1995 Book ComplexAnalysisAndSpecialTopic PDF

Complex Analysis and
Special Topics in Harmonic Analysis

Springer
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Carlos A. Berenstein Roger Gay
Complex Analysis and

Special Topics in
Harmonic Analysis
With 29 Illustrations
, Springer
Carlos A. Berenstein Roger Gay
Mathematics Department and Centre de Recherche en Mathematiques
Institute for Systems Research Universite de Bordeaux I
University of Maryland 351, Cours de la Liberation
College Park, MD 20742 33504 Talence (cedex)
USA France
Mathematics Subject Classification (1991): 02.30.15, 02.30.25
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Berenstein, Carlos A.
Complex analysis and special topics in harmonic analysis / Carlos
A. Berenstein and Roger Gay.
p. em.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13:978-1-4613-8447-2 e-ISBN-13:978-1-4613-8445-8
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-8445-8
1. Functions of complex variables. 2. Harmonic analysis.

I. Gay, R. (Roger), 1934- II. Title.
QA331.7.B462 1995
515'.9-dc20 94-41894
Printed on acid-free paper.

© 1995 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
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987654321
ISBN-13:978-1-4613-8447-2
To our dear friends,
Mischa Cotlar and Jean-Henri Davancens
Yaqui me despido yo
Que he relatao a mi modo,
Males que conocen todos
Pero que naides conto.
Martin Fierro
Jose Hernandez
En la desierta sala el silencioso

Libro viaja en el tiempo. Las auroras
Quedan atras y las nocturnas horas
Y mi vida, este suefio presuroso.
Ariosto y los Arabes
Jorge Luis Borges
Preface
The present volume is a companion to our Complex Analysis: An Introduc-

tion [BGJ, published in the Graduate Texts in Mathematics. In the previous
volume our main objective was to present the theory of functions of one
complex variable in a way that made clear to the student that one and several
complex variables are not dissimilar subjects, as it is quite often assumed.
This was accomplished by emphasizing the role that the inhomogeneous
Cauchy-Riemann equation plays in modern complex analysis. In reality, in
several complex variables one needs to solve the Cauchy-Riemann equation
with restrictions on the growth of the solutions. As it turns out, the
corresponding result in one variable is not too hard to prove and it allows
us to consider in Chapter 2 interpolation problems and ideal theory in
algebras of entire functions with growth conditions, which is one of the two
main themes of this book. The other theme is that of periodicity and of
functions that are close to being periodic, namely, mean-periodic. The link
between these two themes is provided by classical integral transforms, like
those of Fourier, Laplace, Mellin, and also by the less known but very useful
G transform, which we study in Chapter 4.
In [BG, Section 3.6J we introduced the student to the concept of boundary
value of a hoi omorphic function in the sense of distributions. In Chapter 1
we return to this subject, first from a more classical point of view, where we
give a short introduction to the theory of Hardy spaces HP in tl).e unit disk
(including the Corona Theorem), and then we go to the other extreme and
discuss a very broad definition of boundary value of a holomorphic function,
hyperfunctions. An interesting link between the two is a beautiful theorem
of Helgason describing all the eigenfunctions of the Laplace-Beltrami
operator in the unit disk, which is proved in the last section of the first
chapter. Elsewhere the reader will find functional equations involving
analytic continuation and boundary values of holomorphic functions related
to the previously mentioned questions about periodicity.
One of the oldest and most important class of convolution equations is
the difference-differential equations. Indeed, it was Euler who, after having
proved that every solution of a linear homogeneous ordinary differential
vii
viii Preface
equation with constant coefficients is basically a linear combination of

exponentials, attempted to prove the same result for difference-differential
equations. These equations are related to ideals generated by exponential
polynomials; hence it becomes very important to study the sets of zeros of
exponential polynomials. We provide a fairly comprehensive study of this
subject in Chapter 3. The questions mentioned in this chapter are of interest
both in analysis and in number theory.
The next two chapters deal with some other subjects related to complex
analysis and transcendental number theory. The unifying concept is that of
the G transform introduced therein.
Finally, Chapter 6 applies the previously developed theory to prove the
fundamental theorem of L. Schwartz that any solution of a homogeneous
convolution equation in the real line, that is, any mean-periodic function, has
an expansion in terms of exponential solutions of the same equation. This
is applied to several questions of harmonic analysis, like how to recover a
continuous function frpm its averages over intervals of different lengths. This
type of question has wide applications in engineering. This chapter can also
be considered as an introduction to the treatise of Ehrenpreis, Fourier
Analysis in Several Complex Variables, as well as the second volume of
Hormander's The Analysis of Linear Partial Differential Operators.
The book is organized on the same principle as [BG]; that is, while we
present a coherent picture of the whole subject, most chapters and even
sections are fairly independent, allowing the teacher or student to choose
and pick which subjects to consider. For instance, there is nothing wrong
with just starting in the last chapter! We have also strived to develop all the
material ab initio, except for a basic knowledge of complex variables and
elementary real variables, as can be found, for example, in [BG, Chapters
2-3] or [Rudin]. For that purpose, in Sectio~ 1.4 we have provided a list
of all the theorems from functional analysis that are used in the text.
Many of the topics covered appear in book form for the first time, giving
the reader an overview of current research and open problems. Moreover,
some of the results presented correspond to questions that remain wide open
in the case of harmonic and complex analysis in several variables, both in
the Euclidean setting as well as in the setting of Lie groups and symmetric
spaces, hopefully motivating the reader to study them.
As the reader has already surmized, this volume reflects a significant
portion of the authors' own research and interests. We feel it is our duty
here to acknowledge pur debt of gratitude to those who introduced us to
this beautiful mathematics, especially Vazgain Avanissian, Leon Ehrenpreis,
Jean-Pierre Ramis, and B. Alan Taylor. Finally, we would like to thank the
National Science Foundation for its generous support, Ms. Stephanie Smith for
her excellent typing of this manuscript under difficult conditions, and also to
Thierry Pelle and Yvette Gay for their generous help with the proofreading.
College Park, Maryland Carlos A. Berenstein
Talence, France Roger Gay
Contents
Preface vii
CHAPTER 1
Boundary Values of Holomorphic Functions and
Analytic Functionals 1
1.1. The Hardy Spaces in the Disk 2
1.2. Hyperfunctions 35
1.3. Analytic Functionals and Entire Functions of Exponential Type 51
1.4. Vade Mecum of Functional Analysis 77
1.5. Convolution of Analytic Functionals 85
1.6. Analytic Functionals on the Unit Circle 94
CHAPTER 2
Interpolation and the Algebras Ap 109
2.1. The Algebras Ap 109
2.2. Interpolation with Growth Conditions 118
2.3. Ideal Theory in Ap 136
2.4. Dense Ideals in AP(O) 160
2.5. Local Ideals and Conductor Ideals in Ap 166
2.6. The Algebra Ap of Entire Functions of Order at Most p 170
CHAPTER 3
Exponential Polynomials 198
3.1. The Ring of Exponential Polynomials 198
3.2. Distributions of Zeros of an Exponential Polynomial 217
CHAPTER 4
Integral Valued Entire Functions 260
4.1. The G-Transform 260
4.2. Integral Valued Entire Functions 278
ix
x Contents
CHAPTER 5
Summation Methods 299
5.1. Borel and Mittag-Leffler Summation Methods 299
5.2. The Lindelof Indicator Function 316
5.3. The Fourier-Borel Transform of Order p of Analytic Functionals 326
5.4. Analytic Functionals with Noncompact Carrier 333
CHAPTER 6
Harmonic Analysis 353
6.1. Convolution Equations in IR 354
6.2. Convolution Equations in C 385
6.3. The Equation J(z + 1) - J(z) = g(z) 405
6.4. Differential Operators of Infinite Order 419
6.5. Deconvolution 458
References 471
Notation 479
Index 481
CHAPTER 1
Boundary Values of Holomorphic

Functions and Analytic Functionals
The Schwarz Reflection Principle leads naturally to the consideration of boundary

values of holomorphic functions. Those boundary values can exist pointwise,
almost everywhere, or in some generalized sense, for instance, in the sense of
distributions, as in the Edge-of-the-Wedge Theorem (see [BG, Theorem 3.6.23],
[Beur]). Let us make these concepts more precise.
First, assume that f is a function holomorphic in a rectangle Q, Q =
{z E C: a < Rez < b, 0 < Imz < c}. We say that f is of slow growth if for
every 8 > 0 there are constants A > 0, N ~ 0 such that
If(z)1 ~ AI Imzl- N ,
whenever a + /) ~ Rez ~ b - 8, 0 < Imz ~ c - 8. The function f has a
boundary value f (x + iO) in the sense of distributions if for every cp E
J
Cgo(]a, b[) the limit
lim
8--*0+
I(x + ie)cp(x) dx
exists. This limit is denoted (f(x + iO), cp(x)}, and f(x + iO) E 1)'(]a, b[), the
Schwartz space of distributions in the interval la, b[. From [BG, Proposition
3.6.12] we have that f has a boundary value in the sense of distributions if
and only if f is of slow growth. Moreover, f = 0 if and only if its boundary
value f(x + iO) = 0 as a distribution. Furthermore, we have also shown in [BG,
Theorem 3.6.19] that every distribution T E 1)'(]a, b[) can be obtained as
T = f(x + iO) - f(x - iO),
where I is a function holomorphic in the domain Q = la, b[ + ilR* and of slow
growth in Q. (The meaning of I (x - iO) and of slow growth in the lower half-
plane being entirely similar to the previously defined for the upper half-plane).
If f has a continuous extension F to the semiclosed rectangle Q', Q' =
{z E C: a < Rez < b, 0 ~ Imz < c}, then the function F(x) coincides with
the distribution f(x + iO) on la, b[. In fact, since F is continuous in Q' and cp
is compactly supported in ]a, b[, it is clear that
lim
8--*0+
J
f(x + ie)cp(x) dx = J F(x)cp(x) dx.
2 1. Boundary Values of Holomorphic Functions and Analytic Functionals
Moreover, it is clear that if the limit
lim I(x
8--+0+
+ is) = I(x + iO)
exists not only a.e. on ]a, b[, but with some kind of uniformity then I(x + iO)
is still the boundary value of I in the sense of distributions. One instance of
this statement occurs when the functions x t-+ I(x + is) and I(x + iO) belong
to Ll([a + 8, b - 8], dx) and
b-~
lim I I/(x + is) - I(x + iO)1 dx = O.

8--+0+ a+~
This is the spirit that animates the first section of this chapter on H P spaces.
The functions in these spaces are holomorphic in the upper half-plane and
I(x + is) E U(JR, dx) for every s > O. It turns out to be easier to consider the
case of holomorphic functions in the unit disk, which is what we do in Section 1.
In the second section of this chapter we take an altogether different approach
to the problem of existence of boundary values of holomorphic functions.
Namely, we introduce a concept so general that every function has a limit!
These limits are the hyperfunctions. That such a general concept would lead to
interesting mathematics is really amazing, but in fact the school of Mikio Sato,
Masaki Kashiwara, and Takahiro Kawai have made it one of the major tools of
contemporary analysis.
The following sections of the chapter will introduce analytic functionals, i.e.,
the linear continuous functionals on the space Jf'(Q). We shall see that there are
close relations between analytic functionals, hyperfunctions, and the H P spaces
considered in § 1.1.
1.1. The Hardy Spaces in the Disk
This section is a short introduction to the Hardy spaces ~P(D), HP(D) in the
unit disk D = B(O, 1). We refer to the excellent monographs [Du], [Ga], [Hof],
[Kol] for a thorough treatment of this classical subject (see also [Rud2]). We
refer also to [Rud2] for the background material in measure theory, and to [BG,
Chapter 4] for the properties of harmonic and subharmonic functions we use.
We include a proof of the celebrated Corona Theorem of Carleson, which
allows us to show the importance of solving the Cauchy-Riemann equation
with growth conditions.
It is convenient throughout this section to denote by T the unit circle and
da = de 12K, the normalized measure on T. Given a function I defined in D
and a number r, 0 ::: r < 1, we introduce a function Ir defined on T by
Ir(e i () := I(re i ().
If I is a harmonic function and 1 ::; p < 00, the function I/IP is subharmonic
and therefore the function
r ~ III, lip = (1 II, (e i9 W da) lip

is increasing for 0::; r < 1. In fact, II/rll: is the average A(I/IP, 0, r) of I/IP
on the circle 08(0, r), (see [BG, Chapter 4]). The maximum principle implies
that the function
r ~ II/rlloo = max{l/r(ei9 )1: 0 ::; 0::; 2Jl'}
is also increasing. Let ~(D) be the space of harmonic functions in D. For
1 ::; p ::; 00 we consider
~P(D) := {I E ~(D): II/lI p := sup II/rllp <

09<1
oo}.
Clearly the spaces ~P(D) are normed spaces with the norm II . lip. Note that the
same symbol denotes the norm in LP(1', da). The reader can verify directly that
these are actually Banach spaces. A proof of this fact will also be a consequence
of the later discussion on the boundary values of the functions in ~P(D).
We recall from [BG, §4.3] that the Poisson kernel of the unit disk is given by
P(re i9 , ei'P) = P,(qJ - 0), with P,(rx) = Enez rlnleina. For I E ~(D) n C(D),
i.e., I is harmonic in D and continuous in D, we have
l(rei9) = P(fI1')(rei9) = (P,(qJ) * l(ei'P»(O) = (27r P,(O _ qJ)/(ei'P) dqJ.

Jo 2Jl'
Let IL be a Radon measure in 1', i.e., IL E C'(1'), the dual space of the B~ach
space of continuous functions on 1'. We can define its Poisson integral by
P(/L)(z) := 2~ 1 P(zj9)d/L(0).
This defines a function harmonic in D, in fact, harmonic in C\ supp IL. When

d/L = I dO, IE LP(1'), 1 ::; P ::; 00, this coincides with the definition of the
Poisson integral P(f) given in [BG, §4.3.5]. We let p,(f)(ei9 ) = P(f)(rei9 )
and obtain the following extension of Proposition 4.3.6 from [BG]:
1.1.1. Proposition. Let 1 ::; P < 00 and I E LP(1'), then lim,-> 1- Pr(f) =I in
LP(1').
Proof. Let 8 > O. There is g E C(1') such that III - gllp < 8. (It is here that we
use p < 00.) Hence
IIP,(f) - Ilip ::; IIP,(f) - Pr(g)lI p + IIPr(g) - gllp + III - gllp·
Since Pr(f) - P,(g) = P,(qJ') * (f - g)(ei'P') and IIPrll l = 1, we have
IIPr(f) - Pr(g)lI p ::; IIPrl1t III - gllp ::; 8,
whence
4 I. Boundary Values of Holomorphic Functions and Analytic Functionals
On the other hand, P (g) is the solution of the Dirichlet problem in D with
boundary value gin 11', hence limr-+I- IIPr (g) - glloo = O. It follows that
o
1.1.2. Proposition. Let 1 < p :::: 00 and I E ~P(D). There is a unique f* E
LP(lI') such that I = P(f*).
Proof. If I E ~P(D) then the family (/r)O<r<1 is a weakly bounded, hence,
weakly compact set in LP(lI'), where this space is considered as the dual of the
separable Banach space U (11'), 1/ p + 1/q = 1. Therefore, there is a sequence
rj ~ 1 and f* E LP (11') such that Irj ~ f* weakly. For every j, z ~ I (rj z)
is a harmonic function in Izi < l/rj, hence for Izl < 1, we have
I(rjz) = _1
JrT P(z, e
i8 )/(rjei8 )d().
2rr
Since () ~ P(z, ei8 ) E U(lI'), we can take the limit and obtain
I(z) .lim I(rjz) = _1 r P(z, ei8 )/*(ei8 )d().

= J-+OO 2rr JT
If 1 < P < 00 we have that Ir ~ f* in LP (11') as r ~ 1- by the previous
proposition, which proves the uniqueness of f*. Since L 00 (11') £ LP (11') for any
p < 00, this proves also the uniqueness in the case p = 00. 0
1.1.3. Remarks. (1) This proof cannot be adapted to the case p = 1 since
L 1(11') is not the dual of any separable Banach space. Furthermore, there is
a good reason for this. If 1= P(f*), f* E L 1 (1I'), then Ir ~ f* in L 1 (1I'),
hence pointwise a.e., but the Poisson kernel P(re i8 ) = Pr «() is in ~I(D) and
Pr ~ 0 a.e. In fact, the Dirac mass 8 at () = 0 is the only measure /J- such
that P = P(/J-). (From the reader's knowledge up to this moment one can only
say that Irn ~ 1* for a sequence rn ~ 1-, but the rest of the reasoning holds
anyway.)
(2) As we have pointed out during the proof, if 1 < P < 00 and I E ~P(D),
then Ir = Pr(/*) ~ f* in LP(lI'). In the case p = 00, we proved that Ir ~
f* a.e. and in LP (11') for any p < 00.
For ei8 E 11' and 0 < 8 :::: 2rr, let us denote by 18(ei8 ) := {e it : It - ()I < 8} the
open arc centered at ei8 andof length 28.
1.1.4. Lemma. Let (lj) l~h:.M be a finite lamily olopen arcs in 11'. One can find
a sublamily (ljk)l~k~N such that: .
(i) the Ijk are pairwise disjoint;
(ii) if Ij = 18j (~j), then
UI j £ U h8jk (~ik);
l~j~M l~k~N
and
Proof. We can assume that M 2: 2 and the indices are such that OJ 2: OJ+I. Let
= =
h 1. If Ijl intersects every I j we let N 1. If not, let h be the smallest
among the j such that Ih n Ij =
13. Let us assume we have chosen h, ... , jk
such that for 1 :::::: I :::::: k - 1 the arc Ijl does not intersect Ij,+I' but it intersects
I j for any j[ < j < j[+I. If Ijk intersects every Ij with j > k we set N = k. If
not, we let jk+1 be the smallest index j > A such that Ijk n I j = 13. Clearly this
process stops for some index N :::::: M.
If j < jN there is a k such that jk :::::: j < jk+1 and, since OJ :::::: Ojk and I j n
Ijk =j:. 13, we have Ij ~ h8h (l;jk). If j 2: jN, then OJ :::::: OjN and Ij ~ I 38jN (l;jN) since
I j n IjN =j:. 13. This proves (i) and (ii).
Finally,
"C~}) "" C~/"" (~j,)) " If,;: (I". (~j,) )
=3 L a (hik (l;jk») = 3a ( U IA ) . 0
l:5.k:5.N l:5.k:5.N
We are ready now to define the Hardy - Littlewood maximal function of a

Radon measure J.L on 'll'.
1.1.5. Definition. The maximal function M(f.L) of a Radon measure J.L on 'll' is
the function M(J.L): '][' -+ [0, +00] given by
i(J
M(J.L )(ei(J) -_ sup
1J.L1(/8(e ))
.(J'
Od:5.lT a(h(e ' ))
where IJ.LI is the positive measure of total variation of J.L.
1.1.6. Remarks. It is clear that

(i) M (J.L) = M (IJ.LI); and
(ii) M(J.L) is a lower semicontinuous (1. s.c.) function.
1.1.7. Proposition. For any Radon measure J.L on 'll' we have that for any t > 0
a({ei(J: M(J.L)(ei(J) > t}) < 3 1i J.L1i,

- t
where 1iJ.L1i = 1J.L1('ll').
Proof. Let K be any compact subset of the open set {ei(J: M(J.L)(ei(J) > t}. Every
point ei(J E K is the center of an arc I(J such that IJ.LI(/(J) > ta(/(J). Choose a
finite family !j = !OJ' 1 ~ j ~ M, which covers K. By the previous lemma we

can find (Ijkh~k~N such that
Finally, taking the supremum over all the possible compact subsets K, we obtain
a ·0
({ e': M(tt)(e'·O})
)> t ~ - -II.
3 IItt o
t
1.1.8. Proposition. Let tt be a Radon measure on '][', lettts be its singular part
with respect to a, and let E:= {ei(} E '][': M(tt)(e iO ) < Do}. Then Ittsl(E) = o.
In other words, tts is concentrated on the set {e iO : M(tt)(e iO ) = +oo}.
Proof. Let E t := {e iO : M(tt)(e iO ) < t}, so that E = Ut>o E t • It is enough to

show that Ittsl(Et) = 0 for every t > O. Therefore, we only need to prove that
if K is any compact subset of E t such that a(K) = 0, then Ittsl(K) = O.
Let K be a compact subset of Et with a(K) = 0, and let B > 0 be arbitrary.
There is an open subset Q of,][, such that K ~ Q and a(Q) < B. Let (Ijh~j~M
be a finite covering of K so that for each j, !j ~ Q and Itt I(Ij) ~ t a (Ij ), and
let (IAh~k~N be a collection obtained using Lemma 1.1.4. Then
Ittl(K) ~ L Ittl(Ij) ~ t L a(Ij) ~ 3t L a (Ijk)
= 3ta ( U !jk) ~ 3ta(Q) ~ 3Bt.

l~k~N
Hence Ittl(K) = 0 and, correspondingly, Ittsl(E) = O. o

1.1.9. Proposition. Let f ELI ('][') and denote by M (f) the maximal function
of the measure tt = fda. Then
a({e iO E '][': M(f)(e iO ) > t}) < 311flll .

- t
Proof. It is a corollary of Proposition 1.1.7. o
1.1.10. Proposition. Let f ELI (']['), then
lim -
8
8-->0
I/,/,(e;8)
.
If(e"") - feel·0 )1 dfP = 0, aa.e.
In particular,
I(e''II ) = lim -I
8->020
1 '
la(eiB)
I(e"") dcp, a a.e.
Proof. Let 18 = 18(eill ) and define

T(f)(e ill ) = lim sup _1_
8->0 a(/8)
r I/(e ill ) - l(ei'P) Ida(cp).
JIa
Let us fix t > 0, 8 > 0, and gEe (1[') so that II I - gill < 8. Let h = I - g,
then it is clear that
(i) T(f) s T(g) + T(h);

(ii) T (g) == 0, since g is continuous; and
(iii) T(h) S Ihl + M(h).
Therefore T(f) S Ihl + M(h) and hence

Ft := {e ill : T(f)(e ill ) > t} ~
Et := {e ill : Ih(eill)1 > i} u {e Ui : M(h)(e ill ) > i} .

We have
a(E) < ~ + 311hlh < 88.
t - tl2 tl2 - t
Since 8 > 0 was arbitrary it follows that a(Ft ) = 0 for every t > O. Hence
T (f) = 0, a a.e. This proves the proposition. 0
1.1.11. Definition. A value eillo E 1[' such that, for 18 = 10 (e illo ),
lim _I_jl/(e ill ) - I (e illo ) I de = 0

