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Table of Contents
1. DC and AC Voltages .............................................................................................................. 1
DC Voltage Sources ........................................................................................................... 1
AC Voltage Sources ........................................................................................................... 2
Measuring voltages using a multimeter ................................................................................ 3
2. Current and Resistors ............................................................................................................ 4
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 4
Resistors in series .............................................................................................................. 4
Resistors in parallel ............................................................................................................ 5
Creating a voltage divider using resistors ............................................................................ 5
Measuring current using a multimeter .................................................................................. 6
Measuring resistance using a multimeter ............................................................................. 7
3. Power dissipation ................................................................................................................... 8
Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 8
Power dissipation in a resistor ............................................................................................ 8
Power dissipation of series-connected resistors ................................................................... 9
Power dissipation of parallel-connected resistors ................................................................. 9
4. Capacitors ............................................................................................................................ 10
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 10
The impedance of a capacitor ........................................................................................... 10
Phase shift ....................................................................................................................... 11
Relation between voltage and current ................................................................................ 11
Frequency filters ............................................................................................................... 11
ESR ................................................................................................................................. 13
Timer circuits .................................................................................................................... 14
Types of capacitors .......................................................................................................... 15
5. Diodes ................................................................................................................................. 16
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 16
An AC Voltage Rectifier .................................................................................................... 16
LEDs ............................................................................................................................... 17
Zener Diodes ................................................................................................................... 17
Testing diodes using a multimeter ..................................................................................... 18
6. Bipolar Transistors ................................................................................................................ 20
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 20
The transistor as a switch ................................................................................................. 20
The Darlington ................................................................................................................. 21
The transistor as an amplifier ............................................................................................ 21
Testing transistors using a multimeter ................................................................................ 24
7. Project: A simple adjustable DC power supply ....................................................................... 25
The transformer ................................................................................................................ 25
The diagram .................................................................................................................... 25
8. Differential Amplifier .............................................................................................................. 27
Typical example ............................................................................................................... 27
DC Current Source ........................................................................................................... 27
9. Operational Amplifier ............................................................................................................ 29
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 29
Opamp used as an amplifier ............................................................................................. 29
Opamp used as a threshold switch ................................................................................... 30
Opamp used as a voltage-controlled current source ........................................................... 31
10. Lab Power Supply .............................................................................................................. 32
The diagram .................................................................................................................... 32
Voltage feedback .............................................................................................................. 32
Current limitation .............................................................................................................. 33
Protective circuitry ............................................................................................................ 33
Choosing your components ............................................................................................... 34
Assembly ......................................................................................................................... 34
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11. Heatsink ............................................................................................................................. 37

Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 37
Calculations ..................................................................................................................... 37
12. Power Amplifiers ................................................................................................................ 39
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 39
Emitter follower ................................................................................................................ 39
Balance amplifier .............................................................................................................. 39
Bias ................................................................................................................................. 40
Darlingtons ....................................................................................................................... 41
Opamp ............................................................................................................................. 41
13. Inductors ............................................................................................................................ 43
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 43
The impedance of an inductor .......................................................................................... 43
Relation between voltage and current ................................................................................ 43
Frequency filters ............................................................................................................... 44
Quality factor .................................................................................................................... 45
14. Decibels (dB) ..................................................................................................................... 46
Power and Voltage Ratios ................................................................................................ 46
Reference-related dBs ...................................................................................................... 46
15. Vocal Eliminator ................................................................................................................. 47
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 47
Schematic ........................................................................................................................ 47
Choosing components ...................................................................................................... 47
Testing ............................................................................................................................. 48
Assembly ......................................................................................................................... 48
16. Symmetric power supply ..................................................................................................... 50
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 50
Up to about 25mA ............................................................................................................ 50
Up to 1A .......................................................................................................................... 51
17. JFETs ................................................................................................................................ 53
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 53
JFET amplifier .................................................................................................................. 53
JFET current source ......................................................................................................... 54
18. MOSFETs .......................................................................................................................... 55
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 55
MOSFET amplifier ............................................................................................................ 56
Dual-gate MOSFETs ......................................................................................................... 56
19. LC filters ............................................................................................................................ 58
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 58
High pass filter ................................................................................................................. 58
Band pass filter ................................................................................................................ 59
Band pass filter with a smaller band .................................................................................. 61
Resonance ....................................................................................................................... 62
Tuned circuit .................................................................................................................... 63
20. Miscellaneous filters ........................................................................................................... 65
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 65
Coupled filters .................................................................................................................. 65
Twin T-filter ...................................................................................................................... 66
Bridged T-filters ................................................................................................................ 67
21. Frequency-independant voltage devider ............................................................................... 68
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 68
HF probe ......................................................................................................................... 68
Attenuator in an oscilloscope ............................................................................................ 69
22. DIACs, SCRs and TRIACs .................................................................................................. 70
DIAC ................................................................................................................................ 70
SCR ................................................................................................................................ 70
TRIAC .............................................................................................................................. 71
23. TV Deflection Circuit ........................................................................................................... 73
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Warning ........................................................................................................................... 73
The picture tube ............................................................................................................... 73
Deflection coils ................................................................................................................. 73
Deflection circuit ............................................................................................................... 73
Linearity correction ........................................................................................................... 75
S-Correction ..................................................................................................................... 75
EW-Correction .................................................................................................................. 76
Practical Examples ........................................................................................................... 76
24. Automatic volume control .................................................................................................... 78
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 78
Schematic ........................................................................................................................ 78
Choosing components ...................................................................................................... 79
Power supply ................................................................................................................... 79
A. Inside semiconductors .......................................................................................................... 80
Inside a diode .................................................................................................................. 80
P type and N type semiconductors ............................................................................ 80
Joining P and N together .......................................................................................... 80
Zener diodes ............................................................................................................ 81
Varicap diodes ......................................................................................................... 81
Inside a bipolar transistor ................................................................................................. 81
Joining three layers of P and N together .................................................................... 81
Applying voltages across a transistor ......................................................................... 81
Inside a JFET .................................................................................................................. 82
Applying voltages across a JFET .............................................................................. 82
Inside a MOSFET ............................................................................................................ 83
Applying some voltages across an enhancement MOSFET ......................................... 83
Depletion MOSFETs ................................................................................................. 83
B. Buffer capacitor .................................................................................................................... 84
Calculation of the value of a buffer capacitor ..................................................................... 84
ESR ................................................................................................................................. 84
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Chapter 1. DC and AC Voltages
DC Voltage Sources
DC stands for: Direct Current. DC voltage sources have a positive and a negative terminal. The symbol
of a DC voltage source is
An example of a DC voltage source is a battery or a DC power supply.
To increase the voltage, you can connect multiple voltage sources in series:
The total voltage will be the sum of each voltage source. So when you connect two 1.5V batteries in
series, you'll measure a total voltage of 3 volts.
By the way, most designers don't draw voltage sources in their schematics; they just draw the terminals:
The third drawing is the most common. The horizontal line at the bottom is the ground symbol. Ground
is not always the negative terminal. Many audio devices for example use a so called symmetric power
supply. Symmetric power supplies consist of two DC voltage sources connected to each other:
1
DC and AC Voltages
In these cases ground is the 'middle point' where both sources are connected. Ground is always the
reference point. This means that all the voltages in the design or description are always with respect to
ground. In other words: the black wire (connected to the COM bus) of your voltage meter should always
be connected to ground, as shown in the picture above. In this case voltage meter M1 reads +9V and
M2 reads -9V. And this immediately explains why it is called a symmetric power supply.
Later in this course you will learn what symmetric power supplies are used for and are we going to
build one.
AC Voltage Sources
AC stands for: Alternating Current. AC voltage sources don't have a positive and a negative terminal:
the polarity reverses in time. Take a look at the picture below.
In this picture SW1 is a switch. In the drawn position, A is connected to C and therefore to the positive
side of the DC voltage source. B is connected to E and therefore to the negative terminal of the 9V
source. When you toggle switch SW1, the polarity will be reversed: A will be connected - via D - to
the negative end of the voltage source, and B will be connected to the positive end. Now imagine that
someone toggles switch SW1 frequently. The signal at terminals A and B will then be an AC voltage.
The top value of an AC voltage is called the amplitude. In this case, the amplitude is 9Vt. The voltage
between the two tops is called the top-top value; in this case 18Vtt.
If we toggle SW1 forth and back in exactly 1 second, we create a 1Hertz signal. Hertz is the unit of
frequency: the number of times a signal repeats itself in one second. Hertz is usually abbreviated to Hz.
The time it takes for a signal to repeat itself is called the period time, symbol T; in this case T = 1 s. A
10Hz signal means that the signal repeats itself 10 times per second; in that case T=0.1s. So:
T = 1/f and f = 1/T
It is common practice to use symbols in capitals for DC signals and lower case symbols for AC signals.
For example VA would mean the DC voltage at point A, and iR4 would mean the AC current flow in
resistor R4.
Examples of AC voltage sources are: a microphone, a house outlet, and the speaker terminals of an
amplifier.
2
DC and AC Voltages
An AC voltage source doesn't really have a symbol of it's own. They are usually drawn as one or two
terminals with a ~ sign. If only one terminal is drawn, the other one is connected to ground.
Some AC voltage sources have their own symbols, e.g. a microphone:
Measuring voltages using a multimeter

Most digital multimeters look like this:
1 = Display, 2 = Function switch, 3 = Transistor socket (optional), 4...6 = Test lead jacks
If you want to measure DC voltages set the function switch to the DC voltage range you want to use.
For example, if you want to measure the voltage across a 9V battery, set the switch to 20V DC. If you
have no idea what to expect, set the function switch to the highest DC range available and work down.
Having done that, we can connect the test leads. Mulimeters usually come with two test leads: a black
one and a red one. To measure voltages, you need to connect the black test lead to the COM jack
and the red lead to the V/Ω jack. Connect the other ends of the test leads to the source or load under
measurement. In case of a 9V battery, connect the black wire to the negative and red wire to the positive
terminal of the battery. If you swap the test leads, you will read a negative value.
If you want to measure AC voltages, set the function switch to the proper AC voltage range. Connect
the test leads to the device-under-test. Swapping test leads makes no difference (of course!).
3
Chapter 2. Current and Resistors
Introduction
When you connect the terminals of a voltage source to each other, you create a short circuit. This means
a high current flow. To limit the current flow, you can use a resistor. The symbol of a resistor is:
Voltage, current and resistance are related to each other as follows:
R = V/I
V is the voltage across the resistor [unit: volts, or V]; I is the current in the resistor [unit: amperes, or
A]; R is the resistance [unit: ohms, or Ω].
Example: Imagine you connect a 1000Ω (or 1kΩ) resistor to a 9V battery. In that case, the current in
the resistor (and in the battery of course!) will be: I = V/R = 9V / 1000Ω = 9mA (milli-amps).
You can't buy resistors of any value. You can choose from a series of resistors, e.g. the E12 series. The
E12 series has the following values: 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82. If you want other
values, you may select one from another (more expensive) series, or create one by connecting multiple
resistors in series or parallel.
Resistors in series
Now we'll connect 3 resistors in series with the battery (see picture above). What will be the total
resistance of R1, R2 and R3?
The voltage across R1 (V1) equals to: V1 = I∙R1. And V2 = I∙R2, and V3 = I∙R3.
We know that V1 + V2 + V3 = Vbat, so:
Vbat = I∙R1 + I∙R2 + I∙R3 = I∙(R1 + R2 + R3).
This tells us that the total resistance of resistors is series equals to R1 + R2 + R3 + ..., or:
4
Current and Resistors
In this case, the total resistance is 3kΩ. The current I will be: 9V / 3k = 3mA.
Resistors in parallel
The picture on the left shows a DC voltage source connected with 3 parallel-connected resistors. The
question is again: what is the total resistance?
The current in R1 (I1) equals to: I1 = Vbat/R1. And I2 = Vbat/R2, and V3 = Vbat/R3. The total current Itot
equals I1 + I2 + I3, so:
Itot = Vbat/R1 + Vbat/R2 + Vbat/R3.
This proves that the total resistance of parallel connected resistors equals to:
1/Rtot = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... or:
In this case, the total resistance is 333Ω. The total current will be 3 ∙ 9mA = 27mA.
Creating a voltage divider using resistors
Take a look at the picture on the right. We see three series connected resistors. We've already learned
that the total resistance is 3k. So the current I will be 9V / 3k = 3mA. The voltage at point B, VB, equals
5
1k∙3mA = 3V. (Do you still remember what is meant by 'voltage at point B'? It means: connect the red
wire of the volt meter to point B and the black wire to ground.)
The general way of calculating the voltage across a resistor in a series connection is:
I = Vsource / Rtotal, and Vres = I∙R. So:
There are three ways to calculate the voltage at point A:
1. The total resistance of R2 and R3 is 2k, so VA = 2k∙3mA = 6V.
2. The voltage across each resistor is 3V, so VA = 6V.
3. Using the equation above: VA = 9V∙(2k/3k) = 6V.
Does this mean that you can connect your 3V portable cassette player to point B? Well, of course you
could, but don't expect it to work! The player acts like a resistor of, say, 50 ohms. That resistor is parallel
connected with R3, resulting in a resistance of 47.6 ohms. So VB will drop to 9V∙(47.6/2047.6) = 0.2V.
And that will never be enough for your player.
Conclusion: If you design a voltage divider, don't forget to take the load into account!
Measuring current using a multimeter

If you want to measure DC current, set the function switch to the DC current range you want to use. For
example, if you expect to measure 1mA, set the switch to 2mA DC. If you have no idea what to expect,
set the function switch to the highest DC range available and work down.
Having done that, we can connect the test leads. Mulimeters usually come with two test leads: a black
one and a red one. To measure current, you need to connect the black test lead to the COM jack
and the red lead to the A jack. Connect the other ends of the test leads in series with the load under
measurement. If the current flows from red to black, you will read a positive value. Otherwise, a minus
sign appears in the display.
If you want to measure AC current, set the function switch to the proper AC current range. Connect the
test leads in series with device-under-test. Swapping test leads makes no difference (of course!).
6
Note: many meters have a separate jack for measuring high current. Usually the A jack measures up to
200mA. The separate jack will be labeled '20A'. This jack only works when the function switch has been
set to 20A. Warning: the 20A jack is usually unfused! Overload may seriously damage your multimeter.
Tip: if you want to measure the current flow in a component, you'll have to connect the meter in series
with that component. This means you may need to unsolder one end of that component. If the same
current also flows in a resistor, you can simply measure the voltage across that resistor and calculate
the current.
After current measurement, disconnect the leads from the meter. If you forget this and want to measure
voltages again, you may cause disasterous shorts!
Measuring resistance using a multimeter

If you want to measure resistance, set the function switch to the resistance range you want to use. For
example, if you expect the resistance to be 1kΩ, set the switch to 2kΩ. If you have no idea what to
expect, set the function switch to the highest resistance range available and work down.
Having done that, we can connect the test leads. Connect the black test lead to the COM jack and the red
lead to the V/Ω jack. Connect the other ends of the test leads across the resistance under measurement.
Please note that in-cicuit measurement may lead to wrong results, since there may be other components
parallel-connected to the resistance. It is also a good idea to make sure that the voltage across the
resistance is 0V before starting resistance measurement. Also make sure that the equipment-under-test
has been turned off!
Interesting links: Circuit Fantasia's electronics course
7
Chapter 3. Power dissipation
Introduction
When a current flows in a component, that component will heat up. This process is called power
dissipation and is measured in Watts. The power dissipation in a device can be calculated very easily:
P=V∙I
Power dissipation in a resistor

Let's calculate the power dissipation in a 100 ohms resistor connected to a 9V battery.
The voltage across the resistor will be 9V. The current is 9V/100ohms = 90mA. So the power dissipation
will be: 9V ∙ 90mA = 810mW.
It is very important to calcuate the power dissipation in the components in your design. A regular resistor
has a maximum dissipation rating of 0.25W (= 250mW). If you would have used such a resistor in the
example above, it would have blown. A 1W resistor is a good choise.
Since it's so important, let's create an equation with which we can easily calculate the power dissipation
in a resistor. We know:
(1) P = V ∙ I (2) V = I ∙ R (3) I = V / R
Substituting (2) in (1) and (3) in (1) respectively results in:
2 2
P=I ∙R P=V /R
With these equations you can easily calculate the power dissipation when you connect a DC voltage
source to a resistor. But what will the power dissipation be if you connect an AC voltage source to a
resistor? In that case, simply substitute V and I by the so called RMS values vRMS and iRMS. RMS stands
for Root Mean Square. The RMS value is defined as the DC equivalent that provides the same power as
the original waveform. Let's approximate the RMS value of a 1Vt/1Hz sinusoidal signal: v = sin(2∙π∙f∙t)
= sin(2∙π∙t). We take 4 samples: at 0s, 0.25s, 0.5s and at 0.75s. The values are 0, 1, 0, and -1. Next,
calculate the square of each value: 0, 1, 0, and 1. The mean value of these squares is (0 + 1 + 0 +
1)/4 = 2/4 = 0.5. Finally, calculate the square root of the mean of the squares: √0.5 = 0.707V. So the
approximated RMS value of a 1Vt sinusoidal signal is 0.707V. Of course, the approximation is more
1
accurate if you take more samples. Using some math , you can prove that vRMS = A/√2 (for a sinusoidal
signal). Using this equation we can calculate the RMS value of the signal of our example: vRMS=1/√2.
= 0.707V.
Using the theory above, we can calculate the power dissipation of a 100ohms resistor connected to a
2 2 1
9Vt sinusoidal signal: P=v RMS/R = A /2R = 81/200 = 0.401W.
1
Let's assume we take n samples. The value of sample x will be v(x∙T/n) where T is the period of the signal. The RMS value is
the square root of the average of the square of all samples (x ranging from 0 thru n-1):
Next, we replace xT/n by t: t = xT/n. This means we also have to change the range of the sum sign: if x=0, t=0; if x=n-1, t=(n-1)T/n
= T when n is very large. The calculation becomes more accurate if n nears infinite:
8
Power dissipation
Power dissipation of series-connected resistors

