a given area. The International
Standards and Codes of Practice have been developed from the range of those used in individual
countries. Obtaining agreement has not been easy. The benefit to the user is to provide a level of
confidence for safe operation of electrical equipment under the specified conditions.

These classifications will be explained in some depth in this course, allowing an understanding of
the application for given situations.

The certification process merely states conformance with the Construction Standard to which
equipment has been assessed. It does not imply that the equipment is safe. A few examples of the
marking of equipment are illustrated in Figure 1.4.

Currently, internationally acceptable markings are used to identify Explosion Protected (Ex)
equipment. This leads to uniformity in the industry and gives a confidence level to the user, vis-à-
vis, the suitability and integrity of quality and design and lessens the work of manufacturer in
getting each piece approved all over the globe.

PTB Ex
PTB Germany BASEEFA UK (Pre-2003)

Figure 1.4
Typical certification logos

In Europe, under the ATEX Directives that came into force in member states on 1st July 2003, all
ignition-capable equipment (Electrical and NON-electrical) that is sold into or used on plants
requires assessment and certification to harmonised Standards if used in a Hazardous Area. The
Directives, in line with the Standards, expect Plant management to keep records and documentation
10 Practical hazardous areas

of all aspects of safety related plant and equipment so as to be able to demonstrate safety
compliance.

The harmonised IEC 79 Series of Standards are recognised as IEC60079 and have been adopted in
many countries including the USA who has now incorporated the relevant classification
requirements into NEC. In time all countries claiming IEC compliance are expected to follow.

1.6 Conclusion
This chapter has introduced a wide range of subject matter which will be discussed in detail in
subsequent chapters.

The overview and brief history of the development of the Standards given here will help to provide
an appreciation of the depth of engineering that has been dedicated to the prevention of accidents.

There are many misconceptions on the principles in this subject that can undermine safety unless
properly understood. The early separate development of Standards in different countries goes some
way to explaining why the industry suffers from terminological inconsistency which has, in part,
thought to have exacerbated these misunderstandings.

This Manual focuses on the harmonised International Standards as the primary source of
information in an attempt to unify the terminology. There remain regional variations in the
approach to Hazardous Area and the implementation of Ex equipment. These are mentioned and
clarified where it is felt appropriate.