8-.0 a (/8) /a
is called a Lebesgue point of I.
Hence, Proposition 1.1.lO states that for a function I ELI (1['), almost every
point of 1[' is a Lebesgue point.
1.1.12. Proposition. Let I ELI (1[') and let eill be a Lebesgue point 01 I, then
I/(eill)1 S M(f)(e ill ).
Proof. We have I(e ill ) = limo-.o (1 la (/8» I/a l(ei'P)da(cp). Moreover, for
8 > 0, there is Os > 0 such that
1
_
1_
a(/8)
r l(ei'P)dCPI S M(f)(e iO ) +8
J1a
for all 0 < 0 < Os. The conclusion is therefore clear. o
1.1.13. Proposition. Let J-Ls be a Radon measure on 1r. singular with respect to
u. Then. the limit
exists u a.e. and it is zero u a.e.
Proof. We can assume J-Ls ~ O. Fix t > 0 and 8 > O. There is a compact set K
and a decomposition J-Ls = J-Ll + J-L2. where J-Ll = J-LsIK. u(K) = O. and
1IJ-L211 ~ 8. Let
1J (ifJ)
J-Ls e =
r J-Ls (18 (e
~~~p u(h(eifJ »
ifJ
».
Outside K we have 1JJ-Ll = 0 and 1JJ-Ls = 1JJ-L2. with the obvious meaning for
the notation. Therefore
K U {e ifJ : 1JJ-Ls(eifJ ) > t} = K U {e ifJ : 1JJ-L2(eifJ ) > t}
~ K U {e ifJ : M(J-L2)(e ifJ ) > t}.
Since u(K U {e ifJ : M(J-L2)(e ifJ ) > t}) ~ 38/t. and 8> 0 is arbitrary. it follows
that for every t > 0 the set {e ifJ : 1JJ-Ls(e ifJ ) > t} is contained in a Borel set of zero
u-measure. Therefore. the same holds for {e ifJ : 1JJ-Ls(eifJ ) > O} and we obtain
that 1JJ-Ls = O. u a.e. This implies that the proposition is true. D
1.1.14. Corollary. Let J-L be a Radon measure on 1r and let J-L f du + J-Ls be =
its Lebesgue decomposition in absolutely continuous and singular parts. Then its
derivative
exists u a.e. and
1.1.15. Definition. For eifJ E 1r and a > 1 a Stolz region of opening a and
vertex eifJ is the region
ra(e ifJ ) := {z E B: Iz - eifJl < a(1-lzi}}.
To simplify the notation in this section we shall write for ~ E 1r

a - lim f(z):= lim f(z).
z ..... ~ z..... s
zer«(s)
1.1.16. Proposition. For any a > 1. any Radon measure J-L. and any eifJ E 1r one
has
Proof. Since M(J-L) = M(IJ-Li} and IP(J-L)I ~ P(IJ-Li}. it is enough to prove the
inequality when J-L ~ O. We can assume eifJ = 1 and M(J-L)(1) = 1. since. if
M(J-L) = 00. the inequality holds and if M(J-L)(l) = 0 then J-L = O.
Let ra(1) := ra, Z Era, and r = Izi. Consider the value t = a(1- r) and
Vo := {{ E T: 11 - ~I < t}.
For k E N*, let
Vk := RET: 2k - 1t :::: 11 - ~I < 2k t}.
These sets are only interesting when 1 :::: k :::: ko, where 2ko - 1t :::: 2 < 2ko t.
Since M(JL)(1) =
1, we have
8
JL(I&(1» :::: 0"(18(1» = -,
n
hence
On the other hand,

1 . 1 1 - r2 1
-P(z e'qJ) < - < ---
2n ' - 2n (1 - r)2 - n(1 - r)
Iv P(z,eqJ)dJL:::: ---::::
and
-1 t 1
i
-a <a.
2n Vo nl-r n
For k ~ 1, eiqJ E Vb Z Era, we have
11 - eiqJl :::: 2ale iqJ - zi.
In fact,
Hence
As a consequence
~P(z, eiqJ) = 1 ~ IzI2 < 4a 2(1 - r2) < 4a 2(1 - r) = 100.

2n 2nle'qJ - zI2 - 2nll - eiqJ I2 - 22k - 2t 2 22kt
Finally,
-1
2n
Iv P(z e qJ)d 'r-_
i
ll
100
< 2k t22k
- = 100
-
2k'
Vk t
thus
+ L 2k = 17a:::: 20a.
100
P(JL)(z):::: a o
k~l
1.1.17. Proposition. If JL is a positive measure on T and 'DJL(e i9 ) = 0 at some

point ei9 E T, then
a - lim P(JL)(z) O.
z-+e,8
=
Proof. Let 8 > 0 and 80 > 0, such that for 0 < 8 < 80 ,
f..L(h(e i9 )) < 8(1(I~(ei9)).
Let f..Lo = f..LII~o(ei9) and let f..Ll = f..L - f..Lo. P(f..Ll) is hannonic in C\ SUPPf..Ll
and f..Ll is zero on I~(ei9), hence
a - lim P(f..Ll)(Z) = O.
z~ei8
Moreover, M(f..Lo)(ei9 ) ::: 8. Since

sup P(f..Lo)(z)::: 20aM(f..Lo(e i9 » ::: 20a8,
zera(e iO )
one has
a -lim sup P(f..L)(Z) = a -lim sup P(f..Lo)(Z) ::: 20a8.
z~ei9 z-+e i6
Given that 8 > 0 was arbitrary we obtain that the limit of the statement of the
proposition vanishes. 0
1.1.lS. Proposition. II I ELI Cll') then

a - lim P(f)(z)
z-+e'(}
= l(e i9 )
at every Lebesgue point ei9 01 I. In particular, this identity holds u a.e.
Proof. Consider the measure f..L = I/(eiq:» - l(e i9 )1 du(cp). By hypothesis,
'Df..L(e i9 ) = O. Moreover
IP(f)(z) - l(e i9 )1 ::: P(f..L)(z).
By the previous proposition, the limit of P(f..L)(z) along the Stolz region ra(e i9 )
is zero. Hence,
o
1.1.19. Corollary. If f..L is a Radon measure on 1I', then

a - lim P(f..L)(z)
z-+e i8
= 'Df..L(e i9 ), u a.e.
Proof. We write f..L = I du + f..Lso I ELI (1I'), and f..Ls singular with respect to
u. Hence If..Lsl is also singular with respect to u and 'D1f..Lsl =
0, u a.e. On the
other hand, the fact that IP (f..Ls) I ::: P (I f..Ls I) together with Proposition 1.1.17
imply that
a - lim P(f..Ls)(z) = 0, ua.e. o
z-+e i8
1.1.20. Corollary. II I E ~P(D)lor some p, I ::: p ::: 00, we have

a - lim I(z)
z-+e,8
= /*(e i9 ), u a.e.
Proof. The function f* defined by Lemma 3.1.2 belongs to U CIl') and we

know that f = P(f*). Since U('1l') £: LICIl'), the result follows from Proposi-
tion 1.1.18. 0
1.1.21. Proposition. The map

P: C'(1I') -+ ~I(D),
which to every Radon measure on 1I' associates its Poisson integral, is a bijec-
tion such that the real valued measures correspond to the real valued harmonic
functions in ~I(D) and the nonnegative measures correspond to the nonnegative
harmonic functions.
Proof. It is clear that h = P(JL) is harmonic in D. Moreover, for 0 < r < 1,
Ilhrlh = 1o21f -2n1 (1 2rr Pr(cp -

0
de) dIJLI(e"P)
e)-
2n
" IJLI
= -,
2n
hence h E ~1(D).1t is obvious that h is real valued if JL is real valued and h :::: 0
if JL :::: O.
Let us show that P is injective. If P (JL) = 0, then for every f E C(1I') we
have
{ f dJL = lim_
IF r-> I IF
{(-2 io(21f
1
n
Pr(cp - e)f(ei'P)dCP) dJL(e iO )
lim - 1 121f f(e''P)

= r-+I- "( - 1 121f Pr(cp - " ) = O.
e) dJL(e 'O ) dcp
2n 0 2n 0
Hence JL = O.
We only need to show that P is surjective. Let h E ~ I (D). For 0 < r < 1, let
Ar(f) := 121f h(rei'P)f(ei'P)dcp,

which defines a linear functional on the space C(1I'). Moreover,
IIArl1 = sup IAr(f)I:::: 2nllhrlll :::: 2nllhll l .
Ilflloo~1
It follows that we can find a sequence rn / 1 such that Arn -+ JL E C'(1I')

weakly. For each n, Z 1--* h(rnz) is harmonic in Izi < l/rn, hence, for each
zED, we have
h(rnz) 1121f P(z, e''P)h(rne''P)dcp

= -2no " " = Ar (1")
-P(z, e''P) ,
n 2n
since ei'P 1--* P(z, ei'P) is in C(1I'). Therefore
h(z) = lim h(rn z ) = _1

n-+oo 2n
(21f P(z, ei'P)dJL(ei'P).
io
It is also clear that if h is real (resp. positive), JL is real (resp. :::: 0). 0
1.1.22. Corollary. For every h E ~ I (D) there is a unique Radon measure /L such
that h = P (/L) and there is h * ELI elI') such that
a - lim h(z)
z-+e i8
= h*(ei8 ), (1 a.e.
Proof. It is enough to write /L = h* d(1 + /Ls, /Ls singular with respect to d(1
and apply Corollary 1.1.19. D
We can now define the spaces HP(D) for 1 ::: p ::: 00 by

HP(D) = ~P(D) n JIf(D) ,
i.e., the functions in ~P(D) which are holomorphic. One can extend the range
of p remarking that if h E JIf (D), then
z ~ Ih(zW, 0< p < 00, and z ~ log+ Ih(z)1
are subharmonic functions. Therefore we can define, for 0 < r < 1,
1 [21r . ) lip
IIhrllp := ( 27l' Jo Ih(re'lpW dO , 0< p < 00,
IIhrllo := exp (2~ fo 21f log+ Ih(reilp ) IdO) ,

which are increasing functions of r and introduce the following definitions.
1.1.23. Definitions. For 0 < p ::: 00 we define the Hardy spaces HP(D) by
HP(D) := {I E )f(D): II/lI p := sup IIlrllp < oo},

O<r<1
with the usual definition of IIlrlloo and 11/1100. The Nevanlinna class N(D) is
given by
N(D) := {I E JIf(D): 11/110 = sup

O<r<1
Illrllo < oo}.
It is clear that the sup can be replaced by lim in the definitions. The spaces
HP(D), 1 ::: p ::: 00, are also Banach spaces (see Proposition 1.1.24 below).
For I ELI (,ll'), real valued, one can prove the following inequality that gener-
alizes the inequality that relates the geometric and arithmetic means. Namely,
exp (_1 [21r I dO) ::: _1 [21f exp(f) dO

27l' Jo 27l' Jo
is called Jensen's inequality [Rud2]. For any p > 0 we have
exp(p(log+ III)) ::: max(1, I/IP) ::: 1 + I/I P E LI('][')
if I E £P(,][,). This shows immediately that
Hoo(D) S; HP(D) S; N(D)
for 0 < p < 00.

1.1.24. Proposition. For 1 ::: p ::: 00, the spaces ~P(D) and HP(D) are Banach
spaces with the norms Ilfllp = limr..... l- Ilfrllp.
Proof. For 1 < p ::: 00, we have already shown that P: LP('Jl') -+ ~P(D) is an
isomorphism of normed spaces and the same is true for p = 1 with P: C' ('Jl') -+
~l(D). This shows the spaces ~P(D) are Banach spaces when 1 ::: p ::: 00.
Finally, the space HP(D) is closed in ~P(D) since the convergence in ~P(D)
implies the uniform convergence on the compact subsets of D by the Harnack
inequalities (see [BG, Proposition 4.3.9]). D
1.1.25. Proposition. Let 1 < p::: oo.Foreveryf E HP(D)thereisf* E LP('Jl')

such that
(a) ua.e.,
and moreover, limr-> 1 fr = f* in LP ('Jl') if 1 < p < 00.
(b) IIfllp = 1If*llp..

(c) f(z) = _1_.
2TCl
rf*(z) d~
JI~I=l ~ - z
(Izl < 1).
(d) The functions f{J E LP('Jl'), which are of the form f* for some f E HP(D),
1 < P ::: 00, are characterized by the conditions
for every n < O.
= limr ..... l- fro we have

1
Proof. We only need to prove (c) and (d). For f*
1 o
27r .
f*(e,o)e- . dO
mo - = lim
27r r ..... l- 0
27r . . dO
f(re,o)e- Ino -
27r
= lim rn. r f(t;) dt;
r..... l- 2m JI~I=r t;n+l
=0
when n < O. This shows that (a) holds for f*. On the other hand, for r fixed,
P(re iO , eit ) = _1_ L rlnlein(O-t)

27r "7
ne",
converges in U('Jl'), 1jp + 1jq = 1. Therefore, if z = reiO ED,
P(f*)(z) =L
"7
(_1 r
27r Jo
27r
f*(eit)e-int dt) rlnleinO
ne",
= _1 r
27r Jo
27r
f*(e it ) dt.
1 - r'tz
=~ r f*(t;) dt;.
2m JI~I=l ~ - Z
14 1. Boundary Values of Ho1omorphic Functions and Analytic Functionals
In the second line we have used that we already know that (d) holds for f*.
Since P(f*)(z) = f(z), this proves (c). Moreover, this argument shows that if
rp E U(1l') has cn(rp) = 0 for all n < 0, then
P(rp)(z) = -1-.1
2m
rp({) d{,
1~1=1 { - z
i.e., P(rp) E JIf(D) n ~P(D). D
1.1.26. Proposition. If f E W>O(D) and 0 < r < 1, we have
log If(O)1 ::: _1 f2:rr log If(re i8 )1 dO ::: _1 f2:rr log 1f*(ei8 )1 dO.
2rr lo 2rr lo
Moreover, if f ;;fo 0, then f* =f. 0, a a.e.
Proof. We can assume that IIflloo::: 1. Otherwise dividing f by IIflloo
will not change the above inequalities. We know that the function r 1-+
(1/2rr) J;:rr log If(re i8 )1 dO is increasing and that limr--+l-1og If(re i8 )1 =
log 1f*(ei8 )1, a a.e. Moreover, log If(e i8 )1 ::: O. Hence we can apply Fatou's
lemma
f2:rr liminf f2:rr log If(rei8)1 dO ::: _1 f2:rr log 1f*(ei8 )1 dO.
lo r->1- lo 2rr lo
This implies the required inequalities.
The only difficulty in proving that a({e i8 : f*(e i8 ) = O}) = 0 occurs when
f(O) = O. Let m be the order of z = 0 as zero of f. The function g(z) =
f(z)/zm also belongs to Hoo(D), Ig*1 = 1f*1, everywhere and log Ig(O)1 > -00.
Therefore
_1 f2:rr log 1f*(ei8 )1 dO > -00,
2rr lo
which implies f*(e i8 ) =f. 0, a a.e. This concludes the proof. D
The main building blocks of functions in HP(D) are the Blaschke products.
1.1.27. Proposition. Let (GYn)n~l be a sequence in D\{O} such that

L:n~l (1 - IGYn I) < 00 and kEN, then the Blaschke product
B(z) := zk II IGYnl GYn

1-
-= Z
n~
1 GYn GYnZ
defines a function in Hoo(D) whose zeros are exactly the GYn and has a zero at
z = 0 of multiplicity k.
Proof. The general term of the series
satisfies
an - z ) 1= (1-lanl) I(an +_Ianlz) I::: 1 + Izl (1 -Ianl).
11 - (~
an 1 - anz (1 - anz)an 1 - Izl
Hence, the infinite product converges uniformly in every compact subset of D
to a function B E .Tt'(D). Moreover, IB(z)1 ::: 1 since every factor has absolute
value 1 on 1I'. Therefore II B II 00 ::: 1. 0
This result shows that the condition En> I (1 - Ian I) < 00, often called
Blaschke condition, is sufficient for the existence of a function I E Hoo(D)
vanishing exactly at the an. In fact, we shall show below that this condition is
necessary even for functions in N(D) to vanish on the sequence (an)n~1 without
vanishing identically.
1.1.28. Proposition. Let IE N(D), I :f. 0, and let (an)n~1 be the sequence 01
zeros 01 I in D\{O}, counted with multiplicity. Then the sequence (an)n~1 satisfies
the Blaschke condition
~)1 - Ian I) < 00.
n~1
Proof. We can assume I has infinitely many zeros and also that 1(0) :f. o.
Otherwise, the function I (z) / zm is still in the Nevanlinna class and satisfies
this additional restriction.
Let v(r) be the counting function of the zeros of I in B(O, r). Fix k E N* and
choose 0 < r < 1 such that k < v(r). By Jensen's formula (see [BG, 4.4.29])
we have
1/(0)1 II _r ::: 1/(0)1 II r
I~n~k Ian I I~n~v(r) Ian I
::: exp (2~ 1 2

1£ log+ I/(reili)1 dB) ::: c < 00.
Hence,
and, since r can be chosen as close to 1 as we want, we also have
1~ II lanl ~ 1/(0)1 > O.

I~n~k C
To conclude the proof we need a small modification of a standard property
of infinite products (see [BG, Proposition 4.6.12]). 0
1.1.29. Lemma. Let 0::: Un < 1lor every n, then TIn>1 (1 - un) > 0 if and only
if En~1 Un < 00. -
Proof. It is well known that En>1 Un < 00 implies that the infinite product is
positive. To prove the converse, iet Pk = (1 - UI)··· (1 - ud, then PI ~ P2 ~
... ::: p = TIn> 1 (1 - un) > O. As it is very easy to see (see [BG, Proposition
4.6.12]), we have p ~ Pk ~ exp( -u 1 - U2 - ... - ud. Therefore Ln::o: 1 Un < 00.
D
As a simple example of application of the above proposition we see there

can be no bounded holomorphic function in D which is not identically zero and
vanishes at all the points (n - l)/n. Indeed, no function f E N(D), f ;;j. 0, can
vanish at those points since
Let us consider now the behavior of the Blaschke products on 11'.
1.1.30. Proposition. If B is a Blaschke product and B* its corresponding bound-

ary values on 11', we have IB*(eill)1 = 1, a a.e. and
lim -
1 12Jr log IB(relll)1
. dO = O.
r~l- 21l' 0
Proof. Let
and
for N ::: 1. We have that log IB / B N I is continuous in a neighborhood of 11' and

that it has the value zero on 11', therefore
lim - 1 12Jr log IB(re'Il)1

. dO = lim - 1 12Jr log IBN(re'Il)1
. dO.
r~l- 21l' 0 r~l- 21l' 0
By Proposition 1.1.26 we have, for any N ::: 1,
log IBN(O)I ~ lim -

1 12Jr log IB(re'Il)1
. dO ~ - 1 12Jr log IB*(re'Il)1
. dO ~ O.
r~l- 21l' 0 21l' 0
Now BN(O) = TIn::O:N lanl ~ 1 as N ~ 00, hence
lim - 1
r~l- 21l'
12Jr log IB(re,II)1
0
. dO = 0
and
-1
21l'
12Jr 10g(lB*(e ill ) IdO = O.
0
The last identity implies that IB*(eill)1 = 1, a a.e. D

1.1.31. Proposition. Let lEN (D), I ;;jE 0, and let B be the Blaschke product
corresponding to the zeros 01 I. Let g = 1/ B. Then g has no zeros in D and,
besides, it satisfies:
(i) g E N(D) and IIgllo 11/110; and=
(ii) if IE HP(D) lor some 0 < p :::: 00, then g E HP(D) and Ilglip = II/lIp.
Proof. It is clear that III :::: Igl, hence 11/110:::: IIgllo. Moreover,
1
log+ Igl :::: log+ III + log+ WI = log+ III -log+ IBI·
Hence
1
log IIgllo:::: lim -2
121f log+ I/(re,9. )1 d()
r-+I- rr 0
- lim -
1 121f log IB(re ,9. )1 d() = log 11/110.
r-+I- 2rr 0
This inequality proves (i).

Assume that I E HP(D) for some p > O. Let
B N (Z) =Zk II Ian I an - z

-_
1~n:5 N an 1 - anz
and define gN = I/BN. Since IBNI = 1 on '][' we have IIgNIl p = II/lIp. When
N -+ 00 then IgNI)" Igl. Therefore,
Ilgrllp = N-+oo
lim IIgN,rllp:::: II/lIp.
This implies that (ii) holds. o

1.1.32. Proposition. Let I(z) = Ln>oanzn be a function in .1f(D). Then I E
H2(D) ifand only if'E,m>o lan l2 < 00. Moreover, II/II~ = Ln>o lan l2 •
Furthermore, lor any Junction g E HP(D), 0 oanrnein9, which coincides with
the Fourier series expansion of Ir. Parseval' s Identity yields
II/rll~ =L lan I2r2n.

n~O
If I E H 2 (D), then
lim II/rll~
r-+I-
= r-+I-
lim "la
~
n I2r2n = II/II~ < 00.
n~O
Hence
L la l n 2 = II/II~.
n~O
Conversely, if Ln~o lan l2 < 00, then
lim "Ian 12r2n

r ..... I-~
= "~ Ian 12
n~O n~O
and the above steps can be reversed.

As to the second part, let I = g / B = e'P, q; E .]'f(D), and h = e(p/2)'P. We
have Ihl 2 = I/IP, hence
sup Ilhrll~ = sup Il/rll: = 11/11: = Ilgll: < 00,

O~r<1 O~r<1
o
1.1.33. Proposition. Let I E HI(D), then
a - lim I(z) = l*(e iO )
z~e,8
exists a a.e. and limr ..... l- Ir = 1* in LI(1!'). Moreover,for zED

I(z) = P(f*)(z) = _1_. ( I(~) d~.
270 JI~I=I ~ - z
Proof. Since IE f)1(D), we already know the existence of a Radon measure
f.,/, and 1* ELI ('R') such that f.,/, = 1* da + f.,/,s, f.,/,s singular with respect to a,
Ir ~ f.,/, in C'('R'), 1= P(f.,/,) and 1* (e iO ) the limit of lover Stolz regions. What
is new here is that I, being holomorphic, implies that f.,/,s = 0 and Ir ~ I in
LI ('R').
We can write 1= Bh 2 , hE H 2 (D), Ilhll~ = 11/111. Let q; = Bh, then q; E
H 2(D), 11q;1I2 = IIhl12' and I = q;h. Therefore, f* = q;*h*, a a.e. and
1* - Ir = q;*(h* - h r ) + hr(q;* - q;r).
It follows that
lim sup 111* - Irlll :::: 11q;*112lim Ilh* - hrll2
r ..... 1 r..... 1
+ IIhl12lim
r ..... 1
11q;* - q;r112 = O.
This implies that Ir ~ 1* in L I('R') and II f* III = II I III. Si~ce L I ('R') can be
considered as a closed subspace of C' ('R') and Ir ~ f.,/, in C' ('R'), it follows that
f.,/,s = O. Hence 1= P(f*) and, also, the Fourier coefficients cn(f*) = 0 for
n < O. As was shown in Proposition 1.1.25 this implies that the Cauchy integral
representation of I in terms of 1* is valid. 0
A Radon measure f.,/, on 'R' is called analytic if cn(f.,/,) = I.e- int df.,/, = 0 for
all n < O.
1.1.34. Corollary (Theorem of the Brothers F. and M. Riesz). Every analytic

measure on 'R' is absolutely continuous with respect to a.
Proof. The hypotheses imply that P(f.,/,) E f)1(D) n .]'f(D), hence f.,/, = f* da,
with f* E LI('R') given by f*(e iO ) = limr ..... 1 P(f.,/,)(re iO ), a a.e. 0
We shall now prove some important factorization theorems for functions in

HP(D).
1.1.35. Definitions. (i) An inner function f is a function f E Hoo(D) such

that 11*1 = 1, a a.e.
(ii) An outer function is a function in D of the form
f(z) = exp (_1 r

2;r Jo
21f
e~1 + z 10gqJ(eil)dt) ,
ell - z
with qJ :::: 0 measurable and log qJ ELI (T).
Clearly every Blaschke product is an inner function. Another type of inner

function is the following:
1.1.36. Proposition. Let f-Ls be a positive Radon measure on T, singular with

respect to a. The function
S(z) = exp (_
Jo
r 21f
e~1 + z df-Ls(t))
e'l - z
is an inner function. It is referred to as a singular inner function.
Proof. We have
log lSI = 2;r P(-f-Ls).
Since f-Ls :::: 0, it follows that lSI.:::: 1. Moreover, f-Ls singular with respect to a
implies
log IS*I = (log ISI)* = 0, aa.e.
Therefore S is an inner function. o
The simplest example of a singular inner function is
S(z) = exp (_ 1 + z)
l-z
corresponding to f-Ls = 8 = Dirac mass at () = O.
1.1.37. Proposition. The family of inner functions coincides with the products of
the form cBS, where c E C, lei = 1, B is a Blaschke product, and S is a singular
inner function.
Proof. It is clear that the product of two inner functions is another inner function,
hence all products cBS are inner functions. Conversely, given an inner function
f, let B be the Blaschke product of its zeros and g fiB. We have that g =
has no zeros, Ilglloo = IIflloo = 1, and Ig*1 = 1, aa.e. Therefore, -loglgl is a
positive harmonic function and has a representation
-log Igl(z) = Re 1o
21f eil + z
-,-
e'l - z
df-L(t)
for some measure IL :::: O. Hence IL = (1JIL) d(1 + ILs, and 1JIL = -(log Igl)* =
-log Ig*1 = O. It follows that IL is a positive singular measure. Let
log Ig(z)1 = Reh(z)
for some he JIf(D). Then
211' eil +z
h(z) = - 1o -'-,e'-z
- djJ,s(t),
eh is a singular inner function and g = ce h for some c e C, lei = 1. D
1.1.38. Proposition. Let
I(z)=exp 1 1211' -.--logq;(e")dt

( -2 e il + z .)
7'( 0 e'l - z
be an outer junction. Then:
(i) log 1/1= P(logq;);

(ii) ex -limz-+ei6 I/(z)1 = q;(e i6 ), (1 a.e., in particular, 1/1* = q;; and
(iii) Ie HP(D), 0 < p::::: 00, if and only ifq; e U('][').ln this case, 1I/IIp =
1Iq;llp'
Proof. The statement (i) is evident. Since logq; e LI('][') we have that log III e
~I(D), (log 1/1)* = logq;, (1 a.e., and 1/1* = q;, (1 a.e. The rest of part (ii) is
also clear. Note that we do not show that 1* exists.
Finally, if I e HP(D), 0 < p ::::: 00, then 1* exists (1 a.e. and 111* lip = II/lIp.
Hence, q; e U(,][,) and 1Iq;llp = IIfll p • On the other hand, if q; e U(,][,) for some
o < p < 00, then
If(re i6 W = exp 1o211' Pr(B - t)log(q;P(e il »-
dt
: : : -1 1211' Pr(B - t)q;P(eil)dt,
27'( 27'( 0
by Jensen's inequality applied to the measure Pr(B - t) (dt/27'(). Integrating this

inequality, one obtains
_1 r 211' I/r(e i6 W dB
27'( Jo
::::: _1 r21l' (_1 r 211' Pr(B _ t)q;P(e il ) dt) dB
27'( Jo 27'( Jo
= -27'(11211' q;P(eil ) (11211'

- Pr(B - t)dB ) dt
0 27'( 0
= _1 r21l' q;P(eil)dt = IIq;W.

27'( Jo P
It follows that I e HP(D) and IIfllp ::::: 1Iq;lIp • From the previous reasoning we
have II/lIp =
1Iq;lIp •
The only case left is that of q; e VlO('][') and it is evident that I e HOO(D). D
1.1.39. Proposition. Let Ie HP(D), 1 ::::: p ::::: 00, I ¢. O. Then:

(i) log 11*1 e LI('][') and log I/(z)1 ::::: P(log 11*I)(z) for ZED.
(ii) The outer function
F(z) = exp ( -21r1 121f e +z

-.--log 1/*(e't)1
it
. dt)
0 e't - z
is in HP(D).
(iii) There is an inner lunction I = cBS such that I = IF.
(iv) The inequality
Jor
21f
log 1/(0)1 ::: _1 log 1/*(ei9 )1 de
21r
becomes an equality if and only if I is a constant.
(v) Thelactorization I = cBSF is unique.
Proof. Consider first the case IE HI(D). Let B be the Blaschke product of
the zeros of I, g = fiB. We know that g E HI(D), 1/*1 = Ig*l, 0" a.e., and g
has no zeros. Therefore, it is enough to prove the above items when B = 1.
Since I has no zeros on D we can assume 1(0) = 1. Hence log II I is
harmonic and
Jor
21f
0= log 1/(0)1 = _1 log I/(re i9 )1 de for 0 < r < 1.
21r
Writing log III = log+ III -log-III we obtain
_1 r
21r Jo
21f
log-l/(rei9)1 de = _1
21r
r
Jo
21f
log+ I/(re i9 )1 de ::: 11/110 < 00.
By Fatou's lemma the two functions log-II*I and log+ 11*1 belong to LI('ll'),
and log 11*1 E L I (1'). This shows that F is well defined, and FE HI(D). More-
over, IF*I = 11*1 =1= 0,0" a.e., since log 11*1 E L I (1'). If we could prove that
I/(z)1 ::: IF(z) I for every zED,
it will follow that cp = 1/ F is an inner function without zeros, and hence that cp
is a multiple of a singular inner function. Since log IFI = P(log 11*1), we need
to show that
log III::: P(log 1/*1).
For 0 < r < 1 and zED we have
log Ilr(z)1 = P(log+ Ilrl)(z) - P(log-llrl)(z).
On the other hand, if u, v E R+
Ilog+ U -log+ vi ::: lu - vi,
and limr-.I- Ir = 1* in L t (1'). Hence
lim P(log+ Ilrl)
r ..... l-
= P(log+ 1/*1).
Fatou's lemma now implies that
P(log- 1/*1) ::: lim inf P(log-llrl) =
r ..... l-
P(log+ 1/*1) -log III.
Hence
log III ~ P(log 11*1).

Therefore, we have proved that the factorization I = I F holds, with I =
cBS, and also the value at z = 0 ofthe inequality (*) shows that if (iv) becomes
an equality, then II (0) I = IF (0) I· Hence II (0) I = 1 which can only occur if I
is a constant of absolute value 1.
If 1 < P ~ 00 we only need to prove F E HP(D). But, if IE HP(D), then
11*1 E U(,][,) and hence F E HP(D) also.
Finally, let us prove the uniqueness ofthe factorization. Assume 1= cBSF =
cIBISIFI . Clearly B = BJ, since the other factors have no zeros. Moreover,
IF*I = IF; I = 11*1, a a.e.
From Proposition 1.1.38(i) one can conclude that F = aFI with a E C, lal = 1.
Since F (0) > 0 and FI (0) > 0, it follows that a = 1. From the fact that Icl =
ICII = 1, S(O) > 0, and SI(O) > 0, we obtain that c = CI, hence S = SI.
D
1.1.40. Corollary. II 1 ~ p ~ 00, IE HP(D), and I ¥= 0, then I*(e it ) #- 0,

aa.e.
Proof. log 11*1 E LI(']['). D
1.1.41. Corollary. Ifl ~ P ~ 00, I, g E HP(D), and 1* = g* on a set olposi-

tive a-measure, then f = g.
One can explicitly recover IE HP(D) from the data I*IE, where a(E) > 0
(see [Pat], [AC], [Ai]).
Having finished presenting the fundamental properties of the functions in
HP(D), we shall now tum to the consideration of the maximal ideals in the
algebra HOO(D).
The space HOO(D) is not only a Banach space, but a commutative Banach
algebra with a unit element. In fact, the required extra properties, II/glioo ~
1l/IIooIIglioo and 1· I = I, are evident. In this section we denote by M the
family of all multiplicative functionals cp: HOO(D) -+ C, that is, for II, h E
HOO(D), AI, 1...2 E C, we have
CP(Adl + A2h) = AICP(fI) + A2CP(h)'
cp(flh) = cp(fl)cp(h)·
Obvious examples of elements in M are the evaluation functionals CPI;' ~ E D,
It is a very important fact that every element cP E M is automatically continuous.

This is the Gelfand-Mazur theorem [Ga]. The proof consists in showing that
kercp is a maximal ideal with the property HOO(D)/kercp = C, hence kercp is
closed and cp is continuous. This argument works in any unitary Banach algebra.
We will take the continuity of the elements cp E M for granted.
There are other elements in M besides the cp!;. One way to see this is as
follows. For a point eiO E '][' we define
Ie;8 = {I E Hoo(D): lim

z-+e,8
I(z) = o} .
This is a proper closed ideal in Hoo(D), hence there is a maximal ideal M,
Ie;8 ~ M, and a corresponding cp E M such that ker cp = M. It is clear that this
cp i= cp!; for every ~ E D, since, for a given ~ E D, it is easy to find I E Hoo(D)
such that I(n i= 0 and I E Ie;B, e.g., I(z) = z - eiO •
The set M is contained in the closed unit sphere of (Hoo(B»', i.e., if cp E M,
then IIcpll = 1. Namely, for I E Hoo(D) and n E N* we have
Icp(f)l n = Icp(r)l:::: IIcpli IIr II :::: IIcpllll/lln.

Hence
which implies Icp(f)1 :::: 11111 for every I E Hoo(D). In other words, IIcpli :::: 1.
On the other hand, cp(1) = 1, which implies IIcpli ~ 1.
The set M is weakly closed: let 1jr E MW (weak-closure of M), then for
any I, g E Hoo(D) and any 8 > 0 there is cp E M such that
11jr(f) - cp(f)1 < 8, 11jr(g) - cp(g) I < 8, and 11jr(fg) - cp(fg) I < 8,
by the definition of the weak topology in (Hoo(B»'. Since cp(fg) = cp(f)cp(g),

we obtain
11jr(fg) -1jr(f)1jr(g)1 :::: 8(1 + 11/11 + Ilgll),
which shows that 1jr is multiplicative.
As a consequence, we see that M is a weakly compact subset of (Hoo(D»'.
In fact, it is well known that the unit sphere is already weakly compact.
The space C(M) of continuous functions on the compact space M (M
considered with the weak topology) is also a Banach algebra when we consider
it with II . 1100 norm.
To every element I E Hoo(D) we can associate a function j E C(M), called
the Gelfand transform 01 I. It is given by
for cp E M.
The definition of the weak topology makes it evident that j is continuous on
M. Moreover, the map I ~ j is injective and is an isometry of Hoo(D) onto
a closed subalgebra of C(M):
(i) If j = 0, then j(cp!;) = cp!;(f) = I(~) = 0 for every ~ ED.

(ii) We have liccp) I = Icp(f)1 :::: IIcpllllllloo :::: 1111100, i.e., lIilloo :::: 1111100' On
the other hand, I/(nl = Ij(cp!;) I :::: IIjlloo, so that lIilloo = 1111100'
24 1. Boundary Values of Holomorphic Functions and Analytic FUnctionals
Let us consider the identity function id(z) = z as an element of Hoo(D). Then

we have a map Jr: M ~ D given by
Jr(rp) := (idnrp) = rp(id).
It is clear that I(idnrp) I ::: II id 1100 = 1, hence Jr(M) 5; D. Moreover, let

I::. := {rpi.: A ED},
then Jr(I::.) 5; D. Namely, Jr(rpi.) = rpi.(id) = id(A) = A.
1.1.42. Proposition. The map Jr: M ~ D is a continuous surjective map.

Furthermore, Jr-'(D) = I::. and Jrll::. is a homeomorphism onto D.
Proof. The continuity of Jr is obvious from the definition of the topology on
M. It is clear that Jr(M) :2 Jr(I::.) = D. Since M is compact, Jr(M) is also
compact, hence D 5; Jr(M) 5; D. Therefore Jr is surjective.
Let A E D and let rp EM be such that Jr(rp) = A. If / E Hoo(D) vanishes at
z = A, then /(z) = (z - A)g(Z), with g E Hoo(D). Hence
rp(f) = rp(id -A)rp(g) = (Jr(rp) - Arp(l)rp(g) = (Jr(rp) - A)g = O.
Therefore, ker rp :2 ker rpi. and, since ker rp and ker rpi. are maximal proper ideals,
kerrp = kerrpi., that is, rp = rpi.. This shows that Jr-'(D) = 1::., hence I::. is open
in M, and Jrll::. is a continuous bijection to D. Moreover, the usual topology
of D can also be interpreted as being the weak topology defined by func-
tions in Hoo(D). Namely. let Zo E D and 0 < B < I - Izol. Then B(zo. e) =
{z E D: I/zo(z)I < e}, where !zo(z) = z - Zo E Hoo(D). Since zED corres-
ponds to rpz E I::. we have that B(zo, e) = Jr({rp E 1::.: lizo (rp) I < eD. This shows
that Jr II::. is a homeomorphism onto D. 0
The set C := M\I::. is called the corona (Le., crown). It is mapped onto T.
For every a E T, the set Ma = Jr- 1({aD is called the fiber over a. Clearly C
is compact and Ma is also compact.
1.1.43. Proposition. Let a E 'If and / E Hoo(D) be such thatthere is a sequence

(An)n~l 0/ points in D such that limn-+oo An = a and the limit
exists. Then there is rp E Ma such that rp(f) = ~.

Proof. The set I = (g E Hoo(D): limn-+oo g(An) = O} is a closed proper ideal
in Hoo(D). Hence there is rp EM such that kerrp :2 I. The functions id -a and
/ - ~ belong to I, hence Jr(rp) = a and rp(f) =~. 0
1.1.44. Proposition. Let / E Hoo(D) and a E T. The/unction I is constant on

Ma if and only if/has a continuous extension to D U {a}.
Proof. If I has a continuous extension to D U {a}, then there is ~ E C such

that limn..... oo I(A n) = ~ for any sequence (An)n~l in D with limit a. We want
to show that /(cp) = ~ for every cp E Ma. It is enough to do it when ~ = o.
Let h(z) := !(1 + az). One has Ih(z)1 < 1 for z E D\{a} and h(a) = 1.
Hence, (1 - hn)1 converges unifonnly to I on D, because I is continuous on
D U {a} and I(a) = O. For any cp E Ma we have cp(h) = !(1
+ a:7r(cp» = 1.
Therefore, cp«1 - hn)f) = 0, whence cp(f) = O.
Conversely, let us assume / is constant on Ma and (An)n~l is a sequence in
D converging to a. Since I/(An)1 ~ 11/1100, let (f(Ank»k~l be any convergent
subsequence, say toward a value ~. Then there is cp E Ma such that / (cp) = ~ .
Given that / is constant on M a , all these possible limits coincide, hence I
extends continuously to D U {a}. 0
1.1.45. Proposition. Let I E Hoc (D), a E T. II there is cp E Ma such that

/(cp) = 0 one can find a sequence (An)n~l in D converging to a, such that
limn..... oo I(A n ) = O.
Proof. Let us argue by contradiction. Assume there is a disk B(a, e) and ~ > 0
such that I/(z)1 2: ~ for every z E B(a, e) n D. We can write 1= cBSF. The
properties of the Blaschke product and the singular inner function S imply that
no mass of the singular measure lies in B (a, e) n T and that no zeros of B lie in
B(a, e) n D. Hence both of these functions are holomorphic in a neighborhood
=
of Tn B(a, e). We can also assume c 1 without any loss of generality.
The function log 1f*(eil)1 is bounded on Tn B(a, e),since ~ ~ III ~ 11/1100
on B(a, e) n D. We define
1
h(z) := exp ( --2
:7r
h
1l'nB(a.s)
e +z
it
-.--log
ell -
. dt
1f*(e'I)1
z
).
Then h E HOO(D) and
I(z)h(z) = B(z)S(z) exp (_1

2:7r 10r
2Jr
<I + z
ell -
z k(e il ) dt) ,
where k E Ll(T) and k == 0 on '1r n B(a, e). Therefore Ih is holomorphic in

a neighborhood of '1r n B(a, e) and its absolute value is exactly 1 in this arc.
r
Therefore, (f h is constant on Ma and this constant has absolute value 1. If
cP E Ma we have
=
Icp(h) IIcp(f)I 1.
This contradicts the assumption that cp(f) = 0 for some cp E Ma. 0
1.1.46. Corollary. Let I E HOO(D) and a E T. The set /(M a ) consists 01 all
the limit points 01 the sequences (f(An»n~l lor every sequence (An)n~l in D
which converges to a, i.e., the cluster set 01 I at the point a.
A question that remained open for a very long time was the corona problem:
Is ll. dense in M? In other words, does the corona C have empty interior? The
affirmative answer was first given by L. Carleson in 1962. His original proof
was very hard. Since then several simpler proofs based on the idea of Tom
Wolff to use the a-operator have appeared. We follow here [Fi], the reader is
referred to [Ni3], especially its appendices, for sharper bounds in the construc-
tions of Theorem 1.1.48 as well as for constructive interpolation procedures. For
multiply-connected plane domains one can also consider the corona problem,
see [Fi], [Jo].
We need first to translate the corona problem into another form.
1.1.47. Proposition. A necessary and sufficient condition for ~ to be dense in

M is the following: for every finite family fl' ... , fn of functions in Hoo(D)
satisfying, for some a > 0, the condition
Ifl(z)1 + ... + Ifn(z)1 ::: a> ° (z ED),
there are gl, ... , gn E Hoo(D) such that
ftgl + ... + fngn = 1.
Proof. Let CPo E M\~. By definition of the weak: topology there exist
°
ft, ... , fn E Hoo(D) and a > such that CPO(fI) = ... = CPo(fn) = and °
{cpEM; Icp(jj)l<a, l~j~n}n~=0.
Therefore, for any ~ E D we have Icp~ (jj) I ::: a for some j. As a consequence,
n n
L: Icp~(jj)1 = L: Ijj(~)1 ::: 8
j=1 j=1
for every ~ ED. On the other hand, all jj E ker CPo, hence 1 is not in the ideal
generated by the jj. In other words, there would be no gj E Hoo(D) such that
ftgl + ... + fngn = 1
if ~ =1= M.
Conversely, assume there are fl,"" fn E HOO(D), a > 0, such that Iftl +
... + Ifn I ::: a and 1 does not belong to the ideal generated by the jj. In this
case, this ideal is proper and there is CPo E M such that CPo(jj) = 0, j = 1, ... ,n.
The neighborhood {cp EM: Icp(jj)1 < a/n, 1 ~ j ~ n} of CPo is clearly disjoint
from ~. If not, there would be ~ E D with Icp~(jj)1 < a/n, 1 ~ j ~ n, i.e.,
a
Ift(~)1 + ... + Ifn(~)1 < n- = a.
n
D
1.1.48. Corona Theorem. One has

M=~.
Proof. We shall show that, given ft, ... , fn E Hoo(D) satisfying II jj 1100 ~ 1
and 1ft I + ... + Ifn I ::: a > 0, there exist gj E Hoo(D) such that flgl + ... +
fngn = 1 and, assuming ° < 8 S 1,
It is enough to prove the existence of gj satisfying the estimate (*) when

fl' ... , fn satisfy the additional requirement of being holomorphic in B(O, p)
and Ijj lSi for some p > 1. Namely, given the original functions !1, ... , fn E
Hoo(D) with the condition Ifll + ... + Ifni ~ 8, consider f"k(Z) = fk(rz), r <
1. They are holomorphic in B(O, l/r) and assume we can find gr,k E Hoo(D),
IIg"klloo S 129n 2 /8 4 (independent of r!), such that
f"lgr,l + ,., + fr,ng"n = 1.
We can use Montel's theorem to find a sequence r[ -+ 1, g'f,k -+ gk in JIf(D).
Evidently IIgklloo S 129n 2/8 4 and flgl +, .. + fngn = 1.
Let us now consider the auxiliary functions
h j ..= n
J] 1 S j S n.
E Ifkl2
k=1
These functions are Coo and satisfy !1hl + ... + fnhn = 1 in B(O, p). The idea
is to modify them to make them holomorphic while preserving the desired
identity. Let Wj,k be Coo functions in B(O, p) satisfying the equations
aWj,k ahk
az = hj az , I S j, k S n.
Let
gj := hj + L (Wj,k - Wk,j)!k. 1 S j S n.
I::;k::;n
One has
n n n
Ljjgj = Ljjhj + L jjfk(Wj,k - Wk,j) = Ljjhj = 1,
j=l j=l j=l
and, moreover,
agj _ ah j ~ (aWj,k _ aWk,j) _ ah j ~ ( . ahk _ ah j )

aZ- - a-Z + L...J
k=l
a-Z a-Z fk - a-
Z
+ L...J
k=1
h] a-Z hk a-Z fk
To conclude the proof we need to find Wj,k with appropriate bounds on

II wj,kiI LOO(1J').
Let U E Coo(B(O, p», p > 1. We shall estimate
inf {IIW IIL oo(1I'): W E Coo(B(O, p», aW = u}.

az
Since every w in this set is of the fonn Wo + <p, I} .

In order to estimate this quantity we use an auxiliary result: the dual space
to C(1I')/ A(D) is isometric to the space zH 1(D). Namely, (C(1I')/ A(D»' can
be identified to {IL E C'(1I'): Cn(IL) = J1l'e-
in9 dlL(e i9 ) = 0 for n ::::: OJ. By the
theorem ofF. and M. Riesz, IL = f*da, with I E zH 1(D).
By the density of .JIt'(D) in A(D) we have
J = inf{lIwo + fPIILoo(1l'): fP E A(D)} = d(wo, A(D» = IIwoli
= sup {2~ I ~ wof*del: I E zH 1(D), II I IiI ::::: I},
where Wo is the class of wol1I' in C(1I')/ A(D). The last identity is just the Hahn-
Banach theorem. Moreover, by a density argument, it is enough to consider
only I E .JIt'(B(O, p» for some p > 1, and 1(0) = O. For such I we can apply
Green's fonnula
rwol de = JDr!l.(wof)
J1l'
log ~dm - 2n(wof)(O)
Izl
JD
r!l.(wof)
= log ~dm.
Izl
We have
a , au
!l.(wof) = 4 oz (uf) = 4uf + 4f oz'
Therefore, in order to obtain the desired bounds on II Wj.k 1100, we need to
estimate
IJDr uf' log ~dm

Izi
+ r fOUoZ log ~dml
JD Izl
for I E z.Jlt'(B(O, p», p > 1, and u = hj(ohk/oz). We do this in several steps:
(i) First we observe that if h E H 2 (D), then
rIh'(z)1210g~dm = ::(lIhll~ -lh(O)1

JD Izl 2
2 )::::: ::2I1hll~.
This is easily seen using the Taylor series development of h and integrating.
(ii) If I E W'O(D) and g E H 2 (D), then
r
JD
Igf'1 2 10g ~dm ::::: 2n IIgll~lIf11~.
Izi
Namely
gl' = (gf)' - g'l
and
From (i) we obtain
llgl'12 10g 1~ldm:::=: 2 (~lIg/Il~ + ~lIfII~lIgIiO :::=: 2rrllgll~lIfII~.

(iii) If I E HI (D), II, h E W>O(D), then
r
JD IIId21 I I 1
log~dm:::=: 211/11111/111001lh1l00·
To see this, use Proposition 1.1.32 to write I = glg2, gj E H 2(D), and IIgjll~ =
11/111. Apply the inequality of Cauchy-Schwarz and (ii) to obtain the final
estimate.
(iv) If IE Hoo(D) and F E HI(D), then
rIF'I'llog~dm:::=:
JD Izl
2rrllFlllllflloo.
We factorize F = glg2, gj E H2(D), and IIgj II~ = 11F111 as done earlier. Then
r IF'I'llog~dm:::=:
JD Izl
r Ig;gd'llog~dm+
JD Izl
r IgIg;I'llog~dm.
JD Izl
The first term can be estimated by
llg;gd'IIOg 1;l dm :::=: (llg;1210g 1~ldm) 1/2 (llgd'1210g 1;l dm ) 1/2

:::=: v!%lIgllb/2;'lIg211211f1l00 = rrllFll1 11/1100'
The same estimate holds for the secorid term.

We can now conclude the proof of the theorem. To simplify the notation we
J
set f{J:= (2: =IIJJI2)-I, hence hk = f{Jh. We have
8h k - 2 - '"' -
8z =f{JI£-f{J It ~ Id£·
I ~k:::n
Therefore
As a consequence,
~: = _2f{J3 hl£ L itl£ - f{J3 hit L 11£12 + 3f{J4hitl L Id£12.

I~k~n I~k~n I::;k::;n
We return now to the estimation of J. We use that II I III :::=: I and f{J :::=: 1/8
and apply the inequality (iv) to the integral
IJrD UI'log ~1 d m I :::=: 8f

2rr 2rr
+ 8fn :::=:
2rr(n + 1)
83 .
Apply the same estimates and inequality (iii) to the integral
I rI auaz log ~dm

} D
I I ~ "84
2Jl'
6n .
These two inequalities show that we can find Wj,k satisfying

64n
IIWj,kIlLOO('Il') ~ 84'
Replacing the estimates in the formula for gj we obtain
IIgjlloo ~ IIhjll oo + L (IIWj,klloo

I
+ IIWk,jlloo) ~ ~ + 84 ~ ~.
128n2 129n 2
I~k~n
This concludes the proof of Carleson's Corona Theorem. o

It is clear that the Corona Theorem provides the exact conditions under which
the ideal I generated by iI, ... , In in HOO(D) coincides with the whole algebra.
A variation of this question is the following: how can we decide if a function
g E HOO(D) belongs to I? (Clearly this is only interesting if I is a proper
ideal.) We obtain a necessary condition in the same way as it was done in
Proposition 1.1.47. If gEl there are hi, ... , h n E HOO(D) such that
g = hI/I + ... + hnln,

so that for every ~ E D
Ig(~)1 ~ c L 1.fJ(~)I,
I~j~n
with C = max {lIhjll oo : I ~ j ~ n}.

It turns out that this condition is not sufficient for gEl, we can only prove
that g E ..(i, the radical of the ideal I. More precisely, g3 E I (see [Gam]).
A strengthening of this statement is the following theorem of Cegrell [CeI]: if
there is e > 0 and C > 0 such that
(~ ED)
then gEl.
The proof follows the same general lines of Theorem 1.1.48.
There are several natural ways of defining the spaces HP(Q), for Q a planar
domain [Fi]. Since we are interested in considering boundary values on JR of
holomorphic functions in the upper half-plane, the domain to consider is Q =
{z E C: Imz > OJ. In this case, we would like to define HP(Q) so that for
IE HP(Q) the boundary value f*(x) = I(x + iO) belongs to U(JR, dx). It
turns out that the correct definition is the following. For 0 < p < 00, we say
that 1 E Jf"(Q) belongs to HP(Q) if
IIfll p := sup
O<y<oo
(100 -00
I/(x + iy)iP dx
) lip
< 00.
For p = 00, we say 1 E HOO(Q) if

11/1100 = sup I/(z)1 < 00.
zeO
The theory of these spaces in the upper half-plane is entirely similar to that of
HP(D) (see [Hot], [Du], [Fi], [KoID. This would seem entirely obvious using
the Moebius transformation
f/J:~t--+-I-
.~ +1
~ -1
of D onto Q. In fact, for p "# 00, this map does not provide an isomorphism of
HP(Q) onto HP(D), as one would expect that
1 t--+- f/J* 1 = 1 0 f/J

should do. The reason is that the measures dx on R and dO on ']I' do not
correspond to each other, their exact relation is given by
1 1 1
-dO
21T
=- - - dx.
1T 1 + x 2
The precise correspondence between these spaces is given by

f/J* HP(Q) = (1 - ~)2/p HP(D),
where the right-hand side denotes the space of functions of the form
~ t--+- (1 _ ~)2Ip g(~), g E HP(D) (~E D).
Moreover,
(f/J-l)* HP(D) = (z + i)2lp HP(Q).
(See [Hof, pp. 129-130] for a detailed discussion.)
As a final remark on the choice of the definition of the H P spaces of the
upper half-plane, let us point out that the classical Paley-Wiener theorem (see
[PW], [DuD states that H2(Q) is isomorphic to the space L2(] - 00,0[, dt) via
1:
the Fourier transform. Namely, if F E L2(] - 00, O[dt), its Fourier transform F,
F(z) = F(t)e- izt dt,
is holomorphic in Q, in fact, F E H 2(Q). Moreover, every function in H2(Q)

is obtained this way. Denoting also by F the boundary value of F on the real
axis one has
_1_1-00
21T
00
F(x)eixt dx = {F(t)
0
for t < Oa.e.,
for t > 0 a.e.,
and
1 - 2 2
21T 11F1I2 = IIFIIU(]-oo,O[,dt)·
EXERCISES 1.1.
We keep the notation D = B(O, 1) and n = {z E C: 1m z > O} used in this section.
1. Show that if I = eg , g E .¥f(D), then

sup -
1 121f log I/(re i8 )1 dB < 00.
O<r<1 2n 0
Use this observation to show that the Nevanlinna condition
sup -
1 121f log+ I/(re i8 )ldB < 00
O<r<1 2n 0
is strictly stronger than the condition (*) in the proof of Proposition 1.1.39.
2. Show that the function 1/(1 - z) E HP(D) for any p < 1, and that it does not
belong to HI(D). Conclude that HP(D) :I Hq(D) if q :I p.
3. Show that if I E .¥f(D) and
I(D) ~ {w E IC: al < arg z < a2},

0< a2 - al ~ 2n, then I E HP(D) for p < n/(a2 - al).
4. Let I E HP(D), ({J E Aut(D). Is I o({J E HP(D)?
*5. Assume IE HI(D) is such that the set of all products of the form pi, p a
polynomial, is dense in HI (D). Show that I is an outer function.
6. Let I E HI(D), I(z) = L:n:::oanZ n. Show that limn-+ooan = O.

7. (a) Let I, F, w E .¥f(D). Assume Iw(z)1 ~ Izl and I = F ow. Show that II/rllp ~
II Fr lip, 0 0 and 1(0) 1. Let =
I(z) - 1 l+z
w(z) - .::......:..-'----
- I(z) + I
and F(z) = --.
l.-z
Show that F E HP(D), 0 < p < 1, I = F ow. Conclude that
21f dB
II/rll~ ~ 1o Ilm/(e i8 )IP-
2n
< 00, 0 < r < 1.
*(c) For harmonic we say that U E ~P(D), 0 < p < 1, if sUPO<r<1 lIurll p < 00. Let
U
U U is real valued), show that its harmonic conjugate v E ~P(D) for every
E ~~(D) (i.e.,
p < 1. (Hint: Use that the boundary values of u can be written as a difference of two
positive Radon measures on T.)
8. Let IE HI(D) and assume f* coincides a a.e. with a function of bounded variation
g. Show that
21f
1o e- in8 dg(B) = 0, n < O.
Conclude that I E A(D).

9. Let f E HI (D).
(a) Show that if 11f E HI(D), then f is an outer function.
(b) Show that if Re f > 0, then f is an outer function.
(c) Show that if f is an inner function, then 1 + f is an outer function.
10. Verify the following two statements used in the proof of Proposition 1.1.45:
(a) Let B be a Blaschke product with zeros (an)n?:1 in D. Denote by A the set
of accumulation points of the set {an: n ~ I}, A ~ T, and fJn = 1/an • Show that B E
Jt'(C\(A U (fJn: n ~ I}).
(b) Let S be a singUlar inner function defined by a measure 11-. ~ 0 in T. Let K =
supp 11-•• Show that S E Jt'(C\K).
11. (a) Let f E Hoo(D) and IIflloo:5 1. Show that f = cB, where Icl = 1 and B is
the Blaschke product, if and only if
lim
r ... l- 10{21r log If(re
i8 )ld8 = O.
*(b) (Frostman's Theorem). Let f be an inner function neither constant nor a finite
Blaschke product. Show that the functions
f(z) - a
go(z) := 1 - iif(z)
are inner functions for any a E D. Moreover, with the exception of a E E ~ D, with
capacity C(E) = 0, every go is an infinite Blaschke product (up to a multiplicative
constant of absolute value 1).
(Hint: If C(E) > 0, we can assume E that is a compact subset of D, let v E 'P(E) be
the equilibrium measure, and consider
u(z) = (log 11 - ~z Idv(s).

1E z-s
Show it is bounded, continuous near T, and u = 0 on T. Compute lim, ... 1- Io21r u(f (re i9 ) )d8
to arrive at a contradiction.)
(c) If f is as in (b), then C(D\f(D)) = O.
(d) Show that any function as in (b) is the limit of a sequence of Blaschke products.
*12. (i) Let 1/1 E Loo([O, 2nD and let (cn)neZ be its Fourier coefficients. Let p(8) =
EO:<:n:<:N Xn ein8 . Show that
10:<:~N Ci+kXiXkl = i2~ 121r (P(8))21/1(8) d8 i :5 111/11100 ~ Ixd.

Conclude that for any Xk, Yk E C, 0 :5 k :5 N, then
10:<:~N Ci+kXiYkl :5 111/11100 (t IXkI2) 1/2 (t IYkI 2) 1/2

(use the polarization of bilinear forms).
=
(ii) Choose 1/1(8) ie- i8 (n - 8) to obtain
(iii) Let 1/1 E L 00 ([0, 2n]) be such that its Fourier coefficients en 2: 0 whenever n 2: o.
Let f E H'(D), fez) = Ln~oanzn. Show that
2:>nl anl:::: 111/I1i001Ifll,.

n~O
(Hint: Factorize f = gh, g, h E H 2 (D), Ilfll, = IIgll~ = Ilhll~, g(z) = Ln>oXnzn, h(z) =
Ln>o Yn zn , and use (i).) -
(tv) (Hardy's Inequality). Let f E H' (D), fez) = Ln~o anz n. Show that
E nl~ll :::: nllfll,·

n~O
*13. Recall that if f E A(D), the space of functions continuous in D and holomorphic
in D, then {.;- E-'lI': f(';-) = o} is a closed set of zero a-measure. This exercise shows that
any closed subset E of'lI' with aCe) = 0 is the set of zeros of a function f in A(D).
(i) Show that there is a function u: 'lI'\E -+ lR of class e', u 2: 1, u E L'('lI'), and
u(z) -+ 00 as z tends to any point in E.
(ii) Let
rp(z) := -
1 12rr eif + z .
-.--u(e'f ) dt, zED.
2n 0 elf-z
Show that rp E .1f(D) and has a continuous extension to D\E. Show that Rerp(z) -+ +00
if z E D\E tends to a point in E. Show that Re rp(z) 2: 1 in D\E.
(iii) Show that fez) := l/rp(z) is holomorphic in D, has a continuous extension to D,
vanishing on E, and Re fez) > 0 on D\E.
*14. (i) Let f E ek(D) n .1f(D), k 2: 1. Assume fez) # 0 in D. Let E be the set of
zeros of f. Write 'lI'\E as a disjoint union of open intervals of endpoints e ion and eibn ,
bn - an = In > 0, n 2: 1. Let M be a constant such that If(e iO ) - f(e i 9') I :::: MIO - rpl.
1 E lbn 10g[M(O -
Show that
21T
-00 < log If(eio)1 dO :::: an)]dO.
o n~l an
Conclude that Ln>' In logIn> -00.

(ii) Let E be a -closed set in 'lI', aCe) = 0, 'lI'\E is the union of arcs with endpoints
e ion , eibn , bn - an = In > O. Assume Ln>' In log In > -00. Fix k E N*. Let KEN and
consider the function u defined in 'lI'\E by
u(t) = log[(bn - t)(t - an)t, t E ]a n , bn [, n 2: 1.
Show that u E L' ('lI') and that, if K » 1, the function
fez) := exp (_~

2n Jo
r 21T if
e + z U(t)dt)
e'f - z
is holomorphic in D, continuous in D, its boundary values are of class e k on 'lI'\E, and
f vanishes exactly on E. Furthermore, for eiO E 'lI'\E, one has f(e iO ) = e-u(O). Use this
to show that for eiOo E E one has
lim f(j)(z) = 0,
z~ei80
zED\E
Hence E is the set of common zeros in D of f, f', ... , f(k). (See [Chol] for references
to these last two problems and generalizations.)
15. Let (Zn)n~i be a sequence of distinct points in the upper half-plane 0, Zn i= i for
all n ::: 1. Assume that
~ Imzn
~--..,.<oo.
n~i 1 + IZnl 2
Show that for m ::: 0
b(z)= ( -z -i) m II -
Iz; + 11
---
Z - Zn
Z+i n~i z~ +I Z - zn
is a function in H""(O), Ib(x)1 = 1 a.e. on JR. (These are the Blaschke products in 0).
16. Let rp(z) be a Moebius map in 0, rp(z) = (az + b)/(ez + d), a, b, e, d E JR,
ad - be = 1. Show that the map
1
(Tf)(z) = --dl(rp(z»
ez+
(z E 0)
is an isomorphism of H2(0) onto itself such that IITllb = II/lb (Le., it is a unitary
map). Is there a corresponding statement for HP(O), 0 < p < oo? What about H2(D)?
17. Let 1 E HP(O) for some p, 0 < p ~ 00. Assume there is a rational function g
such that I(x + iO) = g(x - iO) a.e. on some open nonempty segment of the real axis.
What can you say about the location and multiplicity of the poles of g? What can you
say about the number of zeros of g? Does the answer depend on p? What happens when
o is replaced by D?
18. (a) Let G E .tf(D) n Li(D, dm), g E C(11'), be related to G by the fact that for
every {3 E C""(C) one has
rGa~dZ/\dz=l
JD az aD
g{3dz.
Show that G is continuous in D and GI11' = g. (Hint: Consider the restriction G r of G to

the circles aDr, Dr = {z: Izl ~ r}, 0 < r < 1, and prove the measures Gr dO converge
weakly to the measure gdB. Use the Banach-Steinhaus theorem to conclude that G E
Hi(D). Finally, show that this implies G E C(D) and GI11' = g. (Note, an alternative
way is to compute the Fourier series of g and apply the theorems of this section.)
(b) Show that the hypothesis G E .tf(D) is not necessary. Obtain the same conclusion.
1.2. Hyperfunctions
Let Q be an open nonempty subset of the real line R We are going to intro-
duce a complex vector space 8(Q) containing as a subspace the space V' (Q) of
distributions in Q. This space 8(Q) will be called the space of hyperfunctions in
Q. As we have shown in [BG, §3.6], every distribution in Q can be obtained as
the boundary values of a pair of functions holomorphic above and below the real
axis, respectively. These holomorphic functions have to satisfy precise growth
conditions. What we are going to do is to generalize the concept of boundary
values to any pair of holomorphic functions, without any growth conditions
whatsoever. In a certain sense, the space 8(Q) is the largest conceivable space
where the usual operations of the differential calculus make sense. Some refer-
ences for this section and further developments of the theory of hyperfunctions
are [Schap], [Mor 3], [Kan].
In the rest of this section, Q will always denote a nonempty open subset of
JR, JR is identified as usual to the real axis of C. We denote C# := C\JR and
- #
Q=C UQ.
n is an open subset of C such that Q = n
n R Let us denote by U(Q) the
family of all open sets V in C such that V n JR = Q. Note that Q is necessarily
closed in every V E U(Q). Finally, if VI, V2 are open subsets of C such that
VI ~ V2, we denote by R V,,v2 the restriction map ~(V2) ~ ~(VI)'
1.2.1. Definition. The complex vector space defined as the quotient

B(Q) := ~(C#)/ Rc.,n(~(n))
is called the space of hyperfunctions in Q. A hyperfunction in Q is an element
of B(Q).
1.2.2. Proposition. For every V E U(Q), the natural map

iv
B(Q) ~~(V\Q)/ RvW.,v(~(V)),
which assigns to the class T E B(Q) 01 the element I E ~(C#), the class TI 01
II(V n C#) in the quotient space ~(V\Q)/ RV\Sl,v(~(V)), is an isomorphism
01 complex spaces.
Proof. The map i v is well defined since it is induced by the restriction map
Rvnc',c#, which is compatible with the equivalence relations. In fact, if /J, h E
~(C#) and II - h = gIC#, with g E ~(n), then (fIlV n C#) - (hJV n C#) =
(gJV)JV n C# and gJV E ~(V). It is clear that iv is a linear map.
The map iv is injective: Let T E B(Q) be the class of I E ~(C#) and satisfy
iv(T) = O. This means that IJV n C# admits an analytic continuation to the
whole of V, i.e., across Q. It is clear that this implies the I admits an analytic
continuation to n, hence T = O.
The map iv is surjective. Let g E ~(V\Q). Since V\Q = C# n V, by the
Mittag-Leffler theorem (see [BG, §1.2.2]), there are functions I E ~(C#) and
h E ~(V) such that
g = (fIC# n V) - (hIC# n V).
This implies that the class of IIC# n V in ~(V\Q)/ RV\Sl, v(~(V)) is the same
as the class of g. 0
By the preceding proposition for any V E U(Q) and any g E ~(V\Q), the
image under iy-I of the class of g in ~(V\Q)/ RV\Sl,v(~(V)) is a hyperfunction
in Q called the hyperfunction associated to g. Moreover, every hyperfunction
in Q is associated to a unique g E ~(V\Q). We say g represents this hyper-
function.
1.2.3. Proposition. For VI, V2 E U(Q), the hyperfunctions associated to

gl E ~(VI \Q) and g2 E ~(V2\Q) coincide if and only if the function
(gl IVI n V2 n C#) - (g2IVI n V2 n C#) has an analytic continuation across Q.
In particular, if T E B(Q) is the class of f E ~(C#) and V E U(Q), then
g E ~(V\Q) represents T if and only if there is h E ~(V) such that flV n
C# = (glV n C#) + (hlV n C#).
Proof. By Proposition 1.2.2, there are /J, 12 E ~(C#) and hj E ~(Vj) such
that
and
h=g2+ h2 0nV2\Q.
The condition is necessary. If there is h E ~(n) such that II = 12 + h on C#,
we obtain
and the function h2 - hi + h E ~(VI n V2).

The condition is sufficient. If (II - h) - (h I - h 2 ) admits an analytic contin-
uation to VI n V2, then II - 12 also admits an analytic continuation to VI n V2,
hence to n. 0
1.2.4. Examples.
(1) Let C+ ={z E C: Imz > OJ, C- =
{z E C: Imz < OJ, we denote by 1~
and 1; the hyperfunctions in Q associated, respectively, to the characteristic
functions Xc+ and Xc' One has
1~ = -1;.
In fact, Xc+ + Xc- = Xc' represents 1~ plus 1;, but, by Proposition 1.2.3, the
class of Xc' is zero.
(2) If T E B(Q) is represented by f E ~(V\Q), we denote by T the hyper-
function in Q which is associated to z 1-+ - f(z) E ~(V\Q), V = {z: Z E V}.
We say that T is the conjugate of T. It is clear that T = T, and that for any
scalars AI, A2 and hyperfunctions TJ, T2 we have
Al TI + A2T2 = ~I TI + ~d2'
=
One says that T is a real hyperfunction if T T. The real part of T is
Re T := !(T + T) and the imaginary part is 1m T: Oj2i)(T - T). It is easy
to see that Re T and 1m T are real hyperfunctions.
A hyperfunction is real if and only if there is f E ~(C#) representing it such
that f(z) = - f(z) for every z E C#.
(3) For every T E B(Q) represented by f E ~(V\Q), V E U(Q), we can
decompose T as
T = T+ + T-,
where T+ is associated to f+ = Xc+nv . f, and T- is associated to f- =
Xc-nv . f·
Note that when h E Jt'(V), V E U(Q), and T E 8(Q), it makes sense to

multiply T by h, namely, if IE Jt'(V\Q) represents T, then hT = Th is asso-
ciated to hi. Since h E Jt'(V), this is well defined. In particular, for h E Jt'(V),
the hyperfunction 1~ . h makes sense, this is precisely the hyperfunction asso-
ciated to the function Xc+nvh E Jf(V\Q). Similarly, In . h makes sense and
1~. h = -I n·h
by Example (1). It is also clear that if hI, h2 E Jt'(V), then (hi + h 2)T =
h I T+h 2T.
1.2.S. Proposition. For a hyperfunction T E 8(Q) the lollowing conditions are

equivalent:
(i) There are V E U(Q) and I E Jt'(V) such that T = 1~ . I.

(ii) There are V E U(Q) and g E Jf(V) such that T = In . g.
(iii) There are VI, V2 E U(Q), II E Jf(VI ), and Iz E Jf(V2) such that
= 1~ . II + In . fz.
T
Proof. (i) ~ (iii) Take VI = V2 = V, II = I, Iz = O.
(iii) ~ (i) Take V = VI n V2, I = (/11 V) - (/21 V). Then clearly 1~ . II =
1~. (IIIV) and In . Iz = In' (1zIV). Thus
T = 1~. (/11 V) + In' (1z1V) = [1~. (II IV)] - [1~. (/21V)] = 1~ . I,

by the previous Example 1.2.4(3).
(ii) <=> (i) Just take I = -g. D
1.2.6. Definition. A hyperfunction satisfying one of the equivalent conditions

of Proposition 1.2.5 is called a holomorphic hyperfunction.
For the following proposition we need to recall that for any complex-valued