If you don't have a 1W resistor, and you still want to perform the experiment above, you may connect
four 25ohms resistors in series. We've already learned that resistors in series act like a voltage devider:
the voltage across each resistor is 9V/4 = 2.25V. The current is still 90mA since the total resistance is
the same. So each resistor dissipates 2.25V ∙ 90mA = 0.20W. (Of couse we could also use one of our
2 2
'easy' equations: P = I ∙ R = (90mA) ∙ 25 = 0.20W.)
Be carefull: always take resistors with the same resistance. Of course you could also create a 100ohms
resistor with three 33ohms resistors and one 1ohm resistor in series, but you're gonna smell some
smoke! Which resistor(s) will blow? The 1ohm resistor because it's the smallest? Let's see. Since we
2 2
know the current is 90mA, we use the equation P = I ∙ R = (90mA) ∙ 1 = 8.1mW. The 1ohm resistor
2
will survive! The power dissipation of each 33ohms resistor will be (90mA) ∙ 33 = 0.27W. It may take
some time, but you certainly will loose three resistors!
Power dissipation of parallel-connected resistors

Another way to create your own high wattage resistor is to connect multiple resistors in parallel. Let's
create a 100ohms resistor with four parallel-connected 400ohms resistors and connect it to a 9V battery.
2 2
The voltage across each resistor is 9V. So the power dissipation of each resistor is P = V / R = 9
/ 400 = 0.20W.
Again: always use resistors with the same resistance.
Multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the time step between each sample (which nears zero when n nears infinite),
and we get the following equation:
In case of a sinusoidal signal, v(t) = A sin(2∙π∙f∙t) where A is the amplitude of the signal.
2 2 2 2
v (t) = A sin (2∙π∙f∙t). You may have learned in high school that sin (x) = 0.5(1-cos(2x)). So:
9
Chapter 4. Capacitors
Introduction
A capacitor consists of two metal plates with a thin insulator in between, as its symbol shows:
What will happen if we connect a DC voltage source (battery) to a capacitor?
The positive side of the battery attracts the electrons in the top plate of the capacitor. This plate will
become positively charged. Because the insulator is very thin, the top plate will attract the electrons in
the bottom plate. The gaps these electrons leave behind, will be filled up with the electrons from the
negative end of the battery. So it seems if the current flows right through the capacitor, as if there were
no insulator at all. But of course, this can't continue for ever. Eventually, there will be no electrons left
on the top plate, and no room for more electrons on the bottom plate. The capacitor is now completely
charged, and the current flow will stop.
Now let's swap the terminals of the battery. The positive terminal of the battery will attract the electrons
on the bottom plate of the capacitor and the negative end of the battery will emit electrons to fill in the
gaps on the top plate. This process will continue until the capacitor is charged again.
If we continually swap the terminals of the battery, there will be a continuous current flow. In other words:
a capacitor conducts AC currents, but blocks DC currents.
The capacitance depends on the size of the plates and the matial between them. This material is called
the dielectric and reduces the electric field between the plates. This will increase the capacitance.
The capacitance can be calculated with: C = εA/d, where ε is the dielectric constant, A the area of one
plate and d the distance between the plates. Since we can buy capacitors in any electronics show, we'll
seldomly need this equation.
The unit of capacity is Farad, symbol F. This unit is usually far too large; uF (micro Farad), nF (nano
Farad), and pF (pico Farad) are more common. 1F = 1000000uF, 1uF = 1000nF, 1nF = 1000pF.
The impedance of a capacitor

The impedance of a component is the resistance of that component for AC voltages. The symbol for
resistance is R; the symbol for impedance is X. The impedance of a capacitor is not zero; it depends on
the capacity (size of the plates) and the frequency of the signal (number of polarity changes (forth and
back) per second). The impedance can be calculated using the following equation.
10
Capacitors
f is the frequency in Hertz; C is the capacitance in Farad
Example: We have a 1nF capacitor and connect it to a 50Hz AC voltage source. Calculate the impedance
of the capacitor.
-9
XC = 1/(2∙π∙50∙10 ) = 3.18MΩ.
Phase shift
When the voltage across a certain resistor increases, the current flow in that resistor will also increase
(and visa versa). This is not true for a capacitor. We already saw in the introduction that if a capacitor is
fully charged (so the voltage across it has reached its maximum), the current flow stops. The current will
have its maximum value when the capacitor is empty. Let's look what happens if we connect a capacitor
to a sinusoidal voltage source.
We connected a capacitor to a 1kHz voltage source. The green curve shows the voltage across the
capacitor and the blue curve shows the current flow. We see that the current reaches the top value 1/4
period before the voltage. Since 1/4 period of a sine wave equals 90 degrees, we say that the current
leads the voltage by 90 degrees, because the current reaches its top value before the voltage does. We
can also say that the voltage lags the current by 90 degrees.
Relation between voltage and current

The following equation can be used for any current i(t):
It clearly shows the 90 degrees phase shift if i(t) is sinusoidal: the integral of a sine is a (-)cosine. We also
see that, if we charge a capacitor with a constant current I, the voltage across it will increase linearly:
v(t) = v(0) + C∙I∙t.
Frequency filters
11
Capacitors
Take a look on the diagram above. Assume that the voltage source supplies a 1V/10kHz signal (this
means: the amplitude is 1V and the frequency is 10kHz = 10000Hz).
4 -6
The impedance of capacitor C will be XC = 1/(2∙π∙10 ∙10 ) = 15,9Ω. The output voltage (voltage across
capacitor C) will be 1V∙(XC/ZR+C), where ZR+C is the total impedance of R and C. Because a capacitor
causes a phase shift in the current flow, we cannot just state that ZR+C = R + XC. Using some complex
1
math we can prove that:
2 2
ZR+C = √(R +XC ).
2 2
In our case ZR+C = √(1k +15.9 ) = 1000.13Ω. So the output voltage becomes 1V∙(15.9/1000.13) =
0.0159V.
Now assume that the voltage source supplies a 1V/10Hz signal. The impedance of capacitor C will then
-6 2 2
be XC = 1/(2∙π∙10∙10 ) = 15,9kΩ. The output voltage will be 1V∙(XC/(ZR+C)) = 1V∙(15.9k/√(1k +15.9k ))
= 0.998V. So we created a very simple frequency filter with just a resistor and a capacitor.
In this case we created a so called low pass filter (LPF) since it passes low frequency signals and
suppresses high frequency signals. If you swap R and C, you create a high pass filter (HPF).
Let's calculate the cut-off frequency of our filter. The cut-off frequency is the frequency at which R=XC
=> R = 1/(2∙π∙f∙C) =>
3 -6 1
In our case f = 1/(2∙π∙10 ∙10 ) = 159Hz.
1
We already know how to calculate the impedance of a capacitor:
At 10kHz a 1nF capacitor has an impedance of 15.9k.
When we connect a 10k resistor in series with this capacitor, we may expect that the total impedance will be 25.9k is. But that's
not the case, because a capacitor causes a -90 degrees phase shift in the current flow. The equation
doesn't show this. But what if we plot the impedance as a vector? The length will be the (absolute) impedance and the angle
the phase shift:
12 a 45 degrees phase shift between voltage and current.

This component has an absolute impedance of 1 ohm and causes
A resistor doesn't cause a phase shift; this vector will be on the x-axis. a capacitor causes a -90 degrees phase shift and will be
on the (negative) y-axis. The total impedance of R and C is R + XC. However, we have to add vectors instead of plain numbers.
Capacitors
ESR
Every capacitor has a certain series resistance. This resistance is not only caused by the leads, but
also by the metal plates and the dielectric the capacitor is made of. The sum of these resistances is
called ESR, Equivalent Series Resistance. This resistance will not always remain the same, but may
increase due to aging.
When will the ESR bother us? Of couse this depends on how large the ESR is and the application in
which the capacitor is used. Assume the ESR of capacitor C in the filter above is 10Ω. At very high
frequencies the output voltage will not be 0V, but 1V∙(10/1010) = 10mV. In most cases, this will not be
any problem. However, if resistor R were also 10Ω, the output voltage would have been 0.5V!
We can also expect ESR problems when large charge and discharge currents flow though the capacitor.
Remember, a large current means a large voltage across the series resistance. This may even heat
up the capacitor. If a capacitor heats up, the ESR may increase. This will heat up the capacitor even
more, and so on. Eventually (and this may take months) the capacitor will be ready for the dumpster.
Troubleshooting can be a pain; a simple capacitance meter uses small currents and will therefore not
notice that the ESR has increased.
How can we measusre the ESR? The are special ESR meters available for this purpose, but these are
pretty expensive. Most of the time we only need an indication. We can connect the capacitor to a power
supply via a known resistor R and a switch. If the switch is open, the voltage across the capacitor and
ESR will be 0V. On the momen the switch is closed, the capacitor is still empty. The voltage we measure
across the capacitor is therefore equal to the voltage across its ESR. If that voltage is equal to half
the supply voltage, the ESR must be equal to the known resistor R. Of course: the lower the voltage,
the lower the ESR must be. The disadvantage of this method is that the power supply must be able to
deliver the current peak. Moreover, we must also include the internal resistance of the power supply
in our calculations. That's why we often use the opposite method: we charge a capacitor to a certain
voltage and then discharge it via a known resistor. Of couse: the higher the voltage at the moment of
discharge, the lower the ESR must be. Please find below a picture of both methods. Resistor R is 10Ω.
The supply voltage is 1V.
Since we have 90 degrees angles, it's easy to calculate the (absolute) impedance: we can just use Pythagoras' theorem. Zt =
2 2
√(R +XC ). The phase shift is equal to arctan(XC/R)
Wouldn't it be nice if we had a more simple way for saying: the impedance is x ohms and causes a y degrees fase shift? A
180 degrees phase shift is easy; in that case we could say: the impedance equals -x ohms. A 180 degrees phase shift equal to
multiplying by -1. Now suppose that a phase shift of 90 degrees is equal to multiplying by j. A 180 degrees phase shift will be the
2 2
same as multiplying by j . This means that j = -1. A negative square is only possible in so called 'complex math'. (Mathematicians
among us may be accustomed to use i instead of j. But we already use i as a symbol for current, so that's confusing.)
Every impedance can be written as: a + bj. Number a is called the real part and is plotted on the x-axis. Number b is called the
imaginary part and is plotted on the y-axis.
A resistor doesn't cause a phase shift and is therefore purely real.
We know that a capacitor causes a -90 degrees phase shift; its impedance is therefore purely imaginary, and can be written as:
As an example, we'll look again at our 10k resistor in series with a 15.9k capacitor. The total (complex) impedance is 10k - 15.9kj.
2 2
The absolute value (|Z|) equals √(10k + 15.9k ) = 18.78k. The phase shift it causes in the current (arg(Z)) is arctan(-15.9k/10k)
= -57.8 degrees.
So, when we connect a resistor and capacitor in series: ZR+C = R - XCj.

13
2 2
The absolutie value is: |ZR+C| = √(R +XC ).
The phase shift is: arg(ZR+C) = arctan(-XC/R).

Capacitors
At t=0, the voltage across the ESR is about 0.34V. So ESR/(R+ESR)=0.34 => ESR=R(0.34/(1-0.34))
= 10(0.34/0.66) = 5.2Ω.
At t=100us, the capacitor is discharged via the same resistor R. The voltage immediately drops to 0.66V.
So R/(ESR+R)=0.66 => ESR=R((1-0.66)/0.66) = 10(0.34/0.66) = 5.2Ω.
Timer circuits
Now we'll exchange the AC voltage source for a 1V DC voltage source. Since the frequency is 0Hz, XC
is infinite, so there will be no current flow. That's true, but not for the first period of time after connecting
the voltage source as we already saw in the introduction of this chapter.
Assume that capacitor C is completely discharged: VC=0 => VR=1V. So the current flow in resistor R
will be 1mA. Having nowhere else to go to, this current will flow 'in' the capacitor, charging it. While the
capacitor is charging, the voltage across it raises, leaving less voltage for resistor R. This means that
the current flow decreases. Suppose that after T seconds, the capacitor is half full: VC=0.5V. In that case
VR=0.5V => IR = IC = 0.5mA. So after 2T seconds, the capacitor will not be completely charged since the
current flow isn't 1mA anymore. To calculate the voltage at any given time, use the following equation.
VB is the voltage of the DC voltage source. t is the time in seconds since the capacitor was connected
to the voltage source. e is Euler's constant (2.7182818).
When t=RC, -t/(RC) will be -1 and VC = 0.63V, so the capacitor will be 63% full. This time is referred
to as the 'RC time'.
RC circuits are often used in timers, for example in a simple burglar alarm:
14
Capacitors
When you enter your own house, you don't want the alarm to go off immediately; you want to have some
time to switch it off. In the circuit above you have R∙C = 100k∙100u = 10 seconds to do that. After 10
seconds the voltage across the capacitor will raise above 0.63V, and a switch will close causing the
flash light to give alarm.
Types of capacitors
There are generally two types of capacitors: polarized and bipolar. Polarized capacitors have a positive
and a negative terminal; bipolar capacitors don't. In polarized capacitors the insulator between the plates
is usually an electrolyte; hence the name electrolytic capacitors, or electro's. The electrolyte enables
manufacturers to create large value capacitors with small dimensions. That's why you'll always see
electro's with relatively large values: 1uF and above.
15
Chapter 5. Diodes
Introduction
A diode is a device that conducts the current in just one direction: the direction of the arrow in the diode
symbol, which looks like this:
The most important parameters of a diode are: maximum forward current, forward voltage, maximum
power dissipation and reverse voltage.
The forward current is the current flow in the direction of the arrow of the diode symbol. This current
causes a voltage across the diode: the forward voltage drop.
Each diode has a certain minimum voltage drop, called the knee voltage. The diode will not conduct
when the voltage across it is less than the knee voltage. The knee voltage of a generic silicon diode
is about 0.6V.
The power dissipation of a diode is the forward current multiplied by the forward voltage drop.
The reverse voltage is the voltage across a diode when it is reverse biased.
If you want to know how a diode works internally, you'll have to take a peek inside.
An AC Voltage Rectifier
Since diodes conduct current in only one direction, they can be used as an AC Voltage rectifier. Take
a look at the picture below.
A triangular AC voltage is connected to the input terminals of the rectifier. The output voltage will be
measured across resistor R1. When the upper input terminal is positive, there will be a current flow in
the diode and the resistor. This current causes a voltage across R1. Assume the peak voltage is (plus
and minus) 9V, and the forward voltage of the diode is 0.7V. The peak current will then be (9V - 0.7V)/1k
= 8.3mA. The maximum power dissipation of the diode will be 0.7∙8.3mA = 5.8mW.
When the voltage at the upper input terminal becomes negative, the diode is reverse biased blocking
the current flow. Since the diode has a very large resistance, all the voltage will be across the diode.
This should not exceed the maximum reverse voltage.
So if you want to perform this experiment, you'll need a diode with the following requirements: the
maximum forward current must be 8.3mA or higher; the maximum power dissipation must be 5.8mW
or higher; and the maximum reverse voltage must be 9V or higher. Any small signal diode will meet
these requirements. The resistor can be a regular 0.25W resistor since the maximum power dissipation
2
is (8.3mA) ∙1k = 69mW.
The circuit above is called a half wave rectifier, since the ouput contains only the positive half of the
input. The circuit below shows a full wave rectifier.
16
Diodes
This circuit works as follows. When the input signal is positive, the currents flows from the upper terminal,
via diode D1, resistor R1, and diode D3 to the lower terminal. When the input signal is negative, the
currents flows from the lower terminal, via diode D2, resistor R1, and diode D4 to the upper terminal.
Notice that the current always flows in two diodes: either D1 and D3, or D2 and D4. This means that the
output voltage will always be about 1.4 volts (two 'forward voltage drops') less than the input voltage.
The circuit D1...D4 is called a bridge rectifier. When you look at a bridge rectifier, you'll probably see
something imprinted like 'B80C5000/3300'. The number after the 'B' indicates the maximum (reverse)
voltage, in this case 80V. The number after the 'C' indicates the maximum peak/continuous (forward)
current in mA. In this case the maximum peak current is 5A and the maximum continuous current is
3.3A. Smaller bridge rectifiers only indicate the maximum voltage and current, e.g. 'B40C800'.
LEDs
The abbreviation LED stands for Light Emitting Diode. LEDs consume less power than light bulbs, and
have a much longer life time: about 100000 hours. A regular LED needs a current flow of 10...20mA,
and has a forward voltage drop of 1.5 to 2 volts, depending on the color.
With the circuit below, you can test and experiment with LEDs.
Question: What will be a good value for R1? Assume that the voltage across LED D1 is 2 volts, and
we want a current flow of 15mA.
Answer: The voltage across R1 will be 9V-2V = 7V. The current flow in R1 will also be 15mA. So R1
should have a value of 7V/15mA = 467Ω. From the E12 series, 470Ω is a good choice.
Zener Diodes
A zener diode in conducting state acts like a normal diode. It's the reverse voltage that distinguishes a
zener diode from a regular diode. Take a look at the picture below.
17
Diodes
In this picture you see a reverse connected zener diode. The 'value' of a zener diode is given in volts;
this is the reverse voltage. But a zener diode doesn't blow when the voltage tends to get higher. A zener
diode stabilizes the voltage at the reverse voltage. So the voltage across the zener diode in the picture
above will always be 4.7 volts, even when the battery voltage increases.
Again, we need to calculate the value of R1. Unfortunately, it's difficult to say what's the ideal current
flow in a zener diode. (Yep, altough the diode is reverse biased, there is a current flow!) In most cases
5mA is fine. Since the voltage across R1 will be 9V-4.7V = 4.3V, a good value of R1 is 4.3V/5mA = 860Ω.
A zener diode manufacturer publishes the maximum power dissipation of a zener diode. 0.4 or 0.5W is
a very common value for a small zener diode. Using this characteristic, we can calculate the minimum
value of R1: Assume we use a 0.4W zener in the design above. Since the voltage across the zener is
4.7V, the maximum current flow is 0.4W/4.7V = 85mA. The voltage across R1 will be 9V - 4.7V = 4.3V.
So the minimum value for R1 is 4.3V/85mA = 51Ω. So a good value of R1 ranges from 51 to 860Ω.
820Ω is a good choice. Note however that the calculations above only count for a zener without a load.
Take a look at the picture below.
In this design zener D1 has a 50Ω load (R2). Again, we'll calculate a proper value for R1. Since the
voltage across the load R2 is always 4.7V, the current flow in R2 will always be 4.7V/50 = 94mA. The
current flow in D1 should be between 5 and 85mA. So the current flow in R1 ranges from 99 to 179mA.
The voltage across R1 is always 4.3V, so the resistance should be between 24 and 43Ω. 39Ω may be a
2
good choice. In that case, the power dissipation is 4.3 /39 = 0.47W. So you'd better take a 1W resistor!
But what should we do if the 50Ω load can be detached, e.g. because it's an external load? With the
load connected, the maximum value of R1 is 43Ω, but without the load the minimum value is 51Ω!
The answer is simple: use a higher wattage zener diode, e.g. 1.3W. In that case, the maximum current
flow in D1 is 1.3W/4.7V = 276mA. This means, without the load connected, a minimum value of R1 of
4.3V/276mA = 16Ω. Now we have an overlapping range of values for R1 from which you may choose
one. Again, a 39Ω/1W resistor is a good choice.
Testing diodes using a multimeter

