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Cholestasis is a frequent occurrence in newborns, affecting one in every 2500 infants. Immaturity of
hepatic metabolic and excretory functions contributes to decreased bile production and transport. The
potential causes of neonatal cholestasis are extensive, but most cases fall into a few categories, including
anatomic, metabolic and infectious. Pruritus and malabsorption are common manifestations of neonatal
cholestasis, regardless of etiology. Medical management of cholestasis is largely supportive, treating the
complications of cholestasis rather than the underlying mechanism. Medications for pruritus have variable
efficacy and include ursodeoxycholic acid, cholestyramine and rifampin. Fat-soluble vitamin supplementation
is often required secondary to fat malabsorption. Enteral absorption of long-chain triglycerides is also
decreased, necessitating formulas high in medium-chain triglycerides. Infants may require 125% of the
recommended daily allowance of calories for adequate growth and supplementation with enteral feeding
tubes may be required.
KEYWORDS: bile, cholestasis, cholestyramine, fat-soluble vitamin, malabsorption, Chad Best &
neonatal, phenobarbital, pruritus, rifampin, ursodeoxycholic acid, vitamin A, Glenn R Gourley†
vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K †
Author for correspondence:
Pediatric Gastroenterology and
Cholestasis is defined as impaired canalicular principle bile acids synthesized in the liver are NutriƟon, University of
flow of bile, resulting in accumulation of bil- cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid, and Minnesota, MMC 185,
iary components, such as bilirubin, bile acids extensive conjugation with primarily glycine 420 Delaware St. SE,
and cholesterol, in blood and tissues. Neonatal and taurine occurs within the hepatocyte. The Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
cholestasis is estimated to affect one in every active transport of solutes across the canalicu- Tel.: +1 612 624 1133
2500 infants [1] . There are multiple causes of lar membrane is the rate-limiting step in bile Fax: +1 612 626 0639
neonatal cholestasis, often related to either the formation [2,5] . gourleyg@umn.edu
response of the newborn liver to endogenous When compared with the adult liver, the
agents or to specific pathological conditions. liver of the term infant is immature in both
The list of potential causes of neonatal cholesta- metabolic and excretory functions. Bile flow
sis is exhaustive (BOX 1) , although most cases fall can be divided into bile acid-dependent and
into a few discrete categories [2] . These include bile acid-independent flow, with the former
anatomic causes (e.g., biliary atresia), metabolic providing the primary force of generating bile
causes (e.g., α-1-antitrypsin deficiency or total flow early in life. As a consequence of the imma-
parenteral nutrition [TPN] [3,4]) and infectious turity of the hepatic metabolic and excretory
causes (e.g., sepsis). After a brief review of the functions, TPN induces liver changes that could
pathophysiology of neonatal cholestasis, this be directly related to the kind of artificial nutri-
review will focus on the medical management tion and, in part, to the way the nutrients are
of cholestasis. administered. As described previously [3] , these
changes can be divided into three types: direct,
Pathophysiology adaptive and pathologic.
Bile secretion is an essential function of the liver
by which bile acids are delivered to the intes- Pruritus
tine for lipid solubilization and adsorption and Pruritus can be a troublesome manifestation of
metabolic products (e.g., cholesterol, bilirubin, cholestasis. Cholestatic pruritus is uncommon
porphyrins and xenobiotics) are excreted. Bile in the neonatal period, with the exception of
acids are formed via multiple, complex steps in diseases including paucity of bile ducts, such as
the degradation of cholesterol. Two key steps Allagile syndrome, and the progressive familial
in bile production involve the uptake of bile intrahepatic cholestasis syndromes. The preva-
acids from the blood by hepatocytes and their lence of pruritus in liver disease is more common
excretion into the biliary canaliculus. The two in older infants, children and adults. Pruritus
10.2217/14750708.6.1.75 © 2009 Future Medicine Ltd Therapy (2009) 6(1), 75–81 ISSN 1475-0708 75
REVIEW Best & Gourley
There has been no randomized study to assess the UV phototherapy is used to treat a variety of
efficacy of cholestyramine but it has been shown pruritic conditions. In a study of eight patients
to improve pruritus in the majority of patients with cholestatic liver disease and pruritus, photo-
within the first 2 weeks of treatment, although therapy did not result in significant improvement
response may be transient. Recommended dos- in pruritus [25] .