real analytic function qJ in Q there is an open set V E U(Q) and a holomorphic
function ell E Jf(V) such that elllQ = qJ. In fact, to say that qJ is real analytic
means that for every Xo E Q one can represent qJ by its Taylor series in an open
intervallxo containing Xo, lxo 5; Q,
=L -;--.
00 1 d j .
qJ(x) qJ(xo)(x - XO)l.
j=O J! dXl
That is, this series has a positive radius of convergence bigger or equal to r(xo),
where (xo - r(xo) , Xo + r(xo}} = lxo' The series
~ qJ(j) (xo) .
L....J ., (z - XO)l
j=O J.
clearly represents a holomorphic function in 8(xo, r(xo)} whose restriction to
lxo coincides with qJ. This way we can define a holomorphic function ell in
v = UXQEn13(xo, r(xo» such that <pIQ = cp and V E U(Q). We say <t> is an

extension of cpo We denote by A(Q) the space of complex-valued real analytic
functions in Q.
1.2.7. Proposition. There is a canonical injection in: A(Q) -+ 13(Q), which

allows us to consider 13(Q) as an A(Q)-module. The image of in is the family
of holomorphic hyperfunctions.
If cp E A(Q), then in(CP) is represented by Xc+nn . <P, where <P is a holomor-
phic function extending cp to V E U(Q).
Ifcp E A(Q) and T E 13(Q) is represented by f E Jf(V\Q), where V E U(Q)
is an open set for which there is an extension <P E Jf(V) of cp, then cpT is the
hyperfunction associated to (<pfl(V\Q».
Proof. In part this was done in Example 1.2.4(3).

It is easy to verify that in is well defined. In fact, in (cp) = 1~ . <P. If in (cp) = 0,
it means that Xc+nn . <P admits an analytic continuation across Q. Hence <P = °
and cp = 0.
Assume T is represented by /j E Jf(V; \Q), cp has extensions <Pj E Jf(Vj ),
and VI, V2 E U(Q). We can suppose that VI = V2 = V and that it is connected,
in order to show that the hyperfunctions associated to (<pd(V1 \Q»/J and
(<p21(V2\Q»fz coincide. It follows that <PI = <P2 in V, hence we can
suppress the indices. By hypothesis, there is h E Jf(V) such that h is the
analytic continuation across Q of /J - fz. Therefore, we have (<pI(V\Q»fl -
(<pI(V\Q»fz = (<pI(V\Q»(f1 - fz) which can be analytically continued to
<Ph across Q. This proves that the product is well defined.
The fact that, with this definition of the product, 13(Q) is an A(Q)-module is
immediate. 0
Let us now see how to differentiate hyperfunctions.
1.2.8. Definition. Let T E 13(Q) be represented by f E Jf(V\Q) and V E

U(Q). We define the pth derivative of T to be the hyperfunction DPT =
T(p) E 13(Q) associated to the function f(p) = d Pf /dz P E Jf(V\Q).
One can verify without difficulty that T(p) is independent of the representative
taken. The maps DP: 13(Q) -+ 13(Q) are linear and they leave A(Q) invariant.
Furthermore, for cp E A(Q), DPcp is the usual derivative.
1.2.9. Definition. A differential operator of order m in Q is a linear operator

L: 13(Q) -+ 13(Q) of the form
1.2.10. Remarks.
(1) One has that for cp E A(Q) and T E B(Q),
DP(cpT) = L (~)DjCP' Dp-jT.

O~j~p ]
(The proof is left as an exercise to the reader.)
(2) Let Q be an open interval of R A hyperfunction T E B(Q) is holomorphic
and defined by a polynomial of degree::: p if and only if DP+I T = O.
The condition is clearly necessary. Conversely, if DP+ IT = 0, there is f E
JIt'(C#) such that f represents T and f(P+I) represents 0 in B(Q). Since Q
is simply connected and f(P+I) has an analytic continuation to Q, there is
a function g E JIt'(Q) such that g(p+l) = f(p+l) in C#. Hence (f _ g)(p+l) =
o in C#, which implies there are polynomials P+, P_ of degree ::: p such
that f - g = P+ in C+ and f - g = P_ in C-. So that T = P+l~ + P_I Q =
(P+ - P_)I~. It is clear that the polynomial P+ - P_ represents T, hence T is
holomorphic and represented by a polynomial of degree::: p.
(3) A pth order primitive of T E B(Q) is a hyperfunction S E B(Q) such
that S(p) = T.
If Q is an interval, every hyperfunction admits primitives of all orders and
two pth order primitives differ by a hyperfunction represented by a polynomial
of degree::: p - 1. In fact, if f E JIt'(C#) represents T, then f admits pth order
primitives in C+ and C- since both are simply-connected domains.
We are now going to construct the sheaf of hyperfunctions in JR, it will be a

flabby sheaf. (The reader may consult [Bre] for questions in sheaf theory.)
1.2.11. Definition. Let Q I ~ Q 2 be two nonempty subsets of R Let T E B(Q2)

be represented by f E JIt'(V2\Q2), where V2 E U(Q2). The restriction of T to
QI, denoted Rn,.n2(T) or TIQI, is the hyperfunction in B(QI) associated to
fl«V1 n V2)\Q), for any VI E U(Q2).
One can easily verify that TIQ I does not depend on the choice of V2 , f, or
VI. It is also clear that Rn"n 2 is a linear map: B(Q 2) -+ B(Qd.
We set B(¢) = 0 and R</>,n = 0 for every Q.
1.2.12. Proposition. Let Qj, Q 2 be two non empty open subsets ofR Then:
(1) R n "n 2 is surjective.
(2) 1~21QI = 1~, and In21Q I = In,·
(3) The map R n "n 2 commutes with conjugation, with taking real or imaginary
parts, with multiplication by real analytic functions, and with differentiation
operators. The map Rn"n2 preserves the class of holomorphic hyper/unc-
tions.
(4) If Q I ~ Q 2 ~ Q3, then
Proof. We only show that Ro 1 ,o2 is surjective leaving the rest of the proof as
an exercise. Every T E B(QI) has a representative f E Jr(C#), to which one
can associate S E B(Q2). Clearly Ro h o2(S) = T. 0
The family B(Q), for Q open subset of JR, and the maps Ro 1 ,o2 determine a
presheaf on JR, this presheaf BJR. is called the (pre)sheaf of hyperfunctions.
1.2.13. Proposition. The presheaf BJR. is a flabby sheaf

Proof. Let Q be a nonempty open subset of JR and let (Qj)jEJ be an open
=
covering of Q. Let T E B(Q) be such that TIQj 0 for every j. We want
to show that T = O. Let f E Jr(C#) be a representative of T. The hypothesis
TIQ j = 0 means that there exists hj E Jr(C# U Q j ) such that hj is the analytic
continuation of f across Q j • Clearly f has an analytic continuation to C# U Q,
i.e., T = O.
Let us now show that BJR. satisfies the second axiom of sheaves, which in this
case means that hyperfunctions can be defined locally.
1.2.14. Lemma. Let (Qj)jEJ bean open covering ofa nonemptyopen set Q ~ JR.
Let Tj E B(Qj), j E J, be a collection of hypeifunctions such that for every i, j
with Q; n Q j :f:. 0 we have
T;IQ; n Qj = TjIQ; n Qj .
Then there is a unique T E B(Q) such that TIQj = Tj for every j E J.
Proof. For every j let /j E Jr(C#) be a function representing Tj. Recall that
Qj = C# U Qj . For every i, j such that Q; n Qj :f:. 0 we have that gjj f; - =
/j admits an analytic continuation to a function, still denoted gij, which is
holomorphic in C# U (Q; n Qj) = OJ n OJ. If OJ n OJ n Ok :f:. 0, it is clear that
gij + gjk + gkj = 0 in C#, hence in Q; n Q j n Qk, since all three functions are
holomorphic in that intersection. By the Mittag-Leffler Theorem [BG, Theorem
1.2.23] there are gj E Jr(Qj), j E J, such that
Hence all the functions f; + g; coincide with a single function f E Jr(C#).

This function f determines aTE B(Q) such that TIQj is represented by /j,
since gj is holomorphic in Qj . That is, TIQj = Tj. The uniqueness of T follows
from the reasoning at the beginning of the proof of Proposition 1.2.13. 0
This concludes the proof of the proposition, since we already know that the
restriction operators are surjective, which is the last point we need to verify that
BJR. is a flabby sheaf. 0
In the same way that we can talk about the support of a distribution, we can
define the support of a hyperfunction.
1.2.15. Proposition. Let T E B(Q) and let (Qi)iEI be a family of open subsets
ofQ such that TIQ i = 0, then TI(Ui Qi) = O.
Proof. Let Q' = Ui Qi, T' = TIQ'. Then (Qi)iEI is an open covering of Q' and
T'lQ i = 0, by the previous proposition T' = O. 0
1.2.16. Definition. Let T E B(Q), then the support of T in Q, sUPPn T, or

simply supp T, is the complement in Q of the largest open set U £; Q such that
TIU =0.
For F a closed subset of Q, one denotes by BF(Q) the family of all hyper-
functions T in Q with supp T £; F. The previous proposition shows that this is
a well-defined concept.
The following properties of the support of a hyperfunction are easy to verify:
(1) supp( E A/Fj) £; U supp 1} (1) E B(Q), Aj E C, 1::: j ::: n).
l~j~n l~j~n
(2) sUPPn, (TIQ1) = (suPPn2 T) n Q l (T E B(Q2), Q l £; Q2).

(3) If Q is an interval in ~ and T E B(Q) is zero in a neighborhood of Xo E Q,
then, for every p E N*, there is a unique pth primitive of T in B(Q) that
vanishes in a neighborhood of Xo.
1.2.17. Proposition. Let Q be a nonempty open subset of~ and let (Fj)j"~l be
a locally finite sequence of nonempty relatively closed subsets of Q such that
Uj:'::l Fj = Q. Let T be a hyperfunction in Q. Then there is a sequence (1})j~1
of elements of B(Q) such that supp 1} S; Fj for every j and, such that for every
Q' open, Q' cc Q, there is an integer n = n(Q') so that
TIQ' = L (1}IQ').
l~j~n
Proof. Let f E df(C#) be a representative of T. Set Fl,l = Fl and, for j 2: 2,

Flj = Fj\FI n Q.
The sequence (Flj)j~1 is a locally finite family of relatively closed subsets of
Q and f is a holomorphic function in the intersection of the two open sets
VI = Q\FJ,J, and V{ = Q\(Uj~2 Flj ). Namely, in C#. By the Mittag-Leffler
Theorem, there exist It E df(VI) and gl E df(V{) such that
I = II + gl in C#.
Let TI be the hyperfunction in Q associated to It IC#. Then supp Tl £; Fl.
To define the 1} we proceed by induction. Let k E N*, assume we have
already found a locally finite family of relatively closed subsets Fi,j of Q,
1 ::: i ::: k, j 2: i, and functions Ii E df(Vi), gi E df(V/), with V; = Q\Fi,i,
V;' = Q\(Uj~i+1 Fi,j), such that
I = 11 + ... + !; + gj in C#.
Furthermore, Fi,j ~ F;. We let 1j E B(O) be the hyperfunction associated to

JjIC#. Now, let
Fk+I.k+1 := Fk,k+1
and
j ::: k + 2.
Clearly, the sets Fk+I,j(j ::: k + 1) form a locally finite family of relatively
closed subsets of O. Furthermore, the function gk is holomorphic in Vic, but as
Vic = Vk+1 n VIc+I'
where Vk+1 = Q\Fk+I,k+1 and VIc+1 = Q\(Uj:~k+1 Fk+I,j) are open subsets of
C, we can apply again the Mittag-Leffler Theorem and obtain
gk = fk+1 + gk+1 in V;'
Hence
f = fl + ... + fk+1 + gk+1 in C#.
If Tk+1 is the hyperfunction in 0 associated to fk+IIC#, it is clear that
supp Tk+1 ~ Fk+I,k+1 = Fk+I'
If 0' is a relatively compact open subset of 0, then there is a positive integer
n = n(O') such that Fj n Q' = 0 whenever j ::: n(O'). Therefore, gn is holo-
morphic in C# U 0' and so
TIO' = L (1j10'). o
I~j~n
1.2. IS. Proposition. Let Q be a nonempty open subset ofR and let (Fj)j"~1 be a
locally finite covering of Q by nonempty relatively closed sets. Let 1j E B(Q) be
such that supp 1j ~ Fj for every j. Then, there exists a hyper/unction T E B(Q)
such that for every relatively compact open subset Q' of Q there is an integer
n = n (Q') satisfying
TIQ' = (1jIQ') L
and
1jIQ' = 0 for every j > n.
Proof. We can write Q = Uj:::1 lj, where the lj are pairwise disjoint open inter-
vals in lR. Construct an increasing exhaustion (Kn)n:::1 of Q by compact sets as
follows:
( l)I~J~n
{x E lj: d(x,lj) ::: ~}) n [-n, nJ.
Let
and for I ::: 2,

E/ := {n E N*: Fn n K/ =j:. 0}\(E I U··· U E/_I).
The sets E/, I ::: 1, are finite by the hypotheses.
Let V = {z E C: Re Z E Q} = Q + iJR, the strip of base Q. We need the very

important and elementary lemma:
1.2.19. Lemma. Let Q be a nonempty open subset of JR, let F be a nonempty

relatively closed subset of Q, V E U(Q), and let T be a hyperfunction in Q
with supp T £; F. Then, every holomorphic function f E ~(V\Q) representing
T has an analytic continuation to V\F.
Proof. Since TI(Q\F) = 0, there is also a function h E ~(V\F) representing
T, therefore f - h E ~(V), which shows that f has an analytic continuation
to V\F. 0
From the lemma we conclude that if fn E ~(V\Q) represents the hyperfunc-

tion Tn, then fn has an analytic continuation to V\Fn. in
We define a sequence of holomorphic functions in V\Q as follows:
(i) gl := LnEEl in E ~(V\Q).

(ii) g2 := LnEE2 in E ~(V\Q). _ 0
(iii) For I :::: 3, the function LnEE/ fn belongs to ~«V\Q) U KI_ 1).
Applying Runge's Theorem [BG, Theorem 3.1.1] to V and the compact
subset K[ = KI-2 + i[ -I, I], we find a function hi E ~(V) such that
(2: In) -
Let now
gl := hi E ~«V\Q) U KI_I).
nEE/
It is easy to see that the series
converges uniformly in every compact subset of V\Q, hence g E ~(V\Q). Let

T be the hyperfunction in Q associated to g.
If Q' is a relatively compact open subset of Q, there is an integer no = no(Q')
such that Fn n Q' = 0 for all n > no. Th~refore Q' £; UI~j~nFj. Let nl = nl (Q')
be smallest integer:::: 3 such that Q' £; Kn, and {I, ... , no} £; EI U··· U En, =
En, .
In V\Q we have the identity
g- L fk = L gl - L hi + L it.
no~/EEnl
The first term is holomorphic in (V \ Q) U Kn" the second in V, and the third
in (V\Q) U Q'. From this it follows that
TIQ' = L (TkI Q')·
I~k~no
Furthennore, by the choice of no, Tk 10' = 0 for any k > no. This concludes the
proof of Proposition 1.2.18. 0
In [BG, Lemma §3.6.18] it has been shown that any T E e'(lR) (i.e., a distri-
bution T with compact support) can be obtained from the boundary values of
its Cauchy transfonn T, T = l/rrz T. Namely, *
1
= - 2i [T(x + iO) -
A A
T T(x - iO)].
We are now going to obtain similar results for hyperfunctions with compact
support.
1.2.20. Definition. Let T E 8(0) be a hyperfunction with compact support. If

V E U(O) and f E JtI'(V\ supp T) represents T, and if y is a cycle, which is
the union of disjoint Jordan curves in V\ supp T, oriented so that the index of
y with respect to every point in supp T is 1, we denote by T(x) dx, the In
integral of T, the value of the integral
It is easy to verify the independence of In

T(x)dx from the choice of V, f,
and y. If V is connected we can take y to be a Jordan curve.
1.2.21. Proposition. Let 0 be a nonempty open subset ofR and let T E 8(0)
have compact support. The function T defined in C# by
All
T(z) = -
rr
T(x)
--dx,
nZ-X
z E C#,
is holomorphic in C# and has an analytic continuation to C\ supp T. Moreover,

T(oo) = limz->oo T(z) = 0 and T represents -2iT. It is the only representative
of -2iT with these properties.
Proof. Let f E JtI'(Q\supp(T» be such that flC# represents T. For every z E
C# we have
t ~ f(t) E JtI'(C#\{z}),
t-z
and this function is a representative of the hyperfunction Tz := O/(t - z»T,
the product of T by the real analytic function t ~ (t - z)-l.
For z E C\ supp T, the function
T(z) =~
rr
r T(t)t dt = _~rr inr Tz(t)dt = ~rr iyr tf(t)
in z - - z
dt
makes sense and it does not depend on the choice of the cycle y in Q\ supp T
of index 1 with respect to every point in supp T and index 0 with respect to z. It
is easy to verify that T is holomorphic in C\ supp T and has the value 0 at 00.
Let us show that flc# represents -2iT. It is enough to show that the function
-(1/2i)T - f has an analytic continuation across suppT. Then -(l/2i)T - f
would be entire and represent the zero hyperfunction. Let y be a cycle in
Q\ supp T with index 1 with respect to every point of supp T. Let Int(y) denote
the union of Int(Yj) for the components of y. We claim that for any z E Int(y) n
r
C# one has
-~T(z) - fez) = __1_. f(t) dt.
21 211: 1 JY t - z
If the claim were true, then -(l/2i)T - f would have an analytic continuation
to the Int(y). To verify the claim, let Yl be another cycle in Q\ supp T with
Yl ~ Int(y), and such that the index of Yl with respect to supp T is 1 and with
respect to z is zero. By Cauchy's formula we have
fez) = _1_. r f(t) dt = ~ r
f(t) dt __1_. r
f(t) dt
2m JY - Y1 t - Z 211:1 Jy t - z 2m JY1 t - z
= _1_.
211: 1
r f(t) dt _
JY t - Z
~T(z),
21
which proves the claim. As a consequence, T has an analytic continuation to

C\ supp T. If there were another g E .;f(C\ supp T), g(oo) = 0, and such that
glC# represents T, then g - (l/2i)T can be continued across supp T, hence it
is entire and vanishes at 00. Liouville's theorem shows now that g = -(l/2i)T.
o
Let Q be a nonempty open subset of R V E U(Q), and W = V n C*. Recall
from [BG, §3.6.11] that a function f E .;f(W) is said to be of slow growth (or
tempered) if for every compact K ~ Q there are constants A, B, C > 0 such
that for all z E W such that Rez E K, 0 < I Imzl < A, one has
If(z)1 :::: BI Imzl- c .
For such a function f the limits
b±(f)(x) = lim f(x + is)
£40±
exist in the sense of distributions in V' (Q) and one can define its boundary
value b(f) = b+(f) - b-(f). Conversely, any element T E V'(Q) is of the
form T = b(f) for some holomorphic function of slow growth in Q (i.e., of
slow growth in some open set W as above) (see [BG, Theorem 3.6.19]).
These theorems can be translated in the language hyperfunctions into the
following proposition:
1.2.22. Proposition. For every nonempty open subset Q ~ JR, there is a canon-
ical injection of the space V'(Q) of distributions in Q into B(Q). The image
of V' (Q) under this injection is the subspace of B(Q) of classes of holomor-
phic functions of slow growth at the points of Q. This injection commutes with
restrictions.
Proof. Choose a partition of the unity (an)n~1 in Q, an E 1)(Q). Let T E 1)' (Q).
Then for every n ::: 1, the function
(anT) (z) = -1 \ Tt ,an(t))

A
--
7r Z - t
is holomorphic in C\ supp(anT) and zero at 00. The function (i/2)(a n TnC#

determines a hyperfunction Sn in Q with compact support, supp Sn 5;
supp(anT) 5; suppan. By Proposition 1.2.18 there is a hyperfunction S E 8(Q)
such that for every open set Q', relatively compact in Q, there exists an integer
n = n(Q') E N* for which we have
SIQ' = L (Sj IQ')

I~j:sn
and
if j > n.
Note that in view of the second condition, we might as well have written SIQ' =
Lj~I(SjIQ').
We want to see that S is independent of the choice of partition of unity. Let
(f3n)n~1be another Coo partition of unity in Q. The same procedure allows us to
construct a hyperfunction S in Q. To prove that S = S, it is enough to show that
for every Q' open and relatively compact subset of Q, we have SIQ' = SIQ'.
We know there is n I E N* such that
SIQ' = L (SjIQ'), SIQ = L (SjIQ'),
I~j~nl I~j~nl
and SjlQ' = SjlQ' = 0 for all j > nl. The Sj are the hyperfunctions in Q asso-
ciated to (i /2)(f3j Tf. We can also assume that Q' n supp aj = Q' n supp f3j = 0
if j > ni.
The distribution LI~j~nl (aj T - f3j T) has compact support contained in
Q\Q'. Hence, its Cauchy transform LI~j~nl «aj Tf - (f3j Tn is holomorphic
in C# U Q'. This proves that SIQ' = SIQ'. Therefore, the map T f-+ S is a well-
defined map from 1)' (Q) into 8(Q). The linearity now follows immediately
from the above construction.
To prove the injectivity it is enough to show that supp T 5; supp S.
In fact, if Q' is a relatively compact open subset of Q\ supp T, there is a Coo
partition of unity (an)n~1 in Q such that al == I in a neighborhood of Q' and
al ;: 0 in a neighborhood of supp T. The first condition on al implies that SIQ'
is the hyperfunction associated to the holomorphic function
~/ Tt , al(t)) , Z E C#.
27r1 \ t - Z
But this function is entire (and, in fact, identically zero) by the second condition
on al. Hence S IQ' = O. It follows that supp T 5; supp S.
Finally, we want to show that the map T f-+ S from distributions to hyper-
functions commutes with restrictions. Let Q' 5; Q be two open subsets of IR
and T E V' (Q). Let S be the hyperfunction in Q corresponding to T obtained

previously, and let S' be the hyperfunction in Q' obtained from TIQ' E V'(Q').
We need to prove that
SIQ'=S'.
It is enough to show that for every Q" open and relatively compact subset of
Q' one has
SIQ" = (SIQ')IQ" = S'IQ"·
For that purpose, let (aDk~' be a Coo partition of unity in Q' such that ai := 1 in
a neighborhood of Q", and let (akh~, be a Coo partition of unity in Q such that
a, = ai. Then SIQ' is represented by the function (1/2rri)(Tt, a,(t)/(t - z»),
which is holomorphic in C#\ suppa,. On the other hand, S'IQ" is represented by
(1/2rri)(T,IQ', a,(t)/(t - z»), which coincides with the previous one because
suppa, cc Q'. Since the definition of the map T f-* S is independent of the
choice of partition of unity, this argument proves the restriction property. 0
The only thing left to prove in Proposition 1.2.22 is the fact that the image of
V' (Q) can be identified to the classes of holomorphic functions of slow growth.
This is the statement of the following Proposition 1.2.23:
1.2.23. Proposition. Let Q be a nonempty open subset ofR, T E V'(Q). Then

there is f oIf(C#) of slow growth in Q such that b(f)
E = T, that is, for every
rp E V(Q) one has
(T, rp) = (b(f), rp) = elim r (f(x + is) -

.... O}fI.
f(x - is»rp(x) dx.
Furthermore, V'(Q) can be identified to oIfb,fI.(C#)/oIf(Q.), where oIfb,fI.(C#)

is the space of all functions f E oIf(C#) of slow growth in Q.
Proof. This is an easy generalization of Theorems 3.6.19 and 3.6.24 in [BG].
All one does is replace in [BG, Theorem 3.6.19] the intervals [an, b n], n ~ 1,
by an exhaustion (Kn)n~' of Q by compact sets. 0
1.2.24. Examples.
(1) Given a E R, the function -1/[2rri(z - a)], holomorphic in C\{a}, repre-
sents a hyperfunction in B(R) denoted 8a , supp8a =
{a}. This hyperfunction
coincides with the image of the Dirac measure at a in B(lR.) under the map
of Proposition 1.2.22. For n ::: 1, 8~n) is represented by the function obtained
differentiating this function n times, i.e., (-l)n+'n!/[2rri(z - a)n+'].
(2) Let T E B(Q), then for every n E N* and a E JR., there is an S E B(Q) such
=
that (x - a)n S T. In fact, if a ¢ Q, the solution S is unique and determined
by multiplying T by the real analytic function (x - a)-n, or, what amounts to
the same thing, if g E oIf(C*) represents T, then S is associated to the function
g(z)/(z - a)n E oIf(C#). If a E Q, let S, be the hyperfunction in Q associated
to g(z)/(z - a)n. This hyperfunction satisfies (x - a)ns, = T, but it is not the
unique solution. The general solution is given by S SI + LO::::j::::n-1 cj8~j), Cj=

arbitrary complex numbers.
Before showing this, let us first give a second proof that if a ¢ 0, then
the solution of the equation is unique. Let f(z) := g(z)(z - a)-n E JIt?(C#) to
simplify the notation. If S E B(O) is another solution and E JIt?(C#) is a i
representative of S, then
(z - at (f(z) - i(z)) = h(z), z E C#,
where h is a function holomorphic in 0. Hence, (z - a)-nh(z) is also holomor-

phic in 0 (because a ¢ 0), showing that S = S.
If a E 0, we see that if S and SI are solutions of the equation, then S2 =
S - SI is a solution of the equation (x - a)n S2 = O. Now, we first observe that
any linear combination Lj':-ci Cj8~j) satisfies this equation, since
n (_1)i+1 j!
(z - a) "" Cj. ) "+1 E JIt?(C).
L- 2JrI(Z - a J
O::::j::::n-I
On the other hand, if S2 E B(O) is an arbitrary solution of (x - a)nS2 0, =

and h E JIt?(C#) is a representative of S2, then (z - a)nh(z) admits an analytic
continuation to a function holomorphic in 0. Therefore, h admits an analytic
continuation to 0 as a meromorphic function h with at most a pole of order
n at the point a. Let bn/(z - a)n + ... + bd(z - a) be the principal part of
the Laurent expansion of h at z = a. It is clear that for a convenient choice of
Co, CI, ... , Cn-I E C, we have that
_ (_l)i+lj!
h(z) - L
O::::j::::n-I
Cj (z _ a)i+1
is holomorphic in 0. That is, S2 is the hyperfunction

S2 = L cj8~j)
O::::j::::n-I
in B(O).
(3) Let us recall that Arg z is the principal value of the argument of the
complex number z in C\(] - 00, 0]), its values lie in ] - Jr, Jr[.
The function
-1 i
F(z) = -2
Jrl
. (Log Izl + i Arg(-z)) = - Log(-z),
2Jr
determines a hyperfunction Y E B(lR), which coincides with the usual Heavi-
side function, that is, the function X[O,oo[' In fact, note that Y must correspond
to a distribution since F has slow growth. Furthermore, as Log Iz I is locally
integrable on the real axis and continuous except for z = 0, and Arg z has a
jump of 2Jr across the negative real axis, one obtains immediately that
b(F) = Y = X[O,oo['
50 1. Boundary Values of Ho10morphic Functions and Analytic Functionals
Moreover, since F'(z) = 1/2rriz, we conclude that

Y'=li.
EXERCISES 1.2.
1. Show that for any fixed c > 0 and n E N one has

8(n)(±cx) = (±1)n c-n- 18(n)(x).
2. Define for fixed a E C\Z the hyperfunction
+ .- 2..-1 b«
x".- -z)"),
Ism:7ra
where one is using the principal branch of the power function.
(a) Prove that supp(x~) = [0, oc[ and the hyperfunction coincides with the function
x" on its support.
To study this hyperfunction for a E Z, consider the auxiliary function
cp(z; a) := (-Z)"l~ l(_t)-,,-I dt,

which is ho10morphic in C\[O, oc[ for any a.
(b) Show that for a < 0 one has
00 1 zi
cp(z; a) = r(-a)(-z)" + ~ --."71.
i=Oa-jj.
Conclude that for a ¢ Z

:7r
r(a + l)'P(z; a) = -.-(-z)"
sm:7ra
mod Jf(C).
It follows that for a ¢ Z

x~ 1
r(a + 1) = 2:7ri b('P(z; a».
Show that this last formula defines a hyperfunction even for a E Z.
(c) Show that for n E N
x~ I = 8(n)(x).
r(a + 1) ,,=-n-I
What is the value of the right-hand side in the last formula for a = n?
3. Is the function exp(1/z) of slow growth? What is the support of the corresponding
hyperfunction?
4. Solve the differential equation
x 2 DT+T =0
in the space B(lR).
5. (a) Show that the space of hyperfunctions with support at the point 0 E lR is isomor-
phic to the space Jf(C) of entire functions. (Include the zero hyperfunction in this space.
Hint: Identify T E B(lR), supp T S; {OJ, with F(1/z), F E Jf(C).)
(b) Prove that if F(z) = En:;:o anz n is an entire function, then the function
f(z) := ~ an zn
n:;:O n!
is also an entire function that satisfies the additional property that for every e >
is a positive constant Ce such that
° there
(z E C).
Prove also the converse. The function I is said to be of infraexponential type or expo-
nential type zero (see [BG, Chapter 4], [Lev]).
(c) Let 0 0 be the space of functions holomorphic in a neighborhood of zero. Show
that it can be identified to ne>O Je(B(O, e»,
the intersection of the spaces of hoi omorphic
functions in the disk B(O, e) of center zero and radius e. Let L: 0 0 -+ C be a linear
functional which is continuous when restricted to every Fn!chet space Je(B(O, e».
Prove
that there is a unique sequence (an)n~O of complex numbers such that if cP E 0 0 then
(L, cp) = I>nq:/n) (0).

n~O
Furthermore, prove that the function
I(z) := LanZ n
n~O
is an entire function of infraexponential type. (Recall that Je(B(O, e»

is a Frechet space
with the usual topology of uniform convergence on compact subsets of B(O, e).)
(d) Show that every entire function of infraexponential type can be obtained by the
procedure from part (c). Using the previous parts of this exercise, show that the space of
continuous linear functionals in 0 0 (i.e., those L described in (c» is isomorphic to the
space of hyperfunctions with support contained in {O}.
6. Let Q be an open interval of ffi., I E A(Q)\{O}, and T E B(Q). Show that
supp(fT) = supp T.
7. Let Q be an open interval of R show that A(Q) consists of those I E £(Q) such
that for any closed and bounded subinterval K S; Q there are constants C > 0, l) > 0,
so that for every positive integer n
max I/(n)(x)1 ::: Cn! lin.
XEK
8. Show that the function
= Le-n
00
I(x) cosn 2x
n=O
is Coo in ffi. but its Taylor series diverges (i.e., it has radius of convergence zero) at
every point except x = 0. Construct now g E £(ffi.) such that its Taylor series diverges
at every point.
1.3. Analytic Functionals and Entire

Functions of Exponential Type
1.3.1. Definition. An analytic functional T on an open set Q ofC, T: Je(Q) -+
C, is a continuous linear functional on the Fn!chet space Je(Q). We denote the
action of T on an element h E Je(Q) by (T, h).
The family of all these analytic functionals is the topological dual .if' (Q)
of the space .if(Q). Since .if(Q) is a closed subspace of the Frechet spaces
C(Q) (of continuous functions in Q) and £(Q) (of Coo functions in Q). Every
analytic functional can be represented, in an essentially nonunique way, either
by a measure with compact support in Q or by a distribution with compact
support in Q. For instance, let a E Q, then the analytic functional
! t-+ !(a),
usually denoted 8a , can be represented by the Dirac measure 8a as well as by

the complex valued measure
1 dz
-2. XaB(a.r) (z)--,
7rl z- a
whenever the closed disk B(a, r) ~ Q.
Let us recall that, since the sequence
0-+ .if(Q) ~ £(Q) ~ £(Q) -+ 0

is an exact sequence of Frechet-Schwartz spaces (see [BG, §3.6]), one can
identify .if'(Q) with the quotient space £'(Q)/«a/az)(£'(Q))). In fact, this
vector space isomorphism is also an isomorphism of topological vector spaces.
We define the multiplication cpT of T E .if'(Q) by cp E .if(Q) by
(cpT, h) := (T, cph) for every ~ E .if(Q).
It is clear that cpT E .if' (Q).

The derivative DT of an analytic functional T E .if'(Q) is defined by the
formula
(DT, h) := -(T, h'),
where h' is the derivative of the holomorphic function h. If we represent T

by a distribution /L, then DT is represented by (a/az)/L. Therefore, we also
write (a/az)T instead of DT. Hence, the action of the differential operator
P(z, D) := 'L.o::,j::,n aj(z)Dj (aj E .if(Q)), on the space .if'(Q) is given by
(P(z, D)T, h) = (T, P*(z, D)h),

where P*(z, D) = 'L.O::,j::,n(-l)j Djaj as an operator, i.e.,
P*(z, D)h = L (-l)j Dj(ajh).
O::,j::,n
In at least one respect, the analytic functionals do not behave like distributions,
they do not possess a well-defined support since the space .if(Q) clearly does
not have partitions of unity. The corresponding notion is that of carrier.
1.3.2. Definition. Let T E .if' (Q), a carrier of T is any compact set K, K ~ Q,

such that for every neighborhood w of K, wee Q, there is a constant C(J) ~ 0
with the property that

I(T, h)1 :::: Cw sup Ih(z)l,
zEw
for every h E Jt?(Q).
The existence of representations of the analytic functional T by measures

with compact support in Q shows that T has at least one carrier. There is no
uniqueness, because any compact set L on Q which contains a carrier K is also
a carrier. In particular, if T is carried by K, then T is also carried by Ko , the
holomorphically convex hull of K in Q (see [BG, §3.1.3]). As we shall see, the
existence of a smallest carrier in the sense of inclusion is a delicate question.
For instance, let Q = C* and T E Jt?'(Q) be defined by
(T,h) -1-.1
= 27r1 y,
h(z)dz,
where Yr = 8B(0, r). The circle is holomorphically convex but T also has
carriers Yrl' Yr2' rl =f r2, which are not ordered by inclusion.
We will be able to prove the existence of a smallest carrier when Q is holo-
morphically convex in C, i.e., when Jt?(C) is dense in Jt?(Q). Let us recall from
[H03], [BG, Example 3.1.4] that we have the following characterization:
1.3.3. Proposition. Let Q 1 5; Q 2 be two open subsets of Co Thefollowing condi-

tions are equivalent:
(1) Every function in Jt?(Q 1) can be uniformly approximated by functions in
Jt?(Q2) over any compact subset OfQl.In other words, Jt?(Q 2) is dense in
Jt?(Q 1) in the usual Frechet topology.
(2) For every compact K 5; Q10 one has K02 = KOl •
(3) For every compact K S f210 one has K02 n f21 KOl ' =
(4) For every compact K 5; Q10 the set K02 n Q 1 is compact.
=
(5) If Q2 \Q 1 L U F with L compact, F is a relatively closed subset of Q2,
and L nF = 0, then L = 0.
In case these equivalent conditions are satisfied we say that the open set Q 1
is holomorphically convex in Q2.
Proof of Proposition 1.3.3. It is clear that (1) => (3) => (4). Let K' = K02 n Q1.
It follows from (4) that K' and K" are two disjoint compact sets whose union
is a holomorphically convex subset of Q2, namely Ko 2 • For any f E Jt?(Q 1)
we can consider the function F = f on K' and 1 on K" and, by the theorem
of Runge [BG, Theorem 3.1.1], this function can be uniformly approximated
in K' U K" by functions in Jt?(Q2). In particular, Jt?(Q 2) is dense in Jt?(Qd.
Therefore (4) => (1). If we choose f =0, the fact that K 5; K' and the values
in K" of a holomorphic function in Q2 can be estimated by its values in K',
implies that K" = 0. Hence (2) also holds. Since (2) => (3) is clear, we have
the equiValence of the first four conditions.
To show that (5) :::::} (2), consider a component U of Q 2 \K which is relatively

compact in Q2. Since au = K ~ Q[, the set
is a compact set in U and, since U C n (Q2\Q!) is closed in Q2, condition (5)

implies that L = 0. Hence, U ~ Q! and, from the theorem of Runge, it follows
that Kn2 ~ Kn!. The opposite inclusion being evident, condition (2) holds.
To prove that (2) :::::} (5), we choose an open set w :2 L such that n F = w
o and wee Q2. Since aw n (Q 2 \Qd = aw n (L U F) = 0 and aw ~ Q2, it
follows that aw ~ Q!. From the maximum principle one concludes that
aw n2 :2 w:2 L.
-
Since (2) implies that aWn2 -
= aWn! ~ Q!, we have L ~ Q!. Therefore L = 0,
as we wanted to show. D
1.3.4. Definition. An open subset in C is such that Jt"(C) is dense in Jt"(Q) is

called a Runge open set.
In othet words, Q is a Runge open set if Q is holomorphically convex in Co

Proposition 1.3.3 includes the classical characterization of Runge sets. Namely,
Q is a Runge set if and only if C\Q does not have any compact connected
components. Clearly, if Q is a Runge open set then the polynomials are dense
in Jt"(Q).
We have now the following result about carriers:
1.3.5. Theorem. Let Q be a Runge open set and let T E Jt'" (Q). Then the follow-
ing properties hold:
(1) Let K be a carrier ofT and let w be an arbitrary, holomorphically convex,
compact neighborhood of K. Moreover, let /-Lw be a measure with support in w
representing T and let
/-L",(Z) .- -
A ._ 1
Jr
1
d/-L",(~)
w
.
z-~
The function fl", is holomorphic in W C and zero at infinity. When w runs over all
the compact holomorphically convex neighborhoods of holomorphically convex
carriers ofT in Q, thefamity flw defines, by analytic continuation, a holomorphic
function
T(z) := -
A 1( 1)
Jr
T/;,--
z-~
in the open set U(T), which is the union of the complement of these carriers.
(2) The set K(T) := C\U(T), the intersection of all the holomorphically
convex carriers of T, is the smallest holomorphically convex carrier of T in Q.
(3) Let U be an open neighborhood of K (T) and let 8 be a cycle in U\K (T)
with integral coefficients, 8 E Z! (U\K (T), Il), homologous in U(T) to the cycle
defined by the loop YR: t ~ Re2Jrit (R > 0 sufficiently large).lfh is holomorphic

in U, then
(T, h) = --:-
1 T(z)h(z)dz.
21
18
A
(4) Conversely, if K is a holomorphically convex compact subset ofQ, and:J

is a holomorphic function in C\K, which is zero at infinity, then :J determines
an analytic functional T,7 E Jr' (Q), carried by K, and such that f; = :J. This
analytic functional is defined by
(T,7, h) = ~ f :J(z)h(z)dz (h E Jr(Q»,

21 J8
where 8 E Zl(Q\K, Z) is any cycle homologous in C\K to a loop YR.
The function f is called the Cauchy transform of the analytic functional T.

Proof. We need to establish first the following lemma of independent interest:
1.3.6. Lemma. Let K be a holomorphically convex compact subset of an open

set Q. Then K has a fundamental system of compact neighborhoods that are
holomorphically convex in Q.
Proof of Lemma 1.3.6. We need to show that for any compact neighborhood
w in Q of the holomorphically convex compact subset K, there is a compact
neighborhood V of K, V £ w, such that V is holomorphically convex in Q,
i.e., V = Vg. For simplicity, we write V := Vg in this lemma.
In fact, for any z E Q\K there is fz E Jr(Q) such that Ifz(z)1 > 1 =
max~eK Ifz(~)1 because K = Kg. Define
Uz := {~ e Q: Ifz(~)1 > Ifz(Z;1 + 1 }

and
We clearly have
inf Ifz(~)1 2: sup Ifz(~)I.
~eU, ~eV,
Let W := Wg, then w\llJ £ Q\K, and we can cover w\w with a finite number of
open sets of the form UZI ' ••• , Uz., with Zl, ... , Zn E w\w. Let V := nl<_1_
'<n VZ}"
it is a compact neighborhood of K contained in Q.
We show that V =
V by verifying successively that V is disjoint from Q\w,
w\w, and w\ V.
First, V £ w implies V £ W. Second, if z E w\w, there is a j such that
z E UZj ' Hence,
and, therefore, z ¢ V. This shows that (w\w) n V= 0. Finally, if z E w\ V, then

z ¢ VZ} for some j. That means that
liz (zj)I+I
liz} (~)I > ) 2 2: sup I/z/~) I 2: sup liz} (~)I,
sEVz} sEV
thus z ¢ V. Hence, V ~ V and so, V = V.

This proves that there is a fundamental system of holomorphically convex
compact neighborhoods of K. D
We continue now with the proof of Theorem 1.3.5. Let W be a compact

holomorphically convex neighborhood of a holomorphically convex carrier K
of T and let I E .1'f(w). There is a sequence of functions In E .1'f(Q) which
converges uniformly to I on every compact subset of as n -+ 00. Let V w
be a neighborhood of K, K ~ Vee W, then there is a constant C v 2: 0 such
that I(T, g)1 ~ C v SUPZEV Ig(z)l, for every g E .1'f(Q). Therefore, the numerical
sequence (T, In) is a Cauchy sequence, and it is clear that its limit does not
depend on the choice of approximating sequence (fn)nC?l. This limit, denoted
(T, f), defines a continuous linear functional on .1'f(w) since
I(T, f)1 ~ C v sup I/(z)1

ZEV
holds. By the Hahn-Banach theorem one can find a measure /-tw of compact
w
support in such that
(T, f) = J
f d/-tw, f E ~(w).
For z ¢ w, the function ~ l/(z - ~) belongs to .1'f(w), so that
J
f-+
~
rr
\7's' _1_) -_
1
Z-~
/-tw z -
A ( ) - ~
rr
d/-tw(~) .
z-~
By Morera's theorem, flw is holomorphic in we and has the value zero at infinity.
Let K\, K2 be two holomorphically convex compact carriers of T, and let WI,
W2 be holomorphically convex compact neighborhoods of K I , K 2 , respectively.
Let /-tW\' /-twz be measures representing T obtained as above. For z E wi n w~,
we have
flw\ (z) = flwz (z).
Namely, since z ¢ (WI U (2), to evaluate (Ts' 1/(z - ~»), it is enough to choose
an approximating sequence to (z - 0- 1 on the compact subset supp(/-twJ U
supp(/-twz) of WI U W2.
From this it follows that the collection {flw} determines a holomorphic func-
tion f in U(T), which vanishes at infinity.
To show that T is carried by K(T) = C\U(T), we are going to prove first
part (4) of the statement of the theorem. Using that T = Tt we shall then
conclude that T is carried by K(T). Statement (3) will also be true since it is
a consequence of (4).
Now let .7 E .1f(C\K) be zero at infinity, and let K be a holomorphically

convex compact subset of Q. Choose a cycle 8 E Z 1(Q\K, Z), special (i.e., a
polygonal cycle of sides parallel to the axes), and homologous to YR in U(T),
for some large R > 0 (and hence, all R » 0); see [BG, Lemma 1.10.2]. Define
T:r E .1f'(Q) by
(T:r, h) := ~
21 Ja[.7(z)h(z)dz.
This analytic functional is carried by K because if w is a relatively compact
open neighborhood of K in Q, then we can find 81 E ZI(w\K, Z) which is
homologous to YR in U (T), for some large R > O. Then
[ .7(z)h(z) dz = [ .7(z)h(z) dz
Ja Ja 1
for every h E .1f(C), since 8 and 81 are homologous in U (T). Since .1f(C) is
dense in .1f(Q), this identity also holds in .1f(Q). This shows that T:r is carried
by K.
Let T = T:r, to see that the function T coincides with .7, we observe that both
functions are holomorphic in C\K, zero at infinity, and that for Izl sufficiently
large we have
T:r(z) = 2. / T/;,
7r \
_1_)
z- {
= _~
27rl
[.7R)d{ = .7(z),
Ja ~ -z
by Cauchy's formula. (Note that 8 turns clockwise around z when Izl is large,
in other words the index Inda(z) = -I, and also .7(00) = 0.) Since C\K is
connected, T = .7 everywhere in C\K. This ends the proof of (4).
To finish the proof of the theorem we still have to show that if T E .1f'(Q)
is given and if .:J = T, then T = T:r. We have shown in the proof of (4) that
T = T:r.
For any S E .1f'(Q), the Laurent development at infinity of S is of the form
S(z)
A
= -7r I( S/;, - ,
Z -
I) = -1
.,
L(S/;, ~ )
7r n;::O
n
Z
1
n+I'
as one can see representing S by a measure of compact support and developing

I/(z - {) about z = 00.
Therefore, the identity T = T:r implies that
for every n ~ O. Hence T, and T:r coincide on .1f(cn), whence on .1f(Q). In

particular, T is carried by K(T) since T:r already has that property by (4). This
concludes the proof of Theorem 1.3.5. D
1.3.7. Remark. The preceding theorem also shows that if either f == 0 or

K(T) = 0, then T O.=
We are now going to consider the case which occurs most often in practice:
Q is an open convex subset of C. We shall see that for any T E Je"'(Q), there is
a smallest compact convex carrier in Q. It is clear that when Q is convex, there
are convex carriers for T. Namely, for any carrier K of Tin Q, the convex hull
cv(K) is a convex compact subset of Q, which still carries T.
If T E Je'" (Q) is carried by the compact convex subset K of Q, the function
T is holomorphic in K C and we have by the previous Theorem 1.3.4 that, for
1
every h E Je"(Q)
1
(T, h) = --:- T(z)h(z) dz,
A
21 y
here y is a loop in Q\K of index 1 with respect to every point of K. Evidently,

if K" K2 are compact convex carriers of T and T =j:. 0, it follows from the proof
of Definition 1.3.4 that K, n K2 =j:. 10 and it is also a compact convex carrier of
T. One can conclude that the intersection K(T) of all compact convex carriers
of T in Q is also a carrier K(T), K(T) =j:. 10 if T =j:. O. We will say that K(T)
is the convex carrier of T or, sometimes, the convex support of T.
When Q is a convex open subset of C, let Je"o(Q C) be the vector space of all
germs of holomorphic functions in a neighborhood of C\Q which are zero at
infinity. In case Q is unbounded, we additionally assume that the functions are
holomorphic in a neighborhood of z = 00.
Let C: Je"'(Q) ~ Je"o(Q C) be the map that assigns to T E Je"'(Q) the function
C(T):= 1fT,
C(T)(z) = / T/;,
\
_1_)
z-~
(z f. K(T».
C is a linear isomorphism by Theorem 1.3.5 and Remark 1.3.7. Note that with
this notation we have
(T, h) =~
21f1
1 .y
C(T)(z)h(z) dz.
We can consider the elements h E Je"o(Q C) as being defined outside a convex

compact subset of Q. Evidently, in the case of an arbitrary Runge open set Q, one
could introduce the analogous space, still denoted Je"o(QC), whose elements are
holomorphic functions, defined in the complement of some compact holomor-
phically convex subset of Q and that vanish at 00. Since there is a smallest
holomorphically convex carrier, the Cauchy transform will also provide an
isomorphism between Je"'(Q) and Je"o(Q C).
1.3.8. Definition. Let Q be an open subset of Co The Fourier-Borel transform

of an analytic functional T E Je'" (Q) is the function
J(T)(z) := (T/;, e!;Z).
1.3.9. Proposition. The function J(T) is an entire holomorphic function.

Proof. To see this, represent T by a measure of compact support and either

differentiate under the integral sign or, what is easier, use Morera's theorem
[BG, Theorem 2.1.8]. 0
1.3.10. Proposition. Let Q be a convex open set and let T E ;e' (Q) have as
convex support the set K, then for every e > 0 there is a constant Ce > 0
such that
(z E C),
where Hdz) := sup~EK(Rez~).

In particular, 'J(T) is an entire function of exponential type.
Proof. Let V(K, e) = {~ E C: d(~, K) < e} and let y be a rectifiable Jordan
curve in V(K, e)\K containing K in its interior. By Theorem 1.3.5(3) one can
write
One has clearly

sup(Re~z) :::: sup(Re~z) + elzl = HK(z) + elzl.
~Ey ~EK
Let M = max~EY If(~)1 and let l denote the length of y. We have

1'J(T)(z)l:::: Mlexp(HK(z) +elzl). 0
This proposition has a converse.
1.3.11. Theorem. Let K be a compact convex subset of a convex open set Q.

Let f be an entire function of exponential type such that for every e > 0 there is
a constant Ce > 0 so that f satisfies everywhere the estimate
If(z)1 :::: CeeHK(Z)+elzl.
Then, there is a unique analytic functional T E ;e' (Q) such that 'J(T) = f.
Proof. If f(z) = Ln~o anz n, let
"" n!an
B(w) := ~ w n+ 1 •
n~O
This series defines a function B holomorphic in a neighborhood of 00 such that

B vanishes at w = 00. More precisely, the hypothesis on f implies that there
is an R > 0 such that for some constant C > 0
If(z)1 :::: Ce R1z1 (z E C).
(It is enough to choose R > 0 so that K S; B(O, R). If Ro is the smallest radius
such that K S; B(O, Ro), we can choose e > 0 with Ro + e < R, Ce = C, and
use HK(z) :::: HiJ(O,Ro)(Z) = Rolzl.)
We claim that B is holomorphic in C\B(O, R). In fact, from the Cauchy

inequalities we have
p>O
()
Ian I :::: inf max If(z)l/ pn
Izl=p p>O
~~
:::: C inf(e Rp p-n) = C--.
nn
Moreover, Stirling's formula states that
n! = nn e-nJ27l'n(l + sen)),
sen) ~ 0 as n ~ 00. Hence
n!lanl :::: CR nJ27l'n(l + sen)),

and
limsup(n!la nl)l/n :::: R.
n-->oo
This implies that the series defining B converges whenever Iwi> R as we had
claimed.
Besides the purely formal way we have used to introduce the function B,
we observe that B coincides, in the half-plane Re w > R, with the Laplace
transform of the function f. In fact,
where the term-by-term integration is justified by the estimate
1 o
00
L
n~O
lanltne-t(Rew) dt = Ln!lanl(Rew)-n+l
n~O
< 00,
valid when Re w > R.

For u E C*, let Lu be the ray starting at the origin with direction u, that is,
Lu := {su: s ~ OJ. We also need to define the open half-plane
Pu := (z E C: Rezu > Hdu)}.
One has HK(U) = sUPZEK(Rezu) = SUPZEK(zlii), where (,1,) represents the
usual Euclidean scalar product in C. Therefore, the half-plane Pu depends only
on the ray Lu of direction ii and not on ii, in other words, by homogeneity, on
ii/lui. To simplify, we shall henceforth assume that lui = 1. The value HK(u)
represents the (signed) distance to the origin of the boundary line of Pu , this
line intersects K and K is entirely contained in P~. The sign is positive if 0 is
also in P~, negative otherwise (see Figure 1.1, where the origin was placed in
K for convenience). The boundary of Pu is also called a supporting line of the
convex set K.
If z E Pu we have for every s > 0 and every t = su E L u ,
If(t)e-ztl :::: CeeHK(t)+eltl-Rezt.
Figure 1.1
°
Since z E Pu , there is a > such that Re zu ::: HK(u) + a. In fact, the same
inequality is valid in a half-plane strictly contained in Pu • Hence
HK(t) + 81tl- Rezt = S(HK(U) +8 - Rezu) ::: S(8 - a).
If we choose °< 8 < a, for instance, 8 = a12, we have

I!(t)e-ztl ::: Ce-<a/2)l sl,
with C = Ca / 2 and S = It I. This shows that the integral
CPu(z):= r !(t)e- zt dt
lLu
converges uniformly in the half-planes {z E C: Rezu > Hdu) + a}, for every
a > 0. Therefore CPu is a holomorphic function in Pu.
Let us now consider two distinct values UJ, U2, Iud = IU21 = 1, < °
Arg(u2lul) < Jr.
For p > 0, let YP be the loop in C formed by the portions of LUI and LU2
inside B(O, p), together with r p , the secant to the smallest of the two arcs
determined by the two rays in aB(O, p) (see Figure 1.2). We claim that
lim
p-+oo
r !(t)e-
lrp
tz dt = 0,
when z E PUI n PU2 • For that purpose we need to estimate 1!(t)lexp(-Retz),

when t E r p. The main idea is to use both that YP surrounds a convex region
and that HK is a convex function. Namely, if t E r P' then the endpoints of this
segment are precisely PUI and PU2, hence,
t = P(AUI + (1 - A)U2)
for some A E [0, 1]. Then, HK(t) = pHK(AUl + (1 - A)U2), but

HK(AUI + (1 - A)U2) = sup(ReS"(Aul + (1 - A)U2»
l;EK
Figure 1.2
= sup(A(Re~ul) + (1 - A)(Re~u2»
l;eK
~ AHK(Ul) + (1 - A)HK(U2),
which proves the convexity of HK. On the other hand, Z E PU1 n Pup hence for
some a > 0 we have
ReZUl = (zlul) ~ HK(ud + a,
Rezu2 = (zlu2) ~ HK(U2) + a,
and therefore,
Retz = p(zlAul + (1- A)U2) = p[A(zlul) + (1 - A)(zlu2)]
~ p[AHK(Ul) + (1- A)HK (U2) + a].

Summarizing, for t E Pp as above,
1!(t)1 exp(- Retz) ~ CB exp(HK(t) + 81tl - Retz) ~ CB exp«8 - a)p).
If we take 8 = a/2, C = C, we have

B
lip !(t)e- dtl ~ Crrpe-(a/2)p

tz -+ 0 as p -+ 00.
By Cauchy's theorem, JYp !(t)e-tzdt=O, hence CPU l(Z)=CPU 2(Z) when ZE

PU1 n PU2 • This shows that the functions CPu determine a single-valued holo-
morphic function in the union of all the half-planes Pu , lui = 1, in other words,
in K C • When we took u = 1 we observed that, for Rez > R, the Laplace trans-
form C(f) of ! coincides with B; thus, we see that the function we have just
obtained is precisely the analytic continuation of B from B(O, RY into K C • We
will also denote by B this extension.
There is a unique T E Je'(Q) carried by K such that C(T) = B. Namely, let
y be a Jordan curve in Q\K of index 1 with respect to K, then for h E Je(Q)
we can define T by
(T, h) := -1-.1 B(~)h(~)

2Jrl Y
dt.
Let us compute J(T)(z) for this analytic functional T. We set h(~) = eZ~ in
the definition of T and we see that we can replace y by the circle of center °
and radius p > R because h is an entire function. We find
J(T)(z) -1-.1 B(~)e~Z d~ = -1-.1 (2: n!:~) e~Z d~

= 2Jrl Y 2m Y
n;::O ~
= 2:n!an2Jri
1 d~ = =
I e~Z
n+J 2: anzn f(z).
n;::O Y ~ n;::O
The third identity is valid by the uniform convergence of the series repre-
senting B on y.
Finally, the equation J(TJ) = J(T2) for h T2 E Je'(Q) implies that
(TJ, ~n) = (T2, ~n) for every n ::: 0. Namely, for z E C fixed, the series e~z =
2:n;::O(zn~n In!) converges in Je'(Q), hence for T E Je'(Q) we have
J(T)(z) = 2:
n;:: O
(T, ~n) zn.
n!
This shows that J(T) determines (T, ~n) for all n ::: 0. The density of Je(C) in
Je(Q) implies that TJ = Tz. This concludes the proof of the theorem. 0
1.3.12. Definitions.
(1) The function B introduced in the proof of Theorem 1.3.11 is called the
Borel transform of the function ! and the Cauchy transform of the analytic
functional T.
(2) The representation of ! = J(T) in the form
f(z) = 21Jrl.1 y
B(t)e tz dt
is called the P61ya representation of !.

(3) The function C(T) = JrT is called the C-transform of T.
(4) Let Q be a convex open subset of Co We denote by Exp(Q) the vector
space of all the entire functions ! of for which there is at least one compact
convex subset K of Q such that for every e > 0 there is a constant Ce > 0 so
that f satisfies the estimate
We can summarize the results of the previous theorem as follows. For Q an

open convex set, the Fourier-Borel transform establishes a linear isomorphism
~: Jr'(Q) ~ Exp(Q),
T ~~(T).
The Borel transform is an isomorphism

13: Exp(Q) ~Jro(QC),
f ~B(f).
Finally, the C-transform is also an isomorphism

C: Jr'(Q) ~Jro(QC),
T ~C(T) =Td.
The diagram below commutes
and the map B- 1 is the P6lya representation.

The functions HK appear naturally in the previous statements, we shall use
the opportunity here to recall a few elementary properties of these functions.
1.3.13. Definition. If K is a nonempty compact set in C, the function HK

defined by
HK(u) = sup(Rezu) (u E C)
zeK
is called the support function of the set K.
=
If u eirp , 0::: ({J::: 21l', HK(u) is the maximum value in K of Re(zeirp) =
=
(z le- irp ) x cos ({J - Y sin ({J, which is the projection of z on the ray Lu directed
by u= e- irp . We have already used this fact above.
It is an immediate consequence of the above definition that HK = Hcv(K),
where, a usual, cv(K) is the convex hull of K. For that reason we will assume
K is a convex compact set in what follows:
1.3.14. Proposition.
(1) If K\ and K2 are two nonempty convex compact sets, then
HK1 +K2 = HKl + HK2 ,

where K\ + K2 = {z + w: z E K\.w E K2} is also a convex compact set.
(2) If K\= K, K2 = 8(0, e), then K\ + K2 = V(K, e) = {z E C: d(z, K) :::
eland
HV(K,B)(Z) = HK(z) + elzl·
(3) For any K, the function HK is a convex and homogeneous function of
degree 1. That is,
HK(AU) = AHK(u) for A> 0,
HK(AU + (1 - A)V) ::: AHK(U) + (1 - A)HK(v) for 0 < A < 1.
(4) If K = {zo} = {xo + iyo} is a singleton, then
HK(U) = HK(luleiq» = lul(xocoscp - Yosincp).
Hence, if K = {zo} + L, L convex compact and nonempty,
HK(u) = Hdu) + lul(xocoscp - Yosincp).
(5) If K = [-a, a] + i {O}, a > 0 (i.e., K is a symmetric segment of the real
axis), then
HK(U) = HK(luleiq» = alul coscp.
(6) If K = to} + i[ -a, a], a > 0, then
HK(U) = HK(luleiq» = alul sincp.
(7) If K = B(O, R), then
(8) If K = cv(K\ U K2), then

HK = max (H K1 , HK2)'
Proof. Left as an exercise to the reader. o
1.3.15. Definition. The (Lindelof) indicator function of an entire function f
of exponential type is the function
hf () · log If(rz)1
z = 1Imsup
r .... oo r
(z E C*).
The regularized indicator function hi is the function

hj(z) = limsuphf(~) (z E C).
I; .... z
We do not define hf (0) directly due to the possibility that f (0) = O.

(1) Let II, h be two entire functions of exponential type, then
hfIh :::: hf) + hh' hj)h :::: hj) + hj2'
hf)+h :::: max(hfI , hfJ, hj)+h :::: max (hj) , hj).
(2) If fez) = e(a+ib)z, a, b E~, then
h fez) = Izl (a cos <Ii - b sin <Ii),

(3) If f is an entire function of exponential type, then
and hj(tz) = thj(z)
for every z E C*, t > O. Moreover, hj(O) = O.
Proof. Left as an exercise to the reader. o
1.3.17. Proposition. Let f be an entire function of exponential type, which is not
identically zero. The function h f' defined at z = 0 by h f (0) = 0, is subharmonic
and continuous in C.ln particular, hf = hj.
Proof. It is clear that if f == 0, then hf(z) == -00.
Let us show first that hj is subharmonic in the extended sense (Le., it might
be a priori == -00). Since there are constants A, B > 0 such that log If(z)1 ::::
Bizi + A, we have the right to apply the following Fatou's Lemma 1.3.18 to
the family of subharmonic functions
1
gr(z) = -log If(r(w + z))l,
r
r > 0, w C. From the inequality
h
E
1
-log If(rw)1 :::: -12 1
-log If(r(w + u))1 dm(u),
r 7rp B(O,p) r
one obtains
. 1
hf(w) = hmsup -log If(rw)1
r-->oo r
:::: - 12
7r P
h .
B(O,p)
1
hmsup-Ioglf(r(w+u))ldm(u)
r-->oo r
= ~
7rp
r
} B(O,p)
hf(w + u)dm(u)
:::: ~ ( hj(w + u) dm(u).

7rp iB(o,p)
The above steps are justified applying twice the following variant of Fatou's
lemma:
1.3.1S. Lemma. If (X, r, IL) is a measure space with a a-finite measure IL 2: 0,

(gr )re[O,+oo[ is a family of integrable functions uniformly bounded above, then
limsup
r ..... oo Jx
rgrdlL ~ Jxr(limsupgr)dlL.
r ..... oo
Proof of Lemma 1.3.1S. It is a consequence of the usual Fatou's lemma [Rud2]
once one observes that if r E [n, n + 1[, then
sup fs ~ sup fs ~ sup fs.
s~n+1 s~r s~n
hence
inf
r>O Jx s~r
r (sup fs) = inf r (sup fs) dlL.
n~1 Jx s::::r
o
Now we use that for each WE C we have hi(w) = limsupj ..... oohf(w + ~j)
for a sequence ~j ~ 0, which depends on w. Then, from the inequality preceding
Lemma 1.3.18, we have
hi(w) = lim sup hf(w +~j) ~ limsup~ ~ hj(w +~j +u)dm(u)

j ..... oo j ..... oo rr p JB(O,p)
~~ ~ limsuphj(w+~j+u)dm(u)
rrp JB(O,P) j ..... oo
~~ ~ hj(w + u) dm(u).
rrp iB(o,p)
The last inequality is due to the upper semicontinuity of hi- It follows that hi
is subharmonic in the extended sense. Now we shall try to prove that hf "¥= -00