18
Diodes
If you want to test a diode, set the function switch to "diode test".
Next, connect the test leads. Mulimeters usually come with two test leads: a black one and a red one.
Connect the black test lead to the COM jack and the red lead to the V/Ω jack. Connect the other ends
of the test leads across the diode. Connect the black wire to the cathode and red wire to the anode.
The display should now read about 0.6V (600mV). If you swap the test leads, the display will indicate
an overflow.
Note that in-circuit testing may lead to wrong results, since other components may be parallel-connected
to the diode. Also make sure that the equipment-under-test has been turned off!
19
Chapter 6. Bipolar Transistors
Introduction
Bipolar transistors are amplifying devices and can also be used as switches. There are two types: NPN
and PNP. See the picture below for a typical circuit.
A bipolar transistor has three terminals: Base, Collector and Emitter. In case of a NPN transistor, a small
current flows from B to E (IB) causes a larger current flow from C to E (IC). The ratio IC/IB is called the
current gain, symbol hFE.
Inside a transistor, there's a diode between B and E and between B and C, so VBE,max and VBC,max are
about 0.6V to 0.7V.
Let's assume for example RB = 1M, RL = 1k, VS = 9V, hFE = 300 and VBE = 0.6V.
The voltage across RB will be VS-VBE=8.4V, so IB=8.4/1M=8.4μA. IC=IB∙hFE=8.4μA∙300=2.52mA. So

the voltage across RL will be 2.52V.
The transistor as a switch

What will happen if in the example above, RB=100k instead of 1M?
IB=8.4/100k=84μA. You may expect that IC will be 84μA∙300=25.2mA, but that isn't possible since the
voltage across RL would be 25.2V which is more than VS. IC,max in this circuit is VS/RL=9/1k=9mA. So
even if IB=84μA, IC will be 9mA. IC/IB=107, which is less than hFE. In such a case, when IC/IB < hFE, we say
that the transistor has become saturated and can be considered as a closed switch (between C and E).
Take a look at the diagram below.
You see a battery operated clock, operating at 3V. This clock has an alarm function: at a preset time,
you hear a chime. Imagine that you don't want to hear a chime, but that you want to switch some other
equipment on, for example a radio operating a 9V. This radio has an internal resistance of 100Ω. At
alarm time, the output voltage of the clock is 3V. VBE=0.6V. hFE=100
What would be a proper value for RB? A large value may not saturate the transistor; a small resistor
may overload the output stage of the alarm circuitry of the clock.
20
Bipolar Transistors
IC,max=9/100=90mA. IC/IB < hFE => IB > IC/hFE => IB > 90mA/100 = 0.9mA. The voltage across RB equals
3-0.6=2.4V. This means RB < 2.4V/0.9mA = 2.7k. To be on the safe side, 2.2k would be a good value.
IB will then be 2.4/2k2 = 1.09mA.
Please note that this will only work if the "ground" of the clock (the minus terminal of its battery) is
connected to the ground of our little switch (the emitter).
The Darlington
If the clock in the diagram above is a wrist watch, even a 1.09mA current may overload its alarm circuitry.
In that case, you may use two transistors as shown in the diagram below. This is called a darlington.
A darlington can be considered as a single transistor with the following characteristics:
VBE,darlington=VBE1+VBE2
IB,darlington=IB1. IC1= hFE1∙IB1. IC2=hFE2∙IB2=hFE2∙IE1=hFE2∙(hFE1+1)∙IB1.

IC,darlington=IC1+IC2=hFE1∙IB1+hFE2∙(hFE1+1)∙IB1=(hFE1+(hFE1+1)∙hFE2)∙IB1. hFE,darlington=IC,darlington/
IB,darlington=hFE1+(hFE1+1)∙hFE2. hFE1>>1 => hFE,darlington=hFE1+hFE1∙hFE2. hFE1∙hFE2>>hFE1 =>
hFE,darlington=hFE1∙hFE2.
Let's now recalculate a proper value for RB. Assume T1's current gain is 300 and T2's current gain is 100.
IC,darlington = 9/100=90mA. hFE,darlington=300∙100=30000. VBE,darlington=1.2V.
The voltage across RB equals 3V-1.2V=1.8V => RB < 1.8V/3µA = 600k. 560k is a safe value. IB,darlington
will be 1.8/560k = 3.21µA.
The transistor as an amplifier

As discussed in the first part of this chapter, a transistor is an excellent amplifier. The picture below
shows an example.
21
Bipolar Transistors
The input signal is connected to the amplifier via C1. C1 prevents a DC current flow in R1 and the input
signal source, e.g. a microphone. DC currents may destroy the microphone (unless it's an electret; a
type of microphone with a built-in amplifier).
The characteristics of transistor T1 are: hFE=100 and VBE=0.6V.
Assume we want to connect an end amplifier with a 10k input resistance to the OUT terminal. For
maximum power transfer, the output resistance of our amplifier must be equal to the input resistance of
the end amplifier. The output impedance of an amplifier is defined as vOUT/iOUT. In our case vOUT = vRC
1
and iOUT = iRC. So the output impedance of this amplifier is vRC/iRC = RC. So RC = 10k. For stability
reasons VRE must be VS/5. Since VS = 9V, VRE must be 1.8V. This means that the voltage at the OUT
terminal can vary between 1.8 and 9V. So the maximum AC output voltage (vOUT,max) is 9-1.8=7.2Vtt.
Obviously, this can only be arranged if the quiescent output voltage (when vIN=0) is exactly between 1.8
and 9V. This means VOUT=1.8+(9-1.8)/2=5.4V. We already know that RC=10k, so IC = (9-5.4V)/10k =
0.36mA. IE will also be 0.36mA, so RE=VRE/IE=1.8/0.36m=5k.
VB = VBE + VRE. VBE is always 0.6V, so vRE = vB. (Remember: AC voltages and currents are written in
lower case letters.) When C1 is large enough, vIN = vB = vRE. VOUT = VS - VRC = 9V - VRC => vOUT = -vRC.
Knowing this, we can calculate the gain A of the amplifier, which is defined as: A = vOUT/vIN = -vRC/vRE=-
(iC∙RC)/(iE∙RE). Since iC=iE (hFE is large enough to neglect iB), A=-(iC∙RC)/(iC∙RE) = -RC/RE. This means
our amplifier's gain is -10k/5k =-2.
VR1 = VS-VBE-VRE = 9-0.6-1.8 = 6.6V. IR1=IC/hFE=0.36mA/100=3.6μA. R1 = 6.6V/3.6μA = 1.8M.
Unfortunately, transistors with the same type designation can have a wide range of hFE. For example,
the hFE of a 2N3904 transistor ranges from 100 thru 300. The question is: will our amplifier still function
properly if hFE = 300? Let's see...
IB = (VS-VBE-VRE)/R1. VRE = IC∙RC = hFE∙IR1∙RE = hFE∙RE∙(VS-VBE-VRE)/R1 = hFE∙RE∙(VS-VBE)/R1 -

hFE∙RE∙VRE/R1 =>
VRE+(hFE∙RE/R1)∙VRE = hFE∙RE∙(VS-VBE)/R1 => (1+300∙5k/1.8M)∙VRE = 300∙5k∙8.4/1.8M =>

1.833∙VRE=7 => VRE = 7/1.833 = 3.8V.
IB = (8.4-3.8)/1.8M = 2.6μA. IC = 300∙2.6μA = 0.767mA. However, IC,max = VS/(RC+RE)=9/15k=0.6mA.

So hFE∙IB > IC,max, which means that the transistor is saturated and thus acts like a closed switch!
Solution: add an extra resistor which makes VRE (and therefore IC) independent of hFE:
Make sure IR1 >> IB => IR1≈IR2. Let's estimate proper values for R1 and R2.
VR2 = VBE+VRE = 0.6+1.8V = 2.4V. VR1 = VS-VR2 = 9-2.4 = 6.6V. So R1:R2=6.6:2.4. E.g. R1=33k and
R2=12k. In that case IR1(=IR2) = 6.6V/33k = 0.2mA, which is much larger than IB.
22
Bipolar Transistors
As mentioned before, the voltage gain of this amplifier is just (-)2. In many cases that will not be enough.
You can easily increase the gain by adding an extra resistor and capacitor as shown in the picture below:
the most common transistor amplifier.
Capacitor C2 shorts RE2 for AC voltages. So for DC signals, RE = RE1 + RE2, and for AC signals, RE
= RE1. If RE1 = 500Ω and RE2 = 4.5k, we have an amplifier with the same characteristics as above,
but the gain is 10k/500=20.
The impedance of C2 must be much smaller than RE1:
1/(2∙π∙fmin∙C2) « RE1 => C2 » 1/(2∙π∙fmin∙RE1) where fmin is the lowest frequency the amplifier must
be able to handle.
For example: if fmin = 20Hz, C2 » 1/(2∙π∙20∙500) = 16μF. 47 or 100μF is a good choice.
The AC input resistance of the amplifier is approximately R1//R2 = 8.8k. So the impedance of C1 must
be much less than 8.8k => C1 » 1/(2∙π∙20∙8.8k) = 0.9μF. 10μF is a good choose. The positive terminal
1
of C1 must be connected to the amplifier, unless the input signal's DC component is larger than 2.4V.
1
Every amplifier will produce a certain amount of heat. When a transistor heats up, its characteristics will change. For example,
the quiescent collector current will increase. This may heat up the transistor even more, causing the quiescent current to increase,
etcetera. This behaviour is called thermal runaway. This may cause the amplifier to clip, and may destroy the transistor. This,
of course, must be prevented.
Assume that a dT increase in temperature results in a dP increase in the transistor's power dissipation, and that a power increase
of dP results in a temperature increase of dT'. Everything will be fine as long as dT' < dT.
We can calculate dT' by multiplying the power increase (dP) with the thermal resistance from junction to ambient, so:
dT' = Rth,j-a ∙ dP
So an amplifier will be thermally stable if: Rth,j-a∙dP < dT, or: Rth,j-a∙dP/dT < 1
Let's take a look at a very simple amplifier:
23
Without input signal the transistor (NPN or PNP) will dissipate: P=VCE∙IC.
Bipolar Transistors
Testing transistors using a multimeter

If your meter has a transistor socket, set the function switch to hFE and simply insert the transistor leads
into the proper holes of the socket. To determine the type (NPN/PNP) and to locate the B, C and E leads,
use the transistor's datasheet. The display will show the transistor's current gain (hFE).
If your meter doesn't have a hFE test, you can at least test the BE and CB diodes using the diode test.
2
VCE=VS - IC∙RL => P=(VS - IC∙RL)∙IC=VS∙IC - IC ∙RL.
dP/dIC=VS - 2∙IC∙RL. => dP=(VS - 2∙IC∙RL)∙dIC
The amplifier will therefore be stable if:
Rth,j-a∙(VS - 2∙IC∙RL)∙dIC/dT < 1
This will always be true if: VS < 2∙IC∙RL => IC∙RL > VS/2
IC∙RL = VS - VCE => VS - VCE > VS/2 => VCE < VS/2
So, the amplifier will be stable if VCE is smaller than VS/2. For maximum output amplitude, the collector voltage must be VS/2.
If the emitter is grounded, VCE will be equal to VS/2 and the amplifier may be thermally instable. Therefore a small resistor is
connected between emitter and ground. The voltage across this resistor must be about VS/5. This is a compromise; less voltage
may result into instability due to component spread and aging. 24A higher voltage will decrease the maximum output amplitude
and thus the efficiency.
Chapter 7. Project: A simple
adjustable DC power supply
The transformer
In this project we use all the components we've learned about in the previous lessons. The only new
component is a transformer. A transformer transforms high voltages to low voltages (or vice versa). It
basically consists of two coils of wire wrapped around a soft-iron core. When you connect one of the coils
to an AC voltage source, it produces an alternating magnetic field in the soft-iron core. This magnetic
field also flows in the core of the second coil. This causes an alternating current flow in the second coil.
The coil connected to the source is called the primary coil; the second coil, connected to the load, is
called the secondary coil.
The voltage ratio is equal to ratio of the number of turns of each coil:
vs:vp=Ns:Np
The current ratio is equal to: is:ip=Np:Ns
The diagram
Let's take a look on the diagram below.
On the left, you see the aforementioned transformer. In this case, the transformer's output voltage is 15V
AC. This AC voltage is rectified by bridge rectifier G1. The rectified voltage is smoothed by capacitor
C1. Without C1, the output would be just a rectified sine wave signal. If you would power your walkman
with this voltage, you would hear a terrible 100Hz humming. The result of a computer simulation below
shows what C1 does.
In this picture you see two signals: a rectified sine wave (the situation without C1), and the situation
with C1. At t=0, C1 is discharged, so VC1=0V. G1 will then charge C1 until t=T1. The top value of the
25
Project: A simple adjustable
DC power supply
rectified signal is 15V∙√2 - 2∙0.6V = 20V. After t=T1 C1 will be discharged by the load until t=T2. Then,
everything will start all over again.
Vr is called the ripple voltage. Especially in audio equipment it should be as small as possible, because
voltage ripple in the power lines means voltage ripple in the sound signals! You can reduce the ripple
voltage by using larger capacitors. You can calaculate the value of the capacitor, but you can also use
the rule of thumb: 2000...5000uF (2...5mF) per ampere load current.
You might think that the maximum voltage across C1 will be 20V. But this is only true if the secondary
voltage of the transformer is 15V. Unfortunately, this voltage depends on the load. The open line voltage
may be 18V or even more! Take this into consideration when buying a capacitor for C1, since all
capacitors have a maximum voltage they can sustain.
The load-dependency of the output voltage of the transformer also explains the presence of zener diode
D1. Without D1 the output voltage would depend on the load, and that is something we don't want.
Thanks to D1, the voltage across P1 and R2 is always 12V. So the voltage at the base of T1 only
depends on the position of P1. With P1 turned to the maximum position, VB=12V. The output voltage
VE will be 12V-0.6V=11.4V. With P1 turned all the way down, VB=VR2. VE=VR2-0.6V. Of course we want
VE to be 0V, so VR2=0.6V. We can now calculate R2: R2:P1=VR2:VP1=0.6:11.4, so R2=(0.6/11.4)∙10k
= 526Ω. 470Ω is a good choise.
If we want 5mA current flow in D1, IR1=5mA+VD1/(P1+R2)=5mA+12/10470=6.15mA. R1=(Vtop-VD1)/