ing of cholestyramine is 240 mg/kg orally in If medical treatment fails and pruritus is
three divided doses, with the initial dose lim- severe, partial biliary diversion (biliary drain-
ited to 1 g daily. Dosing can be adjusted to a age through a stoma) or partial ileal bypass may
recommended maximum dosage of 4 g daily in be successful in relieving cholestatic pruritus
children who are 10 years of age and younger and [26] . By decreasing the load of bile acids to the
8 g for those older than 10 years [20] . As the great- ileum, the sole site of bile acid transport, entero-
est amount of bile acids available for binding are hepatic circulation is lessened. Such diversion
thought to be in the gallbladder in the morning, has been shown to provide relief from pruritus
cholestyramine administration is recommended and, perhaps, reversal of liver disease in patients
30 min prior to both breakfast and lunch, as well with progressive familial intrahepatic cholesta-
as 30 min after lunch [21] . In addition to a dif- sis with a low or normal γ-glutamyl transferase
ficult dosing regimen, cholestyramine has a poor level [27] . In addition, biliary diversion should be
palatability making it difficult to give to chil- considered in patients with arteriohepatic dys-
dren. Other side effects, although mild, include plasia (Allagile syndrome) who have symptoms
constipation, abdominal discomfort, anorexia refractory to medical therapy [28] .
and fat malabsorption. Hypoproteinemic hem-
orrhage and hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis Malabsorption &
after cholestyramine have been described in nutritional deficiencies
case reports [22] . Cholestyramine also interferes As discussed earlier, UDCA is a choleretic agent
with the absorption of several drugs, including that may decrease the degree of cholestasis in
UDCA, thyroxin and oral contraceptive pills, some settings. One function of UDCA is to
and it is recommended that no other medications increase the rate of transport of intracellular
should be taken within 4 h of cholestyramine bile acids across the canalicular membrane [1] .
ingestion when feasible. Besides cholestasis-induced pruritus, UDCA is
Phenobarbital is a microsomal enzyme inducer often used as first-line therapy for TPN-induced
that can stimulate bile acid-independent flow cholestasis and biliary atresia.
and decrease bile acid-pool size [2] . Phenobarbital The ratio of serum vitamin E (mg/dl) to
is used less frequently owing to its sedating side total serum lipids (g/dl) has been described as
effect. The therapeutic dose of phenobarbital is the most reliable index of vitamin E deficiency.
5–10 mg/kg/day. This is due to the fact that cholestasis results in
Rifampin, another microsomal enzyme elevated serum lipids into which vitamin E can
inducer, also enhances bile acid detoxification, partition, causing an artificial elevation in the
and bilirubin conjugation and excretion [23] . In a serum vitamin E concentration. A ratio less than
non-placebo-controlled open trial of 24 children 0.6 mg/g in infants and children aged less than
with cholestatic pruritus, unresponsive to other 12 years or a ratio less than 0.8 mg/g in those
treatments, Yerushalmi et al. found that rifampin older than 12 years indicates vitamin E defi-
dosed at 10 mg/kg/day resulted in complete or ciency [2] . For vitamin E deficiency, if cholestatic
partial response in 90% of the patients [24] . infants do not correct with traditional vitamin E
Executive summary
Pathophysiology
Cholestasis is defined as impaired canalicular bile flow.
Most causes can be categorized as anatomic, metabolic and infectious.
Hepatic metabolic and excretory function is immature in the newborn.
Active transport of solutes across the canalicular membrane is the rate-limiting step in bile formation.
Bile flow can be divided into bile acid-dependent flow and bile acid-independent flow with the
former most important early in life.
Pruritus
Pruritus is more common in intrahepatic bile duct paucity and progressive familial
intrahepatic cholestasis.
Mechanisms may involve accumulation of pruritogenic substances in the bile, endogenous opioids
and the serotonin neurotransmitter systems.
Malabsorption
Failure to secrete bile salts impairs absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins.
Micelles are required for absorption fats, particularly long-chain fatty acids.
Management of pruritus
Medical management of cholestasis is largely supportive.
Ursodeoxycholic acid is a choleretic agent that alters the bile acid pool and increases the rate of
canalicular bile acid transport.
Cholestyramine is a nonabsorbable nonspecific anion exchange resin that binds bile acids,
decreasing enterohepatic circulation.
Phenobarbital and rifampin are microsomal enzyme inducers that can stimulate bile
acid-independent flow.
Efficacy of phototherapy for cholestatic pruritus has not been proven.
Biliary diversion may be beneficial in those with severe pruritus not controlled with medical therapy.
Management of malabsorption
Medium-chain triglycerides are absorbed more readily by the intestinal mucosa than long-chain fats.
Supplementation with fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K is frequently needed.
Chronic vitamin E deficiency can lead to a progressive neuromuscular syndrome.
Use of oral d-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate can aid in the absorption of other fat
soluble vitamins.
Supplementation with a multivitamin at once or twice RDA may be prudent.
Serum levels of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, selenium, and zinc should be monitored and
appropriate supplementation instituted after documenting deficiency.