and that it is a continuous function in C*. It will follow that h f = hi in C*,
hence hf will be subharmonic in C*. Since both functions are homogeneous it
is enough to consider hf restricted to the unit circle.
1.3.19. Lemma. Let 91, 92 be two real numbers such that 0 < (h - 91 < rr.
Assume hf(eUh ) ~ hi and hf(e ilh ) ~ h2 and let
g(9) := hi sin(82 ~ 9) + h2 sin(8 - ( 1) •
s1O(82 - 8d
Then
Since g is the only function of the form a cos 8 - b sin 8 which takes the
values hj at 8j, this lemma says that there is a unique exponential fo(z) =
exp«a + ib)z) such that hfo(ei8j) = hj and hf(ei8 ) ~ hfo(e i8 ) for 8 1 ~ 8 ~ 8 1•
Proof of Lemma 1.3.19. Let ~ > 0 and g&(8) = a& cos 8 - ba sin 8 be the unique
sinusoidal of the form a cos 8 - b sin 9 taking the values hj + ~ at 8j • Let
fa(z) = f(z)e-(ol+ibl)z.
Then Ih(z)1 = If(z)le- g6 (1!)l z l, z = Izle i9 , is bounded in the rays L" L 2, where
L j = {se i9j : s :::: OJ. Since 0 < (h - (h < 1(, we conclude from the Phragmen-
LindelOfprinciple (see [BG, §4.9.37]) that 1181 is bounded by a positive constant
M in the sector (h ~ e ~ e2. Therefore, If(z)1 ~ M exp(g8(e)lzl) and hf(e i9 ) ~
g8(e). Passing to the limit 8 -+ 0 we obtain the lemma. 0
Let us remark that if hf (e i91 ) = -00 and hf (e ilh ) = -00, the above lemma
implies that h f (e i9 ) = -00 fore\ ~ e ~ e2. It is enough to take h\ = h2 = -M,
for some large M > 0, and let M -+ 00.
1.3.20. Lemma. Let e\ ~ e2 ~ e3 be such that 0 < e3 - e\ < 1(. Let g (e) =
a cose - bsine be such that h f (e i91 ) ~ g(e\) and hf(e ilh ):::: g(e2), then
hf (e i93 ) :::: g(e3 )·
Proof of Lemma 1.3.20. Let us assume there is 8 > 0 such that hf (e i93 ) ~
g(e3 ) - 8. Define the auxiliary sinusoidal
sinCe - e\)
g8(e) = gee) - 8 . (e
sm 3 - \
e ).
Then g8 (e\) = g(e\), g8 (e2) < g(e2), and g8 (e3) = g(e3) - 8. From the hypo-
theses and Lemma 1.3.19 we conclude that
'£I
hf(e' 2) ~ g8(e2) < g(e2),
which is impossible. Therefore hf(e i93 ) :::: g(e3).

The same proof shows that if we had hf(e ilh ) ~ g«(}z) and hf(e ilh ) ::::: g(93),
the conclusion would be hf (e i91 ) :::: g(e\). 0
We are now ready to conclude the proof of Proposition 1.3.17. First, we

observe that the proof of Lemma 1.3.19 shows that if hf == -00, then f is
bounded, hence a constant function, and since hf == -00, f == O. Therefore,
we have hf 1= -00. In this case, Lemma 1.3.20 shows that hf(e i9 ) is never
e
-00. In fact, choose any value 2 such that hf (e i92 ) =f. -00. Choose an angle
e\ arbitrarily close to e2, e\ < e2. Then, for any e3 such that e3 < e\ + 1( we
have h f (e i93 ) > -00, since we can find a sinusoidal g with g(e2) = hf(e ilh )
and geed :::: hf(e i91 ), even if hf(ei91 ) = -00. This procedure covers aninterval
of length almost equal to 1(. Repeating it twice, we see that hf(e i9 ) > -00
everywhere.
Now that we know that hf(e i9 ) is never -00, we can prove it is a continuous
function. Let us do it for the argument e = e2. Choose any two values e\, (h
such that e j < e2 < e3, (h - e\ < 1(. Define the two auxiliary sinusoidals g\2
and g23 by the conditions
and
Consider 0 E ]02, 03 [, we have

·IJ
gdO) ::: hf(e' ) ::: g23(0).
The first inequality is a consequence of Lemma 1.3.20, the second of Lemma
1.3.19. Since the sinusoidals are continuous and gI2(02) = g23(02) = hf(e ilh )
we obtain
lim hf(e ilJ ) = hf(e ilh ).
1J.j,1h
In the interval ]01, O2 [ we have

·IJ
g23(0) ::: hf(e' ) ::: gdO).
The second inequality is a consequence of Lemma 1.3.20, the first is a conse-
quence of the remark after the proof of Lemma 1.3.20. The continuity of hf(eilJ )
and hence of hf(z), z E C* is now clear. As pointed out above, this implies that
hf coincides with hi, hence it is subharmonic in C*. The upper semiconti-
nuity of hi at z = 0, and the homogeneity, now let us conclude that hi (0) = o.
We define hf(O) = 0 to keep it subharmonic, continuous, and homogeneous of
degree 1 everywhere. 0
The following provides a different, more geometric, proof of Proposition

1.3.17:
1.3.21. Theorem. Let f = j'(T) be an entire function of exponential type which

is the Fourier-Borel transform of an analyticfunctional T whose convex support
is the compact convex set K. We have then
HK(e ilJ ) = hf(eilJ ), 0::: 0::: 21l".
In particular, itfollows that iff # 0 (and hence T # 0) hf is continuous and
subharmonic since it is a convex function.
Proof. Let B be the Borel transform of f. It is convergent in each half-plane
of the form Re(zeilJ ) > hf(e ilJ ), since the integral
B(z) = 1 f(t)e- 'Z dt
is absolutely and uniformly convergent for Re(zeilJ ) ::: hf(eilJ ) + e, e > 0, where
L = {se ilJ : s ::: OJ. Since the convex support of T is the smallest compact convex
region on whose complement B is holomorphic, it follows that HK(e ilJ ) :::
hf(eilJ ).
On the other hand, let e > 0 and use the P6lya representation
f(z) = 21.
1l"1
rB(t)e
Jy
tz dt,
with y a rectifiable Jordan curve such that K S; int Y S; V (K, e). Then
If(reilJ)l::: -21l(Y) (maxIB(t)l) exp (maxrRe(teilJ

1l" lEY lEy
»)
This clearly implies

hf(e iB ) ::: HK(e iB ) + e,
and since e > 0 was arbitrary, we have
HK(e iB ) = hf(e iB ). o
We are now going to show that any function h subharmonic in C and homo-
geneous of degree 1 is, in fact, the Lindelof indicator function of some entire
function f of exponential type, that is, h = hf. It is clear that such f is not
unique.
Theorem 1.3.21 shows that we need the following lemma if we are going to
succeed in proving that h = hf for some f:
1.3.22. Lemma. Any function in C which is subharmonic and homogeneous of

degree 1 is a convex function.
Proof. Convexity is a local property and hence, up to a possible rotation, we can

restrict ourselves to a neighborhood of the positive real axis. The convexity in a
neighborhood of z = 0 will follow by the homogeneity, as well as the fact that
h(O) = O. Let now 0 < ex < Ji12, -ex < 01 < 03 < ex, g(O) = acosO - bsinO
be a sinusoidal function such that h(e iB1 ) ::: g(Od and h(e iB3 ) ::: g(03). Suppose
there is a value 00 E ]61, 03[ such that g(Oo) < h(e iBo ). Let gil be the sinusoidal
defined by gll(OI) = g(Od + 8, gll(02) = g(02) + 8. Let 80 = inf{8 > 0: h(e iB ) -
gll(O) ::: 0 whenever 0 1 ::: 0 ::: 03}. The existence of 00 as above shows that
80 > 0 and the infimum is achieved. On the other hand, the upper semicontinuity
of h implies that the set 1 := {O EO [0 1 ,03], h(e iB ) = gllo(O)} is not empty. Again
by the upper semicontinuity of h, 02 := inf{O: 0 E I} E ]61, 03[ and h(e iB2 ) =
gllo (02).
Let A E C be such that if G(z) = Az then ReG(re iB ) = rgllo(O). Choose
o < p < 1, sufficiently small so that iJ (e iB2 , p) lies in the angular region 01 :::
Arg z ::: 03. The homogeneity of h implies that
h(z) ::: ReG(z), z E aB(e iB2 , p).
We also have h(e iBz ) = Re G(e iB2 ) and h(z) < Re G(z), when z E aB(e iB2 , p),
01 ::: Arg z < O2 • This contradicts the mean-value property for the subharmonic
function h - Re G. Therefore, we can conclude that
We claim that this inequality shows that h is convex. First, we observe that
Lemma 1.3.20 and its consequences can now be applied to h in place of hf'
hence h(e iB ) > -00 everywhere.
Now let g be a sinusoidal chosen so that g(OI) = h(e iB1 ) and g(03) = h(e iB3 ).
Let Zl, Z3 be any two points with arg Zl = OJ, arg Z3 = 03 and z = AZI +
(1 - A)Z3, 0 < A < 1. Then 0 = arg z E [0 1 ,03] and
h(z) = Izlh(e iB ) ::: Izlg(O) = Izl(a cosO - b sinO)
= Re«a + ib)z) = )" Re«a + ib)z,) + (1 - ),,) Re«a + ib)z3)

= J..lzilg(O,) + (1- J..)I Z3Ig(03)
= )"lzilh(eiB1 ) + (1- J..)l z3Ih(eil1J )
= )"h(z,) + (1 - )")h(Z3).
This concludes the proof of Lemma 1.3.22. o
1.3.23. Proposition. Let h be a subharmonic function in C which is homoge-
neous of degree 1. There is an entire function f of exponential type such that
hf = f·
Proof. Let K = {w E C: Rezw ::: h(z) for every z E q. Since h is convex by
Lemma 1.3.22, we conclude that K is a compact convex set such that HK = h.
The set S2\K is biholomorphic to the unit disk, this allows us to find a function
B holomorphic in C\K, B(oo) = 0, and such that every point of 8K is a
singular point of B. If we choose f to be the Borel transform of B, then we
have hf = HK = h. 0
Let us coIisider a few special cases of compact convex carriers K. The first
special case occurs when K = {OJ.
1.3.24. Definition. A nonzero entire function f is said to be of exponential

type zero (or infraexponential type) if f is a function of exponential type and
hf =0.
If f is an entire function of infraexponential type and T E JIf' (C) -is the

analytic functional such that f = lJ(T), then T is carried by K = {OJ. Therefore,
T is a continuous linear functional on any of the spaces JIf(Q) for Q an open
subset of C containing zero. Recall that the space 0 of germs of holomorphic
functions at the origin can be described as
(? = n
OEQ
JIf(Q),
and Q an open subset of C, 0 E Q. The natural topology of 0 is that of a

projective limit of the Frechet spaces JIf(Q) (see [Hor] , [SchaeD. The dual
space is then precisely the collection of analytic functionals carried by K = {OJ.
Given ({J E 0,
then
{T,({J} = Lan{T,~n).
n~O
On the other hand, as we have seen earlier,
so that
Hence
q;(n) (0)
(T,q;) = Ln! i n - , - = Linq;(n)(o).
n~O n. n~O
That is, we can associate to T the infinite-order differential operator

d
i(D) = Lin Dn , D=-,
dz
n~O
where
i(D)q;(~) := L inDnq;(~)
n~O
will define a holomorphic function in Q if q; E Jf"(Q). In this notation
(T, q;) = i(D)q;(O).
Consider now the case where K = [a, b], -00 < a < b < 00, is an interval of
the real axis. Any analytic functional T carried by K will have as a Fourier-Borel
transform i = ~(T) an entire function of exponential type such that hf = hKI'
for some KI = [aI, bd, a :5 al :5 b l :5 b. That is,
'(}
hf(e' ) = max{al cos8, b l cos8}.
Moreover, the function -(1/2i)T is holomorphic in C\K and represents a
hyperfunction S with compact support, supp S 5; K. Proposition 1.2.21 indi-
cates that S should be identified to the analytic functional T, in fact, we have
already done so in Proposition 1.2.22, when the analytic functional T is induced
by a distribution with compact support in K. Note that supp T in the sense
of hyperfunctions coincides exactly with the smallest holomorphically convex
carrier K (T) of T. This follows from Theorem 1.3.5 and the observation that
any compact subset of IR is holomorphically convex.
In other words, let K be the compact subset of IR and let the space Jf"(K) of
functions holomorphic in a neighborhood of K be considered with the projective
limit topology induced by the identity
Jf"(K) = n
K<;O
Jf"(Q),
where Q runs over all open sets (or all Runge open sets) containing K. Then
any element T E Jf"'(K) is an analytic functional which is carried by K and
it can be represented, in the sense of hyperfunctions, as boundary values of a
function holomorphic in C*, more precisely in C\K. Namely,

1
= - 2ib(T).
A
The reader should also observe that when K ~ JR, JIf(K) coincides with the
space A(K) of real analytic functions in a real neighborhood of K and we
recall from the previous section that the hyperfunctions with support in K are a
module over A(K). This is clear, since if T E JIf'(K), cp E JIf(K), cpT makes
sense in JIf' (K).
Later in this chapter we will discuss a similar situation for analytic functionals
on the unit circle.
It is clear that we need some precision about the properties of projective limits,
inductive limits, and their duals. In particular, to be able to study the topological
properties of Exp(Q), JIf' (Q), JIf~(QC), etc. For this reason the following section
will be an overview of the functional analysis tools we use in the remainder of
the book.
EXERCISES 1.3.
1. Let a E n and let n be an open set in Co Show that the distribution T = 2::=1 c"8~"),
8~"} = (a" /az")8 a can be represented by a measure when considered as an analytic func-
tional in n. Give examples of non trivial measures that represent the zero analytic
functional.
2. Show that if T is an analytic functional so that there is A ::: 0 with the property that
J'(T)(z) = o (exp(A I Rezl + 8Izl), then T is carried by a compact subset of JR. Find
a function F holomorphic in C\([-A,Al+i{O}) such that T =b(F) in the sense of
hyperfunctions.
3. Verify that C = B . J' as stated after Definition 1.3.12.
4. Find the analytic functional T whose Fourier- Borel transform is I (z) = (sinh z) / z.
How about S such that J'(S)(z) = I(JZ).
5. Let T be an analytic functional with smallest holomorphically convex carrier K
and let n be a Runge open set, KEn, I E JIf(n). Define a function g by
g(z) := (T~, I(z + ~»).
Show that g is a holomorphic function in a neighborhood of the origin. Let n' =
{z E C: z + K S; n}, show that n' is open and g E JIf(n').
6. Let K be a compact convex subset of C, k ::I 0. Show that T E JIf'(K) satisfies
the following property:
3C > 0 such that VIE JIf(C): I(T, 1)1 ::s CII/IIL2(K)'
if and only if there is h E L2(K) so that
(T, I) = i I(z)h(z)dm(z) (f E JIf(K».
7. Let P(D) = 2:o~Oj~" ajDj be a differential operator with constant coefficients and
its symbol P'(~) = 2:o~j~" (-l)j aj~j, a nonzero polynomial of degree n. Show that if
T is an analytic functional then

~(P(D)T)(~) = P*(~)~(T)(~).
Conclude that P(D): ,;t?'(C) -+ ,;t?'(C) in injective.
8. Let T be an analytic functional in C. show that the Fourier-Borel transform of the

product zT is given by
~(zT)(~) = ~(~(T)(~» = D~(T)(~).

d~
Use this to show that the kernel of the mUltiplication map ,;t?'(C) -+ ,;t?'(C) given by
T 1-+ zT is the vector space c80• c E C.
9. Let T E ,;t?'(C). Show that the following four conditions are equivalent:
(i) T can be represented by a distribution S E V' (C) with support in a finite number of
points at • ...• an E C of the form S = Lk,l Ak,18~? (the sum is necessarily finite).
(ii) j is a rational function. zero at infinity. and with poles contained in the set
{at •...• an}
(iii) ~(T) is an exponential polynomial of the form
~(T)(~) = L Pk(~)eakl;.
l:5k:sn
Pk polynomials.
(iv) There is a nonzero polynomial P E C[~] such that the product P . T = O.
10. In this exercise. for P E C[z] we shall denote by P* the polynomial P*(z) :=
P(Z). For two nonzero polynomials p. Q we shall study the bijectivity of the operator
Q(D)P: ,;t?(C) -+ ,;t?(C) given by Q(D)P(f) := Q(D)(Pf). Pf being the ordinary
multiplication of functions. 1m P denotes the image of the multiplication operator.
(a) Show that Q(D)P is injective if and only if 1m P n ker Q(D) = (OJ.
(b) Show that Q(D)P is surjective if and only if ,;t?(C) = 1m P ker Q(D). +
(Hint: Recall Q(D) is surjective.)
=
(c) Show that the condition deg P deg Q is necessary for the operator Q(D)P to be
bijective. Is the converse true?
(d) Consider the Fock space A 2 (C) of all functions
f E ,;t?(C) n L2 (C. ~e-11;12 dm) •
so that for f. g E A 2 (C) we have
(fIg) = ~ ( f(~)g(~)e-11;12 dm(~).

11: Jc
Show that if f E A 2(C) and P*(D)P(f) E A 2(C) also. then
(P*(D)Pflf) = IIPfl1 2 = ~ ( IP(D)f(~)12e-11;12 dm(~):

11: Jc
Conclude that P*(D)P is injective in A 2(C).
*(e) Show that P*(D)P is bijective in ,;t?(C). if and only if
Exp(C) = P* Exp(C) EEl (ker P(D) n Exp(C».
(This part of the exercise requires the use of duality and some properties that appear in
the next section.) The bijectivity of P*(D)P in Jt'(C) is called the Fischer problem, it
can be shown to be true. The corresponding problem in two or more variables has not
yet been solved (see [NS), [MerS), [MerY)).
*11. (a) Let T E Jt"(C) be carried by B(O, R), and define Tn E Jt"(C) by
T. '= "" (-l)i (T, zi) 8(j) 8 = 80 , n ~ 0.

n· ~ .,'
O:!ii:!in J.
Show that Tn -+ T weakly in Jt"(B(O, R». That is, for every I E Jt'(B(O, R», one has
lim (Tn, f)
n-+oo
= (T, f).
In what follows, K = K(T) and S is an analytic functional carried by L ~ aB(O, R).
(b) Show that if K ~ B(O, R)\L, then ST is a well-defined analytic functional carried
by K.
Define <II: Jt"(B(O, R» -+ Jt"(C) as follows. Let Tn be defined as in part (a),
then Dom(<II) := (T E Jt"(B(O, R): limn-+oo STn exists weakly in Jt"(C)} and <II(T) :=
limn-+oo ST, if T E Dom(<II).
(c) Show that if K n L = 0, then T E Dom(<II) and <II(T) = ST.
(d) Show that Dom(<II) is dense in Jt"(B(O, R». (Note that Jt"(B(O, R» ~ Dom(<II)
and Jt'(B(O, R» = (Jt"(B(O, R»)'. It follows that if h E Jt'(B(O, R) is orthogonal to
Jt"(B(O, R», then hIB(O, R) = 0, hence h == 0.)
(e) Define the transpose <III: Jt'(C) -+ Jt'(B(O, R», by Dom(<III) := (h E Jt'(C): T ~
<II(T)(h) is continuous on Dom(<II)}, and <II1(h)(T) = <II(T)(h). Show <III is well defined.
(f) If Dom(<III) =/: {OJ, show that for any h E Dom(<III)\{O} one has
(T, <II1(h) - Sh) = 0, "IT E Jt"(B(O, R».
Conclude that S = <III (h)/ h in a neighborhood of B(O, R). Show that S is a rational
function vanishing at infinity.
(g) Conversely, show that if S is a rational function vanishing at 00, then
Dom( <III) =/: {O}.
(h) Show that Dom(<III) =/: (OJ, if and only if ~(S) is an exponential polynomial with
frequencies in L, i.e.,
~(S)(~) = L Pk(neak~, ak E L, Pk E C[~).
°
l~j~m
12. Let I be holomorphic in the first quadrant, Q = {z: Rez > and Imz > OJ,
°
continuous in the closure and of exponential type, I/(z)1 ::::: Boe Bdzl for ZEn. Assume
further that for some constants c ~ 0, M ~ 0, A ~ one has
I/(iy)1 ::::: Aecy (for y ~ 0),
I/(x)1 ::::: M (for x ~ 0).
Show that
I/(x + iy)1 ::::: max(A, M)e cy ,
for all x ~ 0, y ~ 0. (Consider the auxiliary function g(z) := I(z)e icz • and use the
Phragmen - Lindelof principle.)
13. Let I be holomorphic in H = {z: Imz > OJ, continuous in ii, of exponential type
in ii, and such that: (i) hf < 00; and (ii) I/(x)1 :::: M for all x E JR. Show that
I/(x + iy)1 :::: M exp(hf(i)y),
for all x E JR, y 2: O.

14. Let Q be the first quadrant as in Exercise 12, I of exponential type in Q, I E
Je(Q) n C(Q), and such that: (i) hf(i) < 00; and (ii) K := limsupx_>+oo I/(x)1 < 00.
Prove that
lim sup I/(x + iy)1 :::: K exp(hf(i)y),
X~+OO
for 0 < y < 00. (Start by showing that for every e > 0 there is Ae > 0 such that I/(z)1 ::::
Ae exp«hf(i) + e)y). For fJ > 0, Xo » 1, and A > 0, consider
+ A)]/(z + xo) exp(i(hf(i) + e)z),
g(z) := [z/(z
where fJ > 0 and Xo » 1 are chosen so that I/(x)1 :::: K + fJ for x 2: Xo. First, prove that
limy-++ oo I(xo + iy) exp(i(hf(i) + e)(iy)) = 0 and show that for A conveniently chosen
one has Ig(iy)1 :::: K + fJ. Hence, I/(z + xo)1 :::: [Iz + AI/lzl](K + fJ)e(hj(i)+e)y, for x 2: 0,
Y 2: 0.)
15. Use the previous exercise to show that in the case K = 0, then
lim I(x
x-+-+oo
+ iy) = 0
uniformly for y in any compact subset of ]0,00[. (Use Montel's theorem.)
*16. The object of this exercise is the following. Let Q be a domain in C, h E

Je(Q)\{O}. We want to characterize those R E Je'(Q) such that the product hR = O.
(a) Recall £(C) is the Frechet space of Coo functions in the plane. We let (r, B)
represent the usual polar coordinates about z = O. Let E be the subspace of those I E
£(C) such that 1(0) = (aflar)(O) = O. Show that E is closed.
(b) Show that the map £ (C) --+ E given by I ~ r2 I is an isomorphism of topological
vector spaces. Fix a radial function X E V(C) such that X == I in a neighborhood of the
origin. Show that every I E £(C) can be written in a unique way as
1= r2g + (/(0) + ;, (o)r) X,

g E £(C), and I ~ g continuous.
(c) Show that for any S E £'(C), the equation r2T = S has a solution T E £'(C).
(d) For S E £'(C), the equation zT = S has a solution T in £'(C).
(e) Show that parts (c) and (d) hold when £'(C) is replaced by V'(C) throughout.
(t) Let Q be a domain in C, h E Je(Q)\{O}. Show that the equation hT = S has a
solution T E £'(Q). Prove the same statement in V'(Q).
(g) Prove that the sequence
0--+ Je(Q) ~ £(Q) ~ £(Q) --+ 0

and its transpose
0--+ £'(Q) ~ £'(Q) ~ Je'(Q) --+ 0
are exact. (Here i is the canonical injection and r the restriction map. See [BG, §3.6].)
(h) Let R E Je'(Q) be such that hR = 0, with h as in part (t). Choose T E £'(Q) such
that reT) = R and S E £'(Q) such that as/ai = hT. Further, choose Sl E £'(Q) such
that hS J = S. Prove that S2 := T - 8SJ/8i has compact support contained in the set of
zeros of h and, moreover, r(S2) = R.
(i) Show that for the analytic functional R from part (h), its Cauchy transform R is a
rational function. What can you say about R?
1.4. Vade Mecum of Functional Analysis

In this section we group together some basic results from functional analysis
concerning Frt!chet spaces and their duals, which we will use throughout this
book. We illustrate them by some elementary applications to topological vector
spaces of holomorphic functions. The reader will find the proofs and additional
material in [Hor], [Ja] , [Schae].
An LF-space is a strict inductive limit of an increasing sequence (En)n~l
of Frechet spaces, such that the topology of En is that induced by E n+ 1•
An £~-space is an inductive limit of a sequence of Frechet spaces.
An ultrabornological space is an inductive limit of a family of Frechet spaces
(not necessarily countable).
1.4.1. Proposition. Let E and F be two Hausdorff locally convex topological

vector spaces (Hausdorff LCTVS).lf the topology of E is weaker than a topology
of space £~ and if F is ultrabornological, then every continuous surjective linear
map of E onto F is open.
1.4.2. Proposition. Let E and F be two Hausdorff LCTVS. If E is ultra-

bornological and the topology of F is weaker than a topology of space £~, then
the necessary and sufficient condition for a linear map E --+ F to be continuous
is to have a closed graph.
1.4.3. Proposition. Let E be a complex vector space of complex valued functions

on a set X. There is at most one topology on E of space £~ which is stronger
than the topology of pointwise convergence.
Given a complex vector space E and a seminorm p on E we denote by

Ep the Banach space which is the completion of the quotient E/ker p, ker p =
{x E E: p(x) = OJ, ker p its closure.
If U is a convex balanced neighborhood of 0 in a LCTVS E, we denote by Pu
the gauge of U. If U and V are two such neighborhoods of 0 such that V ~ U
(hence Pu ~ Pv, ker Pv ~ ker Pu) one can consider the linear map Epv --+ Epu
defined by passing to the quotients the identity map.
1.4.4. Definitions.
(1) A Hausdorff LCTVS E is said to be a Schwartz space if for every convex
balanced neighborhood U of 0, there is another convex balanced neighbor-
hood V of 0 such that V ~ U and the map Epv --+ EPu is compact.
(2) An FS space is a Frechet space which is also a Schwartz space.

(3) A DFS space is a LCTVS, which is the strong dual of an FS space.
One can prove that any FS or DFS space is reflexive, and that the strong dual
of a DFS space is an FS space.
In particular, a DFS space is an C'J space.
1.4.5. Proposition.
(1) If E is a Schwartz space and F is a closed subspace of E, then F and E/ F
are Schwartz spaces.
(2) A product of Schwartz spaces is a Schwartz space.
(3) A countable inductive limit of Schwartz spaces is a Schwartz space.
1.4.6. Definition. A continuous linear map u: E ~ F between LCTVS is said

to be a homomorphism if the continuous linear map u: E / ker u ~ 1m u is
an isomorphism of LCTVS. A weak homomorphism means that the spaces are
endowed with the weak topology induced by their duals.
We now state a very useful proposition.
1.4.7. Proposition. Let E and F be two Frechet spaces, u: E ~ F a continuous

linear map. The following properties are equivalent:
(1) u is a homomorphism.
(2) u is a weak homomorphism.
(3) u has a closed image.
(4) u has weakly closed image.
(5) The transpose tu has a weakly closed image.
(6) tu is a weak homomorphism.
Ifin addition we assume E is reflexive, these six statements are equivalent to:
(7) tu has a strongly closed image.
If we also assume that E and Fare FS spaces, then the seven preceding
statements are equivalent to:
(8) tu is a strong homomorphism.
1.4.8. Proposition.
(1) Let Un: En+! ~ En be a sequence of compact linear maps between Frechet
spaces. The projective limit of the sequence (En)n~! is an FS space.
(2) Let Un: En ~ En+l be a sequence of compact linear maps between Frechet
spaces. The inductive limit of the sequence (En)n~l is a DFS space.
1.4.9. Proposition. The strong dual of a complete Schwartz space is ultra-

bornologic.
1.4.10. Proposition. Let E be an FS space or a DFS space and let F be a closed

subspace of E.
(a) E'I Flo, equipped with the quotient topology of the strong topology of E, is
isomorphic to the strong dual of F.
(b) Flo, equipped with the strong topology {J(FJ., ElF) is the strong dual of
ElF with the quotient topology. ({J(FJ., ElF) = topologogy induced by
{J(E', E).)
The following two propositions constitute the duality principle that underlies
the relation between Harmonic Analysis and Complex Analysis:
1.4.11. Proposition. If E and F are two Frechet spaces and u: E..-.+ F is a

continuous linear map, then the following three properties are equivalent:
(1) u is surjective.
(2) tu is injective with weakly closed image.
(3) Im(u) is a set of the second category of Baire.
If, moreover, tu is surjective, then u is injective.
1.4.12. Proposition. Let E and F be two FS spaces or two DFS spaces. In order
that a continuous linear map u: E ..-.+ F be an isomorphism of E onto 1m u, it is
necessary and sufficient that tu: F' ..-.+ E' be surjective.
The map tu is surjective if and only if u is injective and has a closed image.
To verify that 1m u is closed it is enough to show it is sequentially closed.
It is clear that the following result must be well-known but we have been
unable to find an explicit proof for it. The proof below was kindly provided by
Marcel Grange (Univ. Bordeaux I).
1.4.13. Proposition. Let E = lim En be an inductive limit of a sequence of

--+
Banach spaces En defined by the continuous linear maps Un: En ..-.+ E n+ l . For
every subspace F of E, its closure coincides with its sequential closure.
Proof. Let us denote by Vn the canonical maps Vn: En ..-.+ E. Let F be a subspace
of E. Denote by FI the set of elements x E E such that there is an integer n I ::: 1
and a sequence (Xj)j?:1 in En, with vn,(Xj) E F, (Xj)j::: 1 converging in En, to
a point x such that vn , (x) = x. Clearly FI ~ F. That is, FI is precisely the set
of sequential limits of F.
Let us assume there is an x E F\FI . If we consider the set (F - X)I defined
in a similar way with respect to the affine subspace F - x, we have (F - X)I =
FI - x and 0 r:j. (F - xh.
Let P = E\(F - x). We claim that P is bomivorous, i.e., for every n ::: 1
there is a An > 0 such that if y E En has norm less or equal to 1 in En, then
vn(y) E AnP.
If the claim were not true, there would be no ~ I and a sequence (Ym)m~l
of points in the unit ball of Eno such that vno(Ymlm) ¢ P. This means that
vno(Ymlm) E F - x. Hence, there are fm E F such that fm = x + vno(Ymlm).
Let nl ~ no and x E En, be such that vnl (x) = x. If we let Xm = X +
Vnl-lo'" oVno(Ymlm) E En" then Xm ~ x
in En, and vnl (x m) = fm E F. Since
x ¢ F1, we have a contradiction, therefore P is bornivorous.
The definition of bornivorous ensures that V;;l(p) is a neighborhood of 0 in
En for any n ~ 1. (In fact, it contains the ball of radius IrAn.) This means that
P is a neighborhood of 0 in the inductive limit E. Since x E F, we must have
F n (x + P) =j:. 13. Let Y E F n (x + P), then y - x E F - x, and also Y - x E
P. This is a clear contradiction with the definition of P. It follows that F = Fl,
which is what we wanted to prove all along. D
We proceed to apply some of these concepts to the spaces of holomorphic

functions.
1.4.14. Proposition. Let Q be an open subset of C. The space Jf(Q) of all

holomorphic functions in Q, considered with the topology of uniform convergence
on compact subsets ofQ, is a Frechet-Schwartz space.
Proof. Let no be a sufficiently large integer. If Q = C, let Kn = B(O, n) and,
if Q =j:. C, let Kn = {z E Q: d(z, QC) ~ lin} n B(O, n). The sequence (Kn)n~no
is an exhaustive sequence of compact subsets of Q. The topology of Jf(Q) is
defined by the seminorms (Pn)n~no:
Pn(f) = max
zeKn
If(z)l.
For every n ~ no, the natural map (Jf(Q»Pn+l ~ (Jf(Q»Pn is compact: it

is enough to see that if (hkh~l is a sequence in Jf(Q) bounded for the semi-
norm Pn+J. i.e., uniformly bounded on Kn+J. one can extract a subsequence
converging uniformly on Kn. This is the content of Montel's theorem (see [BG,
Theorem 2.2.8]). We repeat here the proof for the benefit of the reader. It is
enough to show the equicontinuity of (hkh~l on oKn' then apply the theorem
of Arzehi-Ascoli. We can construct a cycle /) in Kn+l \Kn such that for every
h E Jf(Q) and z E Kn we have
h(z) =~ [h(t) dt.
2m J8 t - z
Therefore, if z and ~ are in Kn we have
Ihk(z) - hk(~)1 ::: Mlz - n
with M any number bigger than
(
SUP
k>l
Ihk(W)I) ( sup - I
z.~eKn 21r
1
8
Idtl
It - zllt - ~I
)
weKn+ l
This proves the proposition. D

Let n be a convex open subset of C. According to Definition 1.3.12, the

space Exp(n) is the space of entire functions / of exponential type for which
there is a compact convex subset K of n (depending on f) such that
II/11K := supe-HK(z)I/(z)1 < 00.
zee
Let us denote by EXPK(n) the space of those entire functions / such that
II/11K < 00. It is easy to show that EXPK(Q), considered with the norm II . 11K,
is a Banach space. The convergence in this norm clearly implies the uniform
convergence on every compact subset of C. We have
Exp(n) = U EXPK(n).
K£;O
For any exhaustive sequence (Kn)n~l of compact convex subsets of n, we

can endow Exp(n) with the topology of inductive limit of the Banach spaces
K.<
Exp (2). This topology is finer than the topology of pointwise convergence. It
follows from Proposition 1.4.3 that this topology is independent of the sequence
of compact convex sets (Kn)n~l.
The space Jr'(n) is a DFS space. The Fourier-Borel transform J': Jr'(n) --+
Exp(n) is an isomorphism of vector spaces. Hence one can transport the DFS
topology of Jr'(Q) to Exp(Q). This provides us with another CJ'topology on
Exp(Q) which is finer than the topology of pointwise convergence: If (Ta) is
a filter of linear functionals in Jr' (n) which converges to zero, then for any
~ E C, J'Ta(~) converges to zero, since (Ta) clearly converges weakly to zero.
Therefore, this transported topology and the inductive limit topology introduced
before, coincide, and J': Jr'(n) --+ Exp(n) is an isomorphism of topological
vector spaces when Jr'(Q) is considered with the strong dual topology and
Exp(n) with the inductive limit topology.
Similarly, one can consider the space ~o(QC), defined in §1.3, as the inductive
limit of the FS spaces Jro(KC), where K is a compact convex subset of nand
Jro(KC) is the space of functions holomorphic in K C vanishing at 00. (It is a
closed subspace of Jr(KC).)
The C-transform C: Jr'«(2) --+ Jro(QC) is also bijective and the topology that
induces on Jro(n C) is finer than the CJ'topology of Jro(n C) as shown by the
representation formula of the analytic functional by elements of Jro(n C):
(T, h) = 21.
TO
r
iy
C(T)(z)h(z) dz.
(Recall C(T) = rr t.) Therefore, C is a topological isomorphism between Jr' «(2)

with the strong topology, and Jro(n C ) is the inductive limit of FS spaces. By
composition, the Borel transform B: Exp(n) --+ Jro(n C) is also a topological
isomorphism.
Another interesting space is the space Jr(K), K a compact subset of C,
which is by definition the inductive limit of the FS spaces Jr(w), w an open
neighborhood of K. It is in fact a DFS space, since we can limit ourselves
=
to open neighborhoods of the form V(K, lin) {z E C: d(z, K) < lin}, and
the restriction maps from Je(V(K, lin» into Je(V(K, 1/(n + 1))), which are
compact. It is easy to verify that, when K is compact and convex, the FS space
Je'(K) is isomorphic, via the Fourier-Borel transform, to the Frechet space
Exp(K) = {f E Exp(C): Vs > 0, 3Cg > 0 such that
If(z)1 :::: CgeHK(z)Hlzl for all z E q,
with the norms
qn(f) = ~~g (exp ( -HK(z) - I~I) If(Z)I)
Using the Cauchy transform, Je'(K) is isomorphic to the projective limit of

the Frechet spaces Jeo(W C ), w an open neighborhood of K. This isomorphism
does not require the compact K to be convex.
We conclude this section by proving the Paley-Wiener-Schwartz theorem
that characterizes the space F &' (JR) of Fourier transforms of distributions of
compact support as the space of entire functions satisfying certain growth condi-
tions. We will also prove the theorem of Ehrenpreis describing the topology of
&' (JR) in terms of the topology of that space of entire functions.
As we observed earlier any distribution fJ- E &' (JR) can be considered as an
analytic functional T carried by a compact subset of an interval] - a, a [ of the
real line, in fact, by supp(T) cc ] - a, a[. Since fJ- has finite order N it can be
represented as fJ- = I:f=l fJ-Y), fJ-j Radon measures, supp(fJ-j) cc ] - a, a[ and
so the fJ- is completely determined by its action on the space Je([ -a, a]), thus
fJ- 1-+ T is an injective map. By definition
FfJ-(~) = (fJ-x, e- ixS ) = JT(-i~),
so that F fJ- is an entire function and fJ- 1-+ F fJ- is injective. Moreover, from the
previous remark
= L( -i~)j (fJ-j, e-ix~)

N
FfJ-(~)
j=l
so that
Let us denote by PW the space of entire functions f satisfying an estimate

of the form
for some constants A, N, B 2: o. Clearly PW is an algebra under multiplication.

Recall that &' (JR) is also an algebra under convolution of distributions [Schw2].
1.4.15. Theorem (Paley-Wiener-Schwartz). The Fourier transform is a linear

isomorphism
F: &'(JR) -+ PW.
Moreover, if we consider t"(~) as convolution algebra then F is an algebra

isomorphism.
Proof. We have already shown that F is linear and injective. The fact that
F(/L * v) = F/L . Fv is well known. We need to recall that if Ob is the Dirac
mass at the point b E ~ then
= e-i~b,
JOb(~)
which implies that Fo = 1, where 0 = 00 = Dirac mass at 0 is the unit of t"(~)

under convolution. Moreover,
(F/L(j»(~) = (/L(j),e-ix~)
= (i~)j (/Lx. e-ix~)
= (ioj F/L(~).
More generally, if P is a polynomial then
(F (p (~) /L)) (0 = P(i~)F/L(O·

Now we are ready to prove the surjectivity of the Fourier transform. Let f E PW
so that
If f has no zero then we must have

f(~) = CeO:~
for some C, ex E C. The previous estimate implies that ex must be a pure imag-
inary number, say ex = -ib, b E ~, Ibl :s B. Thus f = F(COb). If f has only
finitely many zeros, then there is a polynomial q and an entire function g without
zeros such that
f =qg.
Let q have leading coefficient qo and degree n, then for some R > 0 sufficiently
large we have
if I~I ~ R.
This clearly implies that g E PW, in fact,

Ig(~)1 :s A'(1 + I~I)N eBllm~l.
From the previous remarks we conclude that f = F/L, JL = Cq((1j i) (djdx»ob'
C E C, b E ~, Ibl :s B.
Therefore, to conclude the proof we can assume f has infinitely many zeros.
Hence we can find a polynomial q of degree n = N + 2 dividing f. That is,
f = qg, and from (*) and (**) we get

(* * *) Ig(OI ~ A'(1 + 1~1)-2eBllm~l.
We are going to prove the existence of a continuous function ({J, supp«({J) £
[-B, B] such that g = :F({J. It will then follow that f = :FfJ" fJ, the distribution
q«I/ i)(d/dx»({J, supp(fJ,) £ supp«({J). But the function g restricted to the real
axis belongs to L 1(JR) n L 2(JR), so that if we use the classical theory of the
1 g(;)ei~t
Fourier transform we can choose
00
({J(t) := _1 d;,
2rr -00
so that ({J is continuous, bounded, and in L2(JR). In the L2-sense :F({J = g on R

We claim that supp«({J) £ [-B, B].
Let t > B, using the Cauchy theorem and the estimate (* * *) we see that for
any 7] > 0
({J(t) = -
1 l°O+
i '1
g(~)ei~t d~,
2rr -oo+i'1
so that
Im(t)1 A'
< _e(B-t)'1 l°O+ i '1 Id~ I
..,.. - 2rr -oo+i'1 (1 + I~ 1)2 .
Letting 7] -+ +co we see that ((J(t) = O. Similarly, for t < -B.

As supp«({J) £ [-B, B], :F({J is an entire function in PW which coincides
almost everywhere with g on the real axis. Thus :F({J = g everywhere. This
concludes the proof. D
Let us remark that we have also shown in this proof that when f satisfies (*)
then f = :FfJ" supp(fJ,) £ [-B, B].
We can introduce in the space PW the topology of the inductive limit of the
Banach, spaces PWn , n E N*,
PWn := {f E Jt'(C): II f IIn:= sup(lf(Ole-nllmsl(1 + I~I)-n) < co}.

sEiC
On the other hand, the space £ (JR) is an FS space so that it is reflexive and £1 (JR)
is DFS. As a consequence of Proposition 1.4.12 we now obtain the following
result:
1.4.16. Theorem (Paley-Wiener-Schwartz-Ehrenpreis). The Fourier trans-

form :F is a topological isomorphism between £1 (JR) and PW.
A similar proof shows that

:F(V(JR» = {f E Jt'(C): 3A > 0, "IN> 0: sup(1 + Izl)N e-Allmzllf(z)1 < co}.
The description of a topology in :F(V(JR» that makes the Fourier transform
an isomorphism is a bit more complicated than that of PW. It can be found
in [EhS].
In the following chapter we will introduce the spaces Ap(iC) of entire

functions. For the choice pel;) = I Im~1 + 10g(1 + I~I) we have Ap(iC) = PW,
including coincidence of topologies.
1.5. Convolution of Analytic Functionals

In this section we define the convolution of two analytic functionals and study
the elementary properties of this operation.
1.5.1. Definition. Let Q be a convex open set and let T be an analytic functional
whose convex support is the compact convex set K. For any I holomorphic in
the convex open set Q + K, the function T * I is defined by
(T * f)(z) = (T~, I(~ + z)}(z E Q)
is called the convolution of I and T.
1.5.2. Proposition. The lunction T *I is hoiomorphic in Q.

Proof. If Q i= C, e > 0, let Q-s := {z E Q: d(z, QC) > e}, if Q = C, then let
Q- s := C. For any e > 0 we can show that T * I is holomorphic in Q-s,
just simply represent T by a measure f.L with compact support contained in
V(K, e) = {z E C: d(z, K) < e} and apply Morera's theorem to the function
(T * f)(z) = r
iV(K,S)
I(z + l;) df.L(~),
which is defined in ~Ls' o
1.5.3. Proposition. The map T*: ;f(Q + K) --+ ;f(Q) given by I 1-+ T *I is
linear and continuous.
Proof. If L is a compact convex subset of Q and e > 0 is chosen sufficiently
small so that L S; Q-s, we represent T by a measure f.L of compact support in
V(K, e), then
sup IT
zEL
* l(z)1 ::: ( sup
wEL+V(K,e)
I/(W)I) (riV(K,e)
dlf.Ll) . 0
From this proposition we conclude that the transpose
is also continuous. For S E ;f'(Q), I(T*)(S) E ;f'(Q + K) is defined by

on functions f E Je'(Q + K). It is standard to denote it by T * S so that

T * S := I(T*)(S),
and call it the convolution of T and S. The question that arises immediately is
*
whether T S is well defined for any two analytic functionals, independent of
the choice of the open convex set Q for which the convex support K(S) S; Q.
Since Q + K is convex, Je"(Q + K) can be considered as a subset of Je"(C),
i.e., the analytic functional I(T*)(S) is therefore completely determined by its
value on entire functions f. In that case, T * f is entire, and the value (S, T * f)
is then independent of Q.
1.5.4. Definition. The convolution T * S of any two analytic functionals T and

S is defined by (T * S, f) := (S, T * f) for all f E Je'(C).
Since the Fourier-Borel transform is injective, this proposition can also be
proved using the following one, which also helps to clarify the relation between
I(T*)(S) and I(S*)(T).
1.5.5. Proposition. For any two functionals Sand T, we have :&(T * S) =

:&(T):&(S). In particular, h:F(T*s) :::: h:F(T) + h:F(s),
Proof. By definition
:F(T * S)(~) = {(T * S)z, eZ~) = {Sz, (Tw * eW~)(z»)
={Sz. (Tw. e(z+w)~))
= {Sz, eZ~ (Tw, eW~))
= {Sz, :&(T)(~)eZ~)
=:&(T)(~){Sz, eZ~) = :&(T)(~) . :&(S)(~).
The second statement follows from
log I:&(T * S)I = log I:&(T)(~)I + log I:&(S)(~)I. o
We note that it follows from this proposition that for T =j: 0 the map
T *: Je" (C) -+ Je" (C) is injective. Other properties are summarized in the
following statement:
1.5.6. Corollary. The convolution of analytic functionals is commutative and

associative. Moreover, Je"(C) is a unitary ring with unit the Dirac delta at the
origin, and without zero divisors.
Proof. It is left to the reader. o
1.5.7. Proposition. If S is carried by the compact convex set Land K(T) = K,
then T * S is carried by K + L. In particular, the convex support C of T * S is
contained in K + K 10 where K 1 is the convex support of S.
Proof. It is an immediate corollary of Proposition 1.3.5 and Theorem 1.3.2.

Namely,
°
We recall from § 1.3 that an analytic functional T =1= is a differential operator
of infinite order if and only if K(T) = {OJ. (More precisely, T can be identified
to such an operator.) In this case
K(T * S) = K(S)
for any analytic functional S.
An important property of the convolution is the following:
1.S.S. Proposition. For any nonzero analytic functional T, the map

T*: Jr(C) ~ Jr(C) is surjective.
Proof. From Propositions 1.4.7 and 1.4.12 we know that the present state-
ment is equivalent to the two properties that T*: Jr'(C) ~ Jr'(C) is injective
and has a sequentially closed image. The first condition follows from Corol-
lary 1.5.6 to prove the second condition, we use the fact mentioned in 1.4, that
the Fourier-Borel transfonn is a topological isomorphism between Jr' (C) and
Exp(C). Suppose that we have a sequence of analytic functionals (Sj)j, and an
*
analytic functional S such that T Sj ~ S. Then ~(T)~(Sj) ~ ~(S) in Exp(C)
and in particular, unifonnly over compact sets. Therefore, the entire function
~(S) vanishes at all the zeros of ~(T), with at least the same multiplicity. Hence,
f := ~(S)/~(T) is an entire function. Lindelof's theorem [BG, §4.5.7] ensures
that f is of exponential type. We conclude that there is an analytic functional
R such that ~(R) = f and, hence,
'J(R)'J(T) = 'J(S),
in other words, S = T * R. o
It is not generally true that if Q is a convex open set, K = K(T) =1= 0, then
T*: Jr(Q + K) ~ Jr(Q) is surjective. It depends on more subtle properties of
the function ~(T).
1.5.9. Definitions.
(1) A measurable subset E ~ [0, oo[ is said to be of relative zero measure
if
. ml(E
11m n [0, rD
=0,
' ..... 00 r
where m I denotes the Lebesgue measure on the real line ~.
(2) Let <p be a function, defined on ]0, 00[, for which there is a set E of
relative zero measure such that the limiting value of <p(r), when r ~ 00 while
r f/ E, exists. We denote this value by lim;..... 00 <p(r). (Note that this value is
independent of the exceptional set E.)
(3) Let f be an entire function of exponential type. We say f has a completely

regular growth if there is a set E of relative zero measure such that for each
e, 0::: e < 21l',
h (e ifJ ) = lim * log If(re )1
ifJ
I r~oo r
and, furthermore, these limits are uniform in e.
We refer the reader to [Lev, Chapter 3] for the properties functions of
completely regular growth.
1.5.10. Proposition. If f has completely regular growth and g is an arbitrary

entire function of exponential type, then
hlg = hi + hg.
Proof. It is left to the reader. D
1.5.11. Corollary.If g is ofcompletely regular growth and f is an entire function

of exponential type such that fig is entire, then
hflg = hi - hg •
Proof. It follows from the fact that fig is an entire function of exponential type.
D
1.5.12. Proposition. Let T be an analytic functional whose convex support is K

and such that \J(T) has completely regular growth. Then,for every convex open
*
set n, the map f t-+ T f from ~(n + K) into ~(n) is surjective. Moreover,
*
every solution f of the equation T f = 0, f E ~(n + K), is the limit of a
sequence of exponential polynomials of the form
L pj(z)eUjZ ,
l~j~m
where each (Xj is a zero of ~(T) of multiplicity mj and Pj is a polynomial of

degree::: mj - 1. Each term of this sum is an element ofker(T*).
Proof. It is easy to see that for ~ E C fixed and u E C* the functions z t-+
(e(/;+u)z - e/;Z)/u converge in ~(q to z t-+ ze/;z as u ~ O. Therefore,
~~(T)(~) = lim ~(T)(~ + u) - ~(T)(~)
d~ u~o u
. ( e(/;+u)z _ e/;z )
=hm Tz , - - - -
u~o u
= (Tz, ze/;Z).
More generally,
Hence, if a is a zero of multiplicity m of ~(T) we have

O::;j::;m-1.
We claim that the entire functions T * (zj eaz ) vanish identically when 0 ::; j ::;
m - 1. In fact,
(Tzo (z + ~)j ea(zH») = L (~) (Tz, zkeaz)~j-kea{,

O=:;k=:;j
and the coefficients of the last sum vanish identically when 0 ::; j ::; m - 1.
This shows that all the exponential polynomials appearing in the statement of
this proposition lie in the kernel of T*. Let us denote
V := (f E Je(Q + K): T *f = O},
the kernel of T* as a map from Je(Q + K) into Je(Q), and
N := span{zjeaz : ~(T)(a) = 0,0::; j ::; m - 1, m = multiplicity of a}.
Then N ~ V, and we want to show that when N denotes the closure of N in

Je(Q + K), then N = V.
By the Hahn-Banach theorem it is enough to show that if f.L E Je'(Q + K)
vanishes on N, then it vanishes on V. From the above considerations we know
that f.L vanishing on N implies that ~(f.L) vanishes at every zero a of ~(T) with
at least the same multiplicity as ~(T) does. Therefore,
~(f.L) = ~(T)g,
where g is an entire function of exponential type. Since ~(T) has completely

regular growth we have that
hg = h;f(/L) - h;f(T)'
Any compact subset of Q + K is contained in a set of the form K + L, for

some compact convex subset L of Q. If f.L is carried by K + L, then
hg ::; HK+L - HK = HL,
which shows that g = ~(R), R E Je'(Q), R carried by L and f.L = T * R.
If f E V, then
Hence N = V.
To show the surjectivity of T* onto Je(Q), we have to show that
I(T*): Je'(Q) ~ Je'(Q) is injective and has a closed image. The injectivity
*
is part of Corollary 1.5.6, since I(T*)(f.L) = T f.L. Furthermore, the preceding
=
computations show that Im(I(T*» Nl., which proves that Im(I(T*» is closed
in Je'(Q + K). 0
As examples of analytic functionals satisfying the preceding conditions we

have:
(i) First, T = P(o) = LO::::j::::n(-I)jajo(j) is a linear differential operator with

constant coefficients of order n, P(z) = LO::::j::::n ajz j ,
T * f = anf(n) + ... +aof.

(ii) More generally, if P(z) = Lj:::oajz j is an entire function of exponential
type zero, then
T = P(o) = L(-l) j ajo(j)
j?:O
operates on any Je(Q), Q an convex open set in C, by
T *f = Laj/(j).
j?:O
Here we have P = J(T), T has convex support {O}, and h p == O. It follows
from [Lev, Chapter 3] that P has completely regular growth.
We shall see in Chapter 3 that all the exponential polynomials have completely
regular growth, hence Proposition 1.5.12 applies to any T that is a linear combi-
nation of the derivatives of Dirac point masses.
Let us remark that the last part of the proof of Proposition 1.5.12 can be
easily modified to obtain the following result.
1.5.13. Proposition. Let T be a nonzero analytic functional, then the linear

combinations of the functions zk eaz , where ex is a zero of J(T) of multiplicity m
and 0 :::: k :::: m - I, are dense in the space of all the entire solutions f of the
equation T * f = O.
EXERCISES 1.5.
1. Prove in detail Corollary 1.5.6. In particular, discuss the meaning of the identity
t(S*)(T) = t(T*)(S), when a priori t(S*), t(T*) depend on an open convex set S'2 and
the convex supports K and L of Sand T, respectively.
2. Prove Corollary 1.5.10.
3. Show that if P(z) is a nonzero polynomial, cx E C, T E Je'(C). then T *
(P(z)e'XZ) == 0 implies that ~(T)(~) vanishes at ~ = cx. with multiplicity ~ deg P.
More generally, show that if 1 is an exponential polynomial with frequencies CXj.
I(z) = Ll::::j::::n Pj(z)e ajt • and T * 1 = O. then v(~(T), CXj) ~ deg Pj , 1 .:::: j .:::: n, where
v(~(T), CXj) is the order of CXj as zero of ~(T). Prove Proposition 1.5.13.
4. Prove that if S'2 is a convex open subset of C and P(D) is a nonzero infinite
order differential operator with constant coefficients, then P(D): Je(S'2) --+ Je(S'2) is an
open map.
*5. (Theorem of Cramer-P6Iya.) Let 1 be a function holomorphic in an open set
S'2 that contains the half-plane {z: Rez > a}. Let us assume that in that half-plane the
function 1 is represented by a Dirichlet series
I(z) = Lane-Ant
n;::O
with abscissa of convergence U c ~ a (see [BO, §5.2.l2]). Let T be an analytic functional

carried by a convex compact set K, b = sup{lzl: Z E K}, and let g = ~(T). Show that
the abscissa of convergence u;
of the Dirichlet series
cp(z) := L ang(An)e-).'z
n2:0
satisfies U c ~ a + b. Moreover, the function cp has an analytic continuation to the

unbounded component U of (K + nC)c.
(Hint: Show that Z E U ~ (T~, I(z - ~») is holomorphic.)
6. (a) Let n = B(O, .,fi), and let a(z) := sinz/z, fJ(z) := sinhz/z. Show that a, fJ E
Exp(n), a, fJ have not common zeros, and afJ ¢ Exp(n).
(b) For n E N*, let r n be the contour in Figure 1.3 below.
Show that the function In defined by
r eZw
In(z):= Jr. a(w)fJ(w) dw
is entire.
(c) Show that the sequence (fnk~_l converges in Jf(n) to the function I given by
r eZw
I(z):= Jr a(w)fJ(w) dw,
where r is the infinite contour of Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
(d) Let T and S be the analytic functionals such that :F(T) = a and :F(S)(~) =
a(~)/(~ - n). Show that S E .}t"(O) and
(S, f) =
r/ eZW
Jr \ S" a(w){J(w)
) 2ni
dw = (J(n)·
Conclude that f :f:. O.

(e) Prove that for n :::: 1
(T * fn)(~) = Jr.
r e~w
(J(w) dw,
and deduce from this formula that for I~ I < ~ one has
(T * f)(~) = lim (T * fn)(~) = O.

n~oo
Conclude that T * f = O.
(f) Prove that if R is the analytic functional such that :F(R) = {J, then R * f = O.
7. Let v E C, Re v > - ~, and let Tv be the analytic functional defined by the measure
Xv, of support [-1, 1] ~ JR,
for -1::::;t::::;1.
Compute explicitly F(Tv ) and show these functions are of completely regular growth,
by applying directly the definition given in the text. (Hint: Look up the definition of the
Bessel function in a table, for example, in [GR].)
8. Let T = 8_ 1 + L i + 81 + 8i , compute F(T) and show directly it is a function of
9. Show that if E ~ [0, oo[ has finite Lebesgue measure then it has zero relative
measure.
10. Prove that a function f e Exp(C) is an exponential polynomial if and only if its
Borel transform B(f) is a rational function. Show that the coefficients of this exponential
polynomial are constant if and only if the poles of B(f) are simple. What do these
characterizations mean in terms of the analytic functional T and of its Cauchy transform
f, where f = F(T).
= =
11. Let g F(T) and h F(S), T e .1'('(B(O, .» and S e .1'('(B(O, u». Let B(g),
B(h), and B(f) be the Borel transforms of g, h, and f := gh. Show that, for any E > 0,
B(f)(w) = ~ { B(g)(~)B(h)(w - ~)d~,

2Jl'1 JI~I=T+S
for any w such that Iwl > • + u + E.
12. Assume that f is an exponential polynomial, g is an exponential sum (i.e., expo-
nential polynomial with constant coefficients), and that h = fig is an entire function.
(a) Show that h is an entire function of exponential type such that if B(g) has poles
at 13 t. ... , 13m, then
B(f)(w) = L bjB(h)(w - f3j),
l~j::::m
for Iw I sufficiently large, where

bj := Res(B(g), f3j).
(b) We assume from now on that B(h) is holomorphic for Iwl > R > 0, and that it
has at least one singularity on Iwl = R. We assume also that RI is such that B(h) is
meromorphic for Iwl > RI and there is a singularity on Iwl = R I . Up to a change of
variables, we can assume this singularity occurs for w = R I •
Let us enumerate the poles f3j in a decreasing order for the lexicographic order. (That
is, Z -< ZI is equivalent to either Rez < Rezl or, if Rez = Rezt. then Imz < ImZI')
Show that RI -< RI + (131 - f3i) and that RI + (131 - f3i) is exterior to B(O, R I ) for
i = 2, ... ,n. Conclude that
(i = 2, ... , m)
is meromorphic in a neighborhood of R + 131.
(c) Show that
where is meromorphic in a neighborhood of RI + 131. Hence, w = RI is at most a

polar singularity for B(h).
(d) Conclude that there is R2 < R such that B(h) is meromorphic in Iwl > R2.
(e) Conclude that B(h) is a rational function and that h is an exponential polynomial.
(This is a generalization of a theorem of Ritt that can be found in [Shi], see also Chapter 3
below.)
1.6. Analytic Functionals on the Unit Circle

In this section we denote by D the disk B(O, 1) = {z E C: Izl < I}, and by
11' = aD the unit circle. Recall that we denote V (11') , the space of infinitely
differentiable functions on 11', i.e., Coo functions of a single real variable, which
are 21l' -periodic. The Fourier coefficients of the functions f in V(lI') are char-
acterized by their fast decrease.
llf
cn = cn(f) = 2~ fo21r f(t)e- int dt (n E Z),
then, for every integer k E N* we have
as Inl -+ 00.
The dual V' (11') of the space V(lI') is the space of distributions on the circle
11'. Recall that Je'(1I'), the sPi1ce of holomorphic functions on 11', is the inductive
limit
Je'(1I') = lim Je'(Q),
~
over all open subsets Q of C containing 11'. This space is considered with the
corresponding inductive limit topology and is an C'J space. One can verify
that Je'(1I') £ V(lI') and is dense. The elements T of Je"(1I') will be called
analytic functionals on 11' or hyperfunctions on 11'. (An older terminology
is hyperdistributions on 11'.) As was the case for the hyperfunctions on JR, this
generalization of the distributions on 11' will allow us to attribpte to an arbi-
trary holomorphic function in D a boundary value, something that could only
have been done for functions of moderate growth if we would have wanted the
boundary values to lie in V'(lI'). As an application we will give the characteriza-
tion of all the eigenfunctions of the hyperbolic Laplacian (or Laplace-Beltrami
operator) in D as integrals of powers of the Poisson kernel multiplied by
hyperfunctions on 11'. There are just not enough distributions on 11' to solve
this problem.
We start by characterizing the elements of Je'(1I').
1.6.1. Proposition. Let f be a continuous function on 11' and let
cn = ~ [27r f(eifJ)e-infJ dO,

21l' Jo
n EN, be the sequence of its Fourier coefficients. The following properties are
equivalent:
1
(i) f E Je'(1I') (i.e., f is the restriction to 11' of a holomorphic function defined
in some annulus r2 < Izl < rl, 0 :::: r2 < 1 < r1 :::: (0).
(ii) f is the sum of the restrictions to 11' of two functions 11
E Je'(D) and E 12
Je'o(C\D).
(iii) There is 0:::: a < 1 such that Icnl = O(a lnl ).

(iv) f E V('JI') and there is an M > 0 such that
1 IIf(k) 112
IIfIl2.M = sup Mk k' < 00,
k"':O .
where II . 112 denotes the norm in L2('JI', dB).
(v) f E V('JI') and there is an L > 0 such that
1 IIf(k)lIoo
IIflloo.L = sup Lk k' < 00,
k"':O .
where II . 1100 denotes the norm in Loo('JI', dB).
Furthermore, if f satisfies these conditions, the functions ]1 and h of (ii) are
-
unique and given by
1
1