IR1=(20-12)/6.15mA=1.3k. 1.2k is a good choise. This calculation assumes that T1's base current is very
small. And it should be, because a large current will cause a high voltage drop across the top part of
P1. This will reduce the base voltage and this the output voltage. And since the base current depends
on the output current, the output voltage would depend on the output current. And we don't want that.
You may need to replace T1 with a darlington.
Zener diode D1 has another advantage: a small ripple voltage across C1 does not appear on the output
terminals. Even if Vr=5V, the voltage across C1 will never drop below 15V and VD1 remains 12V. This
means that you can create a ripple free power supply without coffee table size capacitors! However,
don't make C1 too small. Charging C1 causes a high current flow in the transformer. If C1 is small,
charging takes a relatively long time and might overheat the transformer.
When VC1=15V, IR1=(15-12)/1200 = 2.5mA. This leaves 2.5-1.15 = 1.35mA for D1. And this might not be
enough for D1 to operate properly. If we want ID1 to be 5mA (and thus IR1 6.15mA), then R1=(15-12)/
6.15m = 488Ω. So R1 should be replaced with a 470Ω resistor. Let's now calculate the current when VC1
reaches its top value (20V). IR1=(20-12)/470 = 17mA. So ID1=17-1.15 = 15.35mA. PD1=12∙17m=0.2W.
So a 0.4W zener will survive.
Please keep in mind that the top value is only 20V when the transformer voltage is 15V. We already saw
that this voltage depends on the load current, and that the open line voltage can be 18V or more. Always
consider the worst-case scenario. Assume we measure an 18V open line voltage. Add 10% to this, just to
be safe. So we assume a top value of 20V∙√2 - 2∙0.6V = 27V. IR1=(27-12)/470 = 32mA. PR1=(27-12)∙32m
= 0.48W. R1 must therefore be a 1W resistor. ID1=32-1.15 = 30.85mA. PD1=12∙30.85m=0.37W. Although
this is just below 0.4, D1 should better be replaced with a higher wattage zener.
Another method is enlarging C1, making the ripple voltage smaller. Assume that the ripple voltage has
been reduced to 2V. VC1,min is now 20-2=18V. R1=(18-12)/6.15m = 976Ω. We'll take an 820Ω resistor.
When VC1=27V, IR1=(27-12)/820 = 18.3mA. PR1=(27-12)∙18.3m = 0.27W. An 1/3 of 1/2W resistor will
now be sufficient. ID1=18.3-1.15 = 17.15mA. PD1=12∙17.15m=0.21W. A 0.4W zener can handle this very
easily.
26
Chapter 8. Differential Amplifier
Typical example
In the picture above, you see a typical schematic of a differential amplifier.
The DC current source I1 provides a continuous 1mA current flow.
Transistors T1 and T2 have the same electrical characteristics, e.g. hFE1=hFE2=100. Therefore, the
quiescent emitter currents of T1 and T2 are the same: IE1=IE2=0.5mA. The voltage across R1 (and R2)
will be: VR1=10k∙0.5mA=5V. So the voltage at the OUT terminal equals V1-VR2=9V-5V=4V.
If we inject a 1uA current in IN1, IE1 will raise by 1uA∙100=0.1mA, so IE1=0.6mA and IE2
will be 0.4mA since the sum must be 1mA. VR2=0.4mA∙10k=4V and VOUT=9V-4V=5V. So we
can write down the following (DC) formula for VOUT: VOUT=V1-VR2=9V-(0.5mA-IIN1∙hFE)∙R2=9V-
5V+IIN1∙hFE∙R2=4V+IIN1∙hFE∙R2. When we omit the DC component we get this AC equation:
vOUT=iIN1∙hFE∙R2.
Of course, we can also inject a current in IN2, resulting in: vOUT=-iIN2∙hFE∙R2 (Note the minus sign).
Combine both equations and you get:
vOUT=(iIN1-iIN2)∙hFE∙R2
Hence the name differential amplifier.
All so called operational amplifiers are based on a differential amplifier. We'll take a closer look on
operational amplifiers in the next chapter. First, we have to find out how to create a DC current source.
DC Current Source
If you actually want to build a differential amplifier using the diagram in the previous section, you have
a problem. You can buy the resistors, transistors and the battery in any shop, but where to buy a DC
current source? The answer is simple. Don't go looking for it, because no one sells one. We have to
create one ourselves.
There are several ways to do this. We'll use a so called current mirror.
27
Differential Amplifier
Again, both transistors have the same characteristics. VR3=9V-0.6=8.4V, so IR3=8.4V/8.2k=1.02mA.

Since the transistors have the same characteristics and VBE1=VBE2, both collector currents must be the
same: IC3=IC4=IR3=1.02mA.
You can obtain any current flow you like by adjusting R3.
To use the current source in the differential amplifier, connect the collector of T3 to the emitters of T1
and T2.
28
Chapter 9. Operational Amplifier
Introduction
The picture above shows the symbol on an operational amplifier, or opamp. Opamps are differential
amplifiers with a very large gain: VOUT=(VIN1-VIN2)∙A. Gain A is usually greater than 100000. This means
that VIN1-VIN2 must be very small: even 1mV would result in an output voltage of more than 100V, which
of course is impossible, because the source voltage is just 18V. In the next section we'll see that the
gain can be reduced by using resistors.
The input resistance of both input terminals is very high: »1GΩ. This means that there will be no current
flow in the input terminals of an opamp.
IN1 is called the non-invering input; IN2 is called the inverting input, because its signal is inverted: if
VIN2 increases, VOUT decreases and vice versa. The voltage at the non-inverting input is called Vp; the
voltage at the inverting input is called Vn. So in this case: Vp=VIN1 and Vn=VIN2.
Opamp used as an amplifier

In this section we'll learn the two easiest ways to reduce the huge gain of an opamp. First, we take a
look at the non-inverting amplifier:
R1 and R2 make a voltage divider: Vn=VOUT∙R1/(R1+R2), so
VOUT=(Vp-Vn)∙A = (VIN-VOUT∙R1/(R1+R2))∙A = VIN∙A-VOUT∙A∙R1/(R1+R2) =>
VOUT+VOUT∙A∙R1/(R1+R2)=VIN∙A.
Since A is nearly infinite, term VOUT is negigible, so
VOUT∙A∙R1/(R1+R2)=VIN∙A =>
29
Operational Amplifier
VOUT=VIN∙(R1+R2)/R1
Remember the first equation of this section? Vn=VOUT∙R1/(R1+R2).
This is equal to: VOUT=Vn∙(R1+R2)/R1. And we've just proved that VOUT=VIN∙(R1+R2)/R1. This means
that VIN=Vn, and since VIN=Vp, Vp must be equal to Vn!
This is always the case.
If an opamp is used as an amplifier: Vp=Vn
Note: the gain of this non-inverting amplifier is always greater than or equal to 1.
To create an amplifier with a gain less than 1 (an attenuator), we connect the input signal to R1, creating
an inverting amplifier:
Since Vp is 0 and Vp=Vn, Vn=0. This means VOUT=VR2.
VR2=(VOUT-VIN)∙R2/(R1+R2) => VOUT=(VOUT-VIN)∙R2/(R1+R2) =>
VOUT=VOUT∙R2/(R1+R2)-VIN∙R2/(R1+R2) => VOUT-VOUT∙R2/(R1+R2)=-VIN∙R2/(R1+R2) =>
VOUT∙R2/(R1+R2)-VOUT=VIN∙R2/(R1+R2) => (R2/(R1+R2)-1)∙VOUT=VIN∙R2/(R1+R2) =>
-R1/(R1+R2)∙VOUT=VIN∙R2/(R1+R2) => -R1VOUT=R2∙VIN =>
VOUT=-(R2/R1)VIN
Note the minus sign: the input signal is inverted.
This amplifier becomes an attenuator if R1>R2.
Opamp used as a threshold switch

Since VOUT=(Vp-Vn)∙A and A is infinite, it's easy to see that an opamp can be used as a threshold switch:
if Vp>Vn then VOUT equals the positive source voltage; if Vp<Vn then VOUT equals the negative source
voltage. Take a look at the picture below.
30
Operational Amplifier
Assume P1 is in the middle position. Let's call the top section P1a and the bottom section P1b. In the
middle position P1a=P1b=5k => Vp=4.5V. If R1>R2, Vn<Vp and the lamp will be turned on. If R1<R2,
Vn>Vp and the lamp will be turned off.
If R1 is a light dependent resistor (LDR), the circuit becomes a switch that turns the lamp on automatically
when it gets dark. LDRs have a high resistance in the dark and a lower resistance when light shines on
it. So in the dark Vn<Vp and the lamp will be turned on. At dawn, Vn will become greater than Vp and
the lamp will be turned off. Use P1 to change the threshold.
But what will happen if Vn=Vp? In that case, the lamp might switch on and off rapidly. Fortunately we
can prevent this by adding one resistor:
Feedback resistor R3 makes Vp dependent on the state of the switch. Assume again that P1 is in the
middle position. When the lamp is turned on, VOUT=9V, so R3 can be considered as parallel-connected to
the top section of P1 (P1a): Vp=9V∙P1b/(P1b+[P1a//R3]) = 9V∙5k/(5k+[5k//10k]) = 5.4V. So the lamp will
only be turned off when Vn>5.4V. In that case, VOUT=0V, so R3 can be considered as parallel-connected
to P1b: Vp=9V∙[P1b//R3]/(P1a+[P1b//R3]) = 9V∙[5k//10k]/(5k+[5k//10k]) = 3.6V. So the lamp will only be
turned on again when Vn<3.6V. The difference 5.4V-3.6V=1.8V is called the hysteresis.
Opamp used as a voltage-controlled current source
The current flow in the collector and emitter will be the same. The current in the lamp and R1 will therefore
also be the same. The voltage across R1 depends on the current flowing in it; this voltage will therefore
also depend on the current flow in the lamp.
The opamp will try to keep Vn=Vp. This means that the current flow though the lamp depends on the
voltage at the non-inverting input of the opamp. Because R1 is 1 ohm, a 1V voltage will cause a 1A
current flow. The voltage across R1 will also be 1V, which leaves 11V for the lamp. R1 dissipates 1W.
31
Chapter 10. Lab Power Supply
The diagram
This is the schematic of the 30V/2A power supply I use in my own lab. Click here to see the full size
image. It may look very complex, but it really isn't very difficult to understand: it uses only the knowledge
we've learned in the previous lessons.
The top part looks like the power supply we built in Lesson 7: the transformer L1 transforms the outlet
voltage to a safe 30V, which is rectified by bridge rectifier G2 and smoothed by capacitor C5. Transistors
T3 and T6 form a darlington transistor. This darlington replaces transistor T1 in Lesson 7. However,
the base voltage is not controlled by a simple potmeter, but by an 'electronic potmeter' with voltage
feedback. The advantage of this feedback is a load-independent output voltage.
Voltage feedback
Imagine you connect your 'Lesson 7' power supply to a device that switches a lamp on and off. This
device requires 4.75 ... 5.25V supply voltage to operate correctly. When the lamp is off, it draws just
5mA. When the lamp is on, the current flow rises to 1A. You connect the device to the power supply
with wires that have a total resistance of 1Ω. You use a volt meter to adjust P2 to an output voltage of
5V. After a while, the lamp switches on. The voltage drop over the wires will now be 1V, leaving just
4V for the device. This is not enough and the device shuts down, turning off the lamp. The device now
receives 5V again and the lamp switches on. The supply voltage drops to 4V, and the lamp goes off,
and so on, and so on...
The remedy for this is eighter using very thick wires or voltage feedback. When you want to permanently
connect the device to a power supply, the first option is probably the best, especially when the wires are
short. In this chapter however, we want to build a lab power supply. You may already have noticed R14.
32
Lab Power Supply
This is a 0.5Ω current sense resistor which will be discussed later in this chapter. This means that even
if we use thick wires, the voltage drop will always be at least 0.5V per ampere.
In the schematic above the feedback terminals are FB+ and FBGND. R19 and R16 devide the actual
output voltage by 2 and R13 feeds it back to the non-inverting pin of opamp U2. The inverting pin of U2
is connected to P2 via R17. U3 is a cheap 15V voltage stabalizer. To keep it as stable as possible, it
is fed by separate transformer winding (or a separate transformer), bridge rectifier (G1) and smoothing
electrolytic (C3). So Vp=0.5∙VOUT and Vn ranges from 0 ... 15V. Lesson 9 tought us that if Vp > Vn, U2's
output is 15V. T5 will be saturated and the base voltage of the driver darlingtom T3/T6 will be 0V. The
load at the output terminals will discharge C2 until Vp < Vn. At that moment, U2's output will become
0V, T5 opens, and a current starts to flow in R4 and the bases of T3 and T6. This current will saturate
the darlington. A large current will charge C2 and feed the load. This will continue until Vp > Vn. At that
point everything starts all over again. Again we see that opamp U2 tries to keep Vp equal to Vn, just
like an opamp amplifier. In matter of fact, U2 is used as an amplifier: it amplifies the voltages over P2
(=Vn) 2 times (because R19 and R16 devide the output voltage by 2). Since Vn ranges from 0 ... 15V,
VOUT will range from 0 ... 30V.
Without R21 and R22, we should not turn on the power supply until FB+ and FBGND were both
connected! If FB+ and FBGND were disconnected, U2 might have thought that the output voltage were
too low, and a voltage of 40V or more might have appeared across the output terminals!
When T5 closes, there may still be up to 30V across C2. Since The base voltage of T3 is 0V, there will
be -30V between the base of T3 and the emitter of T6. However, T6 cannot withstand voltages less than
-7V. For T3, VBE must be greater than -60V. R5 and R20 devide the -30V, so that T6 will survive.
Current limitation
When the output current increases, the voltage across R14 will also increase. This voltage is amplified
by the cicuitry around opamp U1. The gain can be controlled by potmeter P1. When U1's output voltage
exceeds 0.6V, T2 switches on. This causes a current flow in T1, which also switches on. The current
flow in R3 switches on T5 and the voltage at the output terminals will drop to 0V. Of course, the current
flow will also be 0A, and VR14 will also be 0V. However, T1 also feeds T2 via R1, so the output voltage
remains 0V until switch SW1 is closed.
WARNING: remove the load prior to closing SW1. The overload protection does not work as long as
SW1 is closed!
You may wonder why the voltage across R14 is first devided by R9 and R10 and then amplified by U1.
In the the worst case scenario, the OUT terminal is shorted to the GND terminal. This means that the
full output voltage will be across R14. This voltage can be up to 30V. However the supply voltage of
U1 is just 15V. If the non-inverting pin were directly connected to the GND terminal, opamp U1 would
be destroyed, because the input voltage of an opamp should never exceed its supply voltage. R9 and
R10 make sure that Vp never exceeds 15V.
Capacitor C1 prevents current spikes triggering the overload protector.
Protective circuitry
When you switch off the power supply, C5 and C3 will remain charged for a certain period of time. Since
C5 is much larger than C3, it is very likely that C3 will be empty while C5 is still charged. If C3 is empty, U2
ceases to function, T5 will be open and the full voltage across C5 will appear on the output terminals! The
protective circuitry around T4 will prevent this. While U2 receives its supply voltage T4 remains closed
and everything works as it should. However, when U2 loses its supply voltage, T4 opens. In that case,
T5 closes due to a current flow in R18 and D5. This will make sure that the output voltage remains 0V.
33
Lab Power Supply
Choosing your components