fl(z) = -1. -few) ~cnz n,
- d w = '"' Izl :::: 1,
27r1 n"':O
= -. 1
Yl W - Z
-
h(z) 1 -few)
-dw ~cnz n,
= '"' Izl ::: 1,
27r1 ~ W - Z n<O
where YI, Y2 are two positively oriented circles centered at the origin of radii PI,
P2 such that r2 < P2 < 1 < PI < rl·
Proof. (1) The equivalence of (i) and (ii), and the fonnulas for ]1 and h
follow immediately from the properties of the Laurent development of f. The
uniqueness of ]1 and h can be seen as follows: If ]1 + = gl + g2 on 'JI', h
with ]1, g1 E Jff(D), h, g2 E Jffo(C\D), then the function g1 = g2 - ]2 h-
on 'JI' is the restriction of an entire function which vanishes at 00. Hence it is
identically zero by Liouville's theorem.
(2) The equivalence of (i) and (iii) follows from Hadamard's fonnula for the
radii of convergence of the two series
and
(The second one is a series in 1/z.)

(3) Let us show that (iii) implies (iv). First, if the sequence Cn tends to zero
when n -+ ±oo as a geometric series of ratio a, 0:::: a < 1, then, afortiori, it is
of fast decrease and hence f E V('JI'). Furthennore, the derivatives with respect
to B are given by
f(k)(e iO ) = LCin)kcneinO.
neZ
Therefore
neZ n"':O
:::: c L:(n + 2k)(n + 2k - 1) ... (n + I)(a 2)n

n~O
(2k)!
:::: C (1 _ (2)2k+l .
Hence
( 1If(k)112)l
/ k = ((J(2k)!)l/k) =
k! 0 k! 0(1),
by Stirling's formula. This proves (iv).

(4) Let us show that (iv) implies (v).
If g is of class C 1, 2:7l' -periodic, one has
""
IIglloo :::: L..J Icn(g)1 = Ico(g)1 + "" Icn(g')1
L..J -In-I-
neZ neZ'
:::: 2~ 11"
o
2
g(O)dOI + L nI2
( ) 1/2 (
neZ'
L:
neZ
Icn(g')1 2
) 1/2
:::: A 1<11g112 + IIg'II2),

for some constant AI> 0 independent of g. If g = f(k), then the above estimate
yields
IIf(k)lIoo < A (lIf(k)1I2 Ilf(k+l)1I2)
k! - 2 k! + k!
:::: A3(Mk + (k + I)Mk+l) :::: A4(2M)k,
for some A4 > O.
(5) Let us show that (v) implies (i).
Assume IIflloo.L < 00. Consider the Taylor development of 0 ~ f(e i9 ) near
a point 00 E [0, 2:7l']. The Lagrange formula for the remainder of order k shows
that this remainder is majorized by
10(; :O~:;1 If(k+l)(~)1 :::: C(IO _ OoIL)k+l,

which tends to zero if 10 - 001 < 1/ L. This shows that f has a Taylor series
expansion near each point of'll'. This proves that it is the restriction to 'll' of a
function holomorphic in a neighborhood of 'll'.
The proposition has been therefore proved. 0
1.6.2. Definition. The pair (It. h) E .;E'(D) x .;E'o(C\D) is called the

Fantappie transform of f E .;E'('ll').
We can now show that the topology of .;E'('ll') can be characterized in different
ways.
1.6.3. Proposition. On Jt"(1l') the following topologies coincide:

(i) The topology of the inductive limit of spaces Jt"(U), U an open subset ofC
containing 1l'.
(ii) The topology whose images by the F antappie transform f H- (11, is h)
the product topology of Jt"(D) x Jt"o(C\D), each of the factors considered
with its natural CF topology.
(iii) The topology whose image, by the Fourier transform f H- (Cn(f))nEZ onto
the space H of sequences (cn)nEzfor which there is an a E [0, 1[ such that
sUPnEz(lcn I/a lnl ) < 00, is the inductive limit of the Banach spaces
(iv) The topology of the inductive limit on the index M > 0 of the Banach spaces
H2,M(1l') := {f E Jt"(1l'): Ilf112,M < oo}.
(v) The topology of the inductive limit on the index L > 0 of the Banach spaces
Hoo,d1l') := {f E Jt"(1l'): Ilflloo,L < oo}.

Proof. All these are CF topologies, which are stronger than the topology of
pointwise convergence on 1l', hence, Proposition 1.4.3 can be used to obtain the
desired result. D
1.6.4. Proposition. The space Jt"(1l') is a subspace dense of'O(1l').

Proof. The trigonometric polynomials Lljl::::n ajz j are elements of Jt"(1l') and
they are already dense in 'O(1l'). D
1.6.5. Proposition. The Fourier series LnEZ Cn (f)zn converges to f in Jt"(1l').

Proof. Namely, let 0 < a < 1 be such that c = sUPn(lcnl/a lnl ) < 00. Choose {3,
a < {3 < 1. We have
Icn(f)1 = Icn(f)1 (~)Inl < c (~)N if Inl::: N.

{3lnl a lnl {3 - {3
Therefore, the remainder gN of order N of the Fourier series of f:
gN(Z) = f(z) - L cn(f)zn (z E 1l')

Inl::::N
tends to zero in Hf3 as N ~ 00. D
1.6.6. Remark. Jt"(1l') is an algebra under multiplication. As a consequence

one can show that if f E Jt"(1l') and g is holomorphic on the range of f, i.e.,
g E Jt"(f(1l')), then gof E Jt"(1l'). (It can also be proved directly.)
1.6.7. Example. The Poisson kernel as an element of Jf (1I').

Let re icp E D be fixed. The Poisson kernel is the function of b = eiB E 1I'
given by
. 1 - r2 1 - r2
P(re'CP, b) = Ib - . = 1 + r2 -
re'CPl2 2rcos(O - q;)
.
It is an analytic function of b E 1I'. In fact, it is the restriction to 1I' of the product
1 - r2 z
z - re icp I - zre- icp ,
and these two functions are holomorphic in r < Izl < l/r. Using the partial frac-
tion decomposition of this product, one finds the Fantappie transform (PI, P2 )
of P:
(Izl > r),
on Izl = 1.
Hence, the Fourier series of P is given by
P(re icp , eiB ) = Lrlnle-incpeinB.

neZ
Now let f.J. E C be a fixed value, and keep re icp E D also fixed. Since
P(re icp , b) > 0 for bE 1I', the function w ~ wI-' which takes the value 1 at
w = 1 is well defined on the range of P. By Remark 1.6.6, we have that
b ~ (P(re icp , b))1-' is also in Jf(1I'). We denote pl-'(z, b) := (P(z, b))l-'.
The computation of the explicit Fourier series development of pI-' can be
found in [Er]:
pl-'(re icp , eiB ) = Lan(r)e-incpeinB,
neZ
with
r(f.J. + In!)
a (r)
n
= (1 - r2)l-'rlnl F(ll
r(f.J.)r(lnl + 1) ,.",.,
+ Inl', 1 + Inl'" r 2 )
II.
where
. .z _ r(c) ' " r(a + n)r(b + n) zn
F(a, b, c, ) - r(b)r(a) L...Jo r(c + n) n!
n~
is the hypergeometric function [Er].

We are going now to study the analytic functionals on 1I'. Since Jf(1I') is dense
in V(1I') and has a stronger topology, every distribution on 1I' can be identified
to an analytic functional, i.e., V'('ll') s;;; Jf'('ll'). For instance, if h E LI('ll'), then
(Th, f) = ~ ( h(b)f(b) db = _1 (27r h(ei())f(ei())e i() dO

2rrl J.Jf 2rr 10
defines an analytic functional Th •
For every n E Z and z f/. 'll' the functions b ~ b n and b ~ l/(b - z) are
elements of Jf('ll'). Hence the following definition makes sense:
1.6.8. Definition. Let T E Jf' ('ll'). For every n E Z the number

cn(T) = (T, b-n- I )
is called the nth Fourier coefficient of the analytic functional T. The fonnal
series
is called the Fourier series of T.

Note that if T = Th , hELl ('ll', dO), then this definition coincides with the
usual one.
1.6.9. Definition. For T E Jf' ('ll'), the Fantappie transform of T is the pair
(ii, T2) defined by
TI(z) := _1_)
(Tb' b-z (Izl < 1),
T2(z) := (Tb' z ~ b) (Izl > 1).
Thus, T, = -rrT = -C(T), inside D, and T2 = rrT = C(T), outside D. If

T = Tf' with f E Jf('ll') we recover the previously defined Fantappie transfonn
(iI, h). (We have used the notation Tb to indicate that T acts on the variable b.)
(1) The map T ~ (TI' T2) is an isomorphism of topological vector spaces
between Jf'('ll') and Jf(D) x Jfo(C\D). Furthermore,
TI (z) = ( Tb , b ~ z) = L cn(T)zn (Izl < 1),

n~O
(Izl > 1).
(2) The map T ~ (cn (T))nez is an isomorphism of topological vector spaces

between Jf'('ll') and the space if' of sequences (an)nez such that for every
r E [0, 1[ the series Lnez Ian Irlnl converges (i.e., the dual of Ii).
(3) Let T E Jf'(T) and f E Jf(T), we have

(T, f) = l:>-<n+,)(T)cn(f)
nel.
= -. 11- -
27l'1 Y2
T2(z)f,(z)dz + -. 11--
27l'1 YI
T,(z)h(z)dz,
where Y2 (resp. Yl) is a circle of center 0, radius> 1 (resp. < 1) of index 1

with respect to 0, contained in the domain of holomorphy of (resp. iz). il
Proof. Even though these statements can be deduced from the general case of
spaces Jf(K) given earlier, we are going to give here a direct proof for this
particular case. We leave it to the reader to verify the topological part of the
statements.
Let f E Jf(T), its Fourier series L.nel. Cn(f)b n converges to f in Jf(T).
Hence, if T E Jf' (T) we have
(T, f) = Lcn(f)(T, b n )
nel.
= LCn(f)c-<n+l)(T),
nel.
which proves the first part of statement (3).
If Izl < 1 is fixed, we have 1/(b - z) = L.n>O znb- n- 1, the series is conver-
gent in Jfo(C\D) and hence in Jf(T). Similarly~if Izl > 1, we have 1/(z - b) =
L.n>O z-nbn- 1 , this series is convergent in Jf(D), hence also in Jf(T).
Therefore, if Izl < 1 we have
Tl(Z) = (T, b ~ z) = L
n~O
zn(T, b-n- 1 ) =L
n~O
cn(T)zn
and, if Izl > 1, one has
T2(Z) = / T,
\
_1_) =
z-b
Lz-n(T,b n- 1 ) = Lc-n(T)z-n.
n>O n>O
This shows the proposed expansions for T" T2 are correct and that (T" T2)
belongs to Jf(D) x Jfo(C\D). Moreover, these series have a radius of
convergence ~ 1, hence for any r E [0, 1[ one has
L Icn(T)lr 1nl < 00.

nel.
Since (bn)nel. is a total set in Jf(T), the map T f-+ (c n(T»nel. is injective.
Hence, also the map T f-+ (T" T2) is injective.
The main thing left to prove is the surjectivity in (1). Let (S" S2) be an
element of Jf(D) x Jfo(C\D). The map
f f-+ -1.
27l'1
1 !I-
Y2
S2 (z) (z) dz + -.
1
27l'1
1 -
YI
Sl (z)h(z) dz
is well defined, and represents an analytic functional T E Je'('Il'). Its Fantappie

transform is given by
- = ( 1) = 11
T j (z) Tb, -b- -2' dw
Sj (w)-- = Sj (z) if Izl < 1,
- = ( z-b1) = -.11
- Z 7r1 YI W - Z
T2(z) Tb, - - dw
S2(W)-- = S2(Z) if Izl > 1,
2m Y2 z-w
these computations are justified using the uniqueness of the Fantappie pair
associated to b t-+ 1/(b - z), Izl < 1 and Izl > 1, respectively, and the Cauchy
representation formula. Hence, ij = Sj, j = 1, 2, which proves both the surjec-
tivity in (1) as well as the relation in (3). The surjectivity in (2) follows from
the relations between the two transforms. 0
1.6.11. Definition. Let T E Je' ('JI') and (Tj , T2) be its Fantappie transform. The
Fantappie decomposition of T is the pair (T\, T2) of elements in Je' ('JI') defined
by the fact that the Fantappie transform of T\ is (T\, 0) and that of T2 is (0, T2).
We say that T\ is the boundary value of the holomorphic function T\ E Je(D)
and that T2 is the boundary value of the holomorphic function T2 E Jeo(C\D).
Since T = T\ + T2, the Fantappie decomposition induces the direct sum

decomposition Je' ('JI') = Je; ('JI') E9 Je; ('JI'), where Je; ('JI') is the space of
boundary values of functions holomorphic in D, and where Je; ('JI') is the space
of boundary values of functions holomorphic in C\D that vanish at 00.
One can, in fact, develop a theory of hyperfunctions on 'JI' entirely parallel
to the theory of hyperfunctions on IR. and construct a flabby sheaf over the real
analytic manifold 'JI' called the sheaf of hyperfunctions. The global sections of
this sheaf are precisely the analytic functionals on 'JI'. In particular, an analytic
functional on 'JI' has a support, which is exactly the complement of the open
subset of 'JI' where the two holomorphic functions T\ and - T2 are the analytic
continuation of each other. We use this obvious point without further justification.
Similarly, we admit without proof those properties, used below, about boundary
values of holomorphic functions in Je(D) and Jeo(C\D), which are entirely
analogous to the case of hyperfunctions on IR. as boundary values of holo-
morphic functions in C\R Detailed proofs of these facts can be found in
[Kan], [M03].
1.6.12. Definition. Let T E Je' ('JI') and let (T\, T2 ) be its Fantappie transform.
°
For every < r < 1, the function z t-+ T\ (rz) belongs to Je(D) and the function
z t-+ T2(z/r) belongs to Jeo(C\D), and there is a function Tr E Je('JI') whose
Fantappie transform is precisely (T\(rz), T2(z/r)). The functions Tr are called
the r-approximations of T.
1.6.13. Proposition. Thefamily (Tr)o<r<\ converges to T, when r ~ 1, in the

strong topology of the space Je' ('JI').
Proof. This proposition follows from the fact that Tl (rz) converges to Tl (z)
in .1'f(D) and T2 (z/r) converges to T2 (z) in .1'fo(C\D), plus the topological
isomorphism between .1'f'(1l') and .1'f(D) x .1'fo(C\D) given by the Fantappie
transform. 0
The following proposition will be accepted without proof:
1.6.14. Proposition. Let T E .1'f' (11').
(I) The following properties are equivalent:

(1) T E 1)(1r).
(2) The sequence (cn(T»nEZ has afast decrease (i.e., cn(T) = O(lnl-k)for
every k E N*).
(3) The functions Tl and T2 are bounded, together with all their derivatives
in D (resp. C\D).
(II) The following are equivalent properties:
(1) T E 1)' (11').
(2) The sequence (cn(T»nEZ has slow (or tempered) growth (i.e., there is
k E N* such that cn(T) = O(lnl k ».
(3) The functions Tl and T2 have slow (or tempered) growth near 11' (i.e.,
there are k > 0, M > 0, such that
1'fj(z)1 :::: M(dist(z, 1l'»-k, j = 1,2).
We are going to apply the theory of analytic functionals on 11' to the study
of the Laplace-Beltrami operator of the hyperbolic disk D. There are other
applications, for instance, to harmonic analysis and to signal processing. The
objective is to show that all the eigenfunctions in D of the operator
~ = (1- (x 2+ i»2~,
~ = 82 / 8x 2 + 82 / 8y2, corresponding to the eigenvalue A E C, are the functions
F,Az) = (Tb, PIL(Z, b»),
!
where 4f-L(f-L - 1) = A, Ref-L ~ and T E .1'f'(1l') is arbitrary.
The operator ~ is the Laplace-Beltrami operator in D for the hyperbolic
metric. Recall the hyperbolic metric has arc length
d s2 =
dx 2 + dy2
----:----=--::--::-
(1 - (x 2 + y2»2
and its isometries are precisely the Moebius transformations. The equation
~f - AI = 0
is equivalent to the elliptic equation (r2 = x 2 + y2) :
A
~f - (1 _ r2)2 f = 0,
with real analytic coefficients in D, so that every distribution eigenfunction of

b. is actually a real analytic function in D.
Let us start by verifying that the functions FM are eigenfunctions of b.. We
first need a little lemma.
1.6.15. Lemma. Let A be an open interval in R For every A E A let b ~

feb, A) be a function in Je(11'). Assume that:
(i) There is a closed annulus U containing 11' in its interior such that for every
A E A, the function b ~ feb, A) is the restriction to 11' of a function few, A)
holomorphic for w E U.
(ii) The derivative (aflaA)(W, A) exists and is continuous in A x U. Then,for
every A E A, b ~ (aflaA)(b, A) is an element of Je(11') and,for every T E
Je'(11'), one has
Proof. Let AO E A, W E U. Whence, AO - h, AO + h E A for 0< h small, W E

U. Therefore,
I
f(W,Ao+h)-f(W,AO) _ af(w A)I = laf(W A +fJh)- af(w A)I
h aA ,0 aA' 0 aA' 0
°
for some < fJ < 1. The last expression tends to zero as h -+ 0, uniformly
for W E U by (ii). Hence, the difference quotient (f(w, AO + h) - few, Ao))1 h
tends to (aflaA)(W, AO) in the topology of Je(11'). This proves the lemma. 0
1.6.16. Corollary. For T E Je' (11'), JL E C, Re JL ~ ~, the function

FM(z) = (Tb, PM(Z, b)) (Izl < 1)
is an eigenfunction of b. with eigenvalue 4JL(JL - 1).

Proof. By an elementary explicit computation one verifies that, for every b E 11'
fixed, one has
One uses afterward the previous lemma to guarantee that we can differentiate
twice under the bracket ( , ), with respect to x = Re z and y = 1m z. Let Zo =
xo + iyo E D fixed, ro = (x5 + Y5)1/2 < 1. Fix r, p, ro < r < p < 1. We allow
z to vary only in the disk Izl < r. Set U = {w E C: p ~ Iwi ~ lip}. Apply
the lemma to f = pM, f = apM I ax, f = apM I ay, successively with A = x or
A = y. The proposition follows. 0
To prove the converse, we are going first to find those eigenfunctions of b.

such that, after a rotation, they become new eigenfunctions proportional to the
original ones.
1.6.17. Proposition. Let A E C, J1. E C, such that 4J1. (J1. - 1) = A, Re J1. :::: ~,and
let n E Z.ll IE C 2(D)\{0} is such that lor any () E lit zED,
l(ei(Jz) = ein(J I(z),
the lollowing two properties are equivalent:
(i) ~I = Af·
(ii) I is proportional to the lunction ifJn defined by
"(J 1 (" ""

z = re' f-+ ifJn(z, J1.) := 27T io pJ1(z, ela)e- lnCl da
= (1 - r2)J1rlnleinO r(lnl + J1.) F(1l. /I + Inl' Inl + 1 r2)

" r(J1.)(lnl!) f"" f'" , "
where F is the hypergeometric lunction.

Proof. It is clear that ifJn(ei(Jz, J1.) = ein(JifJn(z, J1.), as well that ~ifJn =
4J1.(J1. - l)ifJn. The identity in (ii) has already been remarked above as giving
the Fourier coefficients of pJ1(z, eiCl ) for zED, J1. fixed (see [Er, vol. 1, p. 81
(10)]). We have to show that (i) implies (ii). The function I is real analytic and,
in polar coordinates, the equation (i) together with the transformation properties
of I lead to the equation
d 2I dI ( 2 Ar2)
r2 dr 2 + r dr = n + (1 _ r2)2 I
for f = fer), 0 ::::: r < 1, i.e., f restricted to the real positive axis. Hence fer)
is a real analytic function of r, I (r) = L:k>O akrk, and replacing into the differ-
ential equation we obtain two systems of equations for the coefficients ak:
n2ao = 0,
(4 - n2)a2 = Aao,
(I)
(II)
One sees immediately that if k does not have the parity of n, then ak = O. Also,
if k < Inl, then ak = O. The ak are uniquely determined once alnl is given. If
one changes alnl by a factor, they all change by the same factor. Since CPn was
a solution, it must be that f is proportional to CPn. D
We are finally ready to prove the main theorem, due to Helgason [He]. Let us
point out that the proof in [He] of the preceding lemma is more closely tied to
the underlying semisimple Lie group SU(1, 1), hence intrinsically more general
than ours.
1.6.18. Theorem. Let D be the disk {Izl < 1}, 'Jl' = aD. Let
Li = (1_lzI2)2~,
the Laplace-Beltrami operator for the hyperbolic metric. Let

1 - Izl2
P(z, b) = Ib _ zl2 (z E D, bE 'Jl')
be the Poisson kernel. Let A, f.J. E C such that 4f.J.(f.J. - 1) = A, Re f.J. ~ ~. The
eigenfunctions of Li with eigenvalue A are exactly the functions
where T E Je' ('Jl').

Proof. Let f be a function D satisfying Lif = A/. Since f is real analytic,
for zED fixed, the function () f-+ f (e iO z) is infinitely differentiable and has an
expansion in an absolute convergent Fourier series
f(eiOz) =L fn(z)e inO ,
nE'L
r
fn(z) = _1_ 27r f(eiOz)e-inO de.
21r Jo
It is clear that fn(eiOz) = e fn(z). Furthermore, differentiating under the inte-
inO
gral sign one finds Lifn = Afn. (This is simply a consequence that Li is invariant
under rotations.) Therefore, there is a constant bn such that
fn(z) = bnCPn(z, f.J.).
Taking () = 0 in the above Fourier expansion we obtain that for every zED
f(z) =L bnCPn(z, f.J.)

nE'L
and
L Ibnl ICPn(z, f.J.)1 < 00.
nE'L
We want to show there is T E Je'('Jl') such that c- n -l(T) = bn . In that case

the expansion of f will become
f(z) = (Tb, pl-'(z, b»),
since the fPn(z, /L) are the Fourier coefficients of PIL(Z, b) (see Proposi-
tion 1.6.10(3». Hence, we have reduced the problem to show that for every
r E [0, l[ we have
To show this we need to use the asymptotic behavior of the functions IfPn (z, /L) I
as Izl ~ 1. In the formula for IfPnl the term that multiplies r 1nl is
1(1 - r2)ILIIF(/L, Inl + /L, Inl + 1; r2)1 Ir(lnl + /L) I

r(/L)(lnl!) .
We want to see that for fixed r, 0 < r < 1, its presence or not does not
affect the convergence of the series. First, we simplify this expression using the
transformation law [Er]:
F(a, b, c; z) = (1 - z)-a F (a, c - b, c; _z_)

z
. -1
This leads us to consider
IF(/L, 1 -/L, n + 1; y)1

as a function of the integer n ~ 00, where y = r2/(r2 - 1) is a fixed nega-
tive number. Following [Er, vol. 1, p. 76], the Taylor series expansion of the
hypergeometric series is
~ nIL + k)r(1 -/L + k)r(n + 1) yk
F(/L, 1 - /L, n + 1; y) = ~ r(/L)r(1 _ /L)r(n + 1 + k) k! + Pm+l
-1 ~
- + L.J (n + 1) ... (n + k/ + Pm+l
Ak k
k=O
where
IPm+ll ~ am Iylm+l (n + 1)2(Re IL)-m-3,
am a constant independent of y and n. Chose first m so large that 2(Re J.L) -
m - 3 < 0, hence Pm+l ~ 0 as n ~ 00. This shows that for y fixed (i.e., for
r < 1 fixed)
lim F(/L, 1 - /L, n
n..... oo
+ 1; y) = 1.
Therefore, for n ::: no, we have
IF(/L, 1 - /L, n + 1; y)1 ::: ~.
The other factor that varies with n in IfPn I is the quotient of r -factors. By
Stirling's formula
(as n ~ 00).
Since Re f..L ::: t, we have for some positive constant A and for n ::: n 1 ::: no that
r(f..L+ n ) I A
1
r(f..L)n! ::: (n + 1)1/2'
Thus, for some constant B > °and , fixed in [0, 1[, we have
,Inl
L
Inl~nl
Ibnl ICPn(z, f..L)1 ::: B L
Inl~nl
Ibn I (Inl + 1)1/2'
Since the left-hand side is convergent, we obtain that the power series
' " Ibn I + Ib_ n I,n

L.J (n
n~O
+ 1)1/2
has radius of convergence 1. Since the derivative will have the same radius of
convergence, it follows that
for any , E [0, 1[. This concludes the proof of Helgason's theorem. 0
We recommend the reader to consult [He] for a deeper understanding of the

material in this section.
EXERCISES 1.6.
1. Prove in detail that V' (T) can be characterized as the space of Fourier series of
slow growth.
2. Verify that the topology of Jt'(T) is, in fact, C:!='. Show that it is a DFS space.
3. (a) Verify that, for fixed zED, the Fantappie decomposition of I: b ~ 1/(b - z),
is (0, h), with h(w) = 1/(w - z).
(b) Verify that if Z E C\D, then the Fantappie decomposition of the function I: b ~
1/(b - z) is (h. 0) with i,. (w) = 1/(w - z). Is there any contradiction between the two
answers? .
4. Show that the Poisson kernel b ~ P(re i8 , b) is the restriction to T of the function
(1- r2) z
z ~ - - - . -----,:::-
Z - re i8 1 - zre- i8
and verify that the Fantappie decomposition of P given in Example 1.6.7 is correct.
5. Let h E Jt'(T)\{O}. Characterize the solutions R E Jt'/(T) of the equation hR = O.
(Hint: See Exercise 1.3.16.)
6. A weight w in Z is a function w: Z .... [1, oo[ such that
w(m + n) :::: w(n)w(m) for any m,n E Z.
Let us denote Jt'... (T) = (f E C(T): III... := Enez Icn(f)lw(n) < oo}.
(a) Show that Jt'... (T) is a Banach algebra for the ordinary product of functions.
(b) Define
H",(1f) = {T E Jr'(1f): IIITIII", := sup Icn(T)1 < oo}.

neZ w(-n)
Show that H",(1f) is isomorphic to (Jr",(1f»' under the identification
(T. f) = Lcn(f)C_<n+l)(T).
neZ
(c) Show that
(T, f) = r-->I-
lim -21 . rf(n[C(T)(~/r) - C(T)(rmd~.
10 JT
7. Let G E L1(D,dm) and let g E C(1f) be such that for every 13 E C""(C) one has
ID G(Bf3/B'i) d'i /\ dz = IT f3g dz. Show that G E Jr(D) n C(jj) and GI1f = g. (Hint:
Consider the Fantappie transform (G 1• G 2 ) of g and. choosing conveniently 13. show that
G 2 = O. Use the fact that the Cauchy transform of g inside D coincides with the Poisson
transform to conclude that G 2 = G and it is continuous to the boundary). Compare with
Exercise 1.1.18.
CHAPTER 2
Interpolation and the Algebras Ap
In the first chapter, we have seen how the Leitmotiv of the boundary values
of holomorphic functions lead us naturally to introduce several transforms, in
particular, the Fourier-Borel and Fourier transforms, and found out that many
questions can be posed in equivalent terms in the algebras of entire functions
with growth conditions, Exp(Q) and F(£'(R)), specially problems relating to
convolution equations. In the case of distributions, this relation will be come
more evident in Chapter 6. The aim of this chapter is to study a more general
class of algebras, the Hormander algebras, Ap(Q). We shall see that the ideal
theory of these algebras is intimately related to the study of interpolation vari-
eties. In the previous volume [BG, Chapter 3], we have shown that to be the
case for the algebras of holomorphic functions Jt"(Q), and we found out that
one could study interpolation questions with the help of the inhomogeneous
Cauchy-Riemann equation. The same will be the case here. This time, though,
we shall be obliged to consider the problem of solving the Cauchy-Riemann
equation with growth constraints.
The algebras Ap were used by Hormander in [H03], [H04], who proved they
were the correct context in which to study the Cauchy-Riemann equations in
en. Throughout this chapter we use this work, as well as that of [KTl], [KT2],
[Gul], [SkI], [Sk2], [BTl], and [BT3].
2.1. The Algebras Ap

In this section we consider the Hormander algebras Ap(Q) of holomorphic
functions with growth conditions.
e
2.1.1. Definition. Let Q be an open subset of and let p be a subharmonic
function in Q. Let us denote by Ap(Q) the space of all functions f E Jt"(Q) for
which there exist constants A :::: 0, B :::: 0, such that for every z E Q one has
the estimate
If(z) I ::: Aexp(Bp(z)).
109
110 2. Interpolation and the Algebras A p
We denote by Wp(Q) the space of all measurable functions g in Q for which

there is a constant C ::: 0 such that
klg(z)12e-CP(Z) dm(z) < 00.
It is clear that Ap(Q) and Wp(Q) are algebras under the ordinary product of
functions.
We will be interested especially in the case Q = C and we impose on p the

two additional conditions:
(i) p(z) ::: 0 and log(1 + Iz12) = O(p(z».
(ii) There are constants Co, Do > 0, such that whenever Il; - zl :::: 1, then
p(l;) :::: Cop(z) + Do·

We will say that p is a weight. A weight p will be called radial if p(z) = p(lzl)
(with the obvious abuse of language).
These two conditions are useful since they imply the following properties:
(a) The space Ap(C) contains all polynomials: C[z] ~ Ap(C). In fact,
log(1 + Iz12) :::: Mp(z) for some constant M > O. If Q E C[z] has degree d,
then there is a constant C > 0 such that IQ(z)1 :::: C(1 + IZI2)d/2. Therefore
IQ(z)1 :::: Cexp (d: P(Z») .

(b) The space Ap(C) is stable under differentiation: If f E Ap(C), then f' E
Ap(C). Namely, let If(z)1 :::: AeBp(z) for all z E C, then if Il; - zl :::: 1, we
have
Since
j'(z) = _1 1
2rri I~-zl=i
f(l;) dl;,
(l; - z)2
then
(c) We have Wp(C) n df(C) = Ap(C).

If f E Ap(C), If(z)1 :::: AeBp(z), and log(1 + Iz12) :::: Mp(z), choose C such
that C ::: 2B + 2M. Then
If(z)1 2e- Cp (z) :::: A i e(2B-C)p(z) :::: A 2e- 2Mp (z)
< A2exp(-2Iog(1 + IzI2»= A2 2 2 ELi(C,dm).

- (1 + Izl )
Therefore f E Wp(C).
Conversely, if I E Wp(C) n Jr(C), let

[1/(z) 12e- CP (Z) dm(z) = MI < 00.
Recall that A(I/I, z, r) denotes the area average of III over the disk B(z, r).
Then
I/(z)1 ~ A(l/I, z, 1) = ~ ( I/(nl dm(~)

1l 1B(z.l)
~~ ( ( 1/(~)12e-Cp(~) dm(~») 1/2 ( ( eCp(~) dm(~») 1/2

1l 1B(z.l) 1B(z.l)
~ (M/lleCDO)I/2exp (C~o P(Z») = A1eB1P(z).

This shows that I E Ap(C).
For particular choices of p we find some spaces already considered:
If p(z) = Izl, we have Ap(C) = Exp(C).
If p(z) = log(l + Iz1 2), we have Ap(C) = qz].
If p(z) = IImzl + log(l + Iz1 2), we have Ap(C) = F(£'(lR».
If Q =1= C, the analogous technical conditions to introduce are the following
(see [H04]). In the cases considered here they will always be satisfied:
(i)' log(l + Iz12) = O(p(z».
(ii)' There are constants C 1 , C2, C3, C4 > 0 such that if z E Q and Iz - ~ I ~
exp( -C1P(z) - C 2), then ~ E Q and p(~) ~ C 3P(z) + C4 •
Note the condition p ~ 0 introduced in (i) above is only for simplicity, it does
not affect any of the properties (a), (b), or (c). These three properties will hold
for Ap(Q) when (i)' and (ii)' are satisfied. Even condition (i)' is only introduced
to guarantee that Ap(Q) contains the polynomials, which in some cases needs
not be assumed.
Let
Ap.B(Q) = {f E Jr(Q): IIfIIB = supI/(z)lexp(-Bp(z» < oo}.
ZEO
This is a Banach space for the norm II· liB. Choosing a sequence (Bn)n~J,
0oo
Since it is stronger than the topology of pointwise convergence, this topology

is independent of the sequence (Bn)n~I' In this topology, a sequence (jj)j~1
in Ap(Q) converges to I in Ap(Q), if and only if there is an n such that
jj E Ap.Bn (Q) for all j, I E Ap.Bn (Q) and II jj - I II B. -+ 0 as j -+ 00. For
subspaces, the closure coincides with the sequential closure.
In order to follow the methods of L. Hormander to study the spaces A P' which
is based on the solvability of the inhomogeneous Cauchy-Riemann equation
in the spaces Wp(n), we need to establish the following a priori inequality

(see [BTl]).
2.1.2. Proposition (A Priori Inequality for ojoi). Let n be an open subset ofe
and P a subharmonicfunction in n. For every f E V(n) we have the inequality
In If(z)1 2e P(z) dm(z) ::: ~ In 1:~ (Z)1 2

(1 + IzI2)2e P(z) dm(z).
Proof. Let PI be any function of class C 2 in n, then a direct verification shows
the following identity holds:
(*) e P1 1of +f OPI 12 + eP1lfl2 02P~

OZ OZ oz oz
= 0_ [e P1 (Jof + IfI20PI)] _ ~ (ePIJof) +e P1 o~ oj.

oz oz oz oz oz oz OZ
Since f has compact support in n, the integrals of the first two terms on the
right hand side ofthe last identity will vanish. Namely, for any cp E cJ(n), then
0= rd(cpdi) = inr ocpoz dz /\ di = -2i inr ocpoz dm,

in
and similarly,
0= rd(cpdz) = 2i inr o~oz dm.
in
Therefore, integrating the identity (*) we obtain
r o~ 12 eP1 dm = rIfl2 o2p~ePl dm + r1of + f OPI 2 eP1 dm

in oz
1
in oz oz in oz oz
1
: : inrIfI202p~ePldm.
oz OZ
If now P is a C 2 function which is subharmonic in n, set PI (z) = p(z) +
210g(1 + IzI2). Then
o2PI o2p 2 2
--
OZ oi
= --
oz oi
+
(1 + Iz12)2
> ----;:--::-
- (1 + Iz12)2
and
eP1(Z) = eP(Z) (1 + IZI2)2.
Hence, the previous inequality becomes,
In :~
1 12 (1 + IzI2)2e P(z) dm(z) ::: 2 In Ifl2e Pdm
This is precisely the statement of the proposition. If P is subharmonic but not

C 2, let us regularize P by convolution, Pp:= P *exp, exp(z) = (ljp2)ex(lzljp),
where ex E V(B(O, 1)),0::: ex, and J ex dm = 1. The function Pp is subharmonic
in Qp = {z E Q: d(z, QC) > p}, but for 0 < p sufficiently small we also have
supp f ~ Q p • Therefore,
11 :~ 12 (1 + Iz12)2 exp(pp(Z» dm(z) 2: 211f,2 exp(pp) dm.

Letting p --+ 0 we obtain the proposition. o
We are now ready to prove the existence theorem due to L. Hormander [H03].
2.1.3. Theorem. Let Q be an open subset of C, p a subharmonic function in Q,

and v a measurable function in Q so that
M:= 1Iv,2e-P dm < 00.
There is then a function u E Ltoc(Q) such that au/az = v, in the sense of

distributions, and
rlu(z)1 2 e-p(z) dm(z) < M.
in
(1 + Iz12)2 - 2
Furthermore, ifv E Coo then u E Coo.
Proof. Let Ho = L2(Q, e Pdm) and HI = L2(Q, (1 + IZI2)2e Pdm). The dual H~
of the Hilbert space Ho can be identified to L2(Q, e- Pdm) thanks to the pairing
(g, f)o:= 1 fgdm.
Similarly, the dual H{ of HI can be identified to L 2(Q, e-p(z) /[(1 + Iz12)2] dm)
1
(by the same pairing)
(g,f)j := fgdm.
We denote by 1I·lIj and 1I1·lllj the norms in Hj and Hi, respectively, j =

0, 1. Since p is subharmonic, the function eP is locally bounded, hence in
Ltoc(Q). Therefore, D(Q) ~ Ho. Clearly, this space is dense in Ho, since if
g E L2(Q, e- Pdm) is such that In
fPg dm = 0 for every fP E D(Q) one has
g = 0 a.e. For the same reason D(Q) is dense in HI. Note also that, because p is
locally bounded above, H} ~ Ltoc(Q), j = 0, 1. Let us consider the unbounded
operator T: Ho --+ HI. with domain dom(T) = D(Q), defined by
T(f) = - !~.
This operator has a well-defined adjoint IT (since dom(T) is dense), IT: H{ --+
H~. Recall that the domain of IT is
domctT) = {u E H{: f ~ (u, T(f»)1 is continuous on dom(T)}.

If u E dom(IT), then the linear map f ~ (u, T(f))1 extends to Ho in a unique
way as a continuous linear form, that is, it determines an element v E H~ such
114 2. Interpolation and the Algebras Ap
that for every I E V(Q)
(v, f)o = rvi dm = (u,

in'
T(f)h =- ru B~ dm.
in Bz
From the definition of the adjoint, tT(u) = v. This means that Bu/Bz = v, in
the sense of distributions.
In other words, the first statement of Theorem 2.1.3 can be paraphrased by
saying that tT must be surjective. Let us prove this.
=
Let v E H~ L2(Q, e- P dm), and consider the linear functional L defined
on the range of T, Im(T) S; HI, by
(L, T(f)h = (v, f)o (f E dom(T».
The operator T is injective since, if T (f) = 0, then I is holomorphic and

with compact support. Hence L is well defined by this formula. Let us apply
Schwarz's inequality and Proposition 2.1.2, then
I(L, T(f»)d 2 = 110 vi dml2 :s (1o'/,2eP dm) (1o,v,2e-p dm)
:s ~ (101 ~~ 12 (1 + IzI2)2eP (zl dm ) IIIvll15 = ~lIlvIl15I1T(f)IIr.

This shows that L is continuous on the subspace Im(T) of HI. By the
Hahn-Banach theorem we know there is an extension of L to HI represented
by a function U E H{ = L2(o., e-P(l + IzI2)-2 dm) such that
2 12M
IIlulil l :s zlllvilio = 2'
Therefore, for I E dom(T) we have
= (L, T(f»)1 = (u, T(f»)h

(v, f)o
which means, as we said earlier, Bu/8z = v in the sense of distributions. The
integral estimate of u is precisely Illu lilT :s M /2. Finally, the proof of the regu-
larity of the solution u when v E COO(Q), follows from [BG, §3.2.1 and §3.6.5].
(See also Exercise 2.1.1.) 0
Remark. The Hormander Theorem 2.1.3 involves only L 2 estimates. In relation

to the attempts to prove the H oo corona theorem in the case of several variables,
there has been a number of recent works on the corresponding LP estimates for
a in domains Q of IC. On this subject we refer the reader to [Am], [Bernd],
[FS), and the references therein.
One of the main results we present in this chapter is an interpolation theorem

for the Ap spaces. An intermediary step is a semilocal interpolation theorem,
which uses the preceding existence theorem for the Cauchy-Riemann operator
B/Bz.
2.1. The Algebras A p 115
If f" ... , fm E Ap(Q) we set IfI 2 := If1l2 + ... + Ifml 2 and for c > 0,
C > 0, we introduce the open sets
S(lfl, c, C) := {z E Q: If(z)1 < ce-Cp(z)}
(Q will be left implicit in the notation.)
2.1.4. Theorem (Semilocal Interpolation Theorem). Let p be a subharmonic

weight function in C, /!, ... , fm E Ap (C), );. a given holomorphic function on a
set S(lfl, c, C) for which the estimate
I);.(z) I ::: AeBp(z) (z E S(lfl, c, C»,
holds for some constants A > 0, B > 0. Then there are:
°
(1) A E Ap(C);
(2) strictly positive constants c', C', A', B', < c' < c, C' > C;
(3) holomorphic functions a" ... , am in S(lfl, c', C'); and
such that for every z E S(lfl, c', C'):
(a) A(Z) = );.(z) + L aj (z)jj (z);
'~j~j
and
(b)
Remark. If (zkh~, is the family of common zeros to all the jj, j = 1, ... , m,
and if their multiplicities (as a common zero) are denoted by mb one concludes
from (a) thatA (j) (zd = );. (j) (zd for °: :
j ::: mk - I and every k ::::: 1. Therefore,
given a sequence (ak,j h,j of complex numbers the problem of finding A E Ap (C)
such that
).
., k::::: 1,
can be reduced to the same problem for a function);. in S(lfl, c, C). This
explains the reason of the terminology "semilocal" applied to Theorem 2.1.4.
Proof of Theorem 2.1.4. Let us first show that there are
A, > 0, and B, > 0, such that, for z E S(lfl,
< c, < c, C, > C,
c"
C,), the distance from z to
°
as(lfl, c, C) is at least exp(-A,p(z) - B,).1t is enough to find those constants
for those z E C such that d(z, as(lfl, c, C» ::: 1 (if this set is nonempty).
Let z' E as(lfl, c, C) be such that Iz - z'l = dist(z, as(lfl, c, C» ::: 1. For
t E [0, 1], let ((J(t) = If(z + t(z' - z))l2. There are A2 > 0, B2 > such that °
1({J'(t) I ::: A21z - z'l exp(B2P(Z». (Here we use not only that jj E Ap(C) but
that p is a weight.) Since we know exactly the value of If I on as(lfl, c, C),
we have
c 2 exp(-2Cp(z'» = If(z')1 2 = ({J(I) ::: ((J(O) + tE[O,']
max 1({J'(t) I
::: cf exp( -2C,p(z» + A21z - z'l exp(B2P(Z»,

when Z E S(lfl, eJ, Cd. Since p(z') :::: Cop(z) + Do, if C I ~ 2CCo and ef <
~e2e-2CDo then we get
e2
Iz - z'l ~ 2A2 e- 2CDo exp( -(2CCo + B2)p(Z»,
which allows us to detennine ej, Cj, AI, BI > 0 as required. A corollary of

this result is the following lemma:
2.1.5. Lemma. There is a function X of class COO in C, 0 :::: X :::: 1, such that:
(a) supp X ~ S(lfl, e, C);
(b) X == 1 on S(lfl, ej, C 1);
(c) there are two positive constants A3, B3 such that
(z E C).
Proof of Lemma 2.1.5. The fact that for z E S(lfl, el, Cd we have
the inequality d(z, oS(lfl, e, C» ~ exp(-AIP(z) - B 1), allows us to apply
Whitney's partition of the unity lemma (see [BG, §1.3.5]). 0
We continue with the proof of the theorem. The function X X, extended to be

zero outside S(lfl, e, C), is a Coo function in C. Let us introduce
Vj
. i 0
.= -lfl 2 oi (X A),
- j = 1, ... ,m.
These functions are also Coo and there are constants A4, B4 > 0 such that
IVj(z)1 :::: A 4 e B4P (z).
In fact, in S(lfl, el, C 1) we have Vj = O. In the complement, If(z)1 2 ~

erexp(-2C1P(z», hence
IVj(z)1 ::: A~ I.fj(z)le(2c ,+B3)p(z)IX(z) I (z E S(lfl, e, C)\S(lfl, el, CI »

el
and the required inequality follows.
Theorem 2.1.3 ensures there are functions Uj E Wp(C) n c(C) such that
oUj/di = Vj. Let
A = xX + udl + ... + umlm.
It is clearly in Wp (C) and
dA _ d(XX) f ~ ... "ou m _ o(xX) _ " hi o(x X)

oz - dZ + I dZ + + Jm OZ - ~ oz I~j~m
1/12 --a=- = O.
Z
Therefore, A E Wp(C) n Jt'(C) = Ap(C).

Since Vj = 0 in S(l/I, el, CI), the functions Otj defined by the restrictions
Uj IS(lfl, el, C 1) are holomorphic, and part (a) of the theorem holds.
Let us choose now 0<82 < 81, C2 > CI, E > 0, F > 0, such that if z E
S(I!I, 82, C2), then dist(z, SO!I, 8" Cln > exp( -Ep(z) - F). This is possible
by the reasoning at the very beginning of the proof. We also know we can find
K > 0, M > 0, such that for every j:
[ IUj 12e- Kp dm ::: M < 00.
Therefore, for z E S(I!I, 82, C2) we have

laj(z)1 2 ::: A(lajI2, z, exp(-Ep(z) - F»
= ( ( IUj(~)12 dm(~») . exp(2Ep(z) + 2F)

} B(z,exp(-Ep(z)-F» 7r
1
::: - exp«KCo + 2E)p(z) + K Do + 2F)
7r
x ~ IUj(~)12e-Kp(n dm(~)
} B(z,exp(-Ep(z)-F»
M
::: _eKDo+2F exp«KCo + 2E)p(z».
7r
This proves all the estimates required in the theorem. o
EXERCISES 2.1.
1. The purpose of this exercise is to give two slightly different proofs that if BulBi = v
in the sense of distributions and v E Coo(n), then u E Coo(n), as stated in Theorem 2.1.3.
(a) [BG, Theorem 3.2.1] states that BIBi: Coo(n) --+ Coo(n) is surjective, and [BG,
Proposition 3.6.5] states that if WE V'(n) and BwlBi = 0, then W E .;f(n). Use these
two statements to conclude that the function u E HI found in the proof of Theorem 2.1.3
belongs to Coo(Q) if v E Coo(Q).
(b) (Direct proof.) Let E = 1/7rz and recall that (BIBi)E = 8 in the sense of distri-
butions. Let now u E V'(n), v E Coo(n), and BulBi = v. Let n' be an arbitrary open
subset of n, n' cc n, and choose rp E V(n) so that rp == I on a neighborhood of n'.
(i) Show that (BIBi)(rpu) = v + w, W E £'(n), supp(w) ~ (n')c.
(ii) Show that if 1{! E V(n), 1{! == 1 on a neighborhood of supp(rp), then
B
Bi (rpu) = 1{!v + WI, WI E £'(n),
(iii) Conclude that

rpu = E * (1{!v) + E * WI.
(iv) Let BE E V(B(O, e» be such that BE == 1 on B(O, e/2). Show that you can choose
O<e«lsothat
supp«BEE) * WI) n n' = 0.
(v) Writing E = (1 - BE)E + BEE, show that in n' one has the identity
u = E * (1{!v) + «1 - B.)E) * WI.
Why does this identity imply that u is a Coo function in n'?
(This proof and that of [BG, Proposition 3.6.5] are originally due to A. Grothendieck.)
2. The aim of this exercise is to show that Theorem 2.1.3 can be used to prove that
alai:
°
COO(Q) ~ COO(Q) is surjective for any open set Q in C.
(i) Let (Xn)n~l be a strictly increasing sequence of numbers Xn > such that
limn .... ooxn = 00, and (Vn)n~l' another sequence with Vn ~ 0.
Show that there exists a strictly increasing convex function rp such that rp(xn) ~ Vn
for every n ~ 1.
(ii) Let (Kn)n~l be an exhaustion of a proper open set Q ~ C, by compact
subsets, (J.Ln)n~1 a sequence of real numbers, J.Ln > 0, and let d n = d(Kn, QC). Show
there is a convex, strictly increasing function rp: [0, oo[ ~ [O,oo[ such that p(z) :=
rp( -log d(z, QC» satisfies the inequalities
p(z) ~ 10gJ.Ln,
for all z E Kn\Kn- 1, n ~ 1. (Define Ko = rJ>.) Why is p a subhannonic function in Q?

=
(iii) For Q C, (rn)n~lo a strictly increasing sequence of positive numbers, convergent
to 00, and (J.Ln)n~I' a sequence of strictly positive numbers, show there is a subhannonic
function p in C such that
p(z) ~ 10gJ.Ln,
=
for all z E 8(0, rn)\B(O, rn-l), n ~ 1. (Define ro -1.)
(iv) Let f E £(Q), show that there is a subhannonic function p in Q such that
llf,2e-P dm < 00.

Conclude that there is a locally integrable function g in Q such that aglai = f in the
sense of distributions. Use Exercise 2.1.1(d) to conclude, without appeal to the results in
:i:
[aG, §3.2.1], that
COO(Q) ~ COO(Q) is surjective.
3. Let P be a subhannonic function in an open set Q "I C satisfying (a) log (1 + Iz12) =
°
O(p(z», z E Q, and (b) there exist constants C lo C2 , C3, C4 > ~uch that if z E Q, ~ E
C, and Iz - ~I ::::: exp(-C1P(z) - C2 ), then ~ E Q and p(~) ::::: C3P(Z) + C4 • Show that
Wp(Q) n .;t"'(Q) = Ap(Q).
2.2. Interpolation with Growth Conditions

In [BG, §3.5] we have introduced the concept of a multiplicity variety V. Let
us recall that it consists of a collection of pairs (Zk' mk), Zk distinct points of
C, mk E N*, called the multiplicities of the points Zko and either the collection
is finite or IZk I -+ 00. We shall assume throughout that we are in the latter
case. We say that ~ E V to indicate that ~ is one of the points Zk. Given two
multiplicity varieties, V = (Zko mkh~l, V' = (zj, mj)j~l' we say that V' ~ V
when (Zj)j~l is a subsequence of (zkh~l and, for the corresponding indices,
we have mj ~ mk. For t an entire function, t ¥= 0, V (f) is the collection of
zeros of t, with their respective multiplicities. More generally, we recall that
for a collection of functions (/j)jEJ, V«/j)jEJ) denotes the multiplicity variety
of their common zeros {Zdk~l and common multiplicities mk = inf{m(/j, Zk) :
j E J}. The Weierstrass theorem [BG, §3.3.1] asserts that for every multiplicity
variety V, there is 1 E Jt'(iC) such that V = V (f).
Given a multiplicity variety V, we also defined the space A(V) of holo-
morphic functions on V, i.e., doubly indexed sequences of complex numbers
(ak,/h,/,O :::: Z < mk. The reason for this notation is that there is a natural restric-
tion map p: Jt'(iC) ~ A(V) given by
g(I)(Zk))
p(g)= ( - - .
Z! k,/
Given a sequence a E A(V) we say that the entire function g interpolates it,
if p(g) = a. The interpolation theorem [BG, §3.4.1] states that p is always
surjective. The proof uses in an essential manner that variety V satisfies V =
V(f) for some 1 E Jt'(iC)\{0}. In·this section we discuss the corresponding
interpolation problem for the space Ap(iC). We shall assume throughout that the
multiplicity variety V satisfies the nontriviality condition
V 5; V(f)
for some 1 E Ap(iC)\{O}.
We follow [BT 1] and we refer the reader to the references therein for other
approaches to the interpolation problem.
We start first by defining a space of holomorphic functions with growth
conditions on a multiplicity variety. This space must be a good candidate to
be the image of Ap(iC) by the restriction map p: Jt'(iC) ~ A(V). It turns out
that there are several natural candidates. The first one is given in the following
definition:
2.2.1. Definition. Let V = (Zko mkh?:l be a mUltiplicity variety. We denote by

Ap(V) the space of sequences (ak,/h,1 E A(V) such that there are constants
A, B ::: 0 for which
I: lak,I1:::: A exp(Bp(zd) (k ::: 1).

O::::i<mk
2.2.2. Proposition. For any 1 E Ap(iC) there are constants A ::: 0, B ::: 0, such
that
/(1) (z) I
~ 1 -Z-!- :::: A exp(Bp(z)) (z E iC).
In particuZar, p(Ap(iC)) 5; Ap(V).
Proof. Assume that I/(t)1 :::: A1eB1P(t) for every t E C. Let z E C be fixed. For
any t E B(z, 2) there is ~ E B(z, 1) such that It - ~I :::: 1, hence
p(t) :::: Cop(~) + Do :::: C5P(z) + (Co + 1)Do.
Taking these inequalities into account, the Cauchy inequalities
1(I)(z) I 1
I-Z-!- :::: 21 It~~21/(t)1
120 2. IntetpOlation and the Algebras A p
yield the following estimate:
. ~ If(l)(z) I ::: 2 max If(t)1 ::: 2 max A1eB1P(I) ::: AeBp(z),

L...J
1=0
I! II-zl<2
-
II-zl<2
-
where A = 2A 1e(Co+1)Do, B = B1C5. o

In general, as we shall see in some examples below, Ap(V) =F p(Ap(C)). The
reason is that the definition of Ap (V) was done basically taking only into account
local conditions. In order to facilitate the appearance of global conditions we
proceed as follows:
Let r > 0 and z E C, define
p(z, r) := maxp(z + n.
1~I:::r
The same argument as that in Proposition 2.2.2 leads to the existence of A > 0,
B > 0, such that
f(l)(z)
~ I -I-!-
Irl::: Aexp(Bp(z,r)), for any z E C and r > O.
This ineqUality leads naturally to a different candidate for a space of holo-

morphic functions with growth conditions on a multiplicity variety.
2.2.3. Definition. Let V =

(Zko mkh?;l be a multiplicity variety, denote by
Ap.oo(V) the space of sequences (ak,/)k,1 E A(V) for which there are constants
A > 0, B > 0, such that for every r > 0 and every k E N*
L lak,drl::: A exp(B(p(Zko r)).
The following result is immediate:
2.2.4. Proposition. The following inclusions hold:

p(Ap(C)) ~ Ap,oo(V) ~ Ap(V).
We are now ready to state the interpolation problems of interest to us.
2.2.5. Definition. Let V =(Zko mkh?;l be a multiplicity variety. We say that V

is an interpolation variety for Ap(C) if p(Ap(C)) = Ap(V).
If p(Ap(C)) = Ap,oo(V) we say that V is a weak interpolation variety.

These are only two, the simplest two, definitions of interpolation variety. We
shall o~ly study the problem of deciding when V is an interpolation variety,
and relegate the similar study for weak interpolation varieties to the exercises.
2.2.6. Lemma. Let V = (Zko mkh?;l be an interpolation variety for Ap(C).

There are two constants, Cl, C2 > 0, and functions hk E Ap(C) such that for
every k ::: 1:
(i) Ihk(z)1 :::: Cl exp(c2P(Z» (z E C);

(ii) for every j "# k, one has hjl)(Zk) = 0 for 0:::: I:::: mk - 1;
(iii) hZ)(Zk) = 0 for all 0:::: 1 :::: mk - 2;
(iv) hlmk-1)(Zk) = (mk - 1)!.
In other words,
(p(hk»j,1 = ~j,k~I,mk-l'
where ~a,b is the Kronecker delta symbol.

Proof. We leave it as an exercise for the reader to give a simple proof based on
the open mapping theorem. We give here a proof using a minimum of functional
analysis. For that purpose, let
S := {(ak,l) E Ap(V): L lak,I1:::: 1 for every k ::: I}.

O~l<mk
Consider on S the distance induced by the norm
II I(ak,l) II I := sup L
k2:1 O~l<mk
laul.
It is easy to verify that S is a complete metric space.

For n E N*, let
Sn := {p(f): f E Ap(C), If(z)1 :::: n exp(np(z», Vz E q n s.
We claim that Sn is a closed subset of S. Let (gj)j2:1 be a sequence in Ap(C),
Igj(z)l:::: nexp(np(z», p(gj) E Sn, and limj-4oop(gj) = (ak,l) in S. Since p is
subharmonic, it is locally bounded above, hence the sequence (gj )j2:1 is relatively
compact in Jt'(C) by Montel's theorem. We can therefore assume that gj -+ g
in .;t(C). Clearly, Ig(z)1 :::: n exp(np(z)) for every z E C. Moreover, p(gj) -+
(ak,l) in S implies that for every k ::: 1,0:::: 1 :::: mk - I, one has
gjO(Zk)
-I-!- j~&,ak,l'
Therefore,
and (ak,l) E Sn.

Since we are assuming that p is surjective, we have
The Baire Category Theorem [Hor] allows us to conclude there is an no E N*

such that Sno "# 0. It is obvious that each Sno is a balanced convex set, i.e., it is
convex and if a E Sno and A E C, IAI :::: I, then Aa E Sno. It follows that 0 E Sno.
Hence there is an ro > 0 such that the open ball B(O, ro), with respect to the
distance in S, is entirely contained in Sno'
For k 2:: 1, let

a k = (al.l)j,l = OJ,kOI,mk-1 E S,
and let A be a fixed number, 0 < A < roo Then Aa k E B(O, ro). Hence there is
q;k E Ap(C) such that
and
p(q;d = Aa k •
The choice hk = q;k/A, CI = nO/A, and C2 = no has the required properties. D

As we have seen in [BG], interpolation problems are related to the structure
of the ideals in the algebra of holomorphic functions. This is the reason we start
by studying the finitely generated ideals of the algebras Ap(C).
2.2.7. Definition. Let II"," In E Ap(C). The local ideal generated by

/J, ... , 1m is the set lloc(fl, ... , 1m) of all the functions g E Ap(C) such
that for every z E C there is an open neighborhood Q of z and functions
gl, ... , gm E Jt"(Q) so that
glQ = L gj(/jIQ).
l:"Oj:"Om
It is easy to verify that lloc(fl, ... , 1m) is an ideal in Ap(C). Moreover, if J

is the ideal generated by iI, ... , 1m in Jt"(C) we have
hoc(/J, ... ,1m) = J n Ap(C).
We have shown in the previous volume that any finitely generated ideal in
Jt"(C) is closed [BG, Corollary 3.5.8]. Since the injection i: Ap(C) .... Jt"(C) is
continuous, we conclude that
Jloc(/J, ... , 1m) = j-I(J)
is closed in Ap(C).
We denote by l(fl,"" 1m) the ideal generated by /J, ... , 1m in Ap(C) and,
by l(fl, ... , 1m), its closure in Ap(C). In general, we only have the inclusion
l(fl, ... , 1m) ~ lloc(/J, ... , 1m), without equality.
2.2.8. Definition. Let /J, ... , 1m E Ap(C). We say they are jointly invertible
if
/(/J, ... , 1m) = Iloc(iI,···, 1m).
When m = 1, we say that IE Ap(C) is invertible if J(f) = hoc(f). For

instance, when p(z) = Izl, Lindelof's theorem [BG, §4.5.7] proves that, in the
case Ap(C) = Exp(C), every nonzero function I is invertible.
Note that I being invertible does not mean 1/1 E Ap(C). In fact, only if I
is invertible and has no zeros then 1/1 E Ap(C).
2.2.9. Lemma. Assume that Ii, ... , 1m are jointly invertible. Given A > 0, there
are B > 0 and C > 0 such that ifh E 11oc(fI, ... , 1m) and
Ih(z)1 :::: exp(Ap(z)),
there exists gl,"" gm E Ap(C) with
h = L gj/j
I~j~m
and
Igj(z)1 :::: Cexp(Bp(z)), lor 1:::: j :::: m.
Proof. We give a proof similar to that of Lemma 2.2.6. Consider
S = {h E l(fl,"" 1m): Ih(z)1 :::: exp(Ap(z))},
with the metric

d(h, g) = sup(e-Ap(z)lh(z) - g(z)l),
zee
induced by the norm of the Banach space Ap,A (C).
Let us verify that S is a complete metric space. Given a Cauchy sequence
(hn)n?!1 in S, it is easy to find a subsequence (hnkh?!1 and h E Ap(C) such that
Ih(z)1 :::: exp(Ap(z))
and
as k -+ 00.
If V = V(ft, ... , 1m), (Zj, mj) E V, then hnk vanishes at Zj with multiplicity
~ mj. It follows the same is true for h. Hence,
This shows that S is a complete metric space.

Consider now the linear continuous and surjective mapping
8: (Ap(c))m -+ l(fl,'" ,fm),
8(gl, ... ,gm):= L gj/j.

I~j~m
As pointed out above, the ideal I (flo . .. ,1m) = 11oc(f" ... ,1m) is a closed
subset of Ap(C).
For n E N*, denote
Sn := {(g" ... , gm) E (Ap(c))m: Igj(z)1 :::: ne np (z)(1 :::: j :::: m)} n s.
We claim that Sn is a closed subset of S. In fact, let (h/)/?!I ~ Sn and h E S
be such that d(h/, h) -+ 0 as 1-+ 00. Each h/ = 8(gl,/, ... , gm,/), Igj,/(z) I ::::
nenp(z). We can therefore extract subsequences (gj,hh?!l and functions gj E
Jt"(C) such that
Hence
for all Z E C,
and
L gj,/k/j ~ L gj/j in Jt"'(C).
I~j~m I~j~m
Therefore, h = 8(gl, ... , gm). In other words, h E Sn.

Since 8 is surjective, S = Un> 1 Sn. There is then an integer no such that
Sno =f. 0. As in Lemma 2.2.6, Sn is a balanced convex set. Therefore, for some
ro > 0, the ball B(O, ro) = {h E S, d(O, h) < ro} is contained in Sno' Let < °
A < roo Then for any h E S we have Ah E B(O, ro). This means that there are
gl,···, gn E Ap(C),
and
8(gl, ... , gm) = Ah.
Letting B = no and C = nolA we conclude the proof of the lemma. 0
Remark. Note that if hE I\oc(/I, ... , fm) and h satisfies Ihl .::: De Ap , then we
can conclude from Lemma 2.2.9 that h = L:I~j~m gj/j and Igjl .::: DCe BP •
Let us now state the main result of this section.
2.2.10. Theorem. Let /I, ... , fm E Ap(C) and V:= VUh ... , fm) be the
multiplicity variety of their common zeros. Assume there are e > 0, C > 0, such
that for every (Zb mk) E V one has
IJ.'mk\Zk) I
(*) L J , :::eexp(-Cp(Zk».
I~j~m mk·
Then V is an interpolation variety for Ap(C).
Conversely, if V is an interpolation variety for Ap(C) and if the functions
/I, ... ,fm are jointly invertible, then there are e > 0, C > 0, such that the
inequality (*) holds for every (Zb mk) E V.
Proof. Let us start proving that in case I\oc(/I, ... , fm) = /(/1, ... , fm), the
inequality (*) is a necessary condition for V to be an interpolation variety.
°
If V is an interpolation variety, from Lemma 2.2.6 we conclude there are
constants CI, C2 > and functions hk E Ap(C) such that
Ihk(z)1 .::: CI exp(C2P(Z»
and
The functions
vanish at every Zj with multiplicity ~ mj. Hence ({Jk E Iloc(flo ... , /m). More-
over, for some A > 0 we have
+ IZkl)(1 + Izl)lhk(z)1 ::: CI(1 + IZkl) exp(Ap(z» ,
l({Jk(Z) 1 ::: (1
where we have used that log(1 + Izl) = O(p(z». Hence, we can apply
the
previous lemma and the corresponding remark to conclude that there are
constants B, C > 0, and entire functions gl,b ... ,gm,k such that
(t) ({Jk = L gj,k/j, k~ I

l~j~m
and
(Z E C),
with C2 = CCI.
The choice of hk ensures that the Taylor expansion of ({Jk about Zk is of
the form
using once more that log(l + IZkl) = O(p(Zk». This inequality is clearly equiv-
alent to (*).
We shall now prove that the inequalities (*) imply that V is an interpolation
variety for Ap(C). We start by reminding the reader that a corollary of the
Minimum Modulus Theorem is the following:
2.2.11. Lemma. Let 1/1 be a/unction holomorphic in B(O, 2eR), assume that
max 11/I(~)1::: M
1~1~2eR
and
11/1(0)1 ~ 8 > 0,
then there is a value r, Rj4 ::: r ::: Rj2 such that
min(log 11/I(~)1) ~ 9 log 8 - Slog M.

1~I=r
Proof of Lemma 2.2.11. Let us recall the Minimum Modulus Theorem as stated
in ([BG, Theorem 4.5.14] or [Lev, Chapter I, Theorem 11]): If f is a hole-
morphic function in a neighborhood of B(O, 2eR), /(0) = I, and 1/ E ]0, 3ej2[,
then there is a finite family of exceptional closed disks, the sum of whose radii
does not exceed 4TJR, such that for z E B(O, R) and outside the exceptional
disks, the following inequality holds
log If(z)1 2: - (2 + log ~~) log M(f, 2eR).

Let us choose TJ so that STJR < R/4, e.g., TJ = 1/33. The width of the annulus
R/4:::: Izl :::: R/2 is R/4 and the exceptional collection of disks can at most have
width equal to the sum oftheir diameters, i.e., at most STJR. Hence, there exists
r E [R/4, R/2] such that these disks do not intersect the circle Izl = r, so that
log If(z)1 > -Slog M(f, 2eR)
for all z, Izl = r.

Let f(z) = 1/I(z)/8, then
min(logI1/l(z)I-Iog8) > -S(logM(1/I,2eR) -logo).
Izl=r
In other words,
min log 11/I(z) I > 9 log 0 - Slog M(1/I, 2eR),
Izl=r
which is the desired inequality (**). D
Note that the same argument shows that one can take r E ]3R/4, R[.
We also need the following lemma:
2.2.12. Lemma. Let g be a function holomorphic in I~ I < 1, continuous in I~ I ::::

1, and bounded in absolute value by M. Assume further that g has a zero of order
q at a point ~ = a, 0 < lal < 1, and a zero of order m at the origin. If
Ig(m)(O)1
,
--=---- -> 0> 0,
m.
then
o
lal q 2: M·
Proof of Lemma 2.2.12. Define an auxiliary function h by the identity
g(~) = ~m ( ; ~aa~) q h(~).

The function h will then be in the disk algebra, Ih(OI :::: M, h(O) i= 0, h(a) i= O.
Differentiating m times the defining equation for h and letting ~ = 0, one finds
g(m) (0)
- - = (-a)qh(O).
m!
Therefore,
D
Let us now return to the proof of Theorem 2.2.10. Let (Zk, mk) E V and define
dk := inf{1, inflzi - zkl}·
i#
If dk < 1, choose some Zi such that dk = IZi - zkl. Since we are assuming that
(*) holds, there must be an index j, 1 :s j :s m, such that
l/mi)(Zi)1 8
J ~-exp(-Cp(Zi»'
mil m