When you want to build this power supply, you may encounter some difficulties while buying the
components. Or maybe you want to build one that has different characteristics.
For transformer L1, I use a 30V transformer with an extra 20V winding. If you can't find a transformer
like this, you can also use 2 transformers.
The maximum voltage across C5 will be 30V∙√2 - 1.4 = 41V. So I choose for G2 a B80C5000/3300. (80
= maximum voltage; 5000 = maximum peak current [mA]; 3300 = maximum continuous current [mA]).
C5 should be able to sustain 50V.
2
The maximum power dissipation in R4 is 41 /3k3 = 0.51W. Usually, you take the next value available,
in this case 1W. However, in this case the voltage across R4 will not continuously be 41V, but just for
short periods of time. So I took a 0.5W resistor.
T6 is a high power transistor. Make sure you cool it using a proper heatsink. I also attached T6 to the
metal case of my power supply. Its minimum current gain is 20, so the maximum current in T3 is 2A/20
= 0.10A. The maximum power dissipation in T3 is 41V∙0.10A=4.1W. According to the datasheet, the
maximum power dissipation without heatsink is just 2W, so this transistor needs a little heatsink. N.B.
Do NOT use a TIP41, since its VCE,max = 40V. Use a TIP41A, B or C.
T1 can be any PNP transistor. T2 can be any NPN transistor. T4 and T5 can be any transistor where
VCE,max >= 45V. So American users should take care when applying a 2N3904 here; the maximum VCE
of this transistor is 40V. If anyone knows a good American replacement for it, please let me know. (I'm
not sure if the BC-series are available in America.)
2
The maximum power dissipation in R14 is 3 ∙0.5 = 4.5W. The next available value is 5W.
For opamps U1 and U2 I used a CA3140. Do not use a cheap 741 or so; these are not suitable for this job.
If you want more than 30V output voltage, you need to change more than just the transformer. You
also need higher voltage versions of C2, C5, T4 and T5. You also need to change the voltage deviders
R19/R16 and (maybe) R9/R10. For example, if you want to build a 40V power supply, C2 = 10uF/50V
and C5 = 10000uF/63V. T4 and T5 should be replaced with a BC546. Without any change, the maximum
voltage on the non-inverting pin of U1 is 40V/2.8 = 14.2V. Although this is less than 15V, you'd better
replace R10 with a 2k2 resistor. When VFB+ = 40V, Vp,U1 should (still) be 15V. This means that R19/R16
should devide the voltage by 40/15 = 2.67: R19 = 56k and R16 = 33k.
If you need less than 30V, you only need a lower voltage transformer and different values for R19 and
R16. For example, if VOUT,max = 20V, R19/16 should devide the feeback voltage by 20/15 = 1.33: R19
= 18k and R16 = 56k.
Assembly
You can download the PCB (printed circuit board) in several formats here: JPEG, EPS and HPGL. There
are many ways to create a PCB from a layout, but that's beyond the scope of this course.
The component layout looks like this:
34
Lab Power Supply
Components not mentioned on the board are: transformer L1, bridge rectifier G2 and capacitor C5.
These are mounted in the cabinet. The positive terminal of C5 is connected to pin VSIN on the board,
and its negative terminal is connected to the VSGND pin.
The 20V winding of the transformer is connected to the AC20A and AC20B pins on the PCB.
Transistor T6, potmeters P1 and P2, switch SW1 and LED D1 are mentioned on the PCB, but not
mounted on it. I mounted T6 on the metal back pannel of the cabinet (electrically insulated!) and used
three pieces of wire to connect it to the PCB. The other components are mounted on the front panel.
Pins OUT and GND are the output terminals of the power supply. FB+ and FBGND are the feedback
pins. I soldered them directly to the OUT and GND terminals.
It is highly recommended to use IC sockets for U1 and U2: soldering out a defective chip can be quite
a pain.
When you're carefull not to mount diodes and electro's the other way around, you should have no
problems on this project. And if it doesn't work immediately, you have enough knowledge to deduce
the problem!
Good luck!
35
Lab Power Supply
A picture of the power supply from one of the course members.
36
Chapter 11. Heatsink
Introduction
Heatsinks are used to prevent transistors from getting too hot. Air and plastic are a very bad heat
conductors; the heat a transistor produces is not easily transferred to the surrounding air or plastic.
Metal however is a very good heat conductor. That's why small power transistors have a small metal
plate and large power transistors even have a full metal case. The larger the metal surface, the easier
the produced heat is transferred to the ambient. And that is exacly what a heatsink does: enlarging the
metal surface of a transistor.
This chapter describes how to calculate the size of the heatsink you need.
Calculations
The ability to transfer heat is called the thermal conductance, but we always use the reciprocal value:
the heat resistance. The thermal resistance (Rth) is measured in °C/W. If the Rth of a heatsink is 1°C/W,
the temperature will rise 1°C per Watt power dissipation. So:
R=T/P
Doesn't this folmula look familiar? Yep, if you replace T with V and P with I, you get the formula for
electrical resistance. This anology makes it very easy to calculate the heak sink you need: replace all
heat producers with current sources and temperatures with voltages. Take a look at the diagram below.
This diagram shows transistor T6 of the lab power supply, a 2N3055 producing 60W at its junction. (The
junction is the silicon chip inside the transistor.) The thermal resistance from junction to case is 1.5°C/W.
The ambient temperature is 25°C. Resistor RTHC-A is the thermal resistance of the heatsink. This is
the resistance we want to calculate.
The maximum junction temperature of the 2N3055 is 200°C. The 'temperature drop' across RTHJ-C
is 60W∙1.5°C/W = 90°C. That leaves 200 - 90 - 25 = 85°C for the heatsink. So RTHC-A = 85°C/60W
= 1.4°C/W.
Let's now calculate the heatsink for T3, a TIP41A. The maximum junction temperature is 150°C. The
datasheet says: when you keep the case temperature to 25°C, the transistor can dissipate 65W. This
means that RTHJ-C = 125°C/65W = 1,9°C/W. The transistor dissipates 4.1W, so the total resistance
from junction to ambient may not exceed 125°C/4.1W = 30.5°C/W. So the thermal resistance of the
heatsink should not exceed 30.5 - 1.9 = 28.6°C/W. A very small heatsink will suffice.
Important notes:
• When you attach a heatsink to a transistor, there will always be air pockets between the two metal
plates. And air is a bad heat conductor. To reduce the thermal resistance between the transistor case
and the heatsink, you should use special heat conducting paste (heatsink compound).
• Bear in mind that one of the pins (base, collector or emitter) will be internally connecteded to the metal
case of a transistor. If you want to mount two transistors on one heatsink, make sure you don't create
shortcuts. For example, both the TIP41A and the 2N3055 have their collectors connected to the case.
In our lab supply, both collectors are connected anyway, so you can mount these transistors on the
37
Heatsink
same heatsink. But obviously, this is not always the case! Fortunately, you can buy insulators to put
between the transistor and the heatsink. Note however that this will introduce extra thermal resistance!
• In some catalogs you may find thermal resistances measured in K/W (Kelvin per Watt). This is the
same as °C/W: 1K/W = 1°C/W.
• Transistor datasheets can be found on the internet.
38
Chapter 12. Power Amplifiers
Introduction
During this course, we've already learned how to amplify small voltages using transistors and operational
amplifiers. The maximum output current of these amplifiers was very low and therefore not suitable for
driving a loudspeaker. In this lesson we will learn how to increase the maximum output current.
Emitter follower
We already know that transistors are made for this job. Take a look at the picture below.
RL is an 8Ω loudspeaker. VBE does not depend on the AC input voltage; it's always about 0.6V. This
means that for AC voltages vE = vB => vBE = 0 => vRL = vIN. Since the AC emitter voltage 'follows' the
base voltage, this kind of amplifier is also called an 'emitter follower'. The picture next to the schematic
above shows the output signal. As you can see, this amplifier works only for the positive half period
of the input signal. During the negative half period, the base voltage drops below 0V, and T1 can be
considered as an open switch. If we replace T1 with a PNP transistor (and connect its collector to -15V),
the amplifier works only for the negative half period of the input signal. So we must combine these two.
Balance amplifier
Ah, that's much better. But what's that horrible distortion at ground level? When vIN = 0V, VB1 = VB2 =
0V (assumed R1 = R2). Since VRL is also 0V, VBE1 = VBE2 = 0V. This means that when VIN is between
-0.6 and 0.6V, T1 and T2 both remain open. This usually happens when vIN crosses the 0V line. That's
why it is called 'cross-over distortion'. To get rid of this, we must make sure that the quiescent voltages
VBE1 = 0.6V and VBE2 = -0.6V. This can be simply accomplished by adding two diodes:
39
Power Amplifiers
Bias
This looks much better. Let's now calculate the proper values for R1 and R2. Assume RL is an 8W
2 2
loudspeaker, VBE = 0.7V and hFE = 20. So u rms/RL = 8W => u rms = 8W∙8Ω => urms = 8V => utop =
8V∙√2 = 11.3V => VRL,max = VE1,max = 11.3V => VB1,max = 11.3 + 0.7 = 12V => VR1 = VS - VB1 = 15 - 12
= 3V. IRL,max = VRL,max/RL = 11.3/8 = 1.4A => IE1,max = 1.4A. IB1,max = IE1,max/(hFE+1) = 1.4A/21 = 67mA
= IR1 (IB»ID1). R1 = VR1/IR1 = 3V/67mA = 45Ω.
The quiescent diode current will be (2∙15V - 2∙0.7V)/(2∙45Ω) = 302mA. The power dissipation in R1 and
2
R2 will be I ∙R = 3.6W each! Needless to say, this is not a very economical amplifier. And to make things
even worse: every diode has a certain resistance. And even if this resistance is just 5Ω, it results in a
302mA∙5Ω = 1.5V voltage drop. This means that the voltage across the diodes increases from 0.7V to
2.2V! This means that VBE1 and VBE2 also increase. And if VBE increases, IC will also increase. Result:
the quiescent collector current will be very large!
Of course we could replace the diodes with resistors, making sure VBE will always be 0.7V. However,
diodes have a major advantage: thermal stability. Transistor and diode parameters are temperature-
dependent. If you keep VBE (or VD) constant, IC (ID) will increase with temperature. And vise versa: if you
keep IC constant, VBE decreases with 2mV/°C. So if you use resistors to keep VBE 0.7V, an increase in
temperture will cause IC to rise. This may heat up the transistor, so IC increases even more, and so on...
This is called thermal runaway. However, if you use diodes instead of resistors and attach the diodes to
the transistors (to make sure they have the same temperature) there will be no thermal runaway: if the
transistor heats up, the diode also heats up, reducing VBE preventing and increase of IC.
The only way to reduce the power dissipation in R1 and R2 and the voltage drop across D1 and D2,
is to reduce the (quiescent) current flow in these components. And that is only possible with larger hFE
values. So we need darlingtons!
40
Power Amplifiers
Darlingtons
Assume hFE3 = hFE4 = 100. This means that the total hFE of each darlington is 2000. IRL,max = 1.4A =>
IE1,max = 1.4A. IB1,max = IE1,max/(hFE+1) = 1.4A/2001 = 0.7mA = IR1. VB1,max = 11.3 + 2∙0.7 = 12.7V =>
VR1 = VS - VB1 = 15 - 12.7 = 2.3V. R1 = VR1/IR1 = 2.3V/0.7mA = 3.3kΩ.
Let's now calculate the maximum power dissipation in T1 and T2. PT1 = VCE1∙IE1 = (VS - VRL)∙(VRL/RL)
2
= (VS∙VRL - V RL)/RL. PT1 reaches its maximum value if dPT1/dVRL = VS - 2∙VRL = 0 => VRL = VS/2 =
2
7.5V. PT1,max = (15∙7.5 - 7.5 )/8 = 7W. Since T1 works only during the positive half periods, T1's (and
T2's) maximum dissipation will be 3.5W.
Opamp
If you want to build an operational amplifier and a power amplifier into one device, you can do it like this:
41
Power Amplifiers
You don't need diodes or resistors anymore to prevent cross-over distortion; the opamp takes care of
this. Since the opamp tries to keep Vp equal to Vn, the voltage gain is 2. Variable resistor (potentiometer)
P1 allows you to adjust the quiescent output voltage to exactly 0V.
An appropriate symmetric power supply can be found in another chapter.
42
Chapter 13. Inductors
Introduction
An inductor consists of a coil of wire, as its symbol shows:
The image above shows two coils. Inductor L1 has no core; the wire of L2 is wrapped around a ferrite
(soft iron) core.
What will happen if we connect a DC voltage source (battery) to an inductor?
As a child, you may have built an electromagnet by wrapping copper wire around a nail and connecting
it to a battery. Without knowing it, you actually created an inductor. Now you know what happens if you
connect an inductor to a battery: you end up with an electromagnet. Be careful though; small coils you
buy in a store are made of very thin wire. If you connect it to a battery, the high current may overheat
the inductor within a second.
Although electromagnets are very useful, things get really interesting if we connect an inductor to an
AC voltage source. When you disconnect an inductor from its battery, it wants to keep its magnetic field.
Reversing the magnetic field is therefore not an easy task. But that's exectly what an AC current wants
to do: it wants to reverse the magnetic field over and over again. The higher the frequency, the harder
this will be. In other words: an inductor blocks AC currents, but conducts DC currents.
The unit of inductance is Henry, symbol H. In schematics, you usually find mH (miliHenry) and uH
(microHenry).
The impedance of an inductor

The impedance of a component is the resistance of that component for AC voltages. The symbol for
resistance is R; the symbol for impedance is X. The impedance of an inductor is not zero; it depends
on the inductance (number of turns; core material) and the frequency of the signal (number of polarity
changes (forth and back) per second). The impedance can be calculated using the following equation.
f is the frequency in Hertz; L is the inductance in Henry
Example: We have a 1mH inductor and connect it to a 50Hz AC voltage source. Calculate the impedance
of the inductor.
-3
XL = 2∙π∙50∙10 = 0.31Ω.
Relation between voltage and current

For any voltage v(t) the following equation is true:
It shows a 90 degrees pahse shift if v(t) is sinusiodal: the integral of a sine is a (-)cosine.
It also shows that, if we apply a constant voltage V across an inductor, the current flow in it will increase
linearly:
43
Inductors
v(t) = v(0) + V∙t/L.
If we remove this voltage, the current flow will continue, provided of course there's a path. If there is
no path for the current, a large voltage peak will appear across the inductor. Hence the diode across
a transitor-controlled relay:
A relay consists of an electromagnet and a switch that closes when a current flows in the electromagnet.
This current is generally controlled by a transistor. When the transistor turns off, there is no path for the
coil current. The voltage peak across the relay may destroy the transistor. The diode will prevent this.
After turning off the relay, the coil current will flow in the diode.
Frequency filters
Take a look at the diagram on the right. Assume that the voltage source supplies a 1V/10kHz signal (this
means: the amplitude is 1V and the frequency is 10kHz = 10000Hz).
4 -3
The impedance of inductor L will be XL = 2∙π∙10 ∙10 = 62.8Ω. The output voltage (voltage across
inductor L) will be 1V∙(XL/(ZR+L)), where ZR+L is the total impedance of R and L. Because an inductor,
just like a capacitor, causes a phase shift in in the current flow, we cannot just state that ZR+L = R + XL.
1
Using some complex math we can prove that:
2 2
ZR+L = √(R +XL ).
2 2
In our case ZR+L = √(1k +62.8 ) = 1002Ω. Thus, the output voltage is 1V∙(62.8/1002) = 0.0627V.
(By the way, an inductor causes a +90 degrees phase shift, while a capacitor causes a -90 degrees
phase shift.)
Now assume that the voltage source supplies a 1V/10MHz signal. The impedance of inductor L will then
7 -3 2 2
be XL = 2∙π∙10 ∙10 = 62.8kΩ. So ZR+L = √(1k +62.8k ) = 62.8k. This is the same as XL, so the output
voltage will be 1V. So we created a very simple frequency filter with just a resistor and a inductor.
44
Inductors
In this case we created a so called high pass filter (HPF) since high frequency signals pass this filter
easily while frequency signals are suppressed. If you swap R and L, you create a low pass filter (LPF).
Let's calculate the cut-off frequency of our filter. The cut-off frequency is the frequency at which R =
XL => R = 2∙π∙f∙L =>
-3 1
In our case f = 1k/(2∙π∙10 ) = 159kHz.
Quality factor
In the previous sections we only looked at ideal inductors. However, every inductors has a certain series
resistance. This is not only determined by the resistance of the wire, but also by the kind of material the
wire has been wrapped around. This resistance looks very much like the ESR of a capacitor. But with
inductors we don't talk about ESR, but about the quality factor Q, which is defined as:
Q = XL/rL
where rL is the series resistance. XL and rL are both frequency-dependant, but not to the same extent.
Q is therefore also frequency-dependant.
Assume that the series resistance of the inductor in the previous section is 20 ohms at 159kHz. The
quality factor at 159kHz will then be 1k/20 = 50.
The Q plays an important role in determining the notch depth and the bandwidth of LC filters. This will
be discussed in Lesson 19. This lesson will also teach us how to measure the Q without expensive
equipment.
1
An inductor causes a 90 degrees phase shift. After reading the math for calculating resistors and capacitors inseries, it's clear
that the complex impedance can be written as:
2 2
So: |ZR+L| = √(R +XL ) and arg(ZR+L) = arctan(XL/R).
As an example, we'll take a 10k resistor in series with a 15.9k inductor. The total (complex) impedance is 10k + 15.9kj. The
2 2
absolute value is √(10k + 15.9k ) = 18.78k. The pahse shift in the current flow will be arctan(15.9k/10k) = 57.8 degrees.
45
Chapter 14. Decibels (dB)
Power and Voltage Ratios
If you browse through the technical specs of your stereo amplifier or your boom box, you'll notice that
some parameters are specified in dB. For example: S/N ratio: 70dB; channel separation: 60dB.
What does this mean?
dB is defined as 10∙log(P1/P2)
2 2 2 2
Since P1 = V1 /R and P2 = V2 /R, we can also write: dB = 10∙log(V1 /V2 ) = 20∙log(V1/V2)
In case of a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N ratio or SNR), dB = 20∙log(Vsig/Vnoise)
Knowing this, we can calulate the Vsig:Vnoise ratio if the S/N ratio is 70dB:
3.5
70dB = 20∙log(Vsig/Vnoise) => log(Vsig/Vnoise) = 70/20 = 3.5 => Vsig/Vnoise = 10 = 3162. This means that
the music signal is 3162 times stronger than the noise generated by the amplifier.
Channel separation indicates how much signal meant for the right channel is present in the left channel
60/20
and vice versa. If the channel separation is 60dB, the wanted channel signal is 10 = 1000 times
stronger than the unwanted channel signal. In other words: if you only listen to the left loudspeaker, you
will also hear the music that should only come from the right speaker. However, this 'unwanted channel
signal' is 1000 times weaker than the music coming from the right speaker.
In the previous lesson, we learnt that the attenuation of an RL filter is about 10 times per decade. How
much is this in dB?
Since we were looking at the voltage attenuation, the attenuation of an RL filter is 20∙log(10) = 20dB
per decade.
Reference-related dBs
In case of reference-related dBs, dB is defined as 10∙log(P/Pref) or 20∙log(V/Vref). In the table below you
find the most commonly used dBs.
dBV Vref = 1VRMS dBV = 20∙log(V/1VRMS)

dBW Pref = 1W dBW = 10∙log(P/1W)
dBj Vref = 1mVRMS dBj = 20∙log(V/1mVRMS)
dBm Pref = 1mW dBm = 10∙log(P/1mW)
dBu (=dBv) Vref = √0.6V = 0.775VRMS (0.6V is the voltage across a 600 dBu = 20∙log(V/0.775VRMS)
ohm resistor dissipating 1mW)
Examples: 0dBV = 1V = 60dBj; 0dBW = 1W = 30dBm.
46
Chapter 15. Vocal Eliminator
Introduction
A vocal eliminator is a device that removes the vocals from a song. These devices are primarily used by
professional singers. Amateurs want to have one, but these eliminators are quite expensive. So the poor
amateurs always had to perform their soundmix show by simply singing louder than the artists on CD.
Well... not anymore! Simply build this vocal eliminator and amaze your friends!
Schematic
Vocal eliminators use the fact that only the music is recored in stereo; the vocals (of the lead singer)
are recorded in mono. This means that we only have to subtract the left channel signal from the right
channel signal. Unfortunately, this also eliminates nearly all low frequence signals (bass); these have
to be added afterwards. The schematic below does exactly that:
Opamps U1.A and U1.B buffer the input signals.
Opamp U1.D is used as a differential amplifier. It's a combination of an inverting and a non-inverting
amplifier. Since R3 = R4 = R5 = R6, U1.D's output is RIN - LIN.
The inverting amplifier around opamp U1.C adds RIN and LIN. Its output is fed to a low pass filter (R11,
C1, U2.A). The result is a signal that only contains the low frequency part of both the left and the right
channel.
This signal is added to RIN - LIN by opamp U2.B. Output resistors R14 and R15 make sure U2.B survives
an accidental short to ground of the output terminals.
Choosing components
Opamps:
You can just take any opamp you like. I used a TL084 for U1.A...U1.D and a TL082 for U2.A and U2.B.
A single TL084 contains 4 opamps; a TL082 contains 2 opamps:
47
Vocal Eliminator
Resistors
All resistors except R3...R6 are generic 1/4W resistors. R3...R6 should be 1% precision resistors to
make sure that U3's output is exactly RIN - LIN.
If you want to control the amount of bass signal, you may replace R12 with a variable resistor.
Power supply
The power supply has not been drawn in the schematic. It can be just a simple small symmetric power
supply. A +/- 6V supply is sufficient for the vocal eliminator, so, in the supply, TR1 can be a 15V
transformer and U1 a 78(L)12 voltage regulator.
Testing
Connect RIN and LIN to the line out terminals of a CD player, cassette deck or whatever you use as
the music source. Connect ROUT and LOUT to the line in terminals of an amplifier. If you have a mono
amplifier, just connect either ROUT or LOUT. Note however that the music source must be stereo.
If you play a mono CD track or tape, RIN and LIN are the same, so RIN - LIN = 0. You can test this by
temporarily removing R12. You should hear no sound. If you disconnect LIN or RIN, you should hear
the music.
Having R12 still removed, play a stereo song. You should now hear the music, but no vocals. Otherwise,
the vocals are recorded in stereo as well; try another song (preferably from another CD or tape).
If you hear that the vocals are gone, you can put R12 back in place. If you hear the vocals again, the low
pass filter may not have been properly dimensioned. Experiment a little with R11 and C1. If you can't
get it right, you may need to add a second filter (just between R11/C1 and the + pin of U2.A), making
the attenuation 40dB per decade.
Assembly
You can download the PCB (printed circuit board) of the vocal eliminator in several formats here: JPEG,
EPS and HPGL. There are many ways to create a PCB from a layout, but that's beyond the scope of
this course.
The component layout looks like this:
48
Vocal Eliminator
The power supply has its own PCB.
You can mount both boards in one cabinet, or in separate cabinets. If you give the power supply its own
case, you can use it for other projects as well.
49
Chapter 16. Symmetric power supply
Introduction
Several projects and lessons need a symmetric power supply. This chapter describes several of them.
Up to about 25mA
G1 is a cheap B80C800 bridge rectifier.
The 7824 is a 24V/1A voltage regulator. It looks like this:
1=IN, 2=GND, 3=OUT.
You may also use a 78L24, a 24V/100mA voltage regulator. It looks like this:
1=OUT, 2=GND, 3=IN.
The resistors devide the 24V output voltage; the voltage across R2 (and R1) will be 12V. The opamp
buffers this 12V voltage. The maximum power dissipation of the opamp is about 600mW, so make sure
the output current doesn't exceed 600mW/24V = 25mA.
This is the component layout:
50
Symmetric power supply
After soldering every component in its place, connect a power cord to power pole connector J1, and
make sure the output voltage of the power supply is correct.
Up to 1A
G1 and G2 are both B40/C1500 bridge rectifiers.
The 7812 is a 12V voltage regulator; the 7912 is a -12V voltage regulator. They both look like this:
7812: 1=IN, 2=GND, 3=OUT. 7912: 1=GND, 2=IN, 3=OUT.
The voltage across C1 and C3 is about 21V. The output voltage of the regulators is +/- 12V. So the
voltage drop is 9V. Without a heatsink, the thermal resistance from junction to ambient is 65°C/W. The
maximum junction temperature is 150°C. When the room temperature is 25°C, we don't need a heatsink
when the power dissipation doesn't exceed (150-25)/65 = 1.9W. To be safe, start using a heatsink when
the power dissipation exceeds 1.5W. This means it's safe not using a heatsink up to 1.5W/9V = 166mA
output current. Do NOT mount both regulators on the same heatsink without using an insulator! Also
make sure that the screws don't create shorts.
This is the component layout:
51
Symmetric power supply
After soldering every component in its place, connect a power cord to power pole connector J1, and
make sure the output voltage of the power supply is correct.
52
Chapter 17. JFETs
Introduction
The acronym FET stands for Field Effect Transistor; the J stands for Junction.
JFETs are transistors with a very high input resistance. They have three terminals: Drain, Gate and
Source. JFETs come in two flavours: N-channel and P-channel:
A JFET looks like a voltage-controlled current source; the current source between the Drain and the
Source is controlled by the voltage across the Gate and the Source.
The ratio dID/dVGS is called the forward transfer admittance, symbol yfs.
To make an N-channel JFET work, the Gate voltage must always be less than the Drain and Source
voltages. That means that VGS must be negative. If VGS becomes more negative, ID will decrease. The
voltage at which the drain current becomes zero, is called the pinch-off voltage.
A JFET only behaves like a voltage-controlled current source if VGD is less (more negative) than the
pinch-off voltage. Otherwise, the JFET will behave like a voltage-controlled resistor. (For an explanation,
take a look inside a JFET.)
Let's take a look at the BF245A, an N-channel JFET. According to the datasheet, yfs = 3mA/V (or 3mS,
millisiemens). ID = 1mA if VGS = -1V. If VGS increases by 0.5V, ID will be 1 + 0.5∙3 = 2.5mA.
We can use this behaviour to create an amplifier.
JFET amplifier
The diagram above shows a very simple JFET amplifier. Let's make some DC calculations (no input
signal). T1 is a BF245A. The datasheet tells us that the yfs is 3mA/V if -1<VGS<0. So we choose VGS =
-0.5V. At that voltage, ID = 2.5mA. We want VOUT to be 6V, so RD = 6V/2.5mA = 2.4k.
53
JFETs
Since VG = 0V and VGS = -0.5V, VS must be 0.5V. So RS = 0.5V/2.5mA = 200Ω.
Next, we connect a 0.1Vt sinus signal to the IN termial. What will be the the amplitude of the output
signal? A 0.1V change in VGS causes a 0.1V∙3mA/V = 0.3mA change in ID and thus a 0.3mA∙2.4k =
0.8V change in the output signal. So the voltage gain is 8 (or actually -8; it's an inverting amplifier).
Capacitor CS makes sure that VS remains constant, so that vGS = vIN (for AC signals).
RI is usually 1M or so. It guarantees that VIN = 0V (DC), while the input resistance remains very high.
Just like the current gain (hFE) of a bipolar transistor may vary over a wide range, so may the forward
transfer admittance of a JFET. In case of the BF245A, yFS may vary between 3 and 6.5mS. Far worse is
the fact that the pinch-off voltage of a BF245A ranges from -0.25 to -8V. That means that at VGS=-0.5V,
ID can be much less or greater than the 2.5mA mentioned above; that was just a typical value. Resistor
RS is therefore often replaced by a current source.
JFET current source
We already saw that the JFET is a voltage-controlled current source. If VGS remains constant, so will
ID. The circuit above makes use of that behaviour. The transistor is a BF245B. VGS = 0V. According to
the datasheet ID will be 10mA. In this simple circuit we use it to supply an LED with a current flow that
is independant of the source voltage.
Note that we cannot use this current source in the JFET amplifier in the previous section. The JFET in
the current source has the same parameter variety as the one in the amplifier. That's no problem for
driving LEDs, but it is in an amplifier.
54
Chapter 18. MOSFETs
Introduction
As said in the previous lesson, the acronym FET stands for Field Effect Transistor; MOS stands for
Metal Oxide Silicon.
There are enhancement and depletion MOSFETs. Each type is available in an N-channel and P-channel
flavour. This means that there are four types of MOSFETs available:
JFETs and MOSFETs have many properties in common:
• Both have a very high input resistance.
• Both have three terminals: Drain, Gate and Source. Some MOSFETs have an extra Bulk terminal.
• Both can look like a voltage-controlled current source; the current source between the Drain and the
Source is controlled by the voltage across the Gate and the Source. The ratio dID/dVGS is called the
forward transfer admittance, symbol yfs.
• Both can also look like a voltage-controlled resistor; VGD must be between 0V and the pinch-off
voltage.
JFETs and depletion MOSFETs have even more in common:
• At VGS=0V, the D-S channel is conductive. (Enhancement MOSFETs need a certain G-S voltage
before a Drain current can flow.)
• To close an N-channel, VGS must be negative; increasing VGS will increase ID.
Of course, there are also differences between JFETs and MOSFETs. MOSFETs make perfect switches.
The channel resistance in 'on mode' is very low, generally less than 10 ohms. To switch an N-channel
enhancement MOSFET on, simply apply a high enough voltage across the Gate and Source. You cannot
do that with a JFET, because a JFET's VGS must be negative (N-channel); when VGS is positive, the
G-S diode will be forward-biased, dramatically decreasing the input resistance!
And although MOSFETs make perfect switches, they can be used in amplifiers as well.
55
MOSFETs
MOSFET amplifier
The diagram above shows a very simple MOSFET amplifier. T1 is an depletion N-channel MOSFET.
Assume its datasheet tells us that the VGS threshold voltage is -2V, and that yFS=10mA/V at VGS=0V.
If R1=470Ω, the gain will be 10mA/V∙470Ω = 4.7.
Dual-gate MOSFETs
A dual-gate MOSFET consists of two MOSFETs in series:
Typical applications are:
• An amplifier with gain control.
The input signal is fed to G1. The voltage at G2 controls the gain, because it determines the thickness
of the channel of the top MOSFET. The transfer characteristics below shows the drain current versus
VG1 for different values of VG2.
56
MOSFETs
It clearly shows that yfs (=ID/VG1) depends on VG2. And, of course, this means that the gain depends
on VG2.
In an antenna amplifier, weak signals should be amplified enough to be processed by the next stage.
But stong signals shouldn't overload the next stage. We only need a simple circuit that produces a
voltage of, say, 5V for weak signals and 1V for strong signals and feed that voltage to G2. That's how
AGC (Automatic Gain Control) implemented in many receivers.
• An AM modulator.
An AM modulator is a device that varies the amplitude of a high frequency signal with a low frequency
signal. This is simply done by connecting G1 to the HF signal and G2 to the LF signal. Like above,
the gain will vary with VG2 and thus with the LF signal.
• HF amplifier.
The amplifier in the previous section works fine for low frequency signals, but it's not suitable for
amplifying antenna signals in a TV set. Due to the MOSFET's construction, the capacitance between
Gate and Drain is relatively high, about 5pF for a small signal MOSFET. At 100MHz, this means an
impedance of just 318Ω. But the capacitance between G1 and Drain of a dual-gate MOSFET can
-18
be as low as 20fF (1fF = 1 femto-Farad = 10 F). At 100MHz, the impedance will be 79.6kΩ. G2 if
usually connected to the possitive supply voltage, or to an AGC voltage (see above).
57
Chapter 19. LC filters
Introduction
We have already learned about filters consisting of a resistor and a capacitor and of a resistor and an
inductor. In this lesson we will learn about filters consisting of a capacitor and an inductor.
High pass filter