We shall apply now Lemma 2.2.12 to the function g(~) := /j(Zi + ~). Then
max Ig(~)1 :s max max 1/j(Zi
11;1:::1 I:::j:::m 11;1:::2e
+ ~)I :s M := Mo exp(NoP(zi»
for some constants Mo, No > 0 that depend only on the bounds for the generators
/j. We have now lal = dk and q = mk in the statement of the lemma, hence
m 8
- exp( -Cp(Zi».
Mdk k ~
m
Since P(Zi) :s Cop(zd + Do, we obtain
(tt) d';k ~ 81 exp(-AIP(Zk»
for some Al > 0,0 < 81 :s 1. Clearly the same inequality holds if dk = 1.
In order to apply the semilocal interpolation Theorem 2.1.4 we need to show
that we can chOose 80 > 0 and Ao > 0 such that, for every k ~ 1, the connected
component Uk of S(lfl, 80, Ao) that contains Zk satisfies Uk ~ B(zk, dk/2).
Let us choose j so that
(#)
and, for I~ I :s 2e, define 1/1 by the equality

~mk1/l(~) = /j(Zk +dk~).
We have for some A2 > 0, 82 > 0,
If (mk)( )dmkl
1'/'(0)1
'I' -_ Zk - -
j '--
-- k - ~ 82 exp ( - A 2P (Zk )) ,
mk l
as a consequence of (tt). Moreover,
max 11/I(~)1 = (2e)-m k max 1/j(Zk + dk~)1
11;1:::2e 11;1=2e
:s max 1/j(Zk + <)1 :s Moexp(NoP(zk».

1t"1:::2e
It would be tempting to conclude that 1/1 has no zeros in B(O, 1), but all
we know is that there are no other common zeros to all the /j in B(zk, dk)'
Nevertheless, thanks to the Minimum Modulus Theorem we can find r, 1/4:s
r :s 1/2, to which the inequality (**) of Lemma 2.2.11 applies. That is, for all
~, I~I = r,
logI1/l(~)1 ~ 910gI1/l(0)1- 8 log (max

1t"1:::2e
11/1«)1).
Translating this inequality into an inequality for jj, we have that there are
constants e3 > 0 and A3 > 0 so that
Ijj(Zk + dk~)1 ::: e34-mk exp(-A 3P(zd),
whenever I~ I = r. We still need to estimate the multiplicity mk to obtain a good

estimate. This will depend once more on the inequality (#). We have
I/rk)(Zk)1
mk.,
= _l_!
270. IZ-Zkl=e (Z ) m +1
- Zk k
jj(z) dz
'
so that
In other words,
for some A 4 , B4 > O.

We conclude that there are A o, Bo > 0 and r, 1/4 :s: r :s: 1/2, such that
Ijj(z)1 ::: eoexp(-Aop(z»
when Iz - zkl = rdk. This shows that the connected component Uk of the set
S(I/I, eo, Ao) = {z E C: (L I:::;J:::;m

Ijj(Z)12) 1/2 < eoe-AOP(Z)} ,
which contains Zt, must be contained in B(zt, dk/2).

To conclude the proof of the theorem, let (ak,lh.! E Ap(V) and define a holo-
morphic function i in S(I/I, eo, Ao) by
(AIUk)(Z)
- = L...J
' " ak,/(z - Zk) I
and i == 0 on S(I/I, eo, AO)\(Uk:::1 Uk). Since (ak.!h,1 E Ap(V), there are
constants A, B > 0 such that
L lak.!l:s: AeBp(Zk) (k ::: 1).
O:::;i<mk
Hence
l(iIUk)(Z)I:s: L lak,I1 (;)':s: L lak,I1:s: AeBp(zkl :s: A'eB'p(z),

O:::;i<mk O:::;i<mk
for some A', B' > O. Clearly this inequality is valid in the whole of
SCl/I, eo, Ao). Applying the semilocal interpolation Theorem 2.1.4 to i, we
conclude there exists I E Ap(C) such that
pU) = (ak.!h.!.
This concludes the proof of the theorem. D
In the case of principal ideals there is a simple analytic condition to ensure

that f E Ap(iC) is invertible.
2.2.13. Definition. A function f E Ap(iC) is said to be slowly decreasing if

there are positive constants B, A, and B such that:
(i) every connected component Ua of S(lfl, B, A) is relatively compact; and
(ii) for every z, ~ E Ua , p(~) ~ Bp(z) + B.
2.2.14. Proposition. Any slowly decreasing function is invertible.

Proof. Assume that g E Jt"(iC) is such that h = gf E Ap(iC), i.e., there are
constants C, D > 0 such that
Ig(z)f(z)1 ~ C exp(Dp(z)) (z E iC).
Let Ua be a connected component of the set S(lfl, B, A) given by the previous

definition. On the boundary of Ua we have
If(z)1 = se-Ap(z) ,
hence for z E aUa we have

C C
Ig(z)1 ~ - exp«A + D)p(z)) ~ - exp«A + D) m~ p(~)).
B B SEUa
Since Ua is bounded, we can apply the Maximum Principle and obtain

C
Ig(z)1 ~ -exp«A+D)m~p(~)), z E [ja.
B SEUa
Using condition (ii) from Definition 2.2.13, we can replace this inequality by
Ig(z)1 ~ E exp(F(p(z)),
for all z E [ja, for some E, F > 0 independent of the component Ua. Therefore,
this inequality holds in SOfl, B, A). On the other hand, for z ¢ S(lfl, B, A),
CeDp(z) C
Ig(z)1 ~ If(z)1 ~ -; exp«A + D)p(z)).
It is now clear that g E Ap(iC) and I (f) = I'oc(f). D
2.2.15. Proposition. Let p be a radial weight that satisfies the doubling condi-
tion p(2z) = O(p(z)), then every f E Ap(iC)\{O} is slowly decreasing.
Proof. It is enough to show that there exist a point Zo and two constants B, A > 0
such that for all r » 1 one can find r" r2 satisfying
r
2 ~ r, < r < r2 ~ 2r,
inf{lf(z)l: Iz - zol = r, or Iz - zol = r2} ~ Bexp(-Ap(r)).
Since, in this case, we can find a strictly increasing sequence of radii Rn ,
Rn ~ 00, Rn+l ~ 4Rn, such that If(zo + ~)I ~ exp(-Ap(Rn)) if I~I = Rn.
The doubling condition imposed on the weight p implies that if z and z'
satisfy Rn ::::: Izo + zl ::::: Rn+t. Rn ::::: Izo + z'l ::::: Rn+ l , then p(z) ::::: C~ + C;p(z')
for some convenient positive constants C~, C;. Thus, the components of the set
S(I!I, e, A) satisfy the requirements of Definition 2.2.13.
In order to conclude the proof of the proposition, we choose Izol ::::: 1 such
that !(zo) =f. O. We can now twice apply Lemma 2.2.11 to the function 1/r(l;) =
!(zo + l;) to obtain rl, r2. D
The conditions imposed on p by Proposition 2.2.15 imply immediately that
Ip(z)1 = O(lzn
for some K > 0, while the inequality p(z) ::::: Cop(l;) + Do whenever Iz -l; I ::::: 1,
only implies the growth condition
Ip(z)1 ::::: O(e A1z1 )
for some A > O. In fact, for a weight like p(z) = e 1zl one does not automatically
obtain that every! E Ap(C)\{O} is slowly decreasing, but only that! is slowly
decreasing in Aq(C) with a weight q slightly bigger than p (see [Heyl]).
The advantage for the interpolation problems of knowing that a function
! E Ap(C) is invertible is that then V = V(f) is interpolating if and only if
there are e > 0 and C > 0 such that
1!(mk)(Zk)1 > -Cp(Zk)
ee
mk! -
holds for all (Zb mk) E V. So the interpolation problem has a clear-cut answer
in this case. Whence, the interest of Proposition 2.2.15.
It is natural to ask whether condition (*) of Theorem 2.2.10 always holds
when V = V(f) is interpolating, even if ! is no invertible in Ap(C). The
answer is negative as shown by the following example of Squires ([Sq2], see
also [Hey2]). Consider the weight p(z) = 11m zl + 10g(1 + Iz12) and the corre-
sponding space Ap(C), which coincides with the space F(£'(ffi.)) of Fourier
transforms of distributions of compact support. If ep E 1)(ffi.), then there is a
constant A > 0 such that for every n :::: 0
Cn
IFep(z) I < (z E C),
- (1 + Izl)n exp(Allmzl)
for some Cn > O. Clearly Fep E Ap(C), but it cannot be slowly decreasing. (It
turns out that in this space, slowly decreasing and invertible are two equivalent
conditions, hence no such function is invertible.) Since the derivatives of Fep
also satisfy similar estimates, condition (*) of Theorem 2.2.10 cannot hold for
Fep. Nevertheless, Squires has shown that one can find ep E 1)(ffi.) such that
sin]l' z
Fep(z) = 00 ( z2) .
fI 1--
n=1 4n
Hence V(.rq» ~ V(sinnz) (all the zeros are simple). On the other hand,
V(sinnz) = {k E Z, mk == I} is interpolating for Ap(C), namely
:z (sinnz)lz=k = n cosnk = (_l)k,

and condition (*) of Theorem 2.2.10 is satisfied for I (z) = sin n z. Since any
multiplicity variety W contained in an interpolating variety for Ap(C) is itself
interpolating, it follows that V (Fq» is interpolating and condition (*) fails
for Fq>.
In fact, the concept of a slowly decreasing function originated in the work of
Ehrenpreis about convolution equations in the spaces £(~) and 1)1(~) [Eh3],
[Eh4]. He proved that in F(£'(~)) any invertible function is slowly decreasing.
Let us mention here that for p(z) = 11m zl + 10g(1 + IzI 2 ), the condition I being
°
slowly decreasing is equivalent to the following:
There is A > such that for every x E ~ the function I satisfies
max{l/(x + t)l: t E ~, It I :::: A 10g(2 + Ix!)} ~ (A + Ixl)-A.
We shall show in the next chapter that every exponential polynomial
N
I(z) = LCj(z)eiajZ,
j=]
satisfies this type of lower bound condition, and hence is slowly decreasing.
More generally, the ideas of this chapter are also well adapted to the Beurling
weights,
p(z) = Ilmzl +w(lz!),
where w: [0, 00) ~ [0, 00) is an increasing, continuous, subadditive function

such that w(o) = 0, wet) ~ a + blog(1 + t), for some a E R b > 0, and
1 D
00 wet)
--2
1+t
dt < 00.
These functions appear when we consider spaces of Coo functions where one
introduces conditions on the growth of the derivatives (see [Bj], [BD3], [Chou)).
°
To conclude this section, let us rephrase the interpolating procedure used
in Theorem 2.2.11. We used condition (*) to find 8, A > such that for any
a E Ap(V), there is a holomorphic function). on S(I/I, 8, A) satisfying the
correct growth conditions and p().) = a. It is clear from the proof that the map
a 1-+ ). is a linear continuous map into Ap(S(I/I, 8, A)). It is therefore natural
to ask whether the procedure a 1-+ )... of Theorem 2.2.11 can be also made linear
and continuous, in other words, whether there exists a right inverse E to p. Or
what amounts to the same thing, does it exist as an extension operator,
po E = id,
where E is linear and continuous, under the assumption that V is an interpolation
variety? One way to do this is to define)... using an interpolation series, typically
some kind of Lagrange series. For instance, if V = V(sinJl'z) = Z, p(z) = Izl,

one can see that
'"'
E(a)(z) = L....-ad-Il
sin Jl'Z (Z)
-
Ikl
kEZ Jl'(z - k) k
(where for k = 0 the tenn (z/k)lkl is considered to be I) is a right inverse to

the restriction operator p. More generally, if V = V(f) = {(Zk. I)}, one could
try to define
E(a)(z) = L
kE71
ak
/(z)
!'(Zk)(Z - Zk)
(Z)1Lk
-
Zk
for a convenient sequence of integers i-Lk ::: 0 (see [Ge], [BrK] , [Lev]). It turns
out that this is not possible for every weight p. In a seminal paper, B.A. Taylor
[Ta2] considered the problems of finding a right inverse for p and for the
Cauchy-Riemann a-operator in the correct spaces. He found that the situation
is very different for p(z) = Izla, a > 0, and p(z) = I Imzl + 10g(1 + IzI2). In
a
the first case, there is a right inverse for and, consequently, linear continuous
extension operators E: Ap(V) -+ Ap(C) exist when V is interpolating. In the
second case, the extension operator exists if and only if V satisfies the additional
condition of lying in a logarithmic strip about the real axis, i.e., there is A > 0
for all Zk E V.
Such a variety is V is called hyperbolic. We refer the reader to the work of

Taylor, Vogt, Meise, et al. for further ramifications of these two questions (e.g.,
[MeTl], [MeT2], [MeTV]).
EXERCISES 2.2.
Throughout these exercises we denote by V = (Zk. mkk~.I a multiplicity variety, which
we assume is infinite and satisfies V S; V(f), for some IE Ap(IC), unless explicitly
stated otherwise.
1. (a) Show that the failure ofthe condition IZk I -+ 00 in the definition of a multiplicity
variety is equivalent to saying there is no entire function 1'# 0 such that V = V(f).
Prove that in such a case the map p: Jt'(1C) -+ A(V) is injective but cannot be surjective.
(b) Assume now that IZkl -+ 00, but that there is no IE Ap(IC)\{O} such that V S;
V(f). Then:
(i) show that p: Ap(lC) -+ A(V) is injective;
(ii) let ej E A(V) be defined by eL = ~j,k~I,O' prove that no ej E p(Ap(IC».
2. (a) Show that if V is an interpolation variety for Ap(1C) and W S; V, then W is
also an interpolation variety.
(b) Prove that W = N (with multiplicity 1) is an interpolation variety for the space
Exp(lC).
*(c) Can you find a single function IE Exp(lC) such that V(f) = N? Can you find
two functions II, fz E Exp(1C) such that V (fl, fz) = N? (Hint: Recall from [BG, Exer-
cise 2.5.20] that if {Zdk~1 denotes the zeros of I E Exp(IC), repeated according to their
multiplicities, then the sums LO:::lzkl<r Ijzk are bounded, independently of r > 0.)
3. Let p(z) = IzI P, P > 0, compute explicitly the function p(z, r) defined just before
Definition 2.2.3.
4. Show that if the multiplicities mk :::; M < 00 for all k, then Ap.",,(V) = Ap(V).
*5. For p(z) = Izl, construct a multiplicity variety V such that Ap.",,(V) =J: Ap(V).
(Hint: Use a variety for which mk ::::: IZkl.)
*6. Let p(z) = IzIP. Use Exercise 2.2.3 to show that a sequence (ak,/) E Ap,,,,,(V) if
and only if for some A > 0
exp(Alzkn
(*) lak,II :::; A (1 + IZk!)1 (0:::; I < mko all k).
Furthermore, show that Ap,,,,,(V) = Ap(V) if and only if

mk =0 COg(~z~IZk!») , as k --+ 00.
Show also that in this case, (*) is equivalent to the existence of B > 0 such that
Bexp(BlzkI P)
lak,II :::; (l!)I/p .
*7. Let p(z) = IImzl + log(l + IzI2), then (ak,/) E Ap,,,,,(V) if and only if for
some A > 0
la I< AI+I exp(Ap(Zk» .
k,1 - I!
Thus Ap,,,,,(V) = Ap(V) if and only if
mk =0 ( P(Zk) ) as k --+ 00.
logp(zd
What restriction on the multiplicities does this condition imply when Zk is on the real
axis? (Hint: Compute p(z, r) for this weight function.)
8. Simplify the proofs of Lemmas 2.2.6 and 2.2.9 using the open mapping theorem,
i,e., Proposition 1.5.1, instead of the Baire category argument given in the text.
9. Let V be an interpolation variety for Ap(iC),
d k := min{l, min Iz)· - zkl}.
j#
Show that there are positive constants 8, A, B, C > 0 such that for all k
and
mk :::; Bp(zd + C.
(Hint: Use Lemma 2.2.6 and reconsider the proof of Theorem 2.2.10 without assuming
that V is of the form V(fl, ... , 1m), with /J, ... , 1m jointly invertible.)
10. (a) Use the previous exercise to show that a necessary condition for a sequence
(Zk k:: I of distinct points converging to
00 to be an interpolation variety for the space
Exp(iC) is the existence of a constant A > 0 such that
inf{lz - zkleA(lzkl+IZjl)} > O.
j-Ik )
(b) Let (zkh~1 be a sequence of distinct real numbers, IZkl --+ 00. A necessary condition
for it to be an interpolation variety for the space :F(£'(R» is the existence of N > 0
such that
11. Let V = V (fl, ... ,fm), f]' ... , fm jointly invertible in Ap (<C). Show that V is
an interpolation variety if and only if there are e, A > 0 such that:
(i) each Zk E V belongs to a component of S(lfl, e, A) of diameter at most 1; and
(ii) no two distinct points of V lie in the same component of S(lfl, e, A).
12. Let p(z) = Izl, V = {k E Z, mk = I; ±(k + e(k», mk = I}, with e(k) E R, 0 <
le(k)1 < !.
(a) Show that there exists f E Ap(<C) such that V =
V(f). Find a condition on 8(k)
so that there cannot exist /) > 0, such that
Yk E Z.
Show that this condition is independent of the choice of f.

(b) Choose two functions el(k), 82(k) as in part (a) with the additional condition that
81(k) < 0 and 82(k) > 0, let fl, fz be the corresponding functions of part (a). Show
that V(fh fz) = V(sin;rrz), which is interpolating. Why is this not a contradiction to
Theorem 2.2.1O?
*13. Find an even entire function f of exponential type such that it vanishes at all the
points x + iy E Z + iZ of the form Ix - nJI :s nj, Iyl :s nj, for an increasing sequence of
integers n j, such that nj --+ 00 sufficiently fast. Show that V (f) cannot be an interpolation
variety for Exp(<C), even though the conditions on db mk from Exercise 2.2.9 are satisfied.
(Hint: Check whether the value of 1f'(nJ)1 is too small. This depends only on the behavior
of the finite product IT(l - (Z/Zk)2), where Zk lies in the block of zeros surrounding nJ.>
14. Let A E R+ \1Ql, p(z) = IzIP, P 2: 1, fez) = sin(;rrz) sin(;rrz/A),

and
rp(n) := min {IA - ~I: m :s n, mEN}, n E N*.
Find necessary and sufficient conditions for V (f) to be an interpolating variety in Ap (<C)
in terms of the behavior of rp for large n. Similarly, for p(z) =
IImzl + log(l + IzI2).
(Hint: Use the elementary fact that I sin;rrxi 2: Cd(x, Z) for some C > 0.)
15. Let T E £'(R), f(s) := (Tx, e-ix~) be the Fourier transform:FT of T. Let P(D) =
L:J=o aj Dj and be a linear differential operator with constant coefficients.
(a) Show that if there is S E £'(R) such that P(D)S = T, then f(s)/P(is) is an
entire function.
=
(b) Let q(z) amz m + ... + ao be a polynomial of degree m, h a holomorphic func-
tion in 8(0, 1). Show that
lamh(O)1 :s max Iq(z)h(z)l·

Izl~l
(Hint: Use that when Izl = 1, Iq(z)1 = Ir(z)l, r(z) = am + am-lZ + ... + aoz m.)
s
(c) Assume that g(s) := f(s)/ P(iO is an entire function. For fixed consider q(z) :=
P(i(z + s» to show that
lamllg(s)1 :s max If(s + z)l·
Izl~l
Conclude that there is S E e'(lR) such that :FS = g, T = P(D)S, and cv(supp S) =
cv(supp T). (This proves that any polynomial is invertible in Ap(C), for p(z) =
IImzl +
10g(1 + IzI2). In fact, it proves the same result holds for any weight p.)
(d) Show that for some constant C > 0, IP(z)1 ~ Cd(z, v(p))m. Use this to prove
that P is slowly decreasing in any Ap(C).
16. Prove that I sinzl ~ Cd(z, nZ)ellrnzl for some C > O. Use this to show that sinz
is slowly decreasing in any Ap(C) such that p(z) ~ IImzl + 10g(1 + IzI2).
17. For B > 0 let us define
Yk,1 := Yk,I(B) := inf{r- I exp(Bp(Zb r)): r > OJ,
Yk := Yk(B) := Yk,mk-I (B).
Show that a = (ak,l) E Ap,oo(V) implies that for some A > 0, B > 0,
lak,11 ::: AYk,I(B).
*18. Let fI, ... , 1m be jointly invertible and V = V(fl, ... , 1m) a weak interpolation
variety. Follow the notation of the previous exercise. Show that for every B > 0 there
are constants e, C > 0 such that
~ Ifj(mk)(Zk)1 (B) -Cp(Zk)

L.J ,~eYk e .
j=1 mk·
(Hint: Consider functions hk like those in Lemma 2.2.6 with condition (iv) replaced
by (iv)' hi
mk -I)(Zk) = (mk - I)! nCB). Follow the proof of the necessity part in
Theorem 2.2.10.)
*19. For each k ~ 1, let Rk = Rk(B) ~ 1 be a value such that

R;;(m k-I) exp(Bp(Zb Rk» ::: 2Yk(B).
Assume that iI, ... , 1m E Ap(C), V = V(fI, ... , 1m), are such that for each B > 0
there exist constants e, C h C2 , C3 > 0 so that for all (Zb mk) E V the following three
properties hold:
(i) mk ::: C1P(Zk) + C2;
(ii) P(Zk; 2Rk) ::: C1P(z) + C2 Vz E B(zb 2Rk);
m If(mk)(z)1
(iii) E J ,k ~ eYk(B) exp( -C3 P(Zk)).
j=1 mk·
Prove that:
(a) V is a weak interpolation variety.
(b) -rp.ere are 8, KO, Kh K2 > 0 such that every Zk E V belong to a bounded component
of S(I/I, 8, KO) with the properties:
(i) p(z) ::: KIP(t) + K2 for any two points Z and t in the same component; and
(ii) no two distinct points of V lie in the same component of S(I/I, 8, KO)'
(Hint: Apply Lemma 2.2.12 to the function get) = h(Zk + Rkt), for a convenient choice
of j. Conclude that
Iz - zkl mk
I/(z)1 ~ Yk(B) Rmk 1/ exp( -Cp(Zk)),
k
for Iz - zkl < ~Rb where 1/, C > 0 are suitable constants. Follow the rest of the proof
of Theorem 2.2.10.)
*20. Let p(z) = IzIP, P > 0, and follow the notation of the preceding exercise.
(a) Show that mk = O(P(Zk)), Rk = O(p(zd), and condition (ii) always holds for this
particular weight.
t
(b) Show that condition (iii) is equivalent to
1.fj(mk)(Zk) I > eexp(-ClzkIP)

j=1 mk! - (1 + IZkl)m k
for some convenient e, C > O. (Compare with the previous Exercise 2.2.6.)
(c) Conclude that when II,"" 1m are jointly invertible the condition in part (b) is
equivalent to V being a weak interpolation variety.
*21. Let I be a slowly decreasing function in .r(e'(~)) and V = V(f).
(a) Show that mk = O(P(Zk)), Rk = O(P(Zk)) and condition (ii) of Exercise 2.2.19
holds (here p(z) = IImzl + 10g(1 + IzI2)).
(b) Use Exercises 2.2.7 and 2.2.19 to show that V is a weak interpolation variety if
and only if there are e, C > 0 so that
I/ (mkl(z )1 > eexp(-CIZkl)

k - (1 + IZkl)C
for every Zk E V.
22. Show that if for some A, B > 0, lakl ~ Ae B1kl for all k E Z, then the function
~ sin1l"z (Z)lkl
I(z) := L.." ak(-I)k -
kE"L 1I"(z - k) k
(where (z/ k)lkl == 1 for k = 0), is an entire function of exponential type such that I(k) =
ak for every k E Z.
23. Let V = {Zdk2:I' IZkl -* 00, mk == 1, and let A(V) be the set of all sequences
{adk2:I' The object of this problem is to prove there are no linear continuous exten-
sion operators E: A(V) -* Jr(C), poE = id ([RudlJ). The topology on V is that of
convergence for each index k.
(a) Show that the topology we described is the compact open topology on the space
of all functions V -* <C.
(b) Let ek E A(V), ek(Zj) = 8jk . Assume E exists, set gk := E(ek). Show there is
a E C such that gk(a) # 0 for all k.
(c) Let k edgk(a) E A(V). Show !k -* 0 in A(V).
(d) Use the homogeneity of E to verify Elk(a) = 1 for all k. Conclude that E cannot
be continuous.
2.3. Ideal Theory in Ap

In this section we follow [Sk2], [Gul], [KTl], [KT2] to obtain sufficient condi-
tions which imply that a function belongs to a finitely generated ideal in a space
Ap. We start by generalizing the Hilbert space ideas that led to Theorem 2.1.3.
Let HI. H2, H3 be three Hilbert spaces. We denote by (·I·)j their scalar
products and by II . IIj the corresponding norms, j = 1,2,3.
Consider the following situation:
where
(i) TI is a continuous linear operator and we denote its adjoint Tt: H2 -+ HI;
and
(ii) T2 is a closed linear operator with dense domain, denoted dom(T2).
In this situation, T2 also has an adjoint T2*: H3 -+ HI which is a closed operator,

with dense domain dom(T2*) and, moreover:
(a) (T2*)* = T2 ;
(b) the conditions x E dom(T2) and y = T2(x) are equivalent to (xIT2*(z)h =
(ylzh for every z E dom(T2*); and
(c) the condition x E kerT2 is equivalent to (xIT2*(z)h = 0 for every z E
dom(Tz*), i.e., ker T2 = (1m Tz*)J. (see [Hor]).
Now let G2 be a closed subspace of H2 such that TI (ker T2) ~ G 2. We have
the following criterion to decide whether T, (ker T2 ) = G 2:
2.3.1. Proposition. G 2 = T, (ker T2) if and only if there is a constant C > 0 such
that
II Tt(X2) + T2*(X3)1i, ~ CIIX2112
for every X2 E G 2 and every X3 E dom(T2*).
In this case,jor every X2 E G 2 there is x, E kef T2 such that T, (x,) = X2 and
IIx,lI, ::::: (1/C)lI x2112.
Proof. Let G, = kerT2, it is a closed subspace of H,. Denote still by T, the
operator T,IG,: G I -+ H2 • The following lemma shows that T,(G I ) = G2 if
and only if there is C > 0 such that:
2.3.2. Lemma. Let T: E, -+ E2 be a continuous linear operator between two

Hilbert spaces. In order that T be surjective, it is necessary and sufficient that
there is a constant C > 0 such that/or every y E E 2, lIyll2 ::::: CIIT*(y)lli. In this
case,for y E E2 there is x E E, such that y = T(x) and Ilxlli ::::: CIIy1l2.
Proof of Lemma 2.3.2. Assume T is surjective. Then T is an open map, hence
there is a constant C > 0 such that if z E E 2, IIzl12 ::::: 1, there is x E E" T(x) =
z, IIxll ::::: C. Given an arbitrary y E E 2, Y =I 0, let z = Ylllyll2, and let x E EI
as above, then
lIyll2 = I(zlyhl = I(T(x)lyhl = l(xlT*(y))d ::::: CIIT*(y)III'

To prove the converse, assume the existence of a constant C > 0 such that
for every y E £2, we have lIyll2 :s CIIT*(y)llt. Clearly T* is injective, hence
for every y E £2 the following map is a well-defined linear map on Im(T*):
u: T*(z) f-+ (zlyh,
which verifies
Since £1 is a Hilbert space, with the help of the Hahn-Banach theorem, we

conclude that there is an x E £1 representing the linear form u and IIxllt :s
CIIy II 1. i.e.,
(T*(z)lxh = u(T*(z» = (zlyh
for all z E £2. Therefore, T(x) = y. This concludes the proof of the lemma. 0
Let us now return to the proof of the proposition. G I is also a Hilbert space,
hence G I is isomorphic (including the identity of norms) to its dual G~. On the
other hand, G~ ~ Ht/ Gt, also with equality of norms. Since G I = ker T2 and,
by a previous observation (see [HorD,
HI = ker T2 EB Im(T2*),
we have
Therefore, TI (G I ) = G 2 is equivalent to the existence of a constant C > 0 such

that for every X2 E G 2 and X3 E dom(T2*) we have
II Tt(X2) + T2*(X3) lit :::: CII X2112.
In the case where TI(G I ) = G2, we have IITt(X2)11t :::: CIIX2112 which, by
Lemma 2.3.2, implies the existence of XI E G I with IlxIIII:S CIIX2112 and
TI (XI) = X2. 0
The preceding considerations will be applied to the following types of spaces.

Let n be an open set in C, as usual dm denotes the Lebesgue measure on n,
and let qJ: n -+ ~ be a continuous function (upper semi-continuous would be
enough). Denote by L 2 (n, qJ) the space of functions in n which are square
integrable with respect to the measure e-q; dm. Consider alai as an unbounded
operator T from L 2 (n, qJ) into itself with domain
dom(T) = {f E L 2(n, qJ): :~ E L 2(n, qJ)} ,
where af/ai is the derivative in the sense of distributions.

The following lemma is essentially included in the proof of Theorem 2.1.3:
2.3.3. Lemma. T is a closed operator with dense domain.

Proof. The subspace dom(T) contains 1)(Q), hence it is dense in L2(Q, ({J). To
verify that T is closed, let {Un, TUn»n:::d be a sequence in the graph of T
which converges to (j, g) in the graph norm. In particular, In ~ I in 1)'(Q),
hence oln/oz ~ of/oz in 1)'(Q). But oln/oz = TUn) and TUn) ~ g in
L2(Q, ((J) ensures that g = of/oz in 1)'(Q). Hence I E dom(T) and TU) = g.
D
Now let ({JI, ({J2 be two continuous real valued functions in n,

and let gl, ... , gn
be holomorphic in a neighborhood of n,which we assume to be compact. Let
HI = H3 := (L2(Q, ({JI»n, H2 := L2(Q, ({J2),
and use II· III to denote both the norm in L2(Q, ((JI) as well as that in HI.
Consider
TI(hl,···,h n):= L gjhj,
l:::oj:::on
which is clearly continuous HI ~ H2. Define an operator T2: HI ~ H3 by:
(a) h = (hi, ... , hn) E dom(T2) if and only if hj E dom(T) for every j;
(b) T2(h) = (ohJ/oz, ... , ohn/oz).
In this case, the space ker T2 is exactly (L2(Q, ({Jd n Jf'(Q»n. The operator TI
sends ker T2 into a closed subspace G2 of L 2(Q, ({J2),
G2 := L2(Q, ((J2) n Jf'(Q).
We are in a situation like that of Proposition 2.3.1, hence, in order that every
holomorphic function I in L2(Q, ({J2) could be written in the form
1= L hjgj ,
l:::oj:::on
with hj E L2(Q, ((JI) n Jf'(Q) , it is enough to prove the estimate in Proposi-
tion 2.3.1.
,We will assume henceforth that Q is an open bounded set with Coo regular
~~undary and that ({JI, ({Ji are defined and of class C 2 in a neighborhood of
Q. We let ({J := ({J2 - ({JI. For any h = (hi, ... , hn), denote, as usual, Ihl =
(L l:::oj:::on Ihj 12) I /2. Moreover, we will assume that
Igl > 0 in a neighborhood of n,
i.e., the functions gj have no common zeros in n.
Let us compute Tt(u) for u E L2(Q, ((J2). Tt(u) is defined by the formula
<Tl(h)luh = (hITt(u)h. On the other hand, for h = (hi,"" h n) E HI, we
have
We conclude that
Tt(u) = (glue-"', ... , gnue-"').
Let v = (VI,"" vn) E dom(Tn. Since T2*(v) = (T*(VI),"" T*(v n», the
inequality
becomes in this case

II Tt(u) + T2*(V) IIi = L IIgjue-'" + T*(vj)lIi ~ C2I1ull~,
l::Sj::sn
for u E G 2 = L2(Q, qJ2) n Jf(Q) and Vj E dom(T*), 1 :s j :s n. Rewriting the

left-hand side of this inequality as
II Tt(u) + T2*(V) IIi = II Tt(u) IIi + 2Re(Tt(u)IT2*(v)h + II T2*(v) IIi,
it shows we have to study three terms separately.
A. Let us start by rewriting the first one
II Tt(u) IIi = L 1Igjue-"'12e-"'1 dm = 1IgI2IuI2e-2"'-"'1 dm.

l::sj::sn n n
B. Estimation of 2 Re(Tt (u) IT2* (v) h.

Since u is holomorphic we have
T(gjue-"') = :z (gjue-"') =u :z (gje-"') =u (:z (gje-"'») ,
hence gjue-'" E dom(T). Therefore,

2Re(Tt(u)IT2*(v)h = 2Re L (gjue-"'IT*(vj)h
l::sj::sn
= 2Re L (T(gjue-"'lvj»1
l::sj::sn
= 2Re L
l::sj::sn n
1aza-(g·e-"')v·e
J
- -"'I dm
J
Recall that for any a, b ~ 0, ex > 0, we have

1
2ab < _a 2 + exb 2 .
-a
Hence
2.3. Ideal Theory in AI' 141
It follows that for any ex > 0,
2Re(Tt(u)IT2*(v)h ~- ~ 2Iule- 2qJ-CPI dm

ex in{ IgI
C. Evaluation of II T2*(v) IIr·

We are going to show that
II T2*(v) IIi ~ {IvI 2a2({i~e_'I'1 dm,

in azaz
with IvI2
= Ll~j~n IVjI2. For that purpose, we note that IIT2*(v)lIr =
Ll~j~n IIT*(vj)lIr, hence it is enough to obtain this estimate for the case of
a single function (i.e., n = 1).
Let c(n) be the family of all Coo functions on n (i.e., in a neighborhood of
n). For f E c(n) n dom(T*) we claim that
a
T* (f) = -e'l'l - (f e-'1'1).
iJz
In fact, we must have
(T(h)lfh = (hlT*(f)h
for every h E D(Q). Now,
(T(h)l!)l = 1. --=-
ah
n az
fe-'l'l dm
and, from
1. a
we conclude that
(T(h)l!)l = - 1. a -
h--=:(fe-'I'I)dml
n az
+ -
--=:(hfe-'I'I)dm
n az
= -1 h [:z (fe-'I'I)] dm,
since the other term vanishes, as one sees by applying the Stokes formula.
Rewriting the resulting identity we obtain
(T(h)l/h = -
Jnr h [e'P[~(fe-'P[)]
az
e-'P[ dm = - (hle'Pl~(fe-'Pl))
az 1
,
whence
as claimed.
We shall admit a technical result whose proof can be found in an even more
general setting in [Ro3, Lemma 4.1.3].
2.3.4. Lemma.
(i) The space c(Q) is dense in dom(T), endowed with the graph norm
(lIfIIf + lIaf/azllf)1/2.
(ii) The space c(Q) n dom(T*) is dense in dom(T*), endowed with the graph
norm (1I/1If + IIT* fIIf)1/2.
Raving accepted this lemma, let us give a characterization of the functions in

c(Q) n dom(T*).
2.3.5. Proposition. Alunction I E c(Q) belongs to dom(T*) if and only if I =
o on an.
Proof. A function I E c(Q) belongs to dom(T*) if and only if for every g E
dom(T) one has (gIT*(f)h = (T(g)l/h. Since c(Q) is dense in dom(T) (with
the graph norm), it is necessary and sufficient to verify that for every g E c(Q)
one has
_ (gle'Pl ~(fe-'Pl))
az 1
= (a~
az
II) .
1
In other words, we need to verify the identity
o~ L[g (e" :, (je-"») + :~ 1] e~' dm
We conclude that I E dom(T*) if and only if
r
Jan
gje-'P[ dz =0
for every g E e(Q). Let s be the arc length parameter in an, the function dz/ds
is Coo on an, hence we can find a function g E e(Q) such that g = fdz/ds
on an. We conclude that f E dom(T*) if and only if f = 0 on an. 0
We can now show that the estimate we needed for IIT2*(v)lIi holds.
2.3.6. Proposition. For every f E dom(T*) one has the inequality
IIT*(f)lIi ~
a2cp~ dm.
(lfI 2e-q>\
az azin
Proof. From Lemma 2.3.4 we conclude that it is enough to prove the inequality
for f E e(Q) n dom(T*).
Let us recall that we have shown in the proof of Proposition 2.1.2 that for
any u E C 2 one has
e1"\ I-au + uaCPI a2cpI

- 12 + e1"\1 u 12 - -
az az azaz
= a~ [eq>\ (u au + lul 2 aCPI)] _ ~ (eq>\u -au) + eq>\ I au 12

az az az az az az
If u = 0 on an, when we apply Stokes's formula we obtain
I
{ eq>\ au 12 dm = {Iu 12eq>\ a2cp~ dm + { I
eq>\ au + acpI 12 dm
in az inaz az in az az
~ (lul2eq>\ a2cpI_dm.
in az az
When f E e(Q) n dom(T*) we have f = 0 on an and T*(f) =
-eq>\ (a/az) (e-q>\ f), so we can apply the previous inequality to u = -eq>\ f and
obtain
II T*(f)lIi = lleq>\ :z f)1

(e-q>\
2
e-q>\ dm = l eq>\ I:z (e-q>\ f)1 2
dm
~ {Ie-q>\ fl2eq>\ a2cp~ dm = (lfl 2eq>\ a2cp~ dm,

in azaz in az az
as we wanted to prove. o
Summarizing the estimates contained in A, B, and C, we see that for ex ~ 1,
u E G 2 = L 2(n, CP2) ndt"(n), and v = (VI, ... , V n ) E dom(Tt), we have the
inequality
II Tt(u) + T2*(v) IIi ~ (1 -1) 1Ig,2Iu,2e-2q>-q>\ dm

In what follows we shall take
2.3.7. Lemma. The following identities are correct:
(i)
(ii)
Hence,
Therefore,
and the identity (i) follows.

(ii) An elementary computation yields
- ag
2
L g.-
az J
j
l::,j::,n
L g- ag.az- 2] .
J
j
l::,j::,n
We can now apply an identity due to Lagrange:

2
L a/)j + L lakbj - aj b kl 2 = L lajl2l b d,

l::,j,k::,n
which is valid for any choice aj, b j E C, 1 :::; j :::; n. This concludes the proof
~~ 0
2.3.8. Lemma. Letaj, bj , Vj E C, I ::s j ::s n, lal 2 = EI:;:j:;:n lajl2, and similarly
IvI2 = EI:;:j:;:n IVjI2. Then
2
L ak(akbj - ajbk)vj ::s lal 21vI2 L lakbj - bj akl2.

I:;:k<j:;:n I:;:k<j:;:n
Proof. Let S = Eak(akbj -ajbk)vj. We note that

2S = L [ak(akbj -ajbk)Vj +aj(ajbk -akbj)vk]
I:;:j,k:;:n
= L (akbj - ajbk)(akVj - ajVk)

I:;:j,k:;:n
= 2 L (akbj - ajbd(akVj - ajVk).

I:;:k<j:;:n
From the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality we obtain
ISI 2 ::s ( L lakbj - ajbd) ( L lakVj - ajVkl2) .

I:;:k<j:;:n I:;:k<j:;:n
On the other hand, the Lagrange identity used in Lemma 2.3.7 yields
2
which combined with the previous inequality, proves the lemma. o

These two lemmas allow us to state that
2
Let us now take

f{J1 := 1/1 + exf{J,
with 1/1 a subhannonic C 2 function still to be chosen. Then we obtain
2
a2f{J1
Ivi 2- ex L a Ivi 2-a-f{J .
2
az -
az - -Igl 2 .
I:;:J:;:n
erp-(g·e-rp)v·
az J J
>
- az az
Since IgI 2e- 2rp -rp, = erp-2rp, = e-'P2, with f{J2 := f{J + f{JJ, we have obtained the
following result:
2.3.9. Proposition. Let Q be an open bounded subset in the complex plane with
Coo regular boundary. Let 1/1 be any C 2 function in the neighborhood ofn which
is subharmonic in Q. Assume that gj, 1 ~ j ~ n, are holomorphic functions in a
neighborhood ofn such that Igl 2 = 2:1~j~n Igjl2 > 0 on Q. Fix any a ~ 1 and
let f{JI = 1/1 + a log(igI2) and f{J2 = 1/1 + (a + 1) log(igI2). Then,for any u E G2
and v E dom(TD one has the inequality
II Tt(u) + Tni ~ (1 -.!.)a in {luI 2e-'P2 dm + { a21/1_lvI2e-'P\ dm.

in az az
As a consequence of these rather technical results, we shall now be able to
obtain two theorems guaranteeing that a function belongs to a certain ideal. Here
is the first one.
2.3.10. Theorem. Let Q be an open subset of C, 1/1 a subharmonic function

Q, and a fixed constant a> 1. Let gl, ... , gn (resp. (gj)r~.I) be a system ofn
holomorphicfunctions in Q (resp. a sequence of hoiomorphic functions such that
the series Igl 2 = 2:j~1 Igj 12 converges uniformly on every compact subset ofQ).
For every function f, holomorphic in Q, such that
(*) Ifl2 -'It d

in{ Igl2a+2e m < 00,
there exist n holomorphicfunctions hI, ... , h n in Q (resp. a sequence (hj)j~1 of
holomorphic functions) such that
f = L hjgj
I~j~n
(resp. f = 2:j~1 hjgj , the series being convergent in Je(Q)). Moreover, the
following inequality holds:
{ J!:te-'It dm < _a_ ( ~e-'It dm.

in Igl 2a - a-I in Ig1 2a+2
Proof. We consider first a simple case and remove the unnecessary restrictions
one by one. Assume that Q is a bounded open set with Coo regular boundary,
the gj form a finite family of n functions holomorphic in a neighborhood of
n with Igl > 0 on n, and 1/1 is of class C 2 in a neighborhood of Since n.
2
a 1/1/az az ~ 0, Proposition 2.3.9 provides the inequality
II Tt(u) + T2*(v) IIi ~ (1 - ~) In luI 2e-'P2 dm.
We can appeal now to Proposition 2.3.1 to obtain the theorem in this case.
Let us now eliminate the condition that n is finite. Let (gj)j~1 be a sequence
of functions which are holomorphic in the same neighborhood of and 0 < n
2:j~1 Igj 12 converges uniformly on n.
Let f be a holomorphic function satis-
fying condition (*) with respect to this sequence. There is an integer no » 1
such that for n ~ no we have 2:1~j~n Igj 12 > 0 on n
and condition (*) holds
when we replace the infinite sequence by gl, ... , gn. Hence, there is a sequence
(hj,n)j?l such that hj,n = 0 for j > n:
(i) 1= Lgjhj,n;
l:::;j
where the bound M is obtained from the Monotone Convergence Theorem. It

follows that for n ~ no
(We have used that Lj?l Ih},n(~)12 is a subharmonic function, being a finite sum
of subharmonic functions.) Therefore, we can find a sequence (nk)k?lo nk ~ 00,
such that for every j, h},nk converges to a function hj in Jt"(Q). Given K cc Q
and N an arbitrary integer,
L llhj,nk,2Igr2ae-1{! dm::: : 111/12 ( L Igjl2) -a-l e-1{! dm

l:::;j:::;N K ot 0 l:::;j:::;nk
and letting k ~ 00 one obtains
L llhj,2Ig,-2ae-1{! dm ::: _ot_ [ 1/1 2Igr 2(a+l)e-1{! dm.

l:::;j:::;N K ot - 1 Jo
Since K is arbitrary and we can let N ~ 00, we finally conclude that
[ IhI 2Igl- 2a e-1{! dm ::: _ot_ [ 1/1 2Igl- 2(a+l)e-1{! dm,

Jo ot - I Jo
with Ihl 2 = L}?l Ihj l2. In the same way as above, one obtains that Lj?l Ihj l2
converges uniformly over compact subsets of Q.
Let us now show that f = Lj~1 gjhj . Since, for every n» 1, f =

LI:':j::,:n gjhj,n, it is enough to show that the sequence (Lj~1 gjhj,nkh~1 con-
verges locally unifonnly in Q. We have already observed that Lj~1 Ihj,nk 12 is
unifonnly bounded over any compact subset of Q and, moreover, Lj~1 Igj 12
converges locally unifonnly in Q by hypothesis, hence
which converges unifonnly to zero on every compact subset of Q.

Let us now assume that 1/1 is defined in a neighborhood of Q, but it is
not necessarily of class C 2. One can find a sequence (1/In)n>1 of subhannonic
functions, Coo in a neighborhood U of Q, such that 1/In :::: 1/In:I' 1/In(z) -+ 1/I(z)
for any Z E U (see, e.g., [BG, §4.4.16]). For every n we can find a sequence of
holomorphic functions hj,n such that:
(i) f=~gjhj,n;
j~1
~ _a_ { IfI2Igl-2a-2e-'" dm.

a-I In
As before, for every n the corresponding sequence (hj,n)j~1 is locally unifonnly
bounded in Q, hence we can find nk < nk+l -+ 00 such that hj,nk -+ hj as
k -+ 00 in Jt"(Q). A reasoning completely analogous to those above allows us
to conclude that the sequence (hj)j~1 satisfies the two conditions required by
the theorem.
Let us now assume that Q is an arbitrary open set. We claim we can find a
sequence of bounded open sets (Qn)n~1 such that:
(a) Q n ~ Qn+l;
(b) Q = Un>1 Qn;
(c) for every n, aQ n is a regular boundary of class Coo.
The idea of the construction of the Q n is as follows. First, we construct a
function p: Q -+ [0, +oo[ of class Coo such that p-I([O, r]) cc Q for every
r > O. For this purpose, just take any compact exhaustion (Kj)j~1 of Q and
choose ({Jj E D(Q) such that 0 ~ ({Jj ~ 1, ({Jj == 1, on a neighborhood of K j , and
supp(({Jj) ~ Kj + l • Let
p := ({JI + ~ j(({Jj+l - ({Jj-I).

j~2
This function is Coo and proper. Moreover, by Sard's lemma the set of critical
values of p is of zero measure. Therefore, there is an increasing sequence of
values rn ~ 00 such that On = p-l([O, rnD fonns an exhaustion of 0 with the

desired properties.
Now, by what we have already proved, for every n :::: 1 there exists a sequence
(hj,n)j~l of holomorphic functions in On such that
(i) 1= L gjhj,n in On;

j~l
(ii)
~ _a_
a -1 Jo
r1/12Igl-2a-2e-Vt dm.
For m fixed and n > m, the sequence (hj,n) is bounded in Om. It follows
that we can find an increasing sequence nk ~ 00 such that for every j :::: 1 the
sequence hj,nk has a limit hj in Jt"(0) when k ~ 00. It is easy to see now that
the sequence (hj)j~l has the required properties.
To conclude the proof we only have to eliminate the supplementary hypothesis
that Igl > 0 on O. Let Z be the discrete set of common zeros in 0 of all the gj,
and apply the theorem to Of = O\Z. Since 1/1 and Igl are locally bounded above,
the functions h j are locally square integrable in 0, hence their possible singu-
larities at the points of Z are removable, as shown by the following elementary
lemma:
2.3.11. Lemma. Let 1 be holomorphic in 0 < Izl < r, ~Z\<r 1/1 2dm < 00, then
the singularity 011 at z = 0 is removable.
Proof of Lemma 2.3.11. Let 1 (z) = EkeZ akzk be the Laurent development of
fin 0 < Izl < r. For any 0 < e < r we have
1e:::lzl:::r
r
I/(z)1 2 dm=21l'la_11 2 10g-+1l'
e
L lad r
k#-l
2k +2 -
k +1
e2k+2
.
Letting e ~ 0 we reach a contradiction unless ak = 0 for every k < O. D
This lemma concludes the proof of Theorem 2.3.10. D
Let us now present two simple corollaries of Theorem 2.3.10.
2.3.12. Corollary. Iithere exist constants Cl, C2 such that

e- C1Vt ~ Igi ~ eC2Vt ,
thenJor every holomorphic function 1 in 0 such that
L 1/1 2e- C3Vt dm < 00,

for some C3 such that C3 + C 1(2a + 2) ~ 0, there are holomorphicfunctions hj

such that f = L:j~l gjhj and
rIhI2e-C4'"
Jo.
dm ::: _a_
a-I
r
Jo.
IfI 2e- C3 1{! dm,
where C4 = C3 + C 1(2a + 2) + 2aC2.

Proof. Let q := C 3 + C1(Za + 2) ~ 0, hence the function q1/l is subhannonic
and
llfI2Igl-Za-2e-C~'" dm ::: llfI2e-C31{! dm.
Therefore, there are (hj)j~l holomorphic in 0 such that f = L:j~l gjhj and
rIhI2IgrZae-c~I{!
Jo.
dm ::: _a_
a-I
r
Jo.
IfI2e-C31{!.
Let C4 := q + 2aC2, then

llh I2 e- C4 1{! dm ::: llhI2Igl-Zae-q", dm,
which concludes the proof of the corollary. o

2.3.13. Corollary. If there are constants c and M such that
o< c ~ Igl ~ M < 00,
then,for every function f E L2(0) n Jf'(0), there are holomorphic functions h j

such that:
(i) f = L:j~l gjhj ; and

(ii) fo. Ihl 2 dm < 00.
Proof. This is the previous corollary for the case 1/1 =constant. o
2.3.14. Remark. Let us recall from 1.1 that the Corona Problem consists in
finding bounded functions hj such that f = L:j~l gjhj, when f is bounded
and 0 < c ::: Igl ::: M < 00. The proof of the Corona Theorem for L 2 -functions
which we have just given is much simpler than the Corona Theorem for bounded
functions.
As another application of Theorem 2.3.10 we shall see what are some of its
consequences for the algebra Ap(O), 0 an open set in C. We assume the weight
p satisfies the conditions (i)' and (ii)' of §2.1. That is, there are positive constants
K 1, K 2 , K 3 , K4 such that z E 0, ~ E C, and Iz - ~I ::: exp(-K1P(z) - K 2 )
implies that ~ EO and p(~) ::: K 3 P(z) + K4, and 10g(1 + Iz12) = O(p(z»
(though this last condition is not essential for what follows).
We remind the reader that / E Ap(Q) if and only if / E ;f(Q) and there is
°
C :::: such that
h'/'2e-CP dm < 00.
From the second assumption above, it follows that Ap(Q) contains the restric-
tions to Q of the polynomials. More generally, consider a family P of subhar-
monic functions such that if PI, P2 E P, then PI + P2 E P and max (PI , P2) E
P. We associate to P the algebra Ap(Q) of those holomorphic functions in Q
such that 1/1 :s Ce P for some PEP (i.e., Ap(Q) = UPEP Ap(Q». It follows
that Ap(Q) contains the restrictions of the polynomials and that / E Ap(Q) if
°
and only if there is PEP and C > such that
h'/'2e-CP dm < 00.
That is, one can define the growth conditions in Ap(Q) either by L oo estimates
or by L 2 estimates.
As an immediate corollary Theorem 2.3.10 we have the following theorem
due to Hormander [H03]:
2.3.15. Corollary. Let gl, ... , gn E Ap(Q), then the/ollowing three conditions
are equivalent:
°
(1) I(gl,oo.,gn) = Ap(Q).
(2) There is pEP and A > such that
Igl :::: Ae- p .
(3) There is a > 1 and PEP such that
1Q
e-P
---dm < 00.
igi 2a +2
2.3.16. Remarks. (1) Hormander considered the case P = {cp: c > o}, P a
fixed subharmonic function.
(2) If there is a sequence (gj)j,,:1 of holomorphic functions in Q such that
Ale-PI :s Igl :s A2eP2
for some constants AI, A2 > 0, and PI, P2 E P, then for every / E Ap(Q),
there is a sequence (hj)j":l ~ ;f(Q) such that:
(i) / = Lj":l gjhj in Q; and
(ii) Ih I :s A 3eP3 for some P3 E P, A3 > 0,
which is Hormander's result extended to the case of infinitely many generators.
Let us now give a situation where the need to consider an infinite sequence
arises naturally.
Let P be a subharmonic function in an open set Q. Assume that for every
j E N*, the set Qj := {z E Q: p(z) < j} is relatively compact in Q. We recall
that Ap(O) carries an inductive limit topology, which is not metrizable. Never-
theless, the spaces Ap,B(O) are Banach spaces and thus, from Proposition 1.4.13,
the closure of any subspace F of Ap(O) coincides with its sequential closure.
Therefore, an ideal I in Ap(O) is dense if and only if it is sequentially dense
in Ap(O), i.e" there is a sequence (/kh~1 in I that converges to 1 uniformly
over every compact subset of 0 and besides, there are two constants C 1, C2 ::: 0
such that
(Z EO, k::: 1).
In this case, for every j ::: 1 there is kj such that
~ ~ Ifkj (z)1 2 ~ ~, for all ZE OJ.

Let
then
Igl' = ~ Igjl'" (~e-'j) Clexp(2C,p),

and, moreover, for every Z E 0 there is a j such that j - 1 ~ p(z) < j, hence
T-2
e- 2P (Z) ~ ~e-2j ~ e-2jlfk/Z)12 = Igj(z)1 2 ~ Ig(z)1 2 •
This shows that the existence of four positive constants, A, B, A', and B' so
that
Afe-B'p ~ Igl ::::: Ae BP .
Conversely, Remark 2.3.16(2) shows that if we can find a sequence gj E
I, and positive constants A, B, A', and B' such that the previous inequality
holds, then I is sequentially dense. Therefore, we have proved the following
proposition:
2.3.17. Proposition. Let p be a nonnegative subharmonic function in 0 such

that for every c > 0 the set Oc = {z E 0: p(z) < c} is relatively compact in
O. Assume p satisfies the other properties stated in the definition of the spaces
Ap(O). An ideal I of the algebra Ap(O) is dense if and only if there is a sequence
(gj)j~1 in I and positive constants A, B, A', and B', such that
A'e-B'p ~ (L: Igjl2) 1/2 ~ Ae BP .
As an example of application of this proposition, let

p(z) = IImzl +log(1 + IzI 2 ),
the weight defining the algebra F(e'(lR». For nEZ, let
fn(z) := -
1 12lr e-Itze-
.. Int dt =
1 - e- 2lriz
.
21l' 0 21l'i(z+n)
Since for each Z E C, the fn (z) are the Fourier coefficients of the function
t r-+
L'" Ifn(z)1 2 = -
1 1
e- itz , we can apply Parseval's formula and obtain
2Jl'
le- itz l2dt = -
1 e4Jl'(Imz) - 1
.
nEtu
27r 0 47r Imz
It is easy to verify the inequalities of Proposition 2.3.17 and conclude that the
ideal generated by the fn, nEZ, is dense in F(C"(JR».
Let us consider a finite family gl,"" gn E Ap(Q). Denote h =
I(gl,"" gn), the ideal generated by them in Ap(Q) and let Z(/I) be the set
of their common zeros in Q. A function f E .;r; (the radical of II) if there are
k E N*, hj E Ap(Q), such that
fk = L gjhj .
We conclude that
for some pEP and A > 0.

Conversely, suppose f E Jf(Q) is such that for some k E N*, A > 0, and
PEP, one has
Iflk :s: Algle P •
In this situation we can apply Theorem 2.3.10 to the function f3k, choose
ex E ]1, 3[ and let 1/1 = Bp for B a sufficiently large integer, and obtain that
f3k E IJ, i.e., f E .;r;.
We have therefore proved the following version of Hilbert's Nullstellensatz:
2.3.18. Corollary (Global Nullstellensatz). In order for a function f in the

algebra Ap(Q) to belong to the radical of the ideal II, generated by gl, ... , gn,
it is necessary and sufficient that there are k E N*, A > 0, and pEP, such that
Iflk :s: Algle P
in Q.
Let now 12 be the family of f E Ap(Q) for which there are A > 0, pEP
such that
If I :s: Algle P •
It is easy to see that h is an ideal in Ap(Q) and that II ~ h
If f E 11, then there are A > 0, PEP, such that
If I :s: Algl 3e P ,
which implies, via Theorem 2.3.10, that fEll. Therefore, we have the following
statement:
2.3.19. Corollary. The ideals II, 12 verify

Ii ~ II ~ h
In particular, .;r; = .Jl2.
2.3.20. Proposition. II either II or h is a principal ideal, then II = h.

Proof. We need to show that in either case h ~ II.
Let ft = (h) and let I E h. Hence, there are A > 0, pEP, such that
III:::: Alhle P •
It is immediate that II hE Jf(Q) and, if ({J = II h, then ({J E Ap(Q). Therefore,

IE ({Jh Ell.
If h is principal, h = (h). Since II ~ h we have that for each generator gj
of ft there is Ii E Ap(Q) such that
(j = I, ... ,n)
and, moreover, by the definition of h there are A > 0, pEP, such that
Ihl :::: Algle P •
It follows that III = (~I::;j::;n Iii 12)1/2 =j: ° in Q and that
III =~ > .!. -p

Ihl - A e .
Therefore,
1 E I(/t, ... ,fn),
i.e., there are hj E Ap(Q) such that
1= L hj}j.
I::;j::;n
and hence
h = L
I::;j::;n
hjfih = L
I::;j::;n
hjgj Eft.
This concludes the proof of the proposition. o

Let us return now to Proposition 2.3.9 and let ex = 1. In that case we have
II Tt(u) + T2*(v) lit ~ l :::z IvI 2 e-<P1 dm,
for u E G2, V E dom(Tn, ({JI = t/I + log(lgI2), ({J2 = ({JI + log(lgI 2) = t/I +
210g(lgI 2). Let us replace t/I by t/I + 2 log (1 + IzI2). Then, for this new weight,
the meaning of G2 changes but, since
a::z (t/I + 2 log (1 + IzI2» ~ (1 +~ZI2)2'

one obtains the inequality
II Tt(u) + T2*(v)lIt ~ 2l (11 vll:1 2)2 e -<P1 dm,

for u E G2 , V E dom(Tn, f{JI = 1/1 + log(lgI 2) + 2 log (1 + IzI 2), f{J2 = f{JI +
log(lgI2). We apply this observation to prove the following proposition:
2.3.21. Proposition. Let Q be a bounded open set with regular boundary of

class Coo, let 1/1 be a subharmonic function of class C 2 in a neighborhood of Q,
and let gl, ... ,gn be holomorphic functions in a neighborhood of Q such that
Igl 2 = LI~j~n Igj 12 > 0 on Q. Let W = (WI, ... , wn) be a system of measurable
functions such that
r IwI2
in Igl 2
e-1fr dm < 00.
Let p:= 1/1 + 210g(lgI 2) + 210g(1 + IzI 2), then there are functions hj E Lloc(Q)
such that:
(a) 00; = Wj in the sense of distributions;

(b) In(LI~j~n hjgj)ue- P dm = Ofor every holomorphicfunction u E L2(Q, p);
Ihl 2 e- 1fr IwI2
r - e - 1fr dm
(c) r -
In Igl2 (1 + Iz12)2 dm -< !2 In Igl2 .
Proof. The hypotheses show that for f{JI := 1/1 + log(lgI 2) + 210g(1 + Iz12)
In Iw12(1 + IZI2)2e-'P' dm < 00.
We have also that
1L
2
l(wlv)I1 2 = w/!Jje-'P'dm
n I~j~n
:s (
in
rIw12(1 + IzI2)2e-'PI dm) ( inr (1 +Ivl2IZ12)2 e-'PI dm) .
Therefore, if we let f{J2 = p, to conform with the notation of Proposition 2.3.9,
we have that for u E G2 and v E dom(Tn
l(wlv)I1 2 .::: 4(In Iw12(1 + IZI2)2e-'P' dm) II Tt(u) + T2*(v) IIi·

Let E be the linear subspace of (L2(Q, f{JIW of elements of the form Tt(u) +
T2*(v), for some u E G 2 , V E dom(Tn. Define a linear form 0: E ~ C by the
relation
Then:
(i) 0 is well defined because if Tt(u) + T2*(v) = 0 then
r Ivl2
in (1 + Iz12)2
e-'P'dm =0
'
hence v = 0; and
(ii) () is continuous, with norm 5: ../f12(fo Iw12(1 + IzI2)2e-'P1 dm)I/2.

The Hahn-Banach theorem allows us to conclude that there is h =
(hI, ... , h n) E (L 2(O, cpd)n such that:
(a/) (wlv)1 = (hITt(u) + T2*(v)h, whenever u E G2 and v E dom(TD; and

(b /) IIhlll = i fo Iw12(1 + IzI2)2e-'P1 dm.
The identity (a/) is equivalent to the pair of identities
In other words,
ah·
(a) a{ = Wj, 1 5: j 5: n.
(b) ]; ( L gjhj ) ue-'P2 dm = 0 (u E G2).

o I::;:J::;:n
The inequality (b /) is simply
f 2 -'P2 _ f Ihl 2 e-1/I < ! f Ihl 2 _1/1
(c) Jolhl e dm - Jo Igl2 (1 + Iz12)2 dm - 2Jo Igl 2e dm,
because of the choice of CPl. o
2.3.22. Theorem. Let 0 be an open subset of C, and let 1/1' be a subharmonic
function in O. Let (gl, ... ,gn) (resp. (gj)j~l) be a system of n holomorphic
functions in 0 (resp. a sequence of such functions). Let Z be the set of common
zeros of the gj in O. Then,for every function f E K(Q) such that
1 O\Z
Ifl2
- 4 (1
Igi
+ ~(log Igl»e- 1ft dm < 00,
there are hI, ... , h n E K(n) (resp. a sequence (hj)j~1 in K(O» such that
f = L gjhj
I::;:j::;:n
and
f If I: e-1/I 2 2dm 5: 2 f If I: (1 + ~(log Igl»e-1/I dm.
Jo Igi (1 + Izl ) JO\Z Igi
Proof. One starts by assuming that 0 is a bounded open set with regular
boundary of class Coo, 1/1' is C 2 and subharmonic in a neighborhood of g,
the n functions gj are holomorphic in a fixed neighborhood of g, and Igl > o.
Afterward, one eliminates these restrictions one by one as done in the proof of
Theorem 2.3.10. We shall just indicate how to prove the first step.
One can write f = LI::;:j::;:n gjhj with
h'·
j.=
i.i2 •
f Ig1
Let Wj := ahj/az. An easy computation shows that
Wi = 1~4 L gj (gj ~~ - gi ~; ) .
l~J :9
Applying the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality one obtains

2
Iwi 2 = L -1/128
Igl
L g'] (a gi aaz-
g 'az- - g i
]
gj )
l~i~n l~j~n
Hence,
1W,2
1 -e-'/Idm<
n Igl 2
11/12
- 1 1gag
- n Igl 4 l~i,j~n Igl 4 ] az
L - ag-j 12 e-'/Idm.
' -i - g i
az
On the other hand,
Therefore,
From Proposition 2.3.21 we see there are functions h'j, 1 :::: j :::: n, such that:
ah"
(1) af = Wj;
(2) 1n ( Ll~J~n
gjh'j) ue-f{J2 dm =0 (u E G 2 ); and
Ih"12 e-'/I IwI2

(3) r --
J n Igl 2 (1 + Iz12)2
dm < r -e-'/Idm
- J n Igl 2 .
Let hj := hj - h'j. Then (a/az)h j = 0, for j = 1, ... , n. We also have that
Tl (h") is square integrable in n, and condition (2) can be written as
for u E G2.
Hence Tl (h) =1- Tl (h") is also square integrable in n, Tl (h) - 1E G2, and
(T1(h) - Iluh = 0
for all u E G 2 • Since we can take u = T1(h) - f, we see that T1(h) = f. To

conclude the proof we only need to estimate h.
1.
We have
Ihl2 e-1/I
-
2
n Igl (1 + Iz12)2
dm=
1.
Ih' - h"12 e-1/I
n Igl2 (1 + Iz12)2
dm
r
Ih'I2 e-1/I Ih"12 e-1/I r
~ 2 in Igl2 (1 + Iz12)2 dm + 2 in IiI2 (1 + Iz12)2 dm.
But Ih'I2 = IfI 2/lgI 2, hence
1. 2
-
n Igl (1 + Iz12)2
1.
Ihl2 e-1/I dm <2 -Ifl2 e-1/I dm+2 -e-1/Idm
- n Igl (1 + Iz12)2
4
Iwl2
n Igl 2
1.
~ 2
Ifl2
1.
- 4 (1 + ~(log Igl)e-1/I dm.
n Igl
As pointed out earlier, the remainder of the proof can be carried out as in the
case of Theorem 2.3.10. 0
2.3.23. Corollary. If gl, ... , gn E Ap(Q) and there is apE P such that
r
in\z
~(log Igl)e- P dm < 00,
then
EXERCISES 2.3.
1. Let gl,"" gn, fl,"" fn, and h be holomophic functions in a disk B satisfying
gj = iJh (1 :5 j :5 n) and for some A > 0,
Ih(z)l:5 A (En IgJ(Z)1 2) 1/2
Show that the functions iJ cannot have a common zero in B (see the proof of Proposition
2.3.20).
2. (The objective of this exercise is to prove a very simple case of a theorem of
Bombieri [R03, Theorem 4.4.4].) Let p be a subharmonic function in an open set Q.
(a) Let U E Jf"(Q) satisfy Io
lul 2e- p dm < 00. Show that if ~o E Q is such that e- P
is not integrable on any neighborhood of ~o, then u(~o) = O.
(b) Let B(zo, r) ~ Q, r > 0, be such that e- P E LI(B(zo, r), dm). Show that there is
U E Jf"(Q), such that u(zo) = I and
r lu(z)1 2e- p (z)

J0 '-(-1-+'-1z-I7""2)"'-3 d m (z) < 00.
(Hint: Try to find u in the form
u(z) := 1/I(z) - (z - zo)v(z),
where 1/1 E V(B(zo, r», 1/1 == 1 in B(zo, r /2).)

Conclude that there is a nonzero U E Jf'(Q) such that u satisfies the condition (*) and
vanishes at every point ~ E Q such that e- P ¢ L I (N~) for any neighborhood N~ of ~.
*3. Let !/f be a subhannonic function in B = B(O, 1) such that !/f(0) = 0 and !/fez) < 1
for every z E B. Let t-t = t!,.!/f.
(a) Show there is a Radon measure du on aB(O, 1), du(O ::::: Id~ I such that
!/fez) = ~ r log
2n J B
I1z-- z~~_I dt-t(~) + r
JaB
1 -lzl:dU(~).
Iz - ~ I
(Hint: Use the Riesz decomposition theorem for B(O, r) and let r -* 1-. [BG, §4.4.24].)
(b) Show that
rlog~dt-t(O+ r (ld~l-du)=2n.
JB I~I JaB
l
Conclude that
ldU(O' ::::: 4n.
aB
11 -lzl:dU(~)1
(c) Show that
I~
2n aB Iz - ~I
::::: 6 if Izl:::::~.
(d) For R < e- 1/ 2 , let
1 r
a = a(R) := -2 dt-t(n
n JB(O.R)
Show that
0::::: a::::: (-!ogR)-1 < 2.
(e) Fix R E 14, e- 1/ 2 [. Show there is a constant C > 0 such that for z E B(O, 1/2) one
has
11 R<I~I<1
Iz-~I
log - - - dt-t(~) < C
11-z~1
I
-
and
exp (-4 r
JB(O.R)
log Iz - ~~ dt-t(~») <
11 - z~1 -
r
JB(O.R)
( Iz - ~~ )
11 - z~1
-a dt-t(~)
2na-
< C.
(f) Conclude that

~ e-1/t(z)dm(z) < 00.
Jii(O.I/2)
(g) Use the previous parts of this exercise, and preceding Exercise 2.3.2, to prove that
if rp is a subhannonic function in a domain Q, there is an open set G, G dense in Q, and
G ;2 {z E Q: rp(z) > -(X)} such that e-rp E Lioc(G). Show that G is the complement of
the set of common zeros of all the functions U E Jf'(Q) such that
r lu(z)1 2e-rp(z)
In (1 + Iz12)3 dm(z) < 00.
*4. Let rp be a subhannonic function in C and Hrp the set of all entire functions u such
that
for some N ~ O.
(a) Let U E Jfr(C) be such that lul 2e-'I' E Lloc(C), Fix R > 0 and let X E 1)(C), X == 1
on B(O, R + 2). Let v := XU, f := 8v/8z. For t > 0 define
qlt(z) := qI(z) + max (0, t log (RI~ I) ).

Show that
(b) Show there exists Ut E Coo such that 8u,j8z = f and satisfies
(i) lim J; IUt 12 exp( -qlt) dm = 0;
1-+00 C (1 + Iz12)2