As a start, we will look at the following two filters.
Lesson 13 tought us that the filter on the left has a cut-off frequency of 159kHz. The XC of the 1n
capacitor is 1k at 159kHz. So the cut-off freqency of the filter on the right is also 159kHz. However, at
10kHz, XC will be 15.9k. The output voltage will be 1V∙(XL/(ZL+C)). Again, we must use some complex
1
math to prove that:
ZL+C = |XL - XC|.
At 10kHz this will be |62.8 - 15.9k| = 15837.2. The output voltage will be 1V∙(62.8/15837.2) = 0.00397V.
This means that a CL filter suppresses unwanted freqencies much better than RL filters. Let's calculate
how much better.
To do this we calculate the output voltage of both filters at one tenth of the cut-off frequency, i.e. 15.9kHz.
At this frequency, XC=10k and XL=100Ω.
2 2
Vout,RL=1V∙(XL/√(XL +R )) = 1V∙(100/1005k) = 0.0995V. This is 10 times less than the input voltage.
Vout,CL=1V∙(XL/|XL-XC|) = 1V∙(100/9.9k) = 0.0101V. This is 100 times less than the input voltage.
Calculating the output voltages at one hundreth of the cut-off frequency (i.e. 1.59kHz) gives:
2 2
Vout,RL=1V∙(XL/√(XL +R )) = 1V∙(10/1000.05) = 0.0099995V. This is 100 times less than the input
voltage.
Vout,CL=1V∙(XL/|XL-XC|) = 1V∙(10/99.99k) = 0.0001V. This is 10000 times less than the input voltage.
We see that the attenuation of an RL filter is 10 times (or 20dB) per decade, and the attenuation of a
CL filter is 100 times (or 40dB) per decade!
The same is true for RC and LC filters.
Let's now calculate the cut-off frequency of an LC filter. We already know that XC=XL. It can now be
easily proven that:
58
LC filters
1
Filling in L=1mH and C=1nF gives f=159kHz (but we already knew that).
Band pass filter
The circuit above is called a band pass filter, because olnly a band of frquencies appears at the output.
The capacitor stops all low frequencies and the inductor all high frequencies. The current flow in C and
L is the same. The phase shift in the voltage across the capacitor is +90 degrees; the phase shift in
the voltage across the inductor is -90 graden. The phase shift between both voltages is therefore 180
graden, and are thus in anti-phase! The output voltage reaches its maximum value if the voltages across
C and L are equal; they simply cancel each other, and the full input voltage will appear across R. If the
voltages are equal, XC must be equal to XL. The previous section already showed us that in that case:
We have also found a way to determine the quality factor Q of the inductor. We already know that
Q=XL/rL. And rL can easily determined, because we have a simple voltage devider here, since the total
impedance of C and L at resonance frequency is rL. The full procedure is:
1. Adjust the source frequency to the frequency you want to know the Q of;
2. Adjust C to maximum output voltage;
3. Calculate rL and Q.
Example: we want to determine the Q of an inductor at 159kHz.
1. Adjust the source frequency to 159kHz;
2. Adjust C to maximum output voltage. It appears to be 0.83 times the input voltage;
3. The voltage across rL is 0.17 times the input voltage. So the ratio rL:R is 0.17:0.83. This means that
rL is about 20 ohms. So: Q=1k/20=50.
1
From the previous chapters we've learnt that:
So: ZL+C = XLj - XCj = (XL - XC)j. The impedance is purely imaginary.
|ZL+C| = |XL - XC|.
This means that the total impedance is less than the impedance of each single component. If XL and XC are equal, the impedance
will be zero! This can also be explained in an other way. The current flow through both components is the same, while the voltage
across one component has a 90 degrees phase shift and the voltage across the other component a -90 degrees phase shift.
The phase shift between the voltages across C and L will be 180 degrees. Because the absolute impedances are the same, the
voltage amplitudes will also be the same. So both voltages will 'rule each other out'. The total voltage across L and C will be 0V.
This means that the impedance is 0Ω. 59
LC filters
Please note that we asumed that the internal resistance of the source is 0 ohms. In reality, that will never
be the case. Additionally, we need very accurate voltage meters and rL is usually very small causing
high current flows. Later in this lesson we will discover a better method.
But let's first determine the bandwith of our filter.
The bandwith is determined by the frequencies at which the output voltage is 3dB less than its maximum
value. The maximum voltage is at -1.6dB, so we need to read the frequencies at which the output voltage
is -4.6dB. The lowest frequency is about 150kHz and the highest 169kHz. So the bandwidth is about
169kHz-150kHz=19kHz. Fortunalely, we can also calculate the bandwidth:
B=f∙(R+rL)/XL
In our case: B=159kHz∙120/1k=19.1kHz.
(R+rL)/XL looks very much like 1/Q. XL/Rtotal is therefore also called the quality factor of the circuit. So
the bandwidth can also be noted as:
B=f/Qc
In our example Qc=1k/120=8.3. So B=159kHz/8.3=19.1kHz.
When we swap R and C, we get a low pass filter:
At low frequencies, the output voltage is equal to the input voltage (so Vout/Vin=0dB). We may expect it
remains this way until the cut-off frequency (159kHz) at which point it will decay by 40dB per decade.
However, we first see the capacitor voltage increasing to about 18.4dB. At this point, the voltage is 8.3
60
LC filters
times higher than the input voltage! This ratio is eual to Qc. By making R 0 ohms, the voltage ratio will
be equal to the inductor's Q! This is the second method to determine the Q of an inductor. We don't
need very accurate voltage meters anymore, but the source's input resistance and the (possible) high
currents are still bothering us.
Band pass filter with a smaller band
This circuit is also a band pass filter. High frequencies are shorted by the capacitor and low frequencies
by the inductor.
It can be proven that:
Zr=Q∙XL
where Zr is the impedance at resonance freqency and Q is the quality factor of the inductor. This equation
is an approximation, but the Q of most inductors is so large that it can almost always be used.
2
Some complex math proves that the impedance reaches its maximum value at:
Again, this is an approximation that assumes the series resistance of the inductor is so small that it
doesn't affect the frequency.
In our case f is 159kHz again. If rL is 20 ohms, Q is 1k/20=50. Zr will be 50∙1k=50k. The current and
the input voltage are in phase, so:
Vout,max/Vin=Zr/(R+Zr)=50k/1050k=0.0476.
The image below shows the frequency response.
The bandwidth is about 160.7kHz-157.5kHz=3.2kHz.
61
LC filters
If R»Zr and Q is large enough, then: B=f/Q. In our case B=159kHz/50=3.18kHz.
And this is finally the best way to determine the Q of an inductor:
1. Adjust the source frequency to the frequency you want to know the Q of;
2. Adjust C to maximum output voltage;
3. Turn the source frequency down until the output voltage decreased by 3dB (=factor 1.41);
4. Increase the source frequency until the output voltage is again 3dB less than the maximum voltage;
5. Subtract both frequencies. This is the bandwidth;
6. Calculate Q: Q=f/B
With this method, the internal resistance of the source doesn't matter, and we don't run the risk of a
2
high current flow.
Resonance
What will happen if we attach a charged capacitor to an inductor? Of course, the capacitor will discharge,
causing a current to flow in the inductor. If the voltage across the capacitor has become zero, there
2
We want to calculate for which frequency the tuned circuit reaches its maximum value.
The impedance of two parallel-connected components can be calculated using the equation:
From the previous sections we've already learned that
Substituting this in the first equation gives:
Since the nominator is frequency-independent, Z reaches its maximum if the denominator reaches 0, so:
62
LC filters
will still be a current flow in the inductor. This current will re-charge the capacitor. The voltage across
it will become negative. When the indictor has transferred all its energy to the capacitor, the capacitor
will discharge again. Next, the inductor will charge the capacitor and everything will start all over again.
This is called oscillation. The frequency equals:
Tuned circuit
Ever wondered how on earth a radio (or a TV set) is capable of picking up the right channel out of
hundreds of channels available? One way of doing this using a tuned circuit. A tuned circuit consists
of a capacitor and a parallel-connected inductor. Usually, the capacitor can be tuned: you can change
its capacitance by turning the attached knob. Actually, this circuit is the band pass filter from a previous
section. So the bandwidth is equal to B=f/Q and the resonance frequency can be calculated using:
The notch must be small enough to block all other channels, but wide enough to allow the full signal
of the selected channel to pass.
When the antenna picks up a signal close to this frequency, the tuned circuit will resonate on that
frequency. Just look what happens if the antenna picks up a 159kHz radio signal:
Another radio station broadcasts at 149kHz, just 10kHz below the resonant frequency. The image below
shows the signal for this frequency.
63
LC filters
The difference is obvious. The detector (a circuit that demodulates a radio signal to audible sound) will
only work on the 159kHz signal; the 149kHz signal is simply too weak.
64
Chapter 20. Miscellaneous filters
Introduction
In this lesson we will learn about coupled filters and T-filters.
Coupled filters
Filters can be coupled both inductively and capacitively:
The top circuit is an inductively coupled filter. The two at the bottom are capacitively coupled filters.
In inductively coupled filters, the windings of the inductors are wrapped around the same core. The ratio
VL2:VL1 (omitting C1 and C2) is called coefficient of coupling k. This coefficient has a major influence
of the frequency response:
From left to right, k increases. This will result in an increasing output voltage. When k reaches a certain
value, the frequency response starts having two top values. A filters are critically coupled when this
just doen't happen. This appears to be the case when k = 1/Q, in which Q is the quality factor of both
inductors. Of course, both inductors need to have the same Q. If k < 1/Q; the filter is undercoupled and
will be narrow banded. If k > 1/Q; the filter is overcoupled, and will be wide banded.
In capacitively coupled filters, k is deternined by capacitors.
The cirtuit on the left shows top coupling. Here, k = CT/√(C3∙C4).
The filter on the right shows foot coupling, where k = √(C6∙C7)/CF.
When we compare coupled filters with LC filters, we'll see that coupled filters are much steeper. In the
narrow banded LC-filter the difference in output voltage at 150kHz and 159kHz is about 15dB. In the
65
Miscellaneous filters
critically couple filter, this difference is about 35dB! Note however that the output voltage of a coupled
filter is much less than that of an LC filter.
The picture above is a part of the circuit diagram of a radio receiver.
The transistor amplifies the input voltage and the coupled filter picks out the wanted signal. You notice
that the manufacturer used a tapped inductor. The voltage at pin 9 will be less than at pin 8, which
reduces the current flow drawn by the next stage. This is important, because this current will change
the resonance frequency if it's too high.
Twin T-filter
The circuit above is called a twin T-filter. The current in the resistors is in phase with the voltage. The
phase shift in the current in the capacitors will be 180 degrees. At a certain frequency the current
amplitues will be same, but in anti-phase. This frequency will therefore be suppressed. The circuit is
therefore called a band stop filter, or notch filter. The center frequency equals:
If R = 1k and C = 1n again, this frequency will be 159kHz. This picture below shows the frequency
response.
66
Miscellaneous filters
A twin T-filter with feedback can be found on my projects page.
Bridged T-filters
These are also band stop filters. Both filters have the same frequency response, which is even steeper
than that of a twin T-filter:
To calculate the central frequency, we can use the same equation as for simple LC filters:
At this frequency the output voltage will be 0V if R = Q∙XL/4.
67
Chapter 21. Frequency-independant
voltage devider
Introduction
In one of the first lessons we have already learned about voltage deviders. These voltage deviders
consisted of resistors only, and were therefore frequency-independant. However, when we want to
connect a voltage devider to some measuring equipment, we'll have to take its input capacity into
account.
In this chapter the 'measuring equipment' is an oscilloscope, which input impedance can be seen as
a 1MΩ resistor parallel connected to a 30pF capacitor; this is usually written as 1M//30pF. At 159Hz
the impedance of the 30pF capacitor is also 1MΩ. So the total impedance at 159Hz is just 500kΩ. The
input-impedance is frequency-dependant. A 9MΩ resistor will not suffice to devide the voltage by 10.
This wordt for DC voltages, but at 159Hz the voltage will not be devided by 10, but by (9M+500k)/500k
= 19!
We will first create an HF probe that doesn't have this problem. Next, we will discover how this problem
is solved in the attenuator of an oscilloscope.
HF probe
The most simpele HF probe contains just a resistor and a variable capacitor:
RIN and CIN make the input impedance of the scope. RP and CP make the probe.
For DC voltages VRIN/VRP = RIN/RP. For high frequency voltages VRIN/VRP = XCIN/XCP = CP/CIN. To
make the voltage devider frequency-independant RIN/RP must be equal to CP/CIN. So: CP = CIN∙RIN/
RP.
In our case CP must be adjusted to 30p∙1M/9M = 3.33pF.
If you own a scope and HF probe, you already know that the probe has a little 'screw' that needs to
be adjusted. That screw is capacitor CP. CP can be adjusted properly by connecting the probe to a
square wave voltage. A square wave signal contains many sinusoidal signals. E.g. a 1kHz square wave
contains sinusoidal voltages of 1kHz, 3kHz, 5kHz, 7kHz, etcetera. If CP has been adjusted properly, a
square wave will appear on the scope's screen (left). All frequencies the square wave consists of will
be attentuated equally. If CP is too low, the higher frequencies will be attenuated too much (middle); if
CP is set too high, the higher frequencies will not be attenuated enough (right).
68
Frequency-independant
voltage devider
RP and RIN are in series, so the input resistance is 1M+9M=10M. CP and CIN are also in series, so:
1/C = 1/CP+1/CIN = 1/3.33p+1/30p. Thus, the input capacity is 3pF. So the input impedance of the
probe is 10M//3pF.
Attenuator in an oscilloscope
Of course, the attenuator in an oscilloscope must also be frequency-independant. Moreover, the input
resistance and capacitance must always be the same. Otherwise, we need to re-adjust our HF probe
for every attenuator.
The picture above shows two attenuators. The top one devides the voltage by 10, the bottom one by
100. Let's first take a look at the top one.
R103 is parallel-connected to the input resistance (RIN) of the scope. So the total resistance is: 1/R =
1/RIN+1/R103, so R = 100k. R102 is 900k, which means that the attenuation is 10, and that the input
resistance remains 1MΩ.
C103 is parallel-connected to the input capacity (CIN) of the scope. The total capacity will be 47p + 30p
= 77pF. VC102 must be adjusted to 77p∙100k/900k = 8.56pF. The new input capacity is 7.7pF. To make
it 30pF again, VC101 must be set to 30p - 7.7p = 22.3pF.
For the bottom attenuator we can follow the same route. R105 makes RIN 10.1k//1M = 10k. R104 is 990k,
so the attenuation is 100. C105 makes CIN 82p + 30p = 112pF. VC104 must be set to 112p∙10k/990k
= 1.13pF. The input capacity is now just 1.12pF. VC103 must therefore be adjusted to 30p - 1.12p =
28.88pF.
69
Chapter 22. DIACs, SCRs and TRIACs
DIAC
A DIAC looks like a Diode for AC. If we increase the voltage across a DIAC (via a resistor), at a certain
voltage it will start to conduct; the voltage across the DIAC becomes 0V. When we then decrease the
voltage, the DIAC remains conductive. The DIAC doen't close untile the current ceases. The picture
belows may make things more clear.
This DIAC starts to conduct when the supply voltage reaches 32V. Even when the supply voltage
becomes less than 32V, the DIAC remains conductive. The DIAC only closes, when the supply voltages
becomes 0V. It's obvious that the DIAC also works for negative voltages. Hence, a DIAC doen't have
an anode and cathode like a normal diode.
SCR
SCR stands for Sicilon Controlled Rectifier. An SCR looks like a transistor: a current flow in one of
the terminals (the gate) makes the SCR conductive. The difference however is that the SCR remains
conductive when the gate current becomes zero. The SCR only closes when the current flow stops (just
like a DIAC). Take a look at the picture below.
70
DIACs, SCRs and TRIACs
By applying a voltage at the base of T1, T1 will turn on. This will provide base current to T2 wich will
also turn on. On turn, T2 provides base current to T1, so the SCR remains turned on.
The SCR only turns off in the voltage across anode and cathode becomes zero.
We can make a very simple dimmer switch using an SCR:
While experimenting, keep in mind that the whole circuit (including P1!) is connected to the mains!
Capacitor C1 is charged by R1 and P1. As soon as the voltage across C1 reaches the DIAC's break-
down voltage, the SCR starts conductiong and will turn on the lamp. The SCR will remain turned on until
the mains voltage becomes 0V. And then things start all over again. The larger P1, the longer it takes
before the voltage across the capacitor is high enough to make the DIAC and SCR turn on. A higher
value of P1 will reduce the light output.
When we turn on the light, we sometimes here a 'pop' coming from the loudspeakers of a radio. This
cirtuit turns on the light 100 or 120 times a second (depending on the mains frequency). R2 and C2
reduce the amount of noise caused by the switching SCR.
TRIAC
The name TRIAC actually stand for 'TRIode for AC'. And triode is the ancient name for transistor. But
'SCR for AC' really is a better name. Just like an SCR, a TRIAC turns on by applying a gate current and
doesn't turn off until the voltage across the TRIAC becomes 0V.
A TRIAC is capable of conducting the positive and negative half period of an alternating current, provided
that the gate current also alters its direction.
The circuit below is a very common switch.
71
DIACs, SCRs and TRIACs
While experimenting, keep in mind that the whole circuit is connected to the mains!
U1 is an optocoupler. An optocoupler consists of an LED and a transistor. When the LED is turned on,
the transistor will become conductive. This allows current to flow from the gate to A1. Now current will
flow from A2 to A1 turning on the lamp.
This circuit does have a disadvantage: there can be no current flow from A1 to the gate; so the TRIAC
will be off during every negative half cycle! Fortunately, this can easily be resolved:
Optocoupler U1 contains a TRIAC instead of a transistor. This allows gate current to flow in both
directions. There are also optocouples available that contain a zero-crossing detector, e.g. the
MOC3041. In that case R2 and C2 can be omitted.
One last remark: gate current always flows from or to A1. Therefore you cannot swap A1 and A2!
72
Chapter 23. TV Deflection Circuit
Warning
Caution! All information in this chapter is solely meant to explain the deflection circuitry in a TV set. It
is not meant to teach you how to repair a TV. Leave this to the qualified service personel! There are
dangerously voltages present in a TV (and especially in the deflection circuit), even if the plug is pulled!
The picture tube

The front of the tube is phosphor coated. This phosphor gives off light when hit by a high energy electron.
The electrons are emitted by electron guns, located in the neck of the tube. The guns emit more electrons
when they are warm. Hence the presence of the heating filament. That's the thing we can see glowing
in the neck of the tube.
When leaving the gun, the electrons don't have enough energy. To increase the energy, a high voltage
is applied. This high voltage, which can be 25.000V or higher, remains on the tube, even if the TV has
been turned off! It may take a few days before the tube is discharged.
Deflection coils
Without any further actions, all electrons would hit the center of the screen. We can deflect the electron
beam by applying a magnetic field. This magnetic field is produced by deflection coils. There are vertical
deflection coils, moving the electrons up and down, and horizontal deflection coils moving the beam
sideways.
The TV picture is refreshed 25 times per second (PAL format). So the frequency of the vertical deflection
coil current is 25Hz. The period time is 40ms. In that interval 625 horizontal lines are written. So the
period time of the current in the horizontal deflection coils is 64us. This is also referred to as the scan
time. It corresponds to a frequency of 15625Hz. This is the high pitched whine we someting hear coming
from a TV set.
Deflection circuit
Let's have a look at the horizontal deflection circuit.
73
TV Deflection Circuit
When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the Horizontal Output Transistor (HOT) turns on. This
means that the full power supply voltage will be across the deflection coil Ld. This will cause the current
in Ld to rise according to the law dI=(V/Ld)dt. In our case V = 150V and Ld = 1mH, so the current in Ld
will rise by 150000A per second! The electrons will now move from the center to the right. When the
electrons arrive at the right end of the screen, the transistor must be turned off again. The on-time of
the transistor is equal to half scan time. Or actually, it's somewhat less than half scan time, since there's
also some time needed to move the electron beam from the right side to the left for the next line. This
time is called the flyback time, and costs about 10us, leaving 54us to write one line. This means that the
HOT must be turned off after 54us/2 = 27us. The coil current has inceased to (150V/1mH)27us=4.05A.
After turning off the transistor, there will still be a current flow in Ld. This curent cannot flow through
the transistor anymore, nor can it flow through the reverse biased diode. The current can only flow into
capacitor Cfb. When Ld has transferred all its energy to Cfb, the current will be 0.
2
Let's calculate the voltage across Cfb. The energy in a coil equals 0.5LI . And for the energy in a
2
capacitor we can write: E = 0.5CV . Since all energy is tranferred from the coil to the capacitor, we can
2 2
write: 0.5LdILd = 0.5VCfb . The voltage across the capacitor will therefore be: VCfb,max = ILd√(Ld/Cfb). Of
course, we also need to add the 150V supply voltage: VCfb,max=150 + ILd√(Ld/Cfb) = 150 + 4.05√(1m/
10n) = 1431V.
The capacitor will now discharge through the coil. The current flow will be in opposite direction and will
therefore be negative. When Cfb has transferred all its energy to Ld, the voltage across Cfb will be
zero. At this point, the current in Ld will be -4.05A (assumed that all components are ideal). Ld wants
to transfer its energy to Cfb again. The voltage across it will therefore be negative. This will cause the
diode to become forward biased, so the voltage across it will be (almost) 0V. Again, a fixed voltage
exists across the coil, and the current will start to increase (become less negative) according to the law
dI=(V/Ld)dt. By the time the current becomes 0, the HOT has been turned on again. So, the voltage
across the deflection coil remains 150V and everything starts all over again.
An appropriate value for Cfb can be easily calculated. We already saw that Cfb and Ld make a tuned
circuit. A half period takes 10us. So the period time is 20us. We know that f = 1/(2π√(Ld∙Cfb)), so T =
2 2
2π√(Ld∙Cfb). Hence, Cfb = T /(4π Ld). In our case Cfb = 10nF.
If all components were ideal and the picture tube would be a perfect sphere, the deflection circuit would
be as simple as described above. Of course, reality is different.
74
Linearity correction
We will first take a look at the linearity correction. The deflection coil is not ideal, but has a certain (wire)
resistance. The voltage across this resistance rises as the current in it increases. So the voltage across
the actual coil is less than it should be. The current in the coil will not increase as fast as it should. To
prevent this, we need a negative resistance that compensates for the DC resistance of the deflection
coil. Unfortunately, we cannot buy a negative resistor in a shop. But we can create one using an inductor
with a ferrite core (Lsat). As the curent in this inductor increases, its core will become more and more
magnetic, until its limit is reached. Because a (small) change in current does not affect the magnetic field
anymore, the impedance has become zero. Of course it doesn't matter in which direction the current is
flowing. By pre-megnetising the core, we'll end up with an inductor which inductance increases as the
current becomes more negative and increases when the current becomes more positive. The voltage
across Lsat equals VLsat=Lsat∙dI/dt. Because the inductance of Lsat is far less than the inductance
of the deflection coil, dI/dt will remain (almost) the same. However, Lsat decreases when the current
rises. This means that VLsat decreases when the current increases. So Lsat behaves like a negative
resistance. It's obvious that when Lsat becomes defective, it must be replaced with an original part from
the manufacturer.
S-Correction
Let's see how we can get a nice picture on a flat (instead of a sphere-shaped) screen. The electrons
are deflected too much to the left and to the right. This can be solved by replacing the voltage source by
a capacitor. When the transistor is on, the current will now be drawn from the capacitor Cs. The voltage
across it will decrease. This will cause the current to rise less rapidly (less than 150000A/s). When the
transistor is off and the coil current is negative, the voltage across Cs will rise again. And that is exactly
what we want. The coil current is now somewhat S-shaped. This correction is therefore referred to as
75
the S-correction. We only need to take care that the average voltage across Cs remains 150V. To assure
that, we cannot just connect a voltage source across Cs. The capacitor is therefore charged via the
deflection coil. Choke Lp prevents shorting the voltage source when the HOT is on.
EW-Correction
We have now solved the problem that electrons are deflected too much to the left and to the right. But
we have the same problem at the top and at the bottom of the screen, although not as obvious to the
viewer. Especially TVs with large screens will have an East-West correction. To solve the problem, we
could vary the source voltage, but this will cause another problem. Lp is actually the primary winding of
a transformer. The secundary voltages must remain stable, so the voltage across Lp must also remain
the same. This can be accomplished by putting a 'dummy' deflection circuit is series with the 'real' one.
Both transistors switch on and off at the same time, so Lp still receives 150V pulses. By varying the
voltage across Cmod, we can change the voltage across Cs, because VCs=VB-VCmod. The maximum
voltage across Cmod is usually 0.2VB, which equals 30V. Cfb and Cfb2 make a voltage devider. So the
30 volts can be obtained by making Cfb2 4 times larger than Cfb. In that case VCfb2 will be 1∙VB/(1+4) =
30V. Because the period time of both circuits must be the same, Cfb∙Ld = Cmod∙Lmod. So Lmod must
be Ld/4. Nowadays, the voltage across Cmod is generated by a dedicated chip. Since both transistors
must swich on and off at the same time, they can be replaced by one transistor. We now have a so
called diode modulator used in most large TV sets.
Practical Examples
76
This is the deflection circuit of a small TV. It has no East-West correction.
Transistor 7445 is the HOT. Capacitor 2451 is the Cs. It's obvious that choke Lp is part of a transformer.
Capacitor 2446 is the Cfb. Its peak voltage is 700V. That also shows that it must be a small TV.
This is a deflection circuit that does have an East-West correction.
Transistor Q503 is the HOT. D505 contains both diodes of the diode modulator. C524 is Cfb and C525
is Cfs2. P501 represents the horizontal defelction coils. P502 is Lsat. C520 and C521 make the Cs.
L501 is Lmod and C527 is Cmod.
By the way, this is not the deflection circuit of a TV, but of a computer monitor. This can be easily
concluded from the fact that the scan time is just 3.3 + 15.2 = 18.5us, instead of 64us. The refresh
frequency is 1/11.75ms = 85Hz. That also explains why Cs consists of two capacitors in series. At other
frequencies, a MOSFET can be turned on, which connects C518 in parallel with C520. This will change
the value of Cs, providing a better picture quality for that frequency.
77
Chapter 24. Automatic volume control
Introduction
Automatic volume control means that the gain of an amplifier decreases when the input voltage
increases. This way, we can prevent overdriving the next stage.
Schematic
Opamp U1A is used as an amplifier. Its gain depends on the DS resistance of JFET T1. The lower this
resistance, the larger the gain of U1.
The resistance between T1's Drain and Source depends on VDS and VGS. To keep VDS as small as
possible, R1 and R3 will first devide the input voltage by 100. The voltage between Gate and Source
is controlled by U2.
U2 amplifies U1A's output signal. To prevent a too strong low-frequency response, the signal is filtered
by an HPF consisting of C2 and R7. U2's gain is determined by P1. D1 makes sure that only negative
half cyles make it to the Gate, since the JFET can only pinched off by a negative Gate voltage. The
negative half cycles are smoothed by C1. Please note that 'the positive' of C1 is connected to ground,
because the voltage across it will always be negative!
A small input voltage will result in a small output voltage at U1A and U2. At T1's Gate, there will thus be
a small negative voltage. The DS resistance will therefore be low and U1A's gain will be high.
A larger input voltage will cause a more negative voltage at the Gate, resulting in a higher DS resistance,
and a lower gain.
So U1A's gain is higher for small input voltages and smaller for large input voltages. And that is exactly
what we want.
The minimum DS resistance of the chosen FET is about 150Ω. The maximum gain of U1A is therefore
about 100. The maximum DS resistance is infinite, so the minumum gain is unity.
Assume that P1 has been set so that U2's gain is 10. Also assume that T1's pinch-off voltage is -1.5V.
If the input voltage is 0V, U1A's gain will be 100, because the Gate voltage is also 0V.
If the input voltage is 200mVtop the output amplitude at U2 will initially be 200mV/100∙100∙10 = 2V. This
voltage will charge C1. This will cause the Gate voltage to become more negative, increasing the DS
resistance and decreasing the gain of U1A. The output voltage at U2 will therefore decrease as well.
78
Automatic volume control
C1 will be charged less and less rapidly. Eventually the Gate voltage will give U1A a gain at which the
output voltage at U2 equals the Gate voltage.
What will happen if the Gate voltage is almost equal to the pinch-off voltage and the input voltage is
increased even more? The FET will never get pinched-off completely, because U1A's gain will then be
unity and that will never be enough to maintain the Gate voltage at pinch-off voltage (unless the input
voltage is increased to 15Vtop, but this circuit is not meant for that). So the output voltage at U2 will not
increase. This means that the output voltage at U1A cannot increase either. At the certain input voltage
(depending on the position of P1 and the pinch-off voltage of the FET) the amplitude of the output voltage
remains the same! So this circuit can prevent overdriving the next stage.
The circuit around U1B provides some extra gain.
Choosing components
U1A and U1B must be low-noise opamps that have a low offset voltage. We need a low-noise opamp,
because the input signal is devided by 100 by R1 and R3. So the input voltage at U1A is just a few mV.
A low offset voltage is needed because of the high gain. A generic cheap opamp will carry a large DC
component at its output. This DC voltage will also be amplified by U1B. A NE5532 perfect for this job.
If we want to use a cheap opamp anyway (for example a TL082), we will have to add a 100n capacitor
between node pin 1/C2 and pin 5, and a 1MΩ resistor between pin 5 and ground. This will block the DC
component without attenuating the low-frequency signals too much.
U2 can be any generic opamp. A TL081 works perfectly.
JFET T1 is not very critical, as long as its pinch-off voltage isn't too low. A BF245A (pinch-off voltage:
-1.5V) is a good choise. If we only have a BF245C (pinch-off voltage: -4.5V), then we can use it as well.
We'll just turn up U2's gain using P1.
Power supply
This circuit draws just a few mA. Of course it needs a symmetrical power supply. We may use the small
power supply discussed in a previous lesson. The supply voltage isn't very important, as long as the
opamps can sustain it. A NE5532 works reliably between +/-5V and 18V.
79
Appendix A. Inside semiconductors
Inside a diode
P type and N type semiconductors
Most diodes are made of silicon.
A silicon atom has four electrons in its outer orbit. Silicon atoms together form a crystal structure, leaving
no "free electrons" moving around. Hence, pure silicon is an insulator.
Let's replace a few silicon atoms with a atoms that have just three electrons in the outer orbit. Each
atom forms a "hole" in the silicon lattice. It has now become attractive for electrons, just as if it were
positively charged. This material is called a P type semiconductor.
Of course we can also replace some silicon atoms with atoms that have five outer electrons. This material
is called N type semiconductor, since it repells electrons.
Joining P and N together