(ii) tl!.~ ~zl<R+l lutl 2 dm 0; and=
=
(iii) lim Ut 0 uniformly in Izi < R.
t-->oo
r
(c) Show that
IUtl 2 -'I'
lc (1 + IzI2)2+(t/2) e dm < 00;
!
and
Iv-utl2 -'I'
(1 + IzI2)2+(t/2) e dm < 00.
(d) Conclude that the closure of Hrp in Jfr(C) contains the set of all U E Jfr(C) such
that lul 2e-rp E Lloc(C),
2.4. Dense Ideals in Ap(Q)

In this section we will consider in more detail the question of when an ideal
I of the algebra Ap(O) is sequentially dense (see [KTl], [KTI] , [Tal]). From
Proposition 1.4.13 we obtain that this is equivalent to i Ap(O), and clearly =
the necessary and sufficient condition is that the function 1 must be a limit of a
sequence in I. Another obvious necessary condition is that the elements of I do
not have a common zero. This condition is not sufficient for arbitrary weights
p, as will be shown in the exercises below. We now introduce a new concept,
very useful in this kind of problem.
2.4.1. Definition. A subset S ~ Ap(O) is called exhaustive if there is a sequence

(Uj)j"~.1 of subharmonic functions in 0, a sequence (Kj)j"~l of compact subsets
of 0, and two constants C lo C2 ~ 0 such that:
(1) 0 = Ui:::l Kj ;
(2) Uj(z) ~ 0 for every Z E Kj;
(3) Uj(z) ~ Cl + C2P(Z) for every Z E 0; and
(4) for every j ~ 1, there are constants C1,j, C2,j ~ 0 and a finite, nonempty
subset Sj of S such that, for every Z E 0,
Uj(z) ~C 1•j + C2,jp(Z) + ~ log (L:

feSj
If(Z)1 2) •
2.4. Dense Ideals in Ap(n) 161
2.4.2. Remarks.
(1) It is clear that we can assume that the sequences (Uj)j?J. (Kj)j?J.
and (Sj)j?l are increasing. Under these conditions we shall denote Sj =
(F!. ... , FN), where (Nj)j?l is an increasing sequence of integers.
(2) A set S is exhaustive if and only if the ideal I (S) generated by S in Ap (Q)
is exhaustive. Let us show, for instance, that if I (S) is exhaustive, then one can
find subsets Sj 5; S, verifying (4) for the same sequence (Uj)j?l associated to
I (S). In fact, there is a finite, nonempty set <5j = {It. ... , INj} 5; I (S) such
that
Let us write !k = ~i ak,i Fk,i, for some finite collections Fk,i E S, ak,i E Ap(Q),
both collections depending on fk. Let Sj be the (finite) collection of all Ft.i E S
appearing in one of the above representations of Ik E <5j. Then
J~N' Ij,(') I' " IfNi (~Ia", (,) I') (~IF'A') I')
for some Aj , Bj > O. This gives a choice of Sj and constants C;,j' q,j for the
set S.
(3) If S is exhaustive, its elements cannot have a common zero Zo E Q. Other-
(L
wise,
log I/(ZO)1 2 ) =-00

!eSj
for every j, and this contradicts the fact that Uj ~ 0 on Kj •
(4) If each Uj is of the form log Igj I, gj E Jr(Q), then gj E Ap(Q) and, more-
over, g] E I (S) by Theorem 2.3.10.
(5) If S is an ideal without common zeros, the conditions to be exhaustive
are easily seen to be equivalent to the following "pointwise conditions":
There are constants C 1, C2 ~ 0 such that for every ~ E Q there is a function
u~ which is subharmonic in Q, a compact subset K~ of Q, a nonempty finite
subset S~ of S, and constants Cl(~)' C2(~) ~ 0 such that:
:s
(1) udz) Cl + C2P(Z) for Z E Q;
(2) u~ (z) ~ 0 in a neighborhood of ~; and
(3) for every Z E Q\K~ one has
u~(z) :s C (~) + C2(~)P(Z) + !

1 (L
feSj
I/(Z)1 2)
The main result of this section is the following:

2.4.3. Proposition. An ideal I in Ap(Q) is exhaustive if and only if it is dense.

Proof. Let us assume first that I is dense. It follows that there is a sequence
(hj)j~l of elements in I which converges to 1 uniformly on compact subsets of
Q and such that, for some constants C 1, C2 :::: 0, one has
(j :::: 1, z E Q).
We set Uj := 1 + log Ih j I, and
Kj:= {z EQ: Uj(z):::: o} n {Z EQ: Izl:::: j and d(z, QC):::: 7}.

It is easy to verify that the conditions of Definition 2.4.1 are satisfied for this
choice.
Conversely, let us assume that I is exhaustive. Let (Uj)j~b (Kj)j~b and
(Sj)j~l be the corresponding sequences assumed increasing, satisfying the condi-
tions of Definition 2.4.1. Let us choose a sequence (qJj)j~1 ~ 1)(Q) such that:
(i) 0:::: qJj :::: 1, j :::: 1;

(ii) qJj (z) = 1 for every z E K j ;
(iii) there is a constant Co > 0 such that
(z E Q, j :::: 1).
For j :::: 1, we can define new subharmonic functions in Q by
These auxiliary functions have the following property:
2.4.4. Lemma.
inr10<tJj o.
Vk dm) =
lim (lim sup
J-+OO k-+oo oz 12 e-
Proof of Lemma 2.4.4. Choose k(j) :::: 1 such that Uk :::: 0 on supp(qJj) for all
k :::: k(j). Let K; = supp(qJj) n (Q\Kj ), then for k :::: k(j) we have
11n 0qJoi·1 e-Vkdm -< c 1 e-

_J
2
2
0
)
4Uk (z)
d(z QC)4
'
K~ d(z, QC)2 (1 + Iz1 2)4
dm
.
Since M j = sUPzEn\K d (z, QC)2 /[ (1 + Iz 12)2] :::: 1/j2 and Uk :::: 0 on sUPP qJj, we
c51
j
have
1 oi
n 1
-OqJj 12 e-vkdm < -
- P
dm
n (1 + Iz12)2
.
This inequality proves the lemma. o

2.4. Dense Ideals in Ap(Q) 163
Let Ej := In e-
IOqlj/ozI 2 Vk (j) dm, with the strictly increasing sequence k(j)
chosen as in the proof of the preceding lemma, so that limj-H'O Ej = 0 and
Vk(j) ~ 0 on the support of qlj.
From Theorem 2.4.3 it follows that there are functions Vrj such that 0Vrj / 0Z =
Oqlj/oz and
r
in IVrjl
2
(1
e-Vk(j)
+ Iz12)2 dm :::: 'iEj.
I
The functions h j := qlj - Vrj are clearly holomorphic in Q. We claim that all
hj E I and that the sequence (hj)j~1 converges to 1 in Ap(Q). Let us prove first
the last item. We need to show first that there exist constants C > 0, B > 0,
such that, for every k ~ I and every z E Q,
e-Vk(j)
e-Cp(z) < B---"7
- (l + IzI2)2·
In fact, letting fJ = log B, this inequality is equivalent to
-Cp(z) :::: fJ - Vk(Z) - 2log(1 + IzI 2),
i.e.,
Vk :::: fJ + Cp(z) - 2log(1 + Iz 2 ).
1
But, Vk = 4(Uk + log(1 + IzI 2 )/d(z, QC)) and there are positive constants AI,
B I , A 2 , B2 such that
log(l + Iz12) :::: Al + BIP(z),
1
d(z, QC) :::: A2 exp(B2P(Z)),
by the defining properties of the weight p. Since Uk satisfies the estimate of

Definition 2.4.1, it is then clear that for C» 1 and fJ > 0 convenient, the
desired inequality holds. Hence,
!nIVrj 12e- Cp dm :::: B !nIVrj 12 (l :~:~)2)2 dm :::: BEj,

and, as a consequence
On the other hand,
r 11 - qlj
in
2e- Cp dm::::
1 r
in\K j
e- cp dm,
and, since if C » 1 we have e- cp E LI(Q), then
.lim
J-+OO inr 11 - qlj 12e- Cp dm = O.
Therefore,
It follows that hj --+ 1 in Jt'(Q), by a mean-value argument that we used several

J
times. Moreover, from the fact that D I1/tjle- Cp dm ~ M < 00 for all j 2: 1, and
the estimates of d(z, QC) in terms of p, we conclude that there exist constants
A3, B3 > 0 such that
Ihjl ~ A ee B3P •
This shows that hj --+ 1 in Ap(Q).
To complete the proof of the Proposition 2.4.3 it suffices to show that hj E I.
Choosing a = 2 in Theorem 2.3.10 allows us to prove that if we can show there
are constants Cj > 0 such that
lr:.[ Ih'1 2
J 3 e-CjP dm < 00,
D C::;~Nj IFk1 2)
then there are functions hj,l' .•• , hj,Nj E Ap(Q) such that
hj = L hj,kFk,
l::;k::;Nj
and, moreover,
L Ih j ,kl 2 2
[1::;k::;Nj -CjP d < 2 [ Ih j I -CjP d
lr:. 2 e m lr:. 3 e m.
D C!:~Nj IFk1 2) - D C!:~Nj IFk1 2)
The existence of the constants Cj > 0 follows from property (4) of Definition
2.4.1 and a reasoning entirely similar to those leading to the estimates for 1/tj. D
2.4.5. Corollary. Let I be an ideal in Ap(Q), which has no common zeros, and
for which there exist finitely many F 1 , ••• , FN E I and e > 0, C > 0, such that
every connected component of the set
is relatively compact in Q. Then I is dense in Ap(Q).

Proof. Let (Dj)j~l be the connected components of the open set D, then each
Dj is a compact subset of Q. Consider the subharmonic function in Q,
u(,) := I log (fN IFj (,)1') -log. + Cpr,)·
We have
D = {z E Q: u(z) < OJ.
2.4. Dense Ideals in Ap(Q) 165
Define
Kj:= { z E Q: Izl ::: j, d(z, QC) ~ j I} - -

U Dl U··· U Dj ,
u(z) if z ¢ K)·,
u,(z)·- {
) .- max(O, u(z)) if z E Kj ,
and Sj being equal to the set {FI. ... , FN} to which we have adjoined a finite
subset 6 j of I with no common zeros in Kj • It is easy to verify that (Uj)j~1.
(K j )j~i, (Sj )j~1. satisfy the condition of Definition 2.4.1. Hence I is exhaustive
and the corollary has been proved. 0
2.4.6. Remark. The proof of Lemma 2.4.4 also shows that if u 1 ::: U2 ::: •••
satisfy the conditions (1), (2), and (4) of Definition 2.4.1, and if
u(z) := ,lim Uj(z),
)-+00
then j contains h 3 for every h E Ap(Q) such that

Ih(z)1 ::: C 1 exp(C2P(Z) + u(z)).
EXERCISES 2.4.
1. Prove Remark 2.4.5.
2. Let Q = {z E C: Rez > OJ, and recall that C(fl) denotes the space of continuous
functions in fl. Let
Ao(Q) := (I E Jt'(Q): lim I(z)
Izl-co
= O} n C(fl).
zen
(a) For f E Ao(!J) define

IIfII = sup
zen
I/(z)l.
Show that Ao(Q) is a Banach algebra under multiplication, without a unit.

(b) Show that the function e(z) := e- z does not belong to Ao(Q), but that e·Ao(Q) is
a proper ideal of Ao(Q).
(c) Prove that L 1 : f ~ e· f is an isometry of Ao(Q) into itself. Conclude that
e . Ao(Q) is a closed ideal of Ao(Q).
(d) Let rp E Ao(Q)\{O} and let I be the ideal e·rpAo(Q). Show that the hypothesis
rp E i implies the existence of a sequence (fn)n~1 in Ao(Q) such that (rpln)n~1 converges
in Ao(Q) to an element rpl E Ao(Q) verifying rp = e·rpl. Show that it follows that rp =
limn_co e2 rpnln in Ao(Q), and infer that (rpdn)n~1 has a limit rp2 in Ao(Q), and that
rp = e2rp2. Derive by induction the existence of a sequence (rpk)k~1 ~ Ao(Q) such that
rp = ek'rpk for all k ~ 1. Conclude that, in fact, rp ¢ i.
(e) Let rp be as in part (d), and let J = rpAo(Q). Show that e·rp is the limit in Ao(Q)
of the sequence (8nrp)n~J, 8n(z) := (n/(z + n»n. Infer that i = LI (J) ~ J.
3. Let p(z) := log(1 + Iz12) and Q = {z: Rez > O} as in the previous exercise. Also
let 8n(z) = (n/(z + n»n, n ~ 1.
(a) Show that 8n E Ap(Q) and limn_co 8n = 1 in Ap(Q).
(b) Find explicitly the function rpo E Ap(Q) such that rpo = limHooe~.
(c) Prove that the ideal I = rpoAp(Q) is different from Ap(Q).
(d) Is rpo invertible in Ap(Q)?
2.5. Local Ideals and Conductor Ideals in A p

Let us recall that in Definition 2.2.7 we defined the local ideal associated to a
finitely generated ideal I of Ap(Q). In fact, that definition makes sense for any
ideal I.
2.5.1. Definition. The local ideal hJC associated to an ideal I in Ap(Q) is the
collection of all I E Ap(Q) such that for every Z E Q there is a neighborhood
U of z and there exist functions /J, ... , In E I, gl, ... ,gn E .te(U), verifying
I = L jjgj in U.
l:'Oj:<on
It is clear that if V = (Zk. mkh:O:1 denotes the multiplicity variety of the ideal
I, and I(V) (resp. leV)) is the ideal in Ap(Q) (resp. in .te(Q», corresponding
to V, i.e.,
= {f E Ap(Q): I vanishes at every Zk with multiplicity ~ md,
I(V)
then hoc = I (V). Moreover, if i: Ap(Q) ~ ;f(Q) is the canonical injection, 1
is the closed ideal generated by I in .te(Q) (i.e., by iU)), then 1 = leV) and
Iloc = i-I(J). Hence, Iloc is closed in Ap(Q). Furthermore, the identities
Iloc = (hoc)loc = (i)loc,

are immediate consequences that all these ideals have the same multiplicity
variety. In particular, if V = 0, then Iloc = Ap(Q). Clearly if I = {OJ then
hoc = {OJ.
We now introduce another ideal associated to I.
2.5.2. Definition. Given an ideal 1 in Ap(Q) the conductor ideal (or quotient
ideal) of I is the ideal 1* defined by
[* := {f E Ap(Q): Ig E I for every g E Iloc},
It is clear that I S; 1*.
2.5.3. Proposition. II I is a closed ideal in Ap(Q), then 1* is also a closed ideal.

Proof. Let (fn)n:O:1 be a sequence in [* converging to I in Ap(Q). For any
g E Iloc, the sequence (fng)n:O:1 lies in I and converges to Ig. Since I is closed,
I gEl. Hence I E 1*. 0
2.5.4. Proposition. We have the inclusion
1* 5; (i)*.
Proof. We already know that (i)* is closed and that I loc = (i)loc' Hence for any
f E [* and g E (i)loc, then f gEl 5; i. Therefore, f E (i)*. It follows that
1* 5; (i)*. 0
The following simple proposition is crucial to the study of localizability of

ideals (see Definition 2.5.7). The idea to use it in this context is apparently due
to Ehrenpreis [Eh 1].
2.5.5. Proposition. Let I be an ideal, I = I loc if and only if 1* = Ap(Q).
Proof. If 1= I loc , then for every f E Ap(Q) and g E I loc , we have fg E I,

hence f E 1*. Conversely, if 1* = Ap(Q), then 1 E [*, hence for every g E I loc
we have g = 1· gEl. 0
2.5.6. Proposition. If [* is dense in Ap(Q), then i = I loc .
Proof. Namely, by Proposition 2.5.4, if 1* = Ap(Q), then (i)* = Ap(Q). Hence,

i = (hoc = Iloc . 0
2.5.7. Definition. We say that an ideal I of Ap(Q) localizes if i = Iloc .
This concept will play an important role in the study of convolution equations
later on. We see that for I to localize it suffices to prove that [* is dense in
Ap(Q), but this requires at least that l* has no common zeros. In fact, we can
show that this is always the case.
2.S.S. Proposition. For every ideal I of Ap(Q), the ideal [* has no common
zeros.
Proof. We can assume that I =f. {OJ (Why?). Let us argue by contradiction and
assume there is Zo E Z(I*). We claim that if g E [*, then the function G(z) :=
g (z) / (z - zo) belongs to [*. To continue the proof we need the following very
simple lemma:
2.5.9. Lemma. If f E Ap(Q) and f(zo) = 0, then F(z) := f(z)/(z - zo) is in

Ap(Q).
Proof of Lemma 2.5.9. Let B(zo, r) 5; Q, then for z E B(zo, r) we have
1
IF(z) I ::: max IF(s)1 = - max If(s)l,
I~-zol=r r I~-zol=r
and for z E Q\B(zo, r) we have clearly

1
IF(z)1 :s -If(z)l.
r
The defining properties of the weight p allow us to conclude that F E Ap(Q).
D
We return to the proof of the proposition. Since V(l*) ~ V(l), the multi-
plicity m of [ at Zo verifies that m 2: 1. Let h E [ be such that the multiplicity
of h at Zo is exactly m. Then we can write
h(z) = (z - zo)m H(z),
with H (zo) =1= 0, H E Ap(Q). Similarly, any f E hoc can be written as

f(z) = (z - zo)m F(z),
F E Ap(Q). It follows that the identity

f(z)H(z) = h(z)F(z)
holds.
We want to show that Gf E [, for any f E [loc' Using the previous notation
we can write
G(z)f(z) = g(z)f(z) [H(Zo) - H(Z)] + ( g(z) ) f(z)H(z)
H (zo)(z - zo) z - Zo H (zo)
= g(z)f(z) [H(Zo) - H(Z)] + h(z) [G(Z)F(Z)] .

H (zo)(z - zo) H (zo)
Since gf E [ and hE [, we obtain Gf E [.
Therefore, G E [*. This shows that the multiplicity variety V (l *) must be
empty. In other words, [* is an ideal without zeros. D
This proposition allows us to extend Corollary 2.4.5 to an arbitrary ideal in

Ap(Q).
2.5.10. Corollary. Let [ be an ideal in Ap(Q) for which there are functions
F l , •.. , FN E [ and constants 8 > 0, C > 0, such that every connected compo-
nent of the set D = {z E Q: (Ll::J:<:N IFj(z)l)I/2 < 8 exp( -Cp(z))} is relatively
compact in Q. Then i = hoc.
Proof. The preceding Proposition 2.5.8 shows that [* has no common zeros
and, since F l , ... , FN E [*, we can apply Corollary 2.4.5. We conclude that [*
is sequentially dense in Ap(Q). Hence i = hoc by Proposition 2.5.6. D
In general, it is not true that i = [loco We show this with an example due to
Gurevich ([Gu2l, see also [KT2] and Exercise 2.4.2).
2.5.11. Example. Let Q = {z E C: Rez > O}. For z = re ill , -rr/2 < e < rr/2,
let
p(z) := exp( -ar" cos e + r P) + r Y ,
with 0 < {3 < a, 0 :s y < 1, a > O.
Since {3 < a, the quantity -ar" cos e + r P --+ -00 whenever r --+ 00 for e
fixed in] - rr /2, rr /2[. Therefore, every function f E Ap(Q) is of order y along
every ray starting at the origin, but the type of this function could increase to 00
as this ray approaches the vertical axis. We shall show that the principal ideal
[ = e- z Ap(Q) is not localizable in Ap(Q). It is clear that [ =I- Ap(Q) since
eZ .;. Ap(Q).
Since [ has no common zeros, ['oc = Ap(Q). We want to show that i =I-
Ap(Q). Assume that the opposite is true. We would then have a sequence (gnk'::i
in Ap(Q) such that:
(i) gn(z)e- Z --+ 1, uniformly on every compact subset of Q; and
(ii) Ign (z )e- ZI :s C, e C2P (z) for all n ~ I and some C" C2 > o.
Consider the open set Q, := {z E Q: Rez > rY}. On the set Q, we have
-ar" cose + r P < -ar Y+"-' + r P•
Assume that
{3<y+a-1,
then there is a constant Co > 0 such that
p(z) :s Co + r Y for all z E Q,.
Therefore, we have
Ign(z)e-ZI :s C, exp(COC2 + C2 r Y )
and
since Re z = r Y on aQ,.
In order to apply the Phragmen-Lindel6f principle consider the auxiliary
function
f(z) := exp(-C~zY), C' _ C2 + 1
2 - cos(rry /2)
We have
Ifgnl :s C; on aQ,
and the order of fgn is at most y < 1 in Q,. The Phragmen-Linde16fprinciple
asserts that
Hence, for z E Q" we have

-Rez
Ign(z)e-ZI :s C; ~f(Z)1 :s c, exp(C~zY - Rez).
In particular, for z real, gn(z)e- Z ~ 0 as z ~ 00, unifonnly in n, which contra-

dicts the condition (i) mentioned above.
The preceding example raises the natural question of whether there are weights
p such that every ideal in Ap(C) localizes. In the next section we prove this for
p(z) = IzIP,O < P < 00. The very important case p(z) = IImzl +log(1 + Iz12)
is left to Chapter 6.
2.6. The Algebra Ap of Entire Functions of

Order at Most p
We denote here Ap the algebra Ap(C), p(z) = IzIP, 0 < P < 00. Note that all
the functions of this algebra are either of order < p or order p and finite type.
(In the literature sometimes a function of order p and infinite type is also said
to be of order at most p.) For this algebra we want to give more precision
to the results of this chapter about interpolation and ideals. Many reasonings
extend to the Case where p is a radial weight satisfying the doubling condition
p(2z) = O(p(z». We start with a result of Lindelof which we take from [Lin],
and we also suggest [Lev], [Bo] for a complete study of entire functions and their
zeros. Part of this section is based on the doctoral thesis of Squires [Sql], [Sq2].
Let f be a nonconstant entire function and recall that n (r) denotes the number
of zeros of fin B(O, r), counted with multiplicities. We assume, for simplicity,
that f (0) = 1. Let then denote, as usual,
M(r) = max
Izl=r
If(z)1 and N(r) = 1o
r n(t)
-dt.
t
Hence Jensen's fonnula (see [BG, Chapter 4]) is simply
N(r) = -1 12n' log I/(re i9 )1 dO.

21l' 0
2.6.1. Lemma. II I has finite order p > 0 and finite type -r, then
. n(r)
hmsup - :::: ep-r.
r ..... oo rP
In particular, n(r) = O(rP).
Proof. In fact, for e > 0 given there is r(e) > 0 such that
log M(r) :::: (-r + e)r P, r ~ r(e),
hence
N(r)
--;:;;- :::: -r + e, r ~ r(e).
Now let f3 > 1 and r 2: r(e), then nCr) being increasing implies that
n(r)logf3:s 1 r
f3r net)
-dt:S
tot
1
f3r net)
- d t = N(f3r):s f3P(r +e)r P.
Therefore
nCr) :s (r
rP
+ e) inf
f3>1
(L) =
log f3
ep(r + e), r 2: r(e).
Since e > 0 was arbitrary, the lemma has been proved. o

2.6.2. Lemma. If p > 0, but is not an integer, an entire function f of order at
most p (i.e., f E Ap) is of type zero if and only if nCr) = o(r P). In any case,
f E Ap if and only ifn(r) = O(r P).
Note that if the order of f is strictly less than p, then f is considered to be

of type r = 0 with respect to p.
Proof. We write the Hadamard factorization of f in the form
fez) = zmeQ(z) P(z),
Q a polynomial of degree deg Q = q < p, and p the canonical product of genus

p, p 1 E(z/zn, p), where
E(z, p) = (1 - z) exp(z + (z2/2) + ... + (zP / p» is the -Weierstrass primary
factor. We know from [Lev, p.12], [BO, §2.6.1O] that for some constant
K = K(p) one has
log IP(z)1 = ~ log IE (~ ,p) I :s Kr P {1 ;p~~ dt + r

r
1 ;p~~
00
dt} .
Let nCr) :s Ar P, nCr) == 0 for 0 :s r < ro, then
log IP(z)1 :s KArP {1: t p- p- I dt +r 1 00

t p- p- 2 dt} .
Since p 0 given, let rl be such that nCr) :s erP whenever
r 2: rl. Then
log IP(z)1 :s Kr P 1 ;p~~ rl

dt + Ker P {i r
t p- p- I dt +r 1 00
t p- p- 2 dt }
:s KorP + Kler P :s K 2er P,

so that P is of type zero. o
If the order p of the function f is an integer, one cannot expect such a simple
result. The reason is that either the term e Q can dominate or the infinite product
P can have infinite order while n(r) = O(r P). These possibilities occur in the
examples e Z and II r(z). In the latter case, n(r) = O(r) but the function has
infinite order. There is a classical result of Lindelof that deals with this case.
2.6.3. Theorem. Let p be a positive integer and let f be an entire function

of order :s p, f(O) = 1, and let (zn)n~! be the sequence of its zeros repeated
according to multiplicity and with increasing absolute values. Denote by p the
genus of the canonical product P and by ao the coefficient of zP in the polynomial
=
Q, where f(z) eQ(z) P(z). Then:
(1) the function f is of finite type if and only if.
(i) n(r) =
O(r P); and
(ii) S(r) = Llznl:::r(1/z~) is a bounded function.
(2) The function f is of zero type if and only if either
(i) p = p, n(r) = o(r P), and Ln>! (1/z~) = -aop; or
(ii) p = p - 1 and ao = O. -
Note that in case 2(i) we are also assuming that the series is convergent. For
the proof we need some preliminary results.
2.6.4. Lemma. Let f be a nonconstant entire function such that f (0) = 1. Let
a > 0 and let 27rrl(a, r) denote the linear measure of the set
A(a, r) := {z E aB(O, r): If(z)1 ::: M(r)-O"},
then for r » 1 one has
1
l(a, r) :s 1 + a .
Proof. Let a(a, r) := {e E [0, 27r[: re jlJ E A(a, r)}, then its measure is l(a, r)
and
_1 1
27r a(O".r)
log If(reilJ)1 de :s -al(a,r)logM(r),
while on the rest of the circle aB(O, r), one has

log If(reilJ)1 :s log M(r).
Hence,
_1 [ log If(reilJ)1 de :s (1 - l(a, r)) log M(r).

27r JaB(O".r)\a(O".r)
Therefore,
0= log If(O)1 :s 2~ 1 2
1£ log If(reilJ)1 de :s (1 - (a + l)l(a, r)) log M(r).
As a consequence, as soon as log M (r) > 0, we have
1 - (a + l)l(a, r) ::: O. o
2.6.5. Lemma. Let p E N*, (Zn)n;::1 be a sequence of nonzero complex numbers

converging to 00, IZnl:::: IZn+ll. If Ln;::I(1/lzniP) < 00, then the canonical
product
P(Z) = IT E ( : ,p -
n;::1 n
1)
has order at most p and type zero.
Proof. The convergence of the series is equivalent to
1o
00 net)
----:;T d t < 00.
tP
Therefore,
nCr) 0 be such that net) :::: Ct P, t > O. Given e > 0, let R > 0 be such that
n(t)/t P :::: e, then
1 o
r net)
-
tP
dt :::: C lR 0
dt +e 1
R
r
dt = (C - e)R + er.
Hence,
log lP(z)1 :::: (C - e)K Rr p- I + Ker P + o(l)r P = o(r P),
2.6.6. Lemma. Let n (t) be the counting function of entire function f of integral
order p, f(O) = 1, then for Izi = r we have
L 109! E (~ , p - 1) !+ n>n(r)
I:,,:n:,,:n(r)
L 109! E ( :n ,p) !
< C (r p- 1
- P
r
Jo
net) dt
tP
+ rP+11OO
r
net) dt) .
t P+2
Proof. For fixed r > 0 consider two auxiliary sequences: the first, (un)n, is
finite, Un = Zn for 1 :::: n :::: nCr); the second, (vn)n, is the cofinal part of (zn)n,
for n > nCr). Let f.L" Vr be their respective counting functions. Then
net) if 0:::: t :::: r,
f.Lr(t) = { nCr) if t > r.
if 0 ::: t ::: r,
v,(t) =
{ 0n(t) - n(r) if t > r.
Then the first tenn we want to estimate corresponds to the canonical product of
the sequence (un)n, the second to the sequence (vn)n.
Let p = I, then from [BG, §2.6.1O] (or [Lev, p. 12]) we have
L log IE (: ,0) I::: ior f..L,?) dt + r 1

l~n~n(')
f..L~~t) dt 00
l'
n ,
n(t)
= -dt+n(r),
o t
"L.J
n>n(,)
I ( z ,I ) I ::: 4
log E Zn {1°Or
,
v,(t)
'(2dt +2r2 1T
,
00
v,(t) dt }
= 4 { 21' 2 1 n~t)
00
dt - n(r) } .
So, certainly the sum can be estimated by
8 {1' n~t) dt + r21°O n~t) dt} .

In case p > I, we have similarly
::: 2P { (p - l)r P- 1 l' nt~) dt + n(r) }
+ 2P+1 {(p + l)rP+1l°O n(t)2 dt - n(r)}

, t P+
< C {r P- 1
- P
r
io
n(t) dt
tP
+ rP+1l°O n(t) dt}.
, tP+2
0
Proof of Theorem 2.6.3. Let us first prove that the conditions (i) and (ii) in
part (1) are enough to conclude that f is of finite type in the case when p = p.
We denote
and note that

E(u, p) =e UP
/p E(u, p - 1).
Consider the quantity
D := log If(z)1 - Re [zp {ao +.!. L z~}]

p l~n~n(')
=Re{alz P - 1 + ... +ap +mlogz} + L

l:::;n:::;n(r)
log IE (:n' -1) I
p
The first term in D is bounded by 0 (r P- 1) when p > 1, and by 0 (log r) when

p = 1, we shall write this as O(r P- 1). Using now the preceding Lemma 2.6.6,
we have
D = O(rP- 1) + C
- P
(r P- 1 r
Jo
n(t) dt
tP
+ rP+1jOO n(t) dt)
r t P+2
.
We have n(t) :s At P for some A > O. It is clear that the two integrals together
are dominated by 2Cp Ar P, so that D = O(r P). Since S(r) is bounded, it follows
that:
log I/(z)1 = D + Re (zp {ao + ~s(r)}) = O(r P).
In other words, 1 has finite type dominated by 2CpA + S, where S is an upper
bound for lao + (1/p)S(r)l.
A similar argument can now be made for part (2), also when p = p. For £ > 0
given, we can find ro such that n(r) = £r P for all r ::: roo Then the integral terms
in the earlier estimate of D can be bound by
C r P-
P
1 1
0
ro n(t)
-
tP
dt + 2C
P
up.
Since the series Ln:::l z;;P is convergent to -aop, for r ::: rl we have
1
ao + - '"""' ~ z-P
n < £,
-
p l:::;n:::;n(r)
whence,
10gl/(z)1 = O(r P - 1) + (2C p + l)u P ,
so that 1 is of type zero.
Consider now the case where p = p - 1. Then the series Ln> I IZn r p < 00,
and the infinite product P(z) has type zero by Lemma 2.6.5. Wehave
D = log I/(z)1 - Re[Q(z) + m log z] = log IP(z)1 = o(r P ).
Therefore, in part (1) we immediately obtain that log I/(z)1 = O(r P ), the type
of 1 is exactly laol in this case. In part (2), ao = 0 means that deg Q < p, then
log I/(z)1 = o(r P ).
This last argument concludes the proof of the sufficiency of the given condi-
tions. We now want to show these conditions are also necessary. In part (1),
we already know that 1 being of finite type implies n(r) = O(r P). The bound-
edness of S(r) is only a problem when p = p. Returning to the proof of the
sufficiency, we see that we have shown that
- Re {zp lao + ~ L z~l} = -log I/(z)1 + O(r P).

p l:on:on(r)
For r:::: 1 we can estimate log I/(z)1 :::: 10gM(r):::: Br P, but we need to esti-
mate I log I/(z)ll. We can apply Lemma 2.6.4, with a = 3, and obtain that the
measure of the set A(3, r) £ aB(O, r), where
log I/(z)1 :::: -3Br P
is 2Jl'rl(3, r), with l(3e, r) :::: ~. Therefore, in the complementary of the set
Ur>r
_0 A(3, r) we have
Re {zp lao + ~p L l:on:on(r)

z~l} = O(rP).
We want to conclude from this that S (r) remains bounded. If S (r) is not
bounded, then the expression between square brackets is not bounded. This
means that for some sequence of values rj -+ 00, we have for some ({Jj E [0, 2Jl' [
and Rj > °
Therefore, if z = rje iIJ ,
The measure of the set {O E [0,2Jl'[: cos(O + ({Jj) :::: 4}

is 2Jl'/3, hence the set
{z: Izl = rj, Rjrj cos(O + ((Jj) :::: 4Rjrfl cannot be contained in A(3, rj), and
this leads to a contradiction. We conclude that S(r) is bounded, as we wanted
to show. (The reader will find an alternate proof of this fact in Exercise 2.6.l.)
The necessity of the given conditions in part (2) is proved as follows:
In the case p = p - 1, we have already seen that the type of 1 is lao I. Hence,
ao =° when 1 is of type zero. Let us now consider the case p p. Since 1 =
is of type zero, then n(r) = o(r P), and as proved earlier this leads to
(*) - Re {zp ~p L z~l} = -log I/(z)1 +

lao +
l:on:on(r)
o(r P).
Let s > °be given, then we have > °such that the term
ro o(r P) is bounded by
uP for r :::: ro, and we can also assume log M (r) :::: sr P for r :::: roo As above,
the measure of the set A(3, r) £ aB(O, r) where
I log I/(z)11 :::: 3sr P , Izl = r :::: ro,
is at most (1f /2)r. We claim that
. sup ao + -1 "L- 1p:::: 8e.

11m
r ...... oo p l:5n:5n(r) Zn
If not, there are rj --+ 00, Rj > 8e, ({Jj E [0, 21f[ such that for Z = rjei9 ,
Re {Zp lao +.!. L z~l} = Rjrf cos(O +((Jj) 2: ~Rjrf > 4erf
p l:5n:5n(r)
on a subset of aB(O, rj) of linear measure (21f/3)rj. But, any point of this set
belongs to the exceptional set A(3, rj). Using the expression (*) we obtain a
contradiction, so that the inequality (**) is true.
We need to show that (**) implies that the series Ln> 1 z;;P is convergent and
has the sum -aop. Consider a finite sum -
and let r = IZNI, then
if r 2: roo Hence,
lim sup ao
N ...... oo
+.!. L -.;.1:::: ge.
P l:5n:5N Zn
It is now clear that

LfJZn1 = -aop·
n~l
This concludes the proof of Lindelof's theorem. o

From the above proof we can extract the following corollary of Theorem
2.6.3:
2.6.7. Proposition. Let the canonical product P(z) = Iln>l E(z/zn, p) repre-
sent a/unction in the space A p , and PN(z) = Ill:::;n:::;N E(zlzn, p). Then
in the space Ap.

Proof. It is well known that the partial products PN converge to P uniformly
over compact sets. Let VN (t) be the counting function of the sequence (Znh:::;n:::;N '
and let n(t) be the counting function of the whole sequence. First, consider the
case p ¢ N. Then we have p 0,
log IPN(z)1 ::: Kr P { f' VN(tl) dt

io tP+
+r 1
r
00
VN(t2) dt}
t P+
OO}
< Kr P { f --dt +rJ--dt
r n(t) n(t)
- io tP+l tP+2
r
where n(r) ::: Ar P , since P e Ap. So that the sequence PN is a bounded sequence
in A P' therefore
lim PN
N-+oo
=P in Ap.
In the case p e N*, p = p, we recall that the function S(r) = I:l:on:on(r) z;;P
is bounded, say IS(r)l::: C. It follows that the functions ISN(r)1 =
II : 1:on9N(r) z;;PI are bounded independently of N, say by a constant C 1 > 0.
(Here we use n(r) = O(r P ) as in the proof of the necessity of conditions (i),
part (2) of Theorem 2.6.3.) As in Theorem 2.6.3 we rewrite
log IPN(z)1 =Re { ; J;:,,) z;p} + J;:.) log IE (:" p - [) I

+ n.fr) log 1E (~ , p ) I·
and we conclude that
for some constant K = K(p), Cl > 0, A > 0, as defined earlier.

The case p E N*, p = p - 1, is treated the same as the case p ¢ N. This
concludes the proof of the corollary. 0
In the last chapter (Definition 1.3.24) we found that the space Expo(1C) of
entire functions of infraexponential type, i.e., order 1 and type 0, is isomorphic
to the space of infinite order differential operators. For that reason it is interesting
to consider the spaces of functions of minimal type.
2.6.8. Definition. Let Ap,o denote the Frechet space of entire functions of order
p, p > 0, and type zero. The. norms are given by
Ilfllm = max{lf(z)le-lzIPjm}, m eN*.

zelC
It is easy to see that Ap,o is an FS space.

2.6.9. Proposition. For p ¢ N, if the canonical product P(z) = Iln>! E(z/zn, p)

belongs to Ap,o, and we let PN denote its partial products, then -
PN N.... ~P'
in Ap,o, The same statement if true if P E N* and the genus p =p - 1.
Proof. It is the same as that of the first part of the preceding proposition. Note
that in the case p E N*, p = p - 1, the products PN E Ap,o. 0
2.6.10. Remarks. (1) In the case p E N*, we have a difficulty when the genus
p = p. In this case, the canonical factor E«z/zn), p) does not belong to Ap,o.
Hence, in general, we have the same problem for the partial products. On the
other hand, let us consider the case of an even function I E Expo(lC), 1(0) = 1.
Then the zeros appear in pairs ±ak, and if we order them so that
then
L-=O,
1
n~! Zn
so that if I:n~! (1/lzn I) = 00, the canonical product has genus p = I and
This time, the partial products
do belong to Expo(lC), they converge uniformly over compact sets, and for every
mE N*, ("IN"m)N~! is a bounded sequence. This implies that
IN N.... ~I
in Expo(C).
Note that if we denote by iN(z) = IlbN(1 - (z/ak)2), then iN(z) E Expo(1C)
and iN ~ 1 in Expo(lC).
(2) Similarly to the last part of the previous remark we have that if P (z) =
Iln~! E(z/zn, p) is a canonical product of a function in A p, p > 0 (resp. Ap,o,
p ¢ N*), then
in Ap (resp. Ap,o).
(3) A number of the preceding properties, as well as the problems about

localizability of ideals in Ap and Expo(C), and algebraic properties of closed
ideals, that shall be considered below, can be generalized to the spaces Ap(C),
where p is radial and satisfies the doubling condition (see [RuT], [KT2], [Bra],
[Nil], [Kr]).
We now return to the question of localizable ideals in Ap.
2.6.11. Proposition. Every ideal in Ap is localizable.

Proof. From the previous section we know that it is enough to prove that if I
is a closed ideal without zeros, then I = Apo Let f be a nonzero function in I.
If f(a) = 0, then there is gEl such that g(a) =j:. O. As we have done before,
we can write
[ g(Z) - g(a)] fez) = g(z) [f(Z)] _ g(a) fez) .

z-a z-a z-a
The two functions in square brackets belong to A p , hence g(a)[f(z)/(z - a)] E
I. Since g(a) =j:. 0, f(z)/(z - a) E I. If a =j:. 0, it is also true that for any polyno-
mial Q of degree ~ p, [f(z)/(l - (z/a»]e-Q(z) E I. Therefore, if f has finitely
many zeros, we conclude that 1 E I. If f has infinitely many zeros we have
p ~ p, deg R ~ p. We can eliminate zm and eR(z) by the previous remark and

assume f coincides with the infinite product. The Remark 2.6.10(2) shows that
the sequence fn
fn(z):=f(Z)/ II E(: ,p)

IZkbn k
converges to the function 1 in A p' Hence, lEI. o

Let us prove that the same result holds for the space Expo(C)'
2.6.12. Proposition. Every ideal in Expo(C) is localizable.
Proof. Let us assume first that I is a closed ideal in Expo(C) such that V(I) =
0. Let f E I\{O}. Multiplying f by 1 (I(z) = f(-z», if necessary, we can
assume f is an even function. The same reasoning as that of the previous
proposition, shows that if Zo is a zero of multiplicity m, then f(z)/[(z - zo)m], as
well as f(z)/[(z2 - z5)m], belong to I. Therefore we can assume that f(O) = 1,
that
(why is there no exponential factor?), and that for any n ::: I,
Since In --+ 1 in Expo(C), we conclude that I = Expo(C)·

We now observe that the proofs of Propositions 2.5.3 through 2.5.6 and 2.5.8
can be carried on verbatim for the space Expo(C)' It follows that every ideal in
Expo(C) is localizable. 0
As a consequence of the localizability of the ideals in Ap one can easily

prove that if I is closed ideal in A p there are two functions II, 12 E I such
that I = i (fl, h) (see Exercise 2.6.1). In fact, one can do much better, but at
the cost of substantial amount of work. Squires [Sq1] proved that one can even
find a pair gl, g2 E I such that I = I (gl, g2) i.e., they are jointly invertible
in Ap. As expected, this has interesting consequences about interpolation. We
shall explain this work in the rest of this section. Recently Braun [Bra] has
extended the result of Squires to the algebras Ap(C), p a radial weight satisfying
the doubling condition. The reader can safely skip the proof of the following
proposition in a first reading:
*2.6.13. Proposition (Squires). Given a multiplicity variety V ~ V(g), g E A p,

there is a pair II, 12 E Ap such that V = V(fl, h) and ft, 12 are jointly
invertible.
Recall that ft, 12 being jointly invertible means that if hEAp, V(h) :2 V,
then there are gl, g2 E Ap such that h = gdl + g2h.
Proof of Proposition 2.6.13. Let V = (Zk. mkh~I' then its counting function nv
is given by nv(r) = Llzklsr mk. The condition V ~ V(g) implies
nv(r) :s ng(r) = O(rP).
Hence, if p rt N*, we have V = V(I), for a single function lEAp, as a conse-

quence of Lemma 2.6.2. Moreover, every function in Ap is invertible (see
Proposition 2.2.14).
Henceforth, we shall assume p E N*. The main part of the proof consists in
finding II E Ap, and s, C > 0, such that
S(fl, s, C) = {z E C: III(z)1 < Ce- W }
has the following properties. Let Z = (zkh~l' Z(II) = set of zeros of II (without
counting multiplicities), then:
(i) there are two disjoint open sets Sh S2, such that
(ii) S2 is the union of disks B(zo, r) with the property that
d(B(zo, r), S[) 2: Klizol-P
for some convenient COnstant K I > 0; and

(iii) for every Zk E Z, the multiplicity of Zk as a zero of iI is exactly mk.
Once iI has been found we conclude the proof as follows: Let rp be a Coo
function which is equal to 1 On S2, 0 On SJ, 0:::: rp :::: 1, and satisfies everywhere
1 ~~ (Z)I :::: K2IzI P,

for some K2 > O. This is possible due to condition (ii).
The function arpjaz vanishes On SI U S2, hence the function (1jiI)(arpjaz),
which is well defined outsideZ(f[), can be extended to be Coo everywhere.
Therefore, there is a Coo solution u of the equation aujaz = (1jfl)(arpjaz),
and the function 12 := rp - uiI is entire. We note that
hl(Z(f[)\Z) =1 and hlV =0.

Moreover, the multiplicity of any ZI E Z(fI)\Z as a root ofthe equation h(zl) =
1 is at least equal to the multiplicity of ZI as zero of fl. These properties of 12
follow from the fact that u is holomorphic On SI U S2. Hence
V(fl, h) = v.
What we need to know is that 12 E A p , for that we need to choose u satisfying
the correct growth conditions, and, furthermore, we would like fl' 12 to be
jointly invertible.
Let us estimate l(1jfl)(arpjaz)l. Since supp(arpjaz) n S(/J, s, C) = 0, then
IiI (z)1 2: se- ciziP On supp larpjazl, therefore
_1_1 arp (Z)I < AeBlzlP

Ifl(z)1 az -
(z E C),
for some constants A, B > O. From here we conclude there is a choice of u
l
satisfying the estimate
'u 12e-MiziP
----:--:- dm < 00
IC (1 + Iz12)2
for some M > 0, as well as the equation aujaz = (ljiI)(arpjaz). It is possible
to obtain a pointwise estimate for u from these two properties. Recall the
following lemma from [BG, Exercise 3.2.8].
2.6.14. Lemma. Let Q be an open set in C and let K be a compact subset ofQ,
there is a constant C > 0 such that for every function v of class C I in Q
S~Plvl :::: (s~p I·:; 1+ !olvldm).

Proof Let X E D(n), X = 1, in a neighborhood of K, 0::: X ::: 1. Apply

Pompeiu's formula [BG, §2.1.4] to the function XU for a E K, then
v(a) = x(a)v(a) = - .
1
2m n az
1. aX v(z)
--=-(z)--dz /\ dz
z- a
1
+ -.
2m n
1. av
x(z)--=-(z)
az
dz/\dz
z- a
.
Since Iz - al :::: 8> 0 on supp(aX/az), we can estimate the first term by const.
In Ivl dm. Using that 1/(z - a) is locally integrable, we can estimate the second
integrand by sUPn lav/azl. D
We apply this lemma to n= B(O, 1), K = {OJ, v(z) = u(zo + z), for a fixed
C, and obtain
Zo E
lu(zo)1 ::: sup I/1 ~~ 1+

c ( Izo-zl:o:1 I z JB(zO, I)
lui dm) r .
On the other hand, for some constants A', A" > 0, we have
sup I~ a~ I::: sup AeBlzlP = A' eBlzolP

IZo-zl:o:1 /1 az IZo-zl:o:1
and
x
(1 lul2e-MlzlP d
.:........:.-----:-""7
B(zo,l) (1 + Iz12)2 m
) 1/2
::: A" eM'lzolP
with M' = M/2. It follows that lu(z)1 ::: C l e C2iziP and 12 E Ap.
Let hEAp be such that V(h);2 V. The function h(l - h) E Ap and
V(h(l - h» :2 V(fl). Therefore, there is gl E Ap such that h(1 - h) = gl/I'
Hence
which shows that h, 12 are jointly invertible.

We shall now construct h. The idea is to add zeros to Z, with convenient
multiplicities so that these new zeros are sufficiently distant from Z and the
corresponding multiplicity variety V' satisfies V' ;2 V and the conditions of
Lindelof's Theorem 2.6.3. We call these new zeros raj }j"':l (not necessarily
distinct). There are three conditions to be satisfied: there is a constant K :::: 0
such that:
(i) Re { 2: mk + 2: ~} ::: K;
IZkl:o=r zf lajl:o:r aj
(ii) 1m { 2:
IZkl:o=r
mk
zf
+ 2:
lajl:o=r
~}
aj
::: K; and
(iii) nv,(r) = O(r P ).
The reason to separate the real and imaginary part of Lindelof's condition is
that for p odd we shall need to place the aj on the real and imaginary axes
respectively to satisfy those two conditions, while for p even we need to place
them On the rays e = 0, e = 7T I p, for the condition (i), and On the rays e = 7T 12p
and e = 37T 12p, for the condition (ii). We shall show in detail for the case of p
odd how to place zeros on the real axis to achieve the boundedness condition.
The other cases, being entirely analogous, are left to the reader.
The proof is a bit delicate; it takes six steps and follows the blueprint of the
proof of the Cartan-Boutroux lemma [Lev], [BG, §4.5.13].
For n ::: 1, let An = {z E C: 2n - 1 ::: Izl ::: 2n}, Bn = B(O, 2n), and denote the
points of Z n An by Vn = (bih::;j::;).n' repeated according to their multiplicities.
Therefore, for AD = n v< 1), we have
AD + Al + ... + An = nv(2n).
For a disk C we denote by R(C) its radius.

First Step. Let 0 < 7] ::: litO be a fixed constant that will be chosen later.
Following Cartan-Boutroux One can find disjoint disks Cj, i = 1, ... , in, such
that
2H:= L
R(Cn = 7]2n + 1
l::::i~in
and the number of points of Vn interior to Cj is exactly (H IAn)R(Cj). Set

On := H IAn = 7]2n IAn. It is shown in [BG, §4.5.13] that the Cj have the property
that if z f/. UI<i<i
_ _ n Cr, then any disk B(z, k8 n ), k E N*, contains at most k - 1
points of Vn •
We replace the disks Cj by concentric disks Ci of radii R(Cf) = R(Cj) +
30n. For z f/. U I <i <i Ci, the disk B (z, 2on) has distance at least On from every
Cj. Since there are nat most An disks Cj we have
L R(Cn::: 5H = 57]2n.
1::::; ::::in
The disks Ci will be called the "omitted disks."

Second Step. We shall estimate the measure of the intersection of the real axis
with the omitted circles.
The points in the set
can only appear as points from disks starting from points of Vn-J. Vn, or Vn+1•
The length is at most 2 x 57](2n- 1 + 2n + 2n+l) = 357]2n. This indicates that
eventually we shall need 7] < 1/70 to have enough room to maneuver.
Third Step. Let us estimate the maximum value of IRe LI:;:j:9.n l/(bJ)PI.
Since IbJ I :::: 2n - l , we have
Re L n
An
< -(--1)-'
(b.)P -2 n - P
I:;:j:;:i.'n J
Fourth Step. We are now trying to find where to locate the new zeros. One
of the conditions is that the disk of radius 20n centered at a new zero does not
intersect any of the omitted circles or any of the other previously added disks
of radius 2on •
We shall show that the new zeros can be chosen as a subsequence of the
sequence «~j)l/p)jEZ' for a conveniently chosen constant 0 < ~ < 1. We shall
choose ~ so that dn, the smallest distance among the points in «~j)l/p)jEZ nAn,
is smaller than On, and this holds for every n E N. For that reason we need to
estimate dn • The distance between successive points is
(~(j + l»l/p _ (~j)l/p = (~j)l/p [( 1 + -;-

l)I/P
_1 1.::: _i_.
(~')l/p
_ =.
~l/p
.
i Pi Pi Hlfp)
Since this distance is decreasing as a function of j, the value d n is as can be

estimated taking j = [2 np / n
Hence,
~l/p ~
d < <.
n p(2np /~)(p-l)lp - p2n(p-l)
On the other hand, since n v (r) .::: CorP, r :::: 1, we have An .::: Co2 np , and
YJ2n YJ2n YJ
0-->------,--
n- An - Co2np - Co2n(p-I)'
If we take ~ = YJP/Co, we obtain dn < On.

Note that by choosing the new zeros among the points of {(~j)l/p: j E Z}
we automatically satisfy the requirement nv,(r) = O(r P ).
To choose the subsequence (aJh:;:j:;:jn of «~j)l/p)jEZ n An that we shall use
as new zeros we impose two extra conditions:
(iv) The distance between two of the points (aj)l:;:j:;:jn is at least 4on; and
(v)
We note that (v) implies (i) almost immediately. In fact, if r E [2 n , 2n +1[ and, by
abuse of language, S(r) denotes the sum in (i), then IS(2n) - S(r)1 .:::
C2np /2(n-l)p = C2P, while
IS(2n )1 .::: IS(1)1 + L

I:;:j :;:n2 (i
1
~.::: 2 + IS(I)I·
)
Since d n < 8n, we can choose a positive integer f such that 48n < fdn <
88n. By choosing the (a'j)j as a subset of the sequence «~fj)l/p)jEZ n An, we
guarantee (iv). To simplify the notation, let I; = e~.
The idea about how to satisfy (v) consists in showing we can do it in the
worst possible case, e.g., Ll:;:j:;:An l/(b'j)P = -An/2(n-l)p. (The case An/2(n-l)p
is dealt with similarly, since An n «I;J)I/ p)jEZ is symmetric with respect to the
origin, and p is odd.) Let us start by proving an auxiliary lemma.
2.6.15. Lemma. = lan, bn[ 5; I = la, b[, 0 < a < b, 1:::: n :::: N,
Let In
Ll<n<N(bn - an) = L, 0 < a = inf{bn - an: 1 :::: n :::: N}, T = b P - (b - L)P,
and- W= (a + a)P - a P. Denote by (l;lk)I/ P, 1 :::: k :::: M, the points of the
sequence (l;j)l/p which belong to 1\ Ul<n<N In. Assume that no consecutive
pair of points in the sequence (l;j)l/p lies fn-a single In, then
Proof. The largest measure of a subset of I P = ]a P, bP[ that can be covered by

the union of the intervals It = ]a~, b~ [ is obtained when they cover the interval
](b - L)P, b P[, this value is precisely T = bP - (b - L)P.
The minimum value of the sum is obtained when the union of the intervals
It covers consecutive points of the sequence (l;J)j?:o starting with a P. The
shortest possible length of the intervals It is precisely W = (a a)P - a P. On +
the other hand, the length of the intervals It is less than I; , since no consecutive
pair I; j, I; (j + 1) lies in the same interval. Therefore, the maximum interval
covered by the It in case the sum is minimized, is J = ]a P , a P (I; / W + 1) T [.
Let l' = IP\J. Hence
L -I;1 ~ L --:-
1:;:k:;:M I; )
8k
1 log {b-
1 ~ "2
I; I;
I;j EJ'
P
[
(a P + ( I;
W + 1) T)/I; ] -I}
P
b
= 21;1 log { aP + (I;/W + l)T
}
.
The last inequality is a consequence of the following one:
L -k1 ~ I + -dtt = log ( -

m+l
n +-
n 1
m+1
1) ~ ~ log ( -n ) .
m
o
m:;:k:;:n
We apply the lemma to the case the omitted circles intersect the interval
[2 n- 1 , 2n] in a set of the largest possible measure. We have a = 2n- 1, b = 2n,
a~ 48n, T = 2np (1 - (1 - 351J)P) (from the second step),
W = (2n-l + 48n)P - i n- 1)p ~ p48n2(n-l)(p-l),

and l; ::: 8onP2 n(p-l), hence l; I W + 1 ::: 2P + 1. Therefore, using all the avail-
able points (aJ:h::;k::;kn , we obtain
log({2P 1(1 + 1]')}
L
l::;k::;k n
1 1 I
(an)p::: 2l; og{
k
2P 1 '
I( + 1] )}::: 168 2n(p-lj ,
nP
with 1]' = (p2P + 1)2P(1 - (1 - 351])P). We need to obtain that this lower bound
exceeds AnI2(n-l)p = 1]2n IOn2(n-ljp, i.e., we need
log({2P 1(1 + 1]')}2n- 1 1]2n
~~--~~----- > --
16p2np - 2(n-ljp·
It is clear that, after dividing out the common factors, letting 1] -+ 0 makes the
left-hand side approach (1/32) log 2, while the right-hand side tends to zero.
Therefore, for a convenient choice of 1] > 0 we can achieve
L (n)p + Re L
1 1
(bn)p::: 0,
l::;k::;k~ ak l::;j::;An j
in the case the second term is negative, choosing all the aJ: > 0 (as we pointed
out, the situation is symmetrical and we only need to consider this case). By elim-
inating points aJ: we decrease this sum and, since each term (ak)-P ::: 2-(n-ljp,
we can stop just before the sum becomes negative. In this case we obtain
1 1
0< """' - -
- ~ (n)p
+ Re """' - - < 2-(n-l j p < 2-(n-l j
~ (bn)P -,
l::;j::;jn aj l::;j::;An j
which is the estimate (v).
Fifth Step. Let Wn := Ul::;k::;n Vk U {aj: 1 ::: k ::: n, 1 ::: i ::: in}, and
Pn(z):= IT (z - Wk).
WkEWn
We want to show that for z E A n- 1 U An and outside any of the omitted disks,
corresponding to k ::: n, and any of the disks B(aj, 2o k), 1 ::: k ::: n, 1 ::: i ::: in,
the polynomial Pn satisfies the inequality
IPn(z)l::: (8: 2nrn ,

Pn := l:1<k<n(Ak + lk) = deg Pn. This value coincides with the number of zeros
in Bn of the function /J (still to be defined below).
Let V~ = Vk U {aj: 1::: i ::: id, and qk =
Ak + ib the number of points
(counted according to multiplicities) in V~. Let z E A n- 1 U An be a fixed value
outside the omitted disks and outside B(aj, 20k), 1 ::: i ::: fk. Reorder the points
of V~ in a sequence (yl)l::;i::;qk in such a way that IYl- zl ::: Id+l - zl We claim
that Iz - dl ::: lod2.
In fact, as pointed out in the first step, the disks cf
have the property that
the disk B(z, mOk) contains at most m - 1 points of Vb since the distance
between the different aj is at least 40ko such a disk can contain at most m 14 of
them. Therefore, B(z, mOk) can contain at most (mI4) + m - 1 = (5mI4) - 1
points of V£. Now, if for some e, we have Iz - dl < (e/2)0k, let m = (e/2) or
(e + 1)/2, according to e being even or odd, then B(z, mOk) contains at least
the e points d, ... ,
yl, while 2m - 1 :::: e. Since (Sm/4) - 1 < 2m - 1, this is
a contradiction. Hence, the claim is correct.
Consider now the polynomial
Qk(Z) = II (z - Yl).
l:'Oi:'Oqk
As a consequence of the previous claim, outside the excluded disks it satisfies
IQk(Z)1 ~ IIqk (/0--.-!..2 ) = qk! (0~2 )qk ~ qk! ('Y-2Ak

1=1
]2 k )qk
~qk! ('Y]~:-Irk > (;2 k- Irk.

For z E A n- I U An, the only values of interest for excluded circles are k =
n - 2, n - 1, n. For the other values of Wi we have Iz - wil ~ d(z, B n -3) ~
2n - 3 • Hence
as claimed.
Sixth Step. The estimation of Pn will help us to show that the entire function
II defined as the canonical Hadamard product with zeros in W = UI<k<oo Wk
satisfies the inequality -
log 1!l(z)1 > -H2 np
for every z E A n- I U An outside the omitted disks and all the B(aj, 20k), H is
a strictly positive constant independent of n.
The proof is essentially the same as that of the Minimum Modulus Theorem.
We can assume !I (0) = 1. We have W = {Wk: k ~ I}, IWkl :::: IWk+li,
!l(z) = II E (~ ,p) = g(z)h(z),

k:::1 k
As before, let Pn be the number of zeros of !l in Bn. For z E An- I U An and

outside the omitted disks and B(aj, 20k ), then
Ig(z)1 = IWI'" wp.I- 1 II

l:'Ok:'OPn
Iz - wkl > IWpnl- Pn (;2 n- f
3 n.
1
We have
1 2n + 1 net) logM(2 n+ l )
Pn = n(2n):::: - - --dt:::: ,
log 2 2n t log 2
YJ ) logM(2n + l )
log Ig(z)1 ~ ( log 8e log 2 '
outside the omitted disks and the B(aj, 28 k). If we choose YJ > 0 smaller if
necessary, we can assume that the sum of the radii of the omitted disks and the
disks B(aj,28k) which intersect An-I U An is less than 2n-2. Therefore, there
is an R, 3 x 2n - 2 < R < 2n such that the last inequality holds on the circle
Izl = R. Let us now choose () such that Ih(Re ili )I = M(h, R) = sUPlzl=R Ih(z)l.
Since M(R, f) = M(R) .::: M(2 n + I ), we have
log M(h, R) .::: log M(R) -log Ig(Reili )I
.::: log M(2 n + l ) {I - _I_log

log 2 8e
(!!...)} .
On the other hand, h has no zeros in Bn and h(O) = 1, hence the
Borel-CaratModory lemma [BG, §4.5.9] allows us to conclude that
2r
log Ih(z)1 ~ ---log M(h, R), Izl.::: r < R.
R -r
Let r = 2n - l , then
10glh(z)1 ~ -4IogM(h, R),
We conclude that for z E An-I, outside the omitted circles and B(aj,28d
we have
for some CJ, C2, C3 > O. This shows that if s = e- c" the set SUI, s, C) has
the three required properties, namely, we let S2 = Uj.k B(aj, 28k) and SI its
complement.
This concludes the proof of Proposition 2.6.13. D
2.6.16. Corollary. Given V = (Zk. mkh"?1 ~ V(g), g E Ap. The necessary and
sufficient condition for V to be an interpolation variety for Ap is the existence
of fl' hEAp, and constants s, C > 0 such that V = V(fl, h) and
Iftmkl(zk)1 + If~mkl(zk)1 > (CliP)

s exp - Zk •
mk! mk!-
In the context of this corollary, let us introduce another kind of interpolation

problem, to distinguish it from those of Section 2.2. We shall call it the universal
interpolation problem. The remainder of this section is based on [SqI], [Sq2].
2.6.17. Definition. A multiplicity variety V = (Zk. mdk"?1 in Q is called a

universal interpolation variety for Ap(Q) if for every sequence
Yk,j(k::: 1, 0 ~ j ~ mk - 1) for which there are constants A, B > 0 so that
o~ j ~ mk - 1,
there is f E Ap(Q) such that f(j)(Zk)/j! = Yk,j'

We note that this concept only coincides with that of interpolation variety if
mk = O(exp(Bp(Zk))) for some B > 0, for instance, if p(z) = IzlP or p(z) =
I Imzl + log(1 + Izl).
2.6.18. Proposition. If V = (Zko mkh::1 = V(fI, ... , fn), the functions

fl' ... ,fn are jointly invertible in Ap (C) and V is a universal interpolation
variety for Ap(C), then there is F E Ap(C) such that
F(mkl(Zk)
---=1 (k ::: 1)
mk!
and V(F) ;2 V.
We start with two preliminary lemmas:
2.6.19. Lemma. If V is a universal interpolation variety for Ap(C), then for

every C > 0 there are constants A, B > 0 andfunctions fk,j E Ap(C) such that:
(i) fk(~J(ZI) = 0 except when k = I and i = j;

(ii) fk~jJ (zd = j!;
AeBp(z)
(iii) Ifk,j(z)1 ~ (C ( ))'
exp P Zk
Proof. Let Ap,u (V) := {(Yk,j h.{ 3A, B > 0, IYk,j I ~ A exp(Bp(Zk))} and
p: Ap(C) -+ Ap,u(V), p(f) = f(j)(Zk)/j!, which is surjective by hypothesis.
For a given C > 0, let D:= {(Yk,j) E Ap,u(V): IYk,jl ~ exp(Cp(Zk))},
topologized by the distance induced by the norm
II(Yk,j)11 = SUp{IYk,jle-CP(zKl}.
k,j
It is easy to see that D is a complete metric space.

Let Un := {f E Jt?(IC): If(z)1 ~ n exp(np(z))}. One shows, as in Lemma
2.2.6, that p(Un) n D is closed in D. By hypothesis, D = Un::1 (p(Un) n D),
hence one of the terms has a nonempty interior. Therefore, for some nand e > 0
we have
It follows that p(Un/e) nD = D. Hence there are entire functions !t.j such that
l!t.j(z)1 ~ ~enP(Z),
e
°
h,j(Ze) = {exP(Cp(Zk)) if 1= k and i = j,
j! otherwise.
The functions fk.j := exp(-Cp(Zk))h,j satisfy the conditions (i), (ii), and (iii)
of the lemma. 0
2.6.20. Lemma. If V = V(/!, ... , fn), with /!, ... , fn jointly invertible in
°
Ap(iC), and V = (Zb mkh~1 is a universal interpolation variety for Ap(iC), then
there is a constant Co > such that
L e-COP(Zk) < 00.
°
k~1
Proof. Since 1 E Ap(iC), it follows that for some C 1 > we have
1 e-C,p(z) dm < 00.
Let dj := inf{lzk - zjl: k =j:. j}, dj := min{1, dj /2}, and Bj = B(zj, dj ). These
disks are disjoint, hence
L r e-C,p(z) dm ::: 1e-C,p(z) dm < 00.

j~1 lB j IC
Now, since a universal interpolation variety is an interpolation variety, we

know (see proof of Theorem 2.2.10) that there exists 8 > 0, C2 > 0, such that
j?:.l.
On the other hand, there are Ao, Bo > °
such that for any
AOP(Zj) + Bo. Therefore, for some, 81,82 > 0,
Z E Bj , p(z) :::
r e-C,p(z)dm ?:.:rrdj 1 exp(-C3P(Zj))

lBj
8 ?:,82 exP(-Cop(Zj)).
Hence
o
We can go back to the proof of Proposition 2.6.18.

Proof of Proposition 2.6.18. Let us consider the series
F(z) = Lmk(Z - zd/k,mk-I(Z),
°
j~1
with the functions obtained in Lemma 2.6.12 for a value C > to be chosen
below.
If this series were uniformly convergent over compact sets and F E Ap(C),
then we could differentiate it term by term and evaluate it at Zk. We would then
obtain
F(mk) (Zk) !k.mt- 1(Zk)
---- -1
mk! - (mk - I)! - .
Let us prove the convergence of the series and estimate F.
IF(z)1 ::: Lmk(lzl + IZkDl/k,mk-l(Z)1

k~l
::: IzlA exp(Bp(z)) L mk exp( -Cp(Zk))

k~l
+ A exp(Bp(z)) Lmklzkl exp(-Cp(Zk)).

k~l
Since we are in the conditions of Theorem 2.2.10, it follows that the property
(*) given there holds. In the course of the proof that the property (*) just
mentioned implies that V is an interpolation variety, we proved that there are
constants E, F > 0 such that
for every k ~ 1.
Using that estimate and the fact that from the properties of p we have for some
L, K >0,
Izl ::: L exp(Kp(z)) ,
we obtain
IF(z)1 ::: 2A exp«B + K)p(z)) Lexp(-(C - E - K)P(Zk)).
k~l
Choose C > 0 so that C - E - K ~ Co, Co the constant of Lemma 2.6.20,

then the series converges uniformly and
IF(z)1 ::: A' exp«B + K)p(z)).
This concludes the proof of the proposition. o
2.6.21. Remark. Let us remark that we have also shown that if V =
V(flo ... ,fn), with iI, ... , In jointly invertible, then V is a universal
interpolation variety if and only if V is an interpolation variety.
In order to find necessary and sufficient "geometric" conditions for a multi-

plicity variety to be an interpolation variety, we need to introduce a little extra
notation.
Given two positive constants Klo K2 and a point Zo, we denote r(zo) the
largest positive number such that if z E B(zo, r(zo)) then p(z) ::: K1P(zo) + K2.
The hypotheses on p guarantee that we can find Klo K2 > 0 so that r(zo) ~ 2
for every ZOo We fix these values henceforth. If V = (Zko mkh~l' we denote
rk := r(zk)' We also denote n(zko r, V) the number of points of V, counted
with multiplicity, in B(Zko r)\{zk}. If V = V(h), we write n(zko r, h) instead of
n(zko r, V).
2.6.22. Proposition. Let V = (Zko mkh~l = V(/J, ... , fn), where /1. ... , fn
are jointly invertible in Ap(C). Assume V is an interpolation variety for Ap(C)
(or equivalently, a universal interpolation variety), then there are constants
C, D > 0 such that for every k ~ 1 we have
(1) io
rk n(Zk, t, V)
t
dt ::::: Cp(zd + D,
Cp(Zk) + D
(2) mk< .
- logrk
Proof. Let F be the function obtained in Proposition 2.6.18. For every k ~ 1
we have
Since F E Ap(C) and p(z) ::::: K1P(Zk) + K2 for Z E B(Zko rk), we obtain
1::::: Aexp(Bp(zd)/r;'k
for some A > 0, B > O. Taking logarithms we obtain (2).
Let us now apply Jensen's formula to the function f(z) = F(z)/(z - zd mk •
We have for f(O) = 1, hence
io
rk n(z t F)
ko ,
t
dt = -1 1211' log IF(Zk + rke,(i)
21l'o
. IdB - mk log rk.
Recalling we have assumed rk ~ 2, we obtain
['k n(zko t, F) dt ::::: Cp(Zk) + D.

Jo t
By construction we have n(zko t, V) :::: n(zko t, F), hence (1) also holds. D
In the case of the algebras A p , one can obtain now clear geometric condi-
tions to decide when a multiplicity variety is an interpolation variety. Note that
these are the conditions that exclude the examples of the type occurring in
Exercises 2.2.12 and 2.2.13.
2.6.23. Proposition. Given a multiplicity variety V =

(Zko mkh~l ~ V(g) for
some g E A p \ {O}, a necessary condition for V to be an interpolation variety for
Ap is that
(1')
(2')
for some C, D > 0 and alllzkl ~ 2.

If V = V (g), these conditions are sufficient.
Proof. From Proposition 2.6.13 we know that V = V(/J, h), /J, h jointly
invertible in Ap. The proof of the necessity is a verbatim copy of the proof of
Proposition 2.6.22.
To prove the sufficiency of the conditions (1'), (2') when V = V(g), we need
to show that for some 8 > 0, A > 0, one has
g(m k) (Zk) I~ 8e-Alzklp (k ~ 1).

I mk!
It is enough to prove it for IZkl ~ 2, and also to assume that g(O) = 1 (Why?).
°
We can apply the minimum modulus theorem ([BG, §4.5.14], [Lev, p. 21]) to
obtain constants 81 > 0, Al > (independent of k) such that for Z E B(O, 21zkl)
and outside a finite collection of exceptional disks, Bk.l, ... ,Bk •jk the sum of
whose radii does not exceed ~IZkl, one has
Ig(z)1 ~ 8Ie-AlizkIP.
It follows that there must exist a value r, !IZkl < r < IZkl, such that
aB(Zb r) n Bk,j = 0, 1 ::: j ::: jk.
1 1
Apply now Jensen's formula, [BG, §4.4.30] to g in the disk B(Zb r). One obtains
g(mkl(Zk) r n(V, Zb t) 1 2". .
log I 1+ mk logr + dt = - log Ig(Zk + re,e)1 dO.
mk! 0 t 2rr 0
From this identity, (1'), (2'), and the choice of r, it is clear that
g(mkl (Zk)
log I I ~ -AlzklP - B
mk!
for some A, B > 0. o
2.6.24. Remark. [Sq2]. For the weight p(z) = I Imzl + 10g(1 + IZI)' and a
multiplicity variety of the form V = V(h), given by h slowly decreasing for
Ap(C), one has that V is a (universal) interpolation variety if and only if
1 o
P(Zkl n(V, Zk. t)
- - - d t : : : Cp(zd
t
+D
and
Cp(Zk) D
mk < - " - - - -
+
- log P(Zk)
for some C, D > 0, independent of k.
One can find necessary and sufficient geometric conditions interpolation,

generalizing Proposition 2.6.2 for arbitrary radial weights satisfying the doubling
condition [BL]. The correct expressions to consider are just the integrated
Nevanlinna functions N(V, Zb r) = J~ (n(V, Zb t)lt) dt. In this form the criteria
obtained extend also for meromorphic functions and to several complex vari-
ables. This can be generalized to other radial weights, but the necessary and
sufficient conditions do not coincide, though they are close to each other. This
is a phenomenon characteristic of functions of infinite order of growth [BL].
In [GR] similar conditions for spaces of functions with prescribed indicator of
growth have been found.
Interpolation in the space of functions of infraexponential type has very
interesting applications to the theory of Dirichlet series, as we shall see in
Chapter 6. A classical theorem of P6lya - Levinson [Levs, Theorem XXXI] states
the following:
Let V = {zdn:::! be a sequence of nonzero complex numbers such that
Rez n > 0 , · -n = 0,
11m ll'm 1 1m Zn 1 = 0
Zn
n-HXl n--->oo IZn 1
and there exists c > 0 such that
Then there is an even function 1 of infraexponential type such that V ~ V (f),

(t) -log 1f'(zn)1 = o(lznl} as h -+ 00
and for Z such that Re Z > 0, dist(z, V) 2: c 18, we have

(tt) -log I/(z)1 = o(lzl} asizi -+ 00.
Note that (t) implies that points Zn are distinct. One can prove that the main
point (t) of the statement is exactly the condition that V is an interpolation
variety for functions of infraexponential type. In [Vi2] it has been proved that the
conditions on Re Zn > 0 and 11m Zn I/lzn 1 -+ 0 are not necessary. In fact, given
any sequence V = {znln:::!, n(r) = o(r), and {znln:::! satisfies V, then there is a
function 1 of infraexponential type such that
(i) V ~ V(f);
(ii) all zeros of f are simple; and
(iii) V (f) is an interpolating variety in the space of functions of infraexponen-
tial type. (The condition (tt) also holds when dist(z, V(f» 2: c/8.) We
provide a proof of this result in Chapter 6.
It is possible also to find necessary and sufficient geometric conditions for a
variety to be interpolating in space of type zero for any radial weight satisfying
the doubling condition [BLV].
EXERCISES 2.6.
1. Let 1 be an entire function, 1(0) = 1. For r > 0, let ai, ... , an denote the zeros
of 1 in B(O, r) repeated according to multiplicity.
(a) Show that
112" e-iOlogl/(reio)lde=~rf'(O)+!Ln( !...-_ak_) .

27r
o k=l ak r
Use this formula to show that if f is an entire function of exponential type then Sl (r) =
L:1okl:sr ak"l is bounded as r -+ 00.
(b) Let P E N*, find an explicit expression for
-1
21l'
1°
23r
e-'Pu
'n
log I/(re'U)1
'n
dB
involving Sp(r) = E1otl::o, a;p. Use this expression to show that Sp remains bounded as
r --+ 00, whenever lEAp. (Hint: Divide out the zeros of I to obtain a nonvanishing
holomorphic function g in B(O, r). All this exercise requires is to compute the Fourier
coefficients of the harmonic function Re(log g) (see also [BG, Exercise 4.6.9]).
2. Let E p , Eoo be respectively the spaces of entire functions of order at most p
(resp. finite order). For 0 < p < 00, n E N* consider the Banach spaces Ep.n of all entire
functions such that
II/lIn = sup(l/(z)1 exp( -lzIP+I/n» < 00
and Fn , the Banach space of all entire functions such that

1II/IIIn = sup(l/(z)le- 1Z1n ) < 00.
(a) Show that Ep = nn>1 Ep.n, Eoo = Un>1 Fn. Ep is an FS space and is a DFS space.
(Hint: Use Proposition 1.4.8.) -
(b) Show that every closed ideal in Ep (resp. Eoo) is principal. (Hint: Find g such that
V(g) = V(I).)
3. For 0 < p < 00, n E N*, let Ap,n be the Banach space of all entire functions
such that
II/lIn = sup (I/(Z)I exp ( -~IZIP)) < 00.
(a) Show that Ap,o = nn~1 Ap.o is a FS space.

(b) If p ¢ N, show every closed ideal is principal.
(c) If p E N*, let w = ei23r / p, and assume that I E Ap,o
satisfies I(wz) = I(z) for all z. Show that in the Hadamard canonical expansion of
I, I(z) = zmeQ(z) TIn>1 E(z/zn, p), the polynomial Q has degree ~ p - 1, also that
by grouping conveniently the Weierstrass factors E(z/zn, p) one can write the infinite
product as ITt>1 ({Jko each ({Jk E Ap,o, and the infinite product converges in Ap,o.
(d) Show that every ideal in Ap,o is localizable.
4. Use Proposition 2.6.11 to show that every closed ideal in Ap is principal if p ¢ N.
5. The object of this exercise is to prove that if 1 is a closed ideal in Ap (resp. Ap,o),
p E N*, then there are two functions II, 12 E Ap (resp. Ap,o) such that 1 = 1 (flo h).
(a) Use Proposition 2.6.11 to show that if V = V (I) then 1 = 1 (V).
(b) Let 0 < Izd ~ IZ21 ~ .. " IZn I --+ 00, (nk)k~1 a strictly increasing sequence ofposi-
tive integers, ek > 0, Ek>1 ek < 00. Show that one can find a sequence of distinct
Wk E C, 0 < IWkl ,-71 00, su~h that the set{wk: k ::: I} is disjoint from {zn: n ::: I}, Iw;P -
z';-:I < eko and if the series En::ok z;? converges to the value a, and (Un)n~1 is the sequence
given by Un = Zn if n -::f. nk(k ::: 1), unk = Wko then En>1 u;/ = s.
(c) Let II E I\{O}. Use parts (a) and (b) to find 12 E Ap (resp. Ap,o) such that V(f.) n
V(h) = V. Conclude that 1 = 1(11, h).
6. Let the canonical product of a function I of finite order be I(z) =
zme Q rr.~1 E(z/zn, p). Let PR(z) := zm nZnl::o R E(z/zn, p), R > O.
(a) Assume lEAp, show that e- Q 1/ PR E Ap, and that for every g E Ap one has
. e- QI .
lim - - g = g III Ap.
R~oo PR
(b) Let I be a closed proper ideal in Ap, V = V(l), I E I\{O}, g E I(V). Write PR
as a product PR =
P~P; such that yep;) =
V n B(O, R). Show that fI P~ E I. Use this
to prove that gEl.
(c) Prove parts (a) and (b) in the case Ap,o, p fj. I'll, and also when p E N* but p =
p-1.
(d) Let I E Ap,o, P = p, Q(z) = cxozP + QI (z), deg QI :::: p - 1. Show that
and
lim -I exp
R~oo PR
( -QI + -zP
p
L
IZnl:o R
z;/ ) g = g
holds in Ap,o.
Use (c) and (d) to prove that all ideals in Ap,o are localizable.
7, Let V = V(fl" .. , In), II, ... , In jointly invertible in Ap(C). Show that V is a
universal interpolating variety if and only if V is an interpolating variety.
8. Let p(z) = IzI P , r > 0, kl > 1, k2 > 0, compute the function r(z) > 0 that has the
property: pel;) :::: kIP(z) + k2 if and only if l; E B(z, r(z)).
9. Suppose V = (Zk> mkh,,1 satisfies condition (1) of Proposition 2.6.22, i.e., for some
C, D >0
i o
rk n(z
k>,
t
t V)
dt :::: C(P(Zk) + I) (k :::: 1).
Show that there are e > 0, A > 0 such that for any j f:. k
IZk - Zj I ~ ee-Ap(zkl.
10. (a) Use Proposition 2.6.23 to show that the lattice Il + ill is interpolating for Ap
if p = 2.
(b) Give a direct proof of the same result by using the Weierstrass a function [Mark].
CHAPTER 3
Exponential Polynomials
3.1. The Ring of Exponential Polynomials

An exponential polynomial is an entire function f of the form
fez) = L Pj(z)e UjZ ,
l:;oj :;om
where aj E C, Pj E C[z]. We assume that the aj are distinct and the polynomials
Pj not zero. The Pj are called the coefficients of f and aj the frequencies.
(Sometimes the aj are called the exponents, especially in the Russian literature.
In some contexts aj = i)'j, Aj E JR, and the Aj are called the frequencies and
Tj = 27r/Aj (when Aj =j:. 0) the periods; clearly eiAjz is periodic of period Tj.) It
is immediate that there is a unique analytic functional T whose Fourier-Borel
transform 'J(T) coincides with f, i.e., 'J(T)(z) = (T~, eZ~) = fez). Namely, T
is representable as a distribution in C of the form
T = ~a· o(v)
~ j,V Uj'
j.V
where OUj is the Dirac measure at the point aj, o~~) is a "holomorphic" derivative
of order v, o~~) = (a/azYOUj' and the aj,v are complex constants. In the case
where the frequencies aj are purely imaginary, i.e., aj = iAj, Aj E JR, then f is
the Fourier transform of a distribution /L E £'(JR). That is, we let
dV
/L := ~ aJ· viv -d 01.
L...J, xv'
j,v
with OAj the Dirac mass at the point Aj E JR (acting on Coo functions in JR) and
fez) = (/Lx, e- ixz ).

These simple observations correspond to the fact that if p(z) = Izl, then every
exponential polynomial f E Ap(C), while if the frequencies are purely imag-
inary, f E F(£'(JR)), i.e., one can use the smaller weight function p(z) =
I Imzl + logO + IzI2). We shall see in this chapter that, among other properties,
a nonzero exponential polynomial is always slowly decreasing in Ap(C).
198
We denote by E the ring of exponential polynomials (including the zero

function) and by Eo the subring of E consisting of exponential polynomials with
constant coefficients (also called exponential sums). Let E*, denote the sets Eo
E\ {OJ and Eo \ {O}, and U (E) and U (Eo) the groups of invertible elements of E
and Eo, respectively. It is clear that U(E) = U(Eo) = {ae bz : a E e, bE C}.
In the set of complex numbers we consider the lexicographical order ~ defined
by a ~ f3 if and only if either Re a < Re f3 or Re a = Re f3 and 1m a ::; 1m f3.
If a ~ f3 and a i= f3, we shall write a ~ f3. From now on, in the above repre-
sentation of the exponential polynomial f we shall always assume aj ~ aj+j,
l::;j::;n-1.
We start by studying divisibility in the rings E and Eo. Since e Yz is invertible
and a ~ f3 is equivalent to (a - y) ~ (f3 - y), we can assume f has the form
fez) = L Pj(z)e ajZ ,

O::;j::;m
for some m ::::: 1.
3.1.1. Proposition. Let fez) = LO::;j::;m Pj(z)e ajZ , g(z) = LO::;k::;n Qk(z)e fikZ be
two exponential polynomials of the form (*). If g divides f in E, then the frequen-
cies f31, ... , f3n of g are linear combinations with rational coefficients of the
frequencies al,···, am of f.
Proof. Since g divides f in E there is h E E*, h (z) = Lo::;/::;p R/e Y/ z , such that
f = hg. Since we are assuming Yo ~ YI ~ ... ~ YP' it is immediate that Yo = O.
If P = 0, then the frequencies of f and g are the same, and the coefficients are
related by Pj = RoQj. We can assume therefore that p ::::: 1.
Let 0 = Wo ~ WI ~ ... ~ Wr represent all the frequencies of the form f3k + Yl,
O:s k :s n, 0 :s I :s p. Clearly lao, ... , am} S; {wo, ... , wr }.
In order to proceed we need an elementary, albeit important, lemma.
3.1.2. Lemma. Let F(z) = LI::;j::;n ({Jj(z)e AjZ be a nonzero exponential polyno-
mial with frequencies Al ~ A2 ~ ... ~ An, and coefficients ({Jj(z) = ajzm j + ... ,
polynomials of degree mj ::::: 0 (aj E C*). For every j, 1 ::; j ::; n, we have
[(:, -Ar II (:, -Ar+l] f(') ~ cje"',

Cj = mj! aj II (Aj - Ak)mk+1 i= O.
koFj
Proof of Lemma 3.1.2. One proves by induction on the degree m of P E C[z],

P(z) = az m + ... , a E C*, that
(:z _A)m (P(z)e AZ ) =m! ae Az •

200 3. Exponential Polynomials
Hence
d )m+1
( dz - A (P(z)e AZ ) = O.
Therefore, if i -::j:. j, we have
3.1.3. Corollary. The family (eAZhelC is a basis of the C[z]-module E.

Proof of Corollary 3.1.3. The spanning property is clear. If an exponential
polynomial F with frequencies AI, ... ,An is the identically zero function, then
Cj = 0 for i :s j :s n, which is impossible unless all the coefficients are zero.D
Let us now return to the proof of Proposition 3.1.1. We have
hence, from Corollary 3.1.3 we have
L Qk(z)R/(z) = { ~j(z) if Wi
if Wi
= aj,
f/. {ao, ... ,an}.
k,/
fh+y/=Wi
Let US assume there is a fik o' 1 :s ko :s n, which is not a linear combination

with rational coefficients of ao, ... ,am' Let V be the Q-vector space spanned
by ao, ... , am, and let el, .. " eq be a basis for V. Then fiko' el,.'" eq is a
Q-linearly independent family. Therefore, we can find eq+l, ... ,et such that
fik o' el, ... , eq, eq+l, ... , et forms a basis of the Q-vector space W spanned by
ao, ... , am,'fil, ... , fin, YI, ... , Yp. Let us denote eo := fik o' Every fib 1 :s k :s
n, can be written in a unique way as
fik = L rkiei,
O:oiS
Let Uo := max{rk,O, 1:S k :s n}, Uo ~ 1. Consider the nonempty subset of fik
such that the coefficient rkO of eo coincides with Uo. Among these choose one
whose coefficient rj,l of el is as large as possible, say u I,
UI := max{rk,l: for k such that rk,O = uo}.
Continuing this way we find a unique f3kl denoted f3*, such that
f3* = L Uiei,
O:'::i:"':l
whose successive coefficients Ui are maximal.
Proceeding in the same way with YI, 0 ::: t ::: P, we find y* = Yk"
y* = L Viei,
O:'::i:"':l
whose successive coefficients are maximal. Here Vo ?: 0 since Yo = o.
Let w* := f3* + y* = LO<i<1 Wiei. Then Wo = Uo + Vo ?: 1. Assume w* =
f3k + Yl for some pair k, t. The successive coefficients of f3k and Yl must be
maximal, otherwise they could not add up to the coefficients of w*. Therefore,
f3k = f3* and Yl = y*. Hence the sum
L PkRI = Pk l Rli =I- 0,

Pk+Yl=W*
since Pkl =I- 0, Rli =I- 0.1t follows that w* E {ao, ... ,an}. This means that Wi = 0
for i fj. {1, ... , q}. In particular, Wo = O. This is a contradiction. We conclude
that every f3k is in V, and the statement of Proposition 3.1.1 is correct. 0
We are going to consider now the problem of the factorization of exponential

polynomials.
3.1.4. Definition. An element f E Eo is normalized if it is of the form

fez) = L ajeOljZ,
O:'::j:'::m
with 0 = ao --< al --< ... --< am and ao = 1.
A normalized element f E Eo is said to be simple if all the aj, 1 ::: j ::: m,
are commeasurable, i.e., there is 'A E C* such that aj E Q'A, 1 ::: j ::: m.
A normalized element f E Eo is irreducible if it is not divisible in Eo by
any other normalized element, except 1 and itself.
3.1.5. Remarks. (1) To study factorization or divisibility in Eo, it is clearly

enough to consider only normalized exponential sums.
(2) A normalized simple exponential sum is never irreducible.
In fact, let fez) = 1 + aleOlIZ + ... + ameOlmZ , 0 --< al --< •.• --< am, be simple.
Since Re ai ?: 0 for all i, there is 'A E C, Re'A ?: 0, such that
ai =qi'A,
qi E Q, qi > O. Let N be the common denominator of all the qi, then we can
write qi = Pi/N, Pi E N*, and
ai = PilL, IL = 'A/N, 0< PI < ... < Pm.
Hence, if we let ~ = eILz , we have
I(z) = 1 + al~PI + ... + am~Pm,

which is a polynomial of degree Pm in the variable ~. Therefore, it can be
factorized into Pm factors of the form I + c~ . In other words, I can be factorized
into Pm simple factors of the form I + ce ILZ .
The same argument can now be repeated by writing
I + ceILZ = I + c(eILz/ry ,
for any r E N*. Hence, each of them factorizes into r normalized exponential
sums of two terms. Therefore, not only is a normalized simple exponential sum
not irreducible, but it admits infinitely many distinct factors (see Theorem 3.1.9
below).
3.1.6. Lemma. Let 0 -< al -< ... -< am and P := dimlQ V, with V = EI::;j::;mlQaj,
the IQ-vector space spanned by al, ... ,am. Let IQ+ = IQ n ]0,00[. One can find a
basis /LI, ... ,/Lp olV such thataj E EI::;k::;plQ+/Lko I::: j::: m.
Proof. For any j we have either Re aj > 0 or Re aj = 0 and 1m aj > O. Accord-

ingly, we can find l) > 0 sufficiently small so that the numbers Aj = e- i8 aj
satisfy Re Aj > 0, I ::: j ::: m.
It is clear that e- i8 V = EI::;j::;m IQAj also has a IQ-dimension equal to p. Let
ml, ... , mp be a IQ-basis of this space. Assume
Aj = L ajlml,
1::;/::;p
with ajl E IQ.

We shall first find another basis M I , ... , Mp of e- i8 V so that mk E
EI::;/::;p IQ+ MI, for I ::: k ::: p. For that purpose, let us choose rational numbers
tl,k so that for every 1 they approximate Re ml for I ::: k ::: p. Assume further
that det(tld/,k =f:. O. Then we can determine Mlo ... , Mp from the system of
equations
ml = L tlkMko I ::: I ::: p.
I::;k::;p
This indicates that the Aj can be written as
Since we want tlk approximately equal to Reml, then the rational numbers
bjk := EI::;/::;p ajltlk are approximately equal to Re(EI::;/::;p ajlml) = Re Aj > O.
In other words, if we choose tlk sufficiently close to RemJ, I ::: k ::: p, we can
guarantee that bjk E IQ+ and, clearly, this can be done so that simultaneously
the determinant det(tlk>I,k =f:. O.
We now let f1k = ei8 Mb 1 ~ k ~ p. They form a basis for V and (Xj E
L I :sk:sp Q+ f1k· 0
Let us now return to the situation of Proposition 3.1.1.
3.1.7. Proposition. Let fez) =

LO:Sj:sm Pj(z)e OljZ andg(z) =
LO:Sj:sn Qj(z)e PjZ
be exponential polynomials of the form (*), with more than one term. Assume that
g divides f in E and that (XI, ... , (Xm are linear combinations with nonnegative
rational coefficients of p Q-linearly independent complex numbers f11, ... , f1p.
In this case, the frequencies fh, ... , f3m are also Q-linear combinations of
f11, ... , f1p with nonnegative coefficients.
Proof From Proposition 3.1.1 we conclude that
We want to show that rjk ~ 0 for every j, k, 1 ~ j ~ n, 1 ~ k ~ p. To fix

ideas let us assume rj I < O. We choose among the f3j, those for which rj I is
minimal; among these, those for which rj2 is minimal, etc. One finds in this
way, a certain f3jo, denoted f3*, whose coefficients with respect to f11,···, f1p
are all successively minimal. Let us write
f3* = Ulf11 + ... + upf1p, Uj E Q, 1 ~ k ~ p.
We have UI ~ rjo,1 < O.
Let 0 = Yo -< YI -< ... -< Yr, and Rk be polynomials such that
We augment the collection f11, ... , f1p to a basis f11, ... , f1q of the Q-vector
space generated by (XI,.··, (Xm, f31, ... , f3n, YI,···, Yr' Among Yo, ... , Yr we
find y* whose successive coefficients with respect to f11, ... , f1q are minimal.
Let
y* = Vlf11 + ... + vqf1q,
with VI ~ 0 since Yo = O. As in Proposition 3.1.1, we can see that f3* + y* = (Xi

for some i, 1 ~ i ~ m. Then
(Xi = (UI + vI)f11 + ... + (up + vp)f1p + Vp+lf1p+1 + ... + vqf1q.
Clearly Vp+1 = ... = Vq = 0 and UI + VI < 0, which is a contradiction with the
hypothesis that every (Xi has nonnegative coefficients with respect to f11, ... , f1p.
Therefore, it must be true that rjk ~ 0, 1 ~ j ~ n, 1 ~ k ~ p. 0
3.1.8. Remark. It follows from Proposition 3.1.7 that the Yj are also Q-linear
combinations of the f1k with nonnegative coefficients.
We shall accept the following result of Ritt about factorization in the ring Eo.
The proof is entirely algebraic and rather long (see [Ril], [Go], [Schi]).
3.1.9. Theorem. Every normalized exponential sum f E Eo which is =1= 0, 1 can

be written in one and only one way (up to reordering) as a finite product of
normalized exponential sums
f = (0'1'" a s )(7r 1 ... 7rr ),

where the ai are simple, any two of them have no nonzero common frequency,
and the 7rj are irreducible in Eo.
3.1.10. Remarks. (1) Let fez) =

1 + ale alZ + ... + ameamZ , 0 -< al -< ... -<
am. If all the aj, 1 ~ j ~ m, are Q-linear combinations of /-tl, ... , /-tp with
nonnegative coefficients, and f = It ... ft is the decomposition of the previous
theorem, then the frequencies of all the /j are Q-linear combinations of
/-tl, ... , /-tp with nonnegative coefficients.
(2) If p = rank: of the additive group generated by al,"" am, then it
coincides with the dimension of the Q-vector space V defined in Lemma 3.1.6.
Changing, if necessary, the /-tk obtained in the lemma by a submultiple, we can
assume
aj EL W/-tb 1 ~ j ~ m.
I=:;k=:;p
(3) Every nonzero exponential sum f can be written in a unique way in the
form
with ae az E U(E o), ai, ... , as normalized, simple, sharing no common nonzero
frequencies, and 7rt. ... ,7rr , normalized irreducible exponential sums.
We recall some classical results of commutative algebra that we will use in

the sequel, see, e.g., [AM].
Let A be a commutative integral domain with identity and let .5t be the field of
quotients of A. Denote A* := A\{O}, U(A) := the group of invertible elements
of A, .W := the multiplicative group of the nonzero elements of .5t, and A[X),
resp . .5t[X), the rings of polynomials in the variable X, with coefficients in A
and .5t, respectively.
We assume A satisfies the condition
Any two elements of A * admit a g.c.d.
3.1.11. Definitions. (1) The content of a nonzero polynomial f E A[X) is a

g.c.d. of the coefficients of f. It is denoted c(f).
(2) A polynomial f E A[X) will be said to be primitive if c(f) is invertible.
For every f E A[X) we shall write f = c(f)/, with / E A[X) primitive.

The product of two primitive polynomials is primitive. If f, g E A[X)\{O},
then c(fg) = ac(f)c(g), a E U(A).
Let us recall finally that there is a family P 5; A[X) such that every element
of P is primitive in A[X) and irreducible in .5t[X) and, moreover, any f E .5t[X)
can be written in a unique way in the form

I = a II pn(p),
peP
with a E .ft, n(p) EN, and only a finite number of n(p) are different from zero.
It follows that if I E A[X], then
I = c(f) II pn(p),
peP
and the decomposition is unique.
We shall now show that Eo verifies the property (~) and that E is isomorphic
(as a ring) to Eo[X].
3.1.12. Lemma. Every exponential polynomial lEE can be written in a unique

way in the lorm
I(z) = lo(z) + /J(z)z + ... + fr(z)zl,
where 10, ... , II E Eo. In other words, E is isomorphic to Eo[X].
Proof. Let I(z) = LJ<i<m Pj(z)ea;Z, Pj E qX]\{O}, aJ -< a2 -< ... -< am.
Denote d j = deg Pi, and write
Pj(z) = L bijzj,
O:::.j:::.d;
so that if 1:= max{dJ, ... , dm },
I(z) = L (Lbijea;z) zj = L /j(z)zj,

O:::.j:::.1 d;?:.j O:::.j:::.1
with /j(z) := Ld;?:.j bijea;z E Eo.

This decomposition is unique. If Lo:::.i:::.1 /j(z)zi == 0, then Pj(z) == 0 by
Corollary 3.1.3, 1 :::: i :::: m. Hence, bj,j = 0 for all i, j. Therefore, I == 0 for
0:::: j :::: I.
Finally, it is now clear that
Eo[X] ~ E,
L /j(z)xj t-+ L /j(z)zj
is a ring isomorphism. o
3.1.13. Lemma. Let I, g E Eo, then there is a g.c.d. in Eo.
Proof. As a consequence of Theorem 3.1.9 we have to consider the following
three cases:
(i) I and g are simple;
(ii) I and g are irreducible;
(iii) I is simple and g is irreducible.
Case (i). Let I(z) = 1 + alea1Z + ... + ame amz , 0 -< al -< ... -< am, ai =
PiA, Pi E N*, and g(z) = 1 +bleP1Z + .. , +bne Pnz , 0 -< b l -< ... -< bn, bj =
qjf.J" qj E N*.
We have two possibilities: either al I {31 E Q or not. The first case is equivalent
to ai I {3j E Q and to AI f.J, E Q. Thus, in this case, there is v E C* such that
ai = ri v, ri, Sj E N*, 1~ i ~ m, 1~ j ~ n.
Moreover, we have rl < r2 < ... < rm and SI < '" < Sn. Let l; = e Vz , and
consider the two polynomials in l;
F(l;) := 1 + all;r1 + ... + am l; rm ,
G(l;) := 1 + bll;sl + ... + bnl;Sn.
Let H be the g.c.d. of F and G in ((:[l;]. It is clear that h(z) = H(e VZ ) divides
I and g in Eo. Furthermore, h is normalized and simple. The Bezout identity
H=FU+GV
for some U, V E ((:[l;] shows that
h = ul + vg,
where u(z) := U(e VZ ) and v(z) := V(e VZ ) belong to Eo. Hence if ii E Eo divides
I and g, it follows ii divides h. Therefore, in this case, h is the g.c.d. of I
and g.
We claim that if AI f.J, It' Q, then 1 is the g.c.d. of I and g. In fact, if h
divides both I and g, h is normalized and not I, then by Proposition 3.1.7
all the frequencies of h are integral multiples of A, hence h is simple. By the
same proposition, all the frequencies of h must also be multiples of f.J,. Hence
AI f.J, E Q, which is impossible.
Case (ii). If I and g are irreducible, then either 1= ag, a E U(Eo), in which
case I = g (if they are normalized), or 1 is the g.c.d. of I and g.
Case (iii). If I is simple and g is irreducible, the g.c.d. must be g or 1. If g
divides I, then it is simple by Proposition 3.1.7. Accordingly, the g.c.d. is 1.
This concludes the verification that Eo has the property (~). 0
Given lEE, we can write it in a unique way as I(z) =

LO::~::j:::;1 jj(z)zj,
jj E Eo. We denote by c(f) E Eo the g.c.d. of the coefficients 10, ... , ft.
3.1.14. Lemma. Let lEE, g E Eo. Then g divides I in E if and only if g

divides c(f) in Eo.
Proof. Assume g divides I in E. Therefore, there is h(z) = LO:::;j:::;r hj(z)zj,
hj E Eo, such that
g(z) (o~yZ)Zj) = J(z) = J; fJ(z)zj.

By the uniqueness part of Lemma 3.1.12 we have I = rand g(z)hj(z) = jj(z),

l:::j:::1.
This shows that g divides all the coefficients of f in Eo, hence g divides
c(f) in Eo.
The converse is clear. o
3.1.15. Lemma. Let f, gEE. There isa E U(Eo) such thatc(fg) = ac(f)c(g).
Proof. This follows from E ~ Eo[X] and Eo verifies (Ll). o
3.1.16. Proposition. Every exponential polynomial fEE can be factorized in
a unique way (up to invertible elements)
f = c(f)7r~1 ... 7r:',

where c(f) E Eo, 7r1,"" trr are exponential polynomials in E\Eo, which are
irreducible in E, mutually coprime, and nl, ... , nr E N*.
Proof. Let fez) = LO:::;j:::;1 jj(z)zj, jj E Eo, and lex) = LO:::;j:::;1 jj(z)xj, the
corresponding polynomial in Eo[X]. Then, there are unique polynomials
ii"J, ... , iir, primitive and irreducible in Eo[X], and nl, ... , nr E N* such that
I = c(f)ii~1 ... ii:'.
Let 7rj be the exponential polynomials in E that correspond to iij via the
isomorphism Eo[X] ::::: E. Since this is a ring isomorphism, it follows that 7rj
are irreducible in E. This proves the factorization. The uniqueness follows the
same way. 0
3.1.17. Theorem. Every exponential polynomial can be factorized, in a unique

way up to invertible factors, as the product of a finite number of simple expo-
nential sums with frequencies pairwise incommeasurable, a finite number of
irreducible normalized exponential sums, and afinite number of irreducible expo-
nential sums.
Proof. We apply Ritt's Theorem 3.1.9 to c(f) and Lemma 3.1.13. The isomor-
phism E ~ Eo[X] allows us to conclude the factorization is unique. 0
3.1.18. Theorem. The ring E also satisfies the condition (Ll): any two exponen-
tial polynomials have a g.c.d. in E.
Proof. Given f, g E E*, it is enough, by the preceding theorem, to consider the

following two cases:
(i) f E Eo and it is simple. Then f and c(g) admit a g.c.d. in Eo. By Lemma
3.1.14, this is also the g.c.d. of f and g in E.
(ii) f is irreducible. If f divides g in E, then f is the g.c.d. If not, 1 is the
~A 0
We now use Lemma 3.1.2 to obtain some inequalities about exponential poly-
nomials. We first note that if f(z) = Ll:::::i;'ON Pj(z)e AjZ , Al -< A2 -< ... -< AN,
Pj a nonzero polynomial of degree mj ::: 0, then these coefficients are uniquely
determined cy the function f and, in particular, we can define the degree of f,
dOf := ml + ... + mN + N - 1. We can also consider the supporting function
H of the convex hull K ofthe points Xl, ... , XN , conjugates of the frequencies,
namely,
,
H(z) := max Re(Ajz) = m!lx(Xjlz),
,
where (,1,) denotes the Euclidean inner product in ~.2. This function is also
uniquely determined by f. Recall that M(f, z, r) = max{lf(s)l: IS - zl s r}.
3.1.19. Proposition. Let f(z) = Ll;'Oj;'ON Pj(z)e AjZ E E*. For any ro > 0, there
is a constant C > 0 such thatfor every z E C and every 0 < r S ro, the inequality
r dof exp(H(z)) S CM(f, z, r)
holds.
Proof. Let us denote
Cj,l E C. Then
with Cj = mj! aj TIk;i/Aj - Ak)mk+l as in Lemma 3.1.2. Therefore, we can

apply Cauchy's formula and obtain
eAjZ = ~ L
c, O;'Ol;'OdOf
Cj,d(l)(z) = L l!c!,l
O;'OI;'OdOf27rIC,
.1 1';-zl=r
(s - z)dOf-1 !;S10/+l d S'
(s)
This shows that given ro > 0 there is a constant K > 0 such that
ro)dOf z, r)
eH(z) :::: K ( -
r
max If(s)1
Iz-';I=r
= C M(f,
r
dOf . o
Let us remark that the size of K in the last estimate depends on

min{IAk - Ajl: k f. j), min{lajl: 1:::: j :::: N}, max{IAjl: 1:::: is N} and dOf·
Let us give here a corollary of the above proof.
3.1.20. Proposition. For any f E E* there is a constant A > 0 such that

AeH(z) S L If(I)(z)l.
O;'Ol;'OdOf
In particular, the multiplicity of any zero of f does not exceed dO f.

Proof. We have already shown that
eAjZ = C.
1
L Cj,J/(l) (z),
j O~I~dOf
hence
leAjZI :::~? ICj,t/Cjl L If(I)(z)l,
j. O~I~dOf
which implies the required estimate.

Moreover, if f(z) = 0 and f..L = multiplicity of this zero, then f(/)(z) = 0,
0::: I::: f..L - 1, which shows immediately that f..L ::: dOf. 0
Let us recall that, as a corollary of the Minimum Modulus Theorem [BG,

Theorem 4.5.14], we obtained in Lemma 2.2.11 the following inequality:
Let F be an entire function, F(~) =I O. For any r > 0 there is p E ]rj4, rj2[
such that
log ( inf - IF(Z)I)

-) > -8logM ( F(F ),~,2er ) .
Iz-~I=p JF(~ I ~
3.1.21. Proposition. Let f(z) = Ei~j~N Pj(z)e AjZ , be a nonzero exponential

polynomial, mj = deg Pj , M = maxi~j~n mj. Then:
(i) there is a constant A > 0 such that for any r E [0, 1] and z E C we have
M(f, z, 2er) ::: A(1 + IZJ)MeH(z);
(ii) there are constants At. Mi > 0 such that for any r E (0, 1], Z E C, and any
function g holomorphic in B(z, r), we have
Ig(z)leH(z) :s Ai (l + Izl)MI M(fg~ z, r),

r
with v = 9dof.
Proof. The first part is immediate.
For the second part, let us choose any ~, ~I - z I = r j 4, such that
If(~)1 = M(f, z, rj4) > O.
From the previous observation, there is apE ]rj4,rj2[ such that minlw-~I=plf(w)1
can be estimated from below. Let us write g = f g j f, then
Iw~~p If(w)g(w)1 M(fg, z, r)
Ig(z)1 ::: min If(w)1 ::: min If(w)I'
Iw-~I=p Iw-~I=p
From the above estimates, if Iw - ~I = p, then

log If(w)1 -log If(~)1 :::: -8[log M(f,~, 2er) -log If(~)I1.
Hence
log If(w)1 :::: 9IogM(f, z, rj4) - 8 log M(f, ~,2er).
From Proposition 3.1.19, we have

log M(f, z, r/4) ~ H(z) + (d°f) logr + C',
= =
for some C' E IR (C' -logC - (d°f) log 4, ro I, in the notation of that
proposition). On the other hand, by part (i) we have
logM(f,~, 2er)::::: H(~) + Mlog(1 + I~I) + A'
::::: H(z) + Mlog(1 + Izl) + A",
since I~ - zl ::::: r/4 ::::: 1/4. It follows that
log [ min I/(W)I]

Iw-~I=p
~ H(z) - MIlog(1 + Izl) + vlogr - A",
MI = SM, v = 9do/. This estimate implies that part (ii) is correct. 0
We remark that if I E Eo, then M = MI = 0 in the previous proposition, but

dOl = N - 1 > 0 (unless I is just an exponential), hence v > 0 also.
The following consequence of Proposition 3.1.21 is an explicit form of the
Lojasiewicz inequality for functions in E:
3.1.22. Theorem (Global Lojasiewicz Inequality). Let IE E*, and let V =

=
(z E C: I(z) OJ #- 0. There exists a positive constant C such that
C d(z, V)V H(z)
If(z)1 ~ (1 + Izl)!< e ,
where v = 9do/, JL = v + S maXISjSN mj' Moreover, C can be explicitly

estimated in terms 01 the Irequencies and coefficients of I.
Proof. Let z ¢ V and consider g = 1/1 in B(z, d(z, V». Let us choose r =
inf(1, d(z, V». We can therefore apply the previous proposition and obtain
eH(z) +
(1 Izl)MI
--<AI...:...-.--....:..~-
I/(z)1 - rV '
with MI = SmaxlSjSN mj, v = 9do/, and Al > O. If d(z, V) ::::: 1, then r =

d(z, V) and we obtain
1 H(z) d(z, V)V
I/(z)1 ~ Al e (1 + Izl)MI .
If d(z, V) > I, then r =

I, butd(z, V) ::::: Izl + const, hence letting JL = MI + v,
we still obtain the required inequality. 0
3.1.23. Remark. If we replace d(z, V) by d(z, V) = inf(1, d(z, V», then one
can take JL = 0 in Theorem 3.1.22 when I E Eo, at least when V #- 0. When
V = 0, I(z) = aeJ..z, a E C*, then d(z, V) = 00 but d(z, V) = 1, v = 0, JL = 0,
=
H(z) Re(J..z) and the inequality is trivially satisfied.
From previous remarks we see that we have a rather precise knowledge of all
the constants C, f.1" v in the Lojasiewicz inequality. It is rather annoying that f.1,
could be positive. We shall show in what follows that one can take JL = 0 (after
replacing d(z, V) by d(z, V)), but at the cost of losing track of the nature of
C. This is an argument due to Grudzinski [Grudl].
Let us consider a vector a = (aI, ... ,aN) E Iff such that al -< a2 -<
... -< aN, m = (ml, ... , mN) E NN. Set Iml = ml + ... + mN, f.1, = Iml + N-
1, lIall = maxI:5j:5N lajl. Let E(a, m) be the vector space of all exponential-
polynomials of the form I(z) = EI:5j:5N Pj(z)eCXjZ, deg Pj :s mj, 1 :s j :s N,
where we allow some of the Pj to be zero. Denote Pj (z) = EO<k<m. - - ) Pj.kzk
and 11/11 := Ej,k IPj,kl. It is clear that II!II is a norm in the finite-dimensional
vector space E(a, m). We also denote aj = aj(f), the leading term of Pj , with
the possible choice aj = 0 if Pj == O.
Clearly, dOl :s f.1, when I E E(a, m), hence the multiplicity of any zero of I
is bounded by f.1" unless I == O.
3.1.24. Lemma. There is a constant c = c(a, m) > 0 such that lor any IE
E(a, m) and any r, 0 < r 1, :s
M(f, 0, r) 2: cr lL II !II.
Proof. We have
(M(f, 0, r»2 2: _1
2n Jo
r 27r
I/(re ili )1 2 de = L
I~O
11(1)(0)
I!
12 r21
2: L I(~!(O) (L
O:5/:5IL
1 12 r21 2:
O:5/:5IL
1 I(~!(O) 12) r2IL.
On the other hand, the map I f-+ (LO:5 / :5IL 1I(I)(0)/1!12)1/2 clearly defines a
seminorm in E(a, m), but the previous observation about the multiplicity of
zeros for functions in E(a, m), shows that it is really a norm. Since any two
norms in E(a, m) are equivalent, there is a constant c = c(a, m) > 0 such that
o~J [";,(0) I'

1/2
( )
2: cllfll.
This proves the lemma. o

3.1.25. Corollary. For any I E E(a, m), 0 < r :s 1, we have
M(f, 0, r) 2: cr lL max lajl,
l:5j:5N
with the same positive constant c 01 the previous lemma.
Proof. From the definition of aj = aj (f) = leading term of Pj , we have

lajl :s II!II· 0
3.1.26. Remark. If none of the aj is zero, an inequality of the fonn

M(f, 0, r) ~ crlLllfll
is still valid for r ~ 1, with c = c(a, m) > 0, independent of f.
In fact, in this case f E E(a, m)\{O} cannot be a polynomial, hence
is also a nonn in E(a, m). Moreover, the previous proof yields for r ~ 1
-I
1/2
fCl) (0) 2)
M(f, 0, r) ~ IL~J-l-!
(
rlL,
which shows the existence of the constant c.
The main point of the argument of Grudzinski, to improve the previous

Lojasiewicz inequality of Theorem 3.1.22, is the following observation. Let
L z(f) be the exponential polynomial defined by
Lz(f)(W) := few + z),
which also lies in E(a, m). Moreover, the leading coefficients of f and Lz(f)
are related by identities
aj(Lz(f)) = aj(f)eajz .
As an immediate corollary of these identities, we obtain:
3.1.27. Corollary. For any r E ]0, 1], I E E(a, m), and z E C, we have
M(f, z, r) ~ crlL max {laj(f)leReajZ} ~ c(f)rlLeH(z),
l~j~N
where c = c(a, m) > 0 is independent 01 f, and the constant c(f) depends on

I, but c(f) > 0 if I i= O.
Let I E E(a, m) be a nonzero exponential polynomial such that 1(0) O. =
Let v be the multiplicity of the origin as zero of f. Let 0 < r ::: 1 be given and
fix p E ]0, r] such that f has no zeros in 0 < Izl ::: p. The monic polynomial
Qf(z) = ZV has exactly the same zeros as I in 0::: Izl ::: p, hence flQf is
a holomorphic nonvanishing function in B(O, p). Therefore, we have inflzl~p
I/(z)/Qf(z)1 > O.
Since maxlzl=plg(z)1 is also a nonn in E(a,m), if III-gil is sufficiently
small, the function g E ECa, m) does not vanish on Izl = p and has the same
number of zeros vas I in B(O, p). Moreover, if Qg is the monic polynomial of
degree v whose roots coincide with those of g in BCO, p), we have that Qg is
continuous as a function of g, for g close to I. Namely, recall that if ZI, ••• , Zv
are the roots of g, then for k E N* the Newton sums of the roots are given by
L k
zl =-
1 1, Zkg'(Z)
--dz,
0::;19 2rri Izl=p g(z)
and the coefficients of Qg are fixed polynomials in the Newton sums. Therefore,
one can find a fixed number K > 0 such that
inf I g(z) I >

IZI::;p Qg(z)
K > 0
for any g in E(a, m), which is sufficiently close to f.

Now let h be an arbitrary function holomorphic in B(O, r). We have
M(gh, 0, r) :::: M(gh, 0, p) =M ( Qg . h . ~g' 0, p) :::: KM(Qg . h, 0, p).
In order to estimate this last quantity, let us prove the following simple lemma:
3.1.28. Lemma. There is a constant Cv > 0 such that for any monic polynomial
Q of degree v and any p > 0, there exists pi E [p /2, p] for which
IQ(z)1 :::: Cvpv if Izl = p'.
Proof. (This lemma is also a consequence of the Cartan - Boutroux lemma
[BG, §4.5.13].) Decompose the annulus p/2 :::: Izl :::: p into v + 1 concentric
annuli using circles such that the difference of the successive radii is exactly
p/2(v + 1). One of these annuli contains no roots of Q. Let pi be the radius
of the median circle of one such annuli. Let Q(z) = (z - ZI) .•. (z - zv). For
Izl = pi we have
for every j. Hence

pV
IQ(z)l:::: (4(v + 1))V' Izl = p'. o
Returning to the previous inequalities we have
M(gh, 0, r) :::: KM(Qg . h, 0, pi) :::: KCvpv M(h, 0, pi) :::: KCvpVlh(O)I.
Since K and p depend on f, all one can conclude is that there is a constant
c(f) > 0 such that for every gin E(a, m) sufficiently close to f, one has
M(gh, 0, r) :::: c(f)rVlh(O)I,
where c(f) has been chosen so that c(f)rV = KCvpv. Moreover, since r :::: 1
and v :::: f..L, we also have
M(gh, 0, r) :::: c(f)rILlh(O)I.
The unit sphere of E(a, m), 11111 = 1, is compact, hence there is a constant
Co = co(a, m) > 0 such that for any g, IIgil = 1, we have
M(gh, 0, r) :::: corlLlh(O)I.
Finally, we can conclude that for any f E E(Ot, m),
M(fh, 0, r) 2: collfliriL/h(O)/ 2: Co C~~\./aj(f)/) riL/h(O)/

for any h holomorphic in 8(0, r).
This inequality leads almost immediately to the following:
3.1.29. Proposition ([Grud1]). Let f E E(Ot, m), 0 < r :s 1, and let K(f) =
cominl~j~N /aj(f)/. Then, for any z E C and any holomorphic function g in
a neighborhood of 8(z, r), we have
M(fg, z, r) 2: K(f)riLeH(z)/g(z)/.
Proof. Let h = Lz(g), then h(O) = g(z), and
M(fg, z, r) = M(Lz(f)h, 0, r) 2: Co (max /aj(Lz(f))/) riL/h(O)/.

I~J~N
Now, aj(Lz(f)) = aj(f)e CXjZ =I 0 if and only if Otj is a frequency of f. But

max{ReOtjz: Otj is a frequency of f} = H(z).
Hence,
I~~XN /aj(Lz(f))/ 2: C~~N /aj(f)/) eH(z),

and we obtain the stated inequality. o
One should compare this statement with Proposition 3.1.21(ii). Here one can
take J.1- = dO f and, moreover, there is no factor (1 + /z /)M 1 • The trade off is the
very unpredictable behavior of the constant Co (see Remark 3.1.21). As a further
corollary we obtain a global Lojasiewicz inequality without denominator.
3.1.30. Proposition ([Grud1]). Let f be a nonzero exponential polynomial

withfrequenciesOtI --< Ot2 --< ... --< OtN, V = {z E C: f(z) = O},andletd(z, V) =
inf{1, d(z, V)}. There is a constant c = c(f) > 0 such that
/f(z)/ 2: c(d(z, V))do f eH(z).
Proof. It is enough to consider f(z) = LI~j~N Pj(z)e CXjZ , mj = deg Pj , Pj =I O.

Then JL = /m / + N - 1 = dO f, and the same proof of Theorem 3.1.22 applies,
replacing Proposition 3.1.21 by Proposition 3.1.28. 0
We shall now show that the exponential polynomials are not only slowly
decreasing in the sense of the previous chapter, but that one can give a very
precise description of the size of the components of S(f, B, C) (see Defini-
tion 2.2.13).
3.1.31. Proposition. Let f be a nonzero exponential polynomial. For every B >

0, C > 0, one can find BI, C 1 > 0 such that for every connected component 0 of
S(f, 81, C 1) = {Z E C: If(z)1 < 81e-Cdzl} one has IZ1 - z21 < ce- Clzd for every
Zl,Z2 E o.
Proof. We can assume 8 S 1. Fix z E 0 and let 0 < r S 1, to be chosen later
(depending on z). Consider l; E aB(z, r) such that If(nl = M(f, z, r). As
pointed out after the proof of Lemma 4.2.11, the Minimum Modulus Theorem
yields p E ]~r, 2r[ such that for every w, Iw -l;1 = p, one has
l oIf(w)1
g - - > -8 log M ( -f f ,l;,4er ) .
If(l;)1 (n
Hence,
inf If(w)l> If(l;)1 9 •
Iw-(I=p -M(f,l;,4er)8
We know that for some C > 0, IL > 0,
If(nl = M(f, z, r) 2: CriLeH(Z),
and, for some D > 0,
M(f, l;, 4er) S M(f, z, Ser) S D(1 + IzI)MeH(z).
Therefore,
ErveH(z)
inf If(w)l> ------,:-
Iw-(I=p - (1 + Izl)N
for some E > 0, N 2: 0, v > o.
Let us now choose r = r(z) = ce- Clz1 /6e c . We are going to choose 81 > 0,
C 1 > 0 so that for any z E C one has
Er(zYeH(z)
8 e-Clizi < ---...,..,-
1 - (1 + Izl)N .
To verify that this choice is possible, let us observe that there is ex > 0 such
that for every z E C
H(z) 2: -alzl.
Since r(z) = 8e- Clz1 /6e c , we have to choose 8j, C 1 sO that

8V E e(CI-a-vC)lzl
81<-----~
- (6e C )V (1 + Izl)N .
This shows that once we choose C 1 > ex + vC, e.g., C 1 = a + vC + 1, we can
easily find 81 > 0 satisfying the inequality (t). Hence,
inf If(w)1 2: 81e-Cllzl,
Iw-(I=p
which implies that

o ~ B(l;, p) ~ B(z, 3r).
Therefore, if Zj, Z2 E 0 we have
IZ1 - z21 S IZ1 - zl + Iz - z21 < 6r S 8e-Clzl-C S ce- C1zd .
The last inequality follows from the fact that Iz - z1l < 3r S 38/6 S ~. D
3.1.32. Remark. In the case where all the frequencies of f are purely imaginary,
then H(z) ::: -al Imzl for some a > 0 and we can replace Izl throughout the
proof by p(z) = log(1 + Iz12) + I Imzl. In this case
SU, EJ, C1) = (z E C: If(z)1 < Ele-C1P(z)}
and the diameter condition is

for Zl, Z2 E O.
EXERCISES 3.1.
1. Let f be an exponential polynomial with frequencies AI, ... , AN, and K =

Cv{~lo"" ~N}' and let H = HK = the supporting function of K. Show there is a set
E ~ [0, co[ of relative zero measure (see §3.5.9) such that
1· log If(re i8 )1 _ H( i8)

1m - e .
r;;r r
Conclude that f is of completely regular growth and that if /-L E .;tf' (C) is such that
=
;;(/-L) f, then /-L*: .;tf(Q + K) --+ .;tf(Q) is surjective for any open and convex subset
Q ofC.
2. Let f be an exponential polynomial with purely imaginary frequencies. Let g be an

entire function such that for some m E Z, A, B > 0, the product f g satisfies the estimate
(z E C).
(a) Show that g satisfies an estimate of the form

Ig(z)1 ::: B'(1 + Izi)m'eA'IImzl,
and quantify the dependency of B', m' in terms of B, A, m, and constants depending
only on f. What can you say about h g ?
(b) Conclude that if g is an entire function such that fg E J=(£'(lR)) (resp. J=(V(lR»)
then g belongs to J=(£'(lR)) (resp. J=(V(lR»).
3. Let f be an exponential polynomial, V = V(f) = (Zb mkk~lo p(z) = Izl. Show
that V is an interpolating variety for Ap(C) if and only if there exist e > 0, C > 0, such
that for every pair (k, j), k "# j,
IZk - Zj I ::: ee- CJzkl .
°
What is the corresponding statement for p(z) = IzIP, P > I? Could V be an interpolation
variety when such that IZk - Zj I ::: e-A(lzkl+lzjl)P for every pair (k, j), j "# k.
(ii) There is one e, B > 0 such that for every k, If(mk)(Zk)1 ::: ee-BlzkIP.
Given P > 1 find an exponential polynomial f satisfying (ii) for this value p but for
no p' < p.
5. Let f be an exponential polynomial with purely imaginary frequencies, and p(z) =
I Irnzi + log(1 + Izi), V = V(f) = (Zb mk)k;::l. Show that V is an interpolation variety
for Ap(C) if and only if there are e > 0, A > 0, such that
for every pair (k, j), k # j.
Equivalently, show this condition can be replaced by the existence of /) > 0, B > 0, such
that for every k
If(mk)(zk)1 ::: /)e-Bp(zkl.
6. Let f be an exponential polynomial with purely imaginary frequencies, iaj, al <

a2 < ... < an, and ml, ... , m n, the degrees of the corresponding coefficients, and let
p, > max{mk!(ak - al): 2::::: k ::::: n}. Show that if
Imz > p,log IZI, Izl» 1,
then fez) # O. (Hint: Consider e- ia1z f(z).) Conclude that there is A > 0 such that
v= V(f) ~ {z: IImzl ::::: A(l + log(l + Izl))}·

Show that V is an interpolation variety for .r(£'(~» if and only if there exists e, B > 0
such that
IZk - Zj I ::: e(lzk I + IZj I)-B
for any pair of distinct zeros of f.
3.2. Distributions of Zeros of an

Exponential Polynomial
Given cP E [-JT /2, 3JT /2[, /-t E JR, and H E]O, +00[, we denote by V (cp, /-t, H)
the half-strip:
V(cp, /-t, H) := {z E C: Im(zeirp ) ::: 0 and I Re(zeirp ) + /-tlog Izll :s H}.
Let 8 denote the ray starting at 0 and making an angle cp + JT /2 with the
positive real axis. By T (e) we denote the angular sector of width 2e and having
8 as a bisectrix. (See Figures 3.1 and 3.2.)
If /-t = 0, V (cp, 0, H) is a half-strip limited by two half-lines parallel to 8 and
equidistant from 8 at a distance H. In this case, it is a straight half-strip.
If /-t i= 0, the two unbounded portions of the boundary are curves asymptotic
to lines paralled to 8. We then say that V(cp, /-t, H) is a logarithmic half-strip.
Let us choose argz E [0, 2JT[, then
JT
lim argz = cp + -,
Izl~oo 2
zeV (rp.ll. H)
which means that, for every e > 0, there is an r > 0 such that
V(cp, /-t, H) n B(O, r)C S; T(e).
3.2.1. Lemma. The intersection o/two half-strips V (CPI, /-tl, HI) n V (CP2, /-t2, H2)
is an unbounded set if and only if CPI = CP2 and /-tl = /-t2.
Figure 3.1
T(9)
Figure 3.2
Proof. From the previous observation, if V = V(fPI, ILl, HI) n V(fP2, IL2, H2) is
unbounded, then
7r 7r
lim arg z=fPI+- 2'
2 =fP2+-
ZEV
Izl->oo
Moreover,
Re(ze- icp !) . Re(ze-CP2)
ILl = lim = hm = IL2· o
ZEV log Izl ZEV log Izl
Izl->oo Izl->oo
We shall now prove a very famous result of P6lya concerning the distribution
of zeros of exponential polynomials. Following the work of Dickson [Dil] we
shall give simultaneously the result for a larger class of functions, those that are
asymptotically exponential polynomials (AEP) (see also [RoD.
3.2.2. Definition. We say that 1 E AEP if there is a compact set K such that
1 E .rf(C\K) and has the form
I(z) = L Ajzmj (1 + 8j(z))e WjZ ,
I:::;j:::;n
for a finite collection of distinct frequencies WI, ••• , Wn E C, 2 ::: n, Aj E C*,

mj E N, and the functions 8j are holomorphic in K C and satisfy
lim 8j(Z) = O.
Izl->oo
Note that any exponential polynomial with more than one frequency is in
AEP. It is enough to write the polynomial coefficients Pj as
Pj(z) = ajzmj(l + Cj(z)),
where mj = deg P, 8j(Z) = Pj(z)/ajZmj - 1, which is holomorphic for Izl » 1.
3.2.3. Definition. For a function 1 E APE represented by (*), we denote by

P := P(f), the P61ya polygon of I, the convex hull of the set WI,"" Wn , and
p := {z E C: Z E P(f)}, the set of conjugates.
In what follows we shall assume that WI, ••• ,Wn are indexed in such a
way that the following geometric condition holds: the points WI, ... are ,wu
the vertices of P and, moreover, the oriented segments LI := [WI,~]"'"
L u- I := [Wu-I, wu ], Lu := [wu , wd, are precisely the successive segments of
the posititively oriented boundary aP. The remaining points are ordered arbi-
trarily. Note that some may still be in ap.
Let us denote by hk the ray that starts at the origin and has the direction of the
outer normal to ap at any point in the open segment ]Wb Wk+1 [, 1 ::: k ::: a-I,
hu is the one that corresponds to [wu , wd. We make a further assumption on
the choice of WI, if 1{I1, ... , 1{Iu are the arguments of the points in hI, ... , hu,
respectively, then 0 ::: 1/11 < 1/12 < ... < 1/Iu < 21l'. Note that for z E hk one has
Re(wkz) = Re(wk+lz) for 1 ::: k ::: u - 1 (with the obvious extension to the case
k = u).
Let
SI := {z E C: 1/Iu ::: argz ::: 1/11 + 21l'}
and, for k = 2, ... , u,
Sk := {z E C: 1/Ik-1 ::: argz ::: 1/Ik}.
For a fixed 9 verifying 0 < 29 < min{ 1/11 - 1/1u + 21l', 1/Ik - 1/Ik-1 (k = 2, ... , u)},
let us define
SI := {z E C: 1/Iu + 9::: argz ::: 1/11 + 21l' - 9},
Sk := {z E C: 1/Ik-1 + 9 ::: arg z ::: 1/Ik - 9} (2::: k ::: u).
Note that because n ::: 2 one has 0 < 9 < 1l'/2. Finally, let us denote
Tk := {z E C: 1/Ik - 9 ::: arg z ::: 1/Ik + 9} (1 ::: k ::: u).
(See Figure 3.3.)
Figure 3.3
3.2.4. Lemma.
(a) Ifz E Sk, l; E P, then Re«wk -l;)z) ~ O.
(b) Ifz E Sk, l; E P, then Re«wk -l;)z) ~ Izllwk -l;1 sin8.
(c) If z E Sk n Tk and Wj fj. Lb then there is a value 80 > 0 such that
Re«wk - Wj)z) ~ Izllwk - wjl sin 80.
(d) If z E Sk+1 n Tk and Wj fj. Lk. then there is a value 81 > 0 such that
Re«wk+1 - Wj)z) ~ Izllwk+1 - wjl sin81.
Proof. Recall that (·1·) denotes the Euclidean scalar product on ]R2 and that for
any a, bEe, Reab = (alb) = (alb).
We shall give the proof of the lemma for 2 ~ k ~ a-I, leaving it to the
reader to adapt it to the cases k = 1, k = a.
Part (a). We observe that if h-I denotes the ray perpendicular to h k- I, chosen
so that the angle from h-I to hk-I is rr /2, and h, the ray perpendicular to hb so
that the angle from hk to h is rr /2, then the sector Sk is complementary to the
two quadrants determined by h-I and h k- I and by hk and h. The point ~ E P
and, therefore, ~ - Wk belongs to the closed sector determined by It-I and It.
This is just the sector opposite to Sk. Hence, the angle between any z E Sk and
~ - Wk is at least rr /2. In other words,
Re(z(l; - wd) = (zl~ - Wk) ~ O.
This is equivalent to statement (a).
Part (b). Here the angle between z E Sk and ~ - Wk is ~ rr /2 + 8, hence
(zl~ - Wk) ~ -Izll~ - wkl sin8.
Part (c). Since Wj fj. Lk, one can immediately see there is a 8' > 0 such that
rr, _ _ 3rr
1frk + "2 + () :5 arg(wj - wd :5 1frk-1 + 2'
On the other hand, z E Sk n Tb so that
1/Ik-1 + () < 1/Ik - 8 ~ arg z ~ 1frk.
Hence, the angle between z and Wj - Wk lies between rr /2 + 8' and 3rr /2 - 8.
Letting 80 = min{8, 8'}, we obtain (c).
Part (d). This time there is 8" > 0 such that
rr _ _ rr"
+ "2 + "2 -
,I,
'f'k+1 ~ arg(wj - Wk+l) ~ 1/Ik 8 ,
and
1/Ik ~ argz ~ 1/Ik +8 < 1/Ik+1 - 8.
Choosing 8 1 = min{8, 8"} we can proceed as before. D
3.2.5. Lemma.
(a) Jfz E Sk and j =j:. k, then zmjeWjZ = e(z)zmkeWkZ.
(b) Ifz E Tk n Sk and Wj fj. Lb then zmjeWjZ = e(z)zmkeWkZ.
(c) If z E Tk n Sk+! and Wj ¢ Lko then zmj eWjZ = t:(Z)Zmk+l eWk+\Z,

where t:(z) denotes a quantity, different in each case, such that
lim t:(z) = 0,
z ..... oo
whenever z is restricted to the corresponding region.
Proof. (a) By Lemma 3.2.4(b), we have
which vanishes at 00.

(b) It is the same as part (a) using Lemma 3.2.4(c), and eo instead of e.
(c) Just use Lemma 3.2.4(d). 0
3.2.6. Lemma. For f E APE represented by (*) and any z E Sko

f(z) = Akzmk(1 +t:(z))e WkZ ,
where
lim t:(z) = 0.
z ..... oo
zeSk
Proof. This is an immediate corollary of Lemma 3.2.5(a), and the definition (*)
of f. 0
°
3.2.7. Corollary. Under the same conditions of the previous lemma, there is
r > such that
for all z E Sk n B(O, rY.

3.2.8. Lemma. There are ro > 0, T > 0, such that if z E Sk n B(O, ro)C and if
~ E P, then
le-SZz- mk f(z)1 2: T.
Proof. From Corollary 3.2.7 we have If(z)1 > (IAkI/2)lzmkeWkzl whenever z E
Sk n B(O, roY. From Lemma 3.2.4(a), we have
le- szz-m k f(z)1 > 2IAkl exp[Re«Wk - Oz)] 2:

IAkl
2' 0
We remark that this lemma shows that all the zeros of f, of large absolute
value, must lie within some sector Tk. The condition on T is just < T <
infk IAk1/2. On the other hand, the definition of Sk depends on e, hence the
°
value ro of this lemma depends on e. We proceed to study what happens in the
sector Tk •
3.2.9. Lemma. Let Jk be the set of indices j such that Wj ELk. For z E Tko we
have
f(z) = LAj zmj(1 +8j(z))eWjZ ,
jeJk
with
lim Ej(Z) = O.
zeTk
z .... oo
Proof. This is a corollary of Lemma 3.2.5(b) and (c), the functions Ej are the
same as in (*) for j =j:. k, k + 1, those with these two indices will change. 0
In order to continue our study of zeros, it is convenient to introduce, for

j E Ib the following quantities:
Tj = Wj + mje i1i1k ,
which both depend on the frequencies and the degrees of the corresponding
coefficients. To simplify the notation we rotate the coordinates and assume 1/Ik =
7r: /2. Let Qk denote the convex hull of the points Wb Wk+ 1, and Tj, j E lk. We
choose a new indexing of the vertices of Qb while traversing aQk in the positive
sense. Start at Wk. We denote Wk.! = Wb Tk.! = Wk + imk (it could coincide
with Wk.! if mk = 0), and denote the successive vertices Tk,2, ... , Tk,ak-1, Tk,ak =
Wk+l + imk+l. Denote Wk,ak:= Wk+I' If ak > 2, all the mj that appear in Tk,1
for 2 :::: I :::: ak - 1, are positive. We denote Wk,/ the corresponding projection
onto the horizontal segment Lk = [Wb Wk+tl. The other Wj, j E Ib are indexed
arbitrarily as Tk,I = wk,I + imk,l, with ak < I :::: nk·
For 1 :::: j :::: ak-Io the segments [Tk,/, Tk,/+tl are denoted Lk,I and the slopes
ILk,l. Then
mk,l - mk,l+1 mk,1 - mk,/+l
ILk, I = Wk,/ - Wk,/+I
= otk,/ - otk,l+l
with otk,l = Re Wk,1 = Re Wk,I. Note that with our conventions otk.! > otk,2 >
... > otk,ak' Due to the convexity of Qb these slopes satisfy
-00 < ILk,1 < ILk,2 < ... < ILk,a-1 < 00.
Let Z = x + i y, for H > 0 we define

Uk.! := {z E <C: y 2: 0 and x + ILk,llog Izi > H},
Uk,1 := {z E <C: y 2: 0, x + ILk,I-llog Izl < -H and x + ILk,llog Izl > H},
for 1= 2, ... , ak