What will happen if we join some P and N material together?
The P type material attracts electrons while the N side repells them. So at the junctions some electrons
from the N side will fill the holes on the P side, creating a depletion zone:
In this zone are no free holes and no free electrons: this zone is an insulator.
Let's see what happens if we apply a voltage across the PN material. First, we connect the positive to
the P side and the negative to the N side:
The negative lead of the voltage source pushes the electrons in the N material through the depletion
zone, filling up the holes in the P type metarial. The P side is now negatively charged, and the electrons
will flow from the P side to the positive lead of the voltage source. The material has become a conductor!
In our next experiment, we will reverse the voltage:
80
Inside semiconductors
The negative lead fills holes in the P side and the positive lead attracts free electrons in the N side. The
result is that the depletion zone will become larger. In other words, the PN material is now an insulator!
So the PN material forms a device that conducts current in only one direction: a diode.
Zener diodes
If you connect a diode reverse biased to a voltage source and increase the voltage, you'll notice that
at a certain voltage, current starts to flow. The voltage at which this happens is called the breakdown
voltage or zener voltage. As long as the current is kept within certain limits, breakdown will not damage
the diode.
The zener voltage depends on the amount of impurities (non-silicon atoms) in the lattice: the more
impurities, the lower the voltage will be.
Varicap diodes
We already saw that the depletion zone is an insulator. The remaining part of the P and N material does
conduct electrical current. And what do we call a device that consists of two conductors with an insulator
in between? A capacitor!
We also saw that the depletion zone increases when you increase the reverse voltage. This means that
the capacity depends on the voltage.
Although all diodes show this behaviour, there are diodes specially designed for this purpose. These
are called varicaps. They are used in radio and TV tuners. The frequency can thus be controlled by the
reverse voltage across the diode.
Inside a bipolar transistor

Joining three layers of P and N together
When we look inside a diode, we see it consists of a P layer and an N layer. To create a transistor,
we need three layers. We have two possible combinations: N-P-N and P-N-P. Hence the names NPN
and PNP transistor.
An NPN transistor looks like this:
Please note that the P layer between the two N layers is very thin. Just 2 micron or so.
Applying voltages across a transistor

Let's connect an NPN transistor to some voltage sources:
When VBE = 0V, there will be no current flow between C and E, since the CB diode is reverse biased.
When we increase VBE, electrons will flow from E through the N layer and the P layer to B. As we
have noticed, the P layer is very thin. In no time the electrons flowing from B to E will have filled all
the holes in the P layer. The remaining electrons will be free electrons. The P layer now appears to be
81
an N layer. N type silicon always contains free electrons, so there is now a conductive path from C to
E! If IBE increases, the number of free electrons increases and so will ICE. And that is how a bipolar
transistor works.
Inside a JFET
Like a bipolar transistor, a JFET consists of three layers of P and N silicon. However, these layers are
connected in a different way. The picture below shows the inside of an N-channel JFET.
The two P layers are connected to each other and form the Gate. The Source and the Drain are both
connected to the N layer. That's why this is called an N-channel JFET.
Applying voltages across a JFET

Let's connect an N-channel JFET to some voltage sources:
While discussing the inside of a diode, we saw that the depletion zone between a PN junction increases
if the reverse voltage increases. So if VGS becomes more negative, the depletion zone between the P
layers and the N layer will become thicker, narrowing down the channel between the Source and the
Drain. The voltage at which the channel is closed, is called the pinch-off voltage.
Now let's see what happens if VGS remains constant and VDS increases:
At first ID increases as well, just like the D-S channel were a resistor. However, increasing VDS also
makes VGD more negative, narrowing down the channel. When VGD has reached a certain voltage, the
pinch-off voltage, ID cannot increase any further. The FET has now become saturated.
So if VGD is between 0 and the pinch-off voltage, the S-D channel looks like a resistor; its resistance
can be controlled by VGS. If VGD becoms less than the pinch-off voltage, the S-D channel acts like a
current source that can be controlled by VGS.
We see that both VGS and VGD have a "pinch-off value". Since JFETs are symmetrical, the pinch-off
voltages are the same. You may even swap the Drain and the Source!
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Inside a MOSFET
Like a JFET transistor, a MOSFET consists of three layers of P and N silicon, where one of the layers
form a channel between the Source and the Drain. However, a MOSFET looks a bit different. Let's take
a look at the inside of an N-channel enhancement MOSFET:
The two N layers are connected to Source and the Drain. The Gate is connected to a layer of metal.
Between that metal layer and the P layer, there a very thin film of insulating material (SiO2). The P layer
is connected to the Bulk terminal. In nearly all cases, the Bulk is internally connected to the Source.
The metal layer and the P layer make a capacitor. Let's apply some voltages across the transistor and
see what happens.
Applying some voltages across an enhancement MOSFET
If VGS=0V, the D-S channel is closed, because there is always a reverse-biased PN junction.
If VGS>0V the metal layer becomes positively charged. The metal layer will now attract the electrons in
the P layer. Thus, a layer of electrons is formed.
These electrons make the P layer close to the gate look like N silicon. And now the're a channel of free
electrons between the Source and the Drain making current flow possible.
If VDS is small, the channel acts like a resistor, which resistance is controlled by VGS. However, if VDS
increases, the 'gate-bulk capacitor' will decrease at the Drain side. This will narrow down the channel.
At a certain threshold voltage, the channel will be pinched off, and ID will remain constant.
Depletion MOSFETs
Depletion MOSFETs look very much like enhancement MOSFETs:
Please note the thin layer of N silicon near the gate. This means that even if VGS=0V, there already is a
conductive path between the Drain and Source. Increasing VGS makes the path wider. Making VGS<0V
narrows the channel down.
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Appendix B. Buffer capacitor
Calculation of the value of a buffer capacitor
In the picture above you see that the discharge of buffer capacitor C1 starts at t=T1. Now assume that
T1=0. The rectified sine wave will now be a rectified cosine. At t=T2 VC1=-Vtopcos(2∙π∙f∙T2). (Note the
minus sign. At t=T2, the original transformer output is negative.)
So cos(2∙π∙f∙T2)=-VC1/Vtop. This means
When you discharge a capacitor with current I, VC(t) = VC(0)-I∙t/C. In our case:
VC1(t) = VC1(0)-I∙t/C1, so at t=T2: VC1 = Vtop-I∙T2/C1. Since VC1=Vtop-Vr, we can also say Vtop-Vr =
Vtop-I∙T2/C1. So Vr = I∙T2/C1. This means
If f=50Hz and Vtop=20V and we want a 2V ripple voltage, we need a 4.3mF capacitor per ampere load
current.
Note: Make sure your calculator uses radians!
ESR
In the calculations above, we didn't take the ESR of the capacitor into account. However, the ESR
plays an important role in power supplies due to the large charge and discharge currents. The ripple
voltage will increase by at least I∙ESR. This will be in the case where the capacitor can be fully charged.
However, that will never be the case. Calculating the ripple voltage for a certain ESR is not an easy task.
Since we often do not know the exact ESR value of a capacitor, we'd better use computer simpulation
to view the results of a certain ESR:
84
Buffer capacitor
C = 4700uF; ESR = 0Ω
C = 4700uF; ESR = 1Ω
The frequency of the (non-rectified) input signal is 50Hz. The discharge current is 0.5A.
The first image shows the situation whithout ESR. The ripple voltage is about 0.9V. On the right, the
output voltage is plotted when the ESR is 1Ω. The ripple voltage is now 1.8V! So the ESR added 0.9V
to the ripple voltage.
Let's see what happens if, due to aging, the ESR increases to 3Ω.
The ripple voltage has now grown to 3V. In audio applications, a heavily aged supply capacitor can be
heard as a 100Hz humm.
85
Buffer capacitor
If computer simulation shows that the ESR has to be impossibly small, you may connect multiple
capacitors in parallel:
This image shows the situation with two 2200uF capacitors each having an ESR of 1Ω. Although the
total capacitance is less, the ripple voltage is less than the situation with one 4700uF capacitor: just
1.3V. The increase of the ripple voltage (due to ESR) has dropped from 0.9V to 0.4V. This is one of the
reasons you'll often see parallel-connected capacitors in power supplies. (Another reason may be that
there are no capacitors available with a higher capacitance.)
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11. Heatsink ............................................................................................................................. 37

An example of a DC voltage source is a battery or a DC power supply.

T = 1/f and f = 1/T

Some AC voltage sources have their own symbols, e.g. a microphone:

Measuring voltages using a multimeter

Voltage, current and resistance are related to each other as follows:

We know that V1 + V2 + V3 = Vbat, so:

Vbat = I∙R1 + I∙R2 + I∙R3 = I∙(R1 + R2 + R3).

Itot = Vbat/R1 + Vbat/R2 + Vbat/R3.

1/Rtot = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ... or:

Creating a voltage divider using resistors

I = Vsource / Rtotal, and Vres = I∙R. So:

There are three ways to calculate the voltage at point A:

1. The total resistance of R2 and R3 is 2k, so VA = 2k∙3mA = 6V.

2. The voltage across each resistor is 3V, so VA = 6V.

3. Using the equation above: VA = 9V∙(2k/3k) = 6V.

Measuring current using a multimeter

Measuring resistance using a multimeter

Interesting links: Circuit Fantasia's electronics course

Power dissipation in a resistor

(1) P = V ∙ I (2) V = I ∙ R (3) I = V / R

Substituting (2) in (1) and (3) in (1) respectively results in:

Power dissipation of series-connected resistors

Power dissipation of parallel-connected resistors

Again: always use resistors with the same resistance.

What will happen if we connect a DC voltage source (battery) to a capacitor?

The impedance of a capacitor

f is the frequency in Hertz; C is the capacitance in Farad

Relation between voltage and current

At 10kHz a 1nF capacitor has an impedance of 15.9k.

12 a 45 degrees phase shift between voltage and current.

A resistor doesn't cause a phase shift and is therefore purely real.

So, when we connect a resistor and capacitor in series: ZR+C = R - XCj.

The phase shift is: arg(ZR+C) = arctan(-XC/R).

So R/(ESR+R)=0.66 => ESR=R((1-0.66)/0.66) = 10(0.34/0.66) = 5.2Ω.

Testing diodes using a multimeter

The voltage across RB will be VS-VBE=8.4V, so IB=8.4/1M=8.4μA. IC=IB∙hFE=8.4μA∙300=2.52mA. So

The transistor as a switch

Take a look at the diagram below.

A darlington can be considered as a single transistor with the following characteristics:

IB,darlington=IB1. IC1= hFE1∙IB1. IC2=hFE2∙IB2=hFE2∙IE1=hFE2∙(hFE1+1)∙IB1.

IC,darlington = 9/100=90mA. hFE,darlington=300∙100=30000. VBE,darlington=1.2V.

The transistor as an amplifier

The characteristics of transistor T1 are: hFE=100 and VBE=0.6V.

VR1 = VS-VBE-VRE = 9-0.6-1.8 = 6.6V. IR1=IC/hFE=0.36mA/100=3.6μA. R1 = 6.6V/3.6μA = 1.8M.

IB = (VS-VBE-VRE)/R1. VRE = IC∙RC = hFE∙IR1∙RE = hFE∙RE∙(VS-VBE-VRE)/R1 = hFE∙RE∙(VS-VBE)/R1 -

VRE+(hFE∙RE/R1)∙VRE = hFE∙RE∙(VS-VBE)/R1 => (1+300∙5k/1.8M)∙VRE = 300∙5k∙8.4/1.8M =>

IB = (8.4-3.8)/1.8M = 2.6μA. IC = 300∙2.6μA = 0.767mA. However, IC,max = VS/(RC+RE)=9/15k=0.6mA.

The impedance of C2 must be much smaller than RE1:

For example: if fmin = 20Hz, C2 » 1/(2∙π∙20∙500) = 16μF. 47 or 100μF is a good choice.

Let's take a look at a very simple amplifier:

Testing transistors using a multimeter

dP/dIC=VS - 2∙IC∙RL. => dP=(VS - 2∙IC∙RL)∙dIC

The amplifier will therefore be stable if:

Rth,j-a∙(VS - 2∙IC∙RL)∙dIC/dT < 1

The current ratio is equal to: is:ip=Np:Ns

If we want 5mA current flow in D1, IR1=5mA+VD1/(P1+R2)=5mA+12/10470=6.15mA. R1=(Vtop-VD1)/

In the picture above, you see a typical schematic of a differential amplifier.

The DC current source I1 provides a continuous 1mA current flow.

Hence the name differential amplifier.

Again, both transistors have the same characteristics. VR3=9V-0.6=8.4V, so IR3=8.4V/8.2k=1.02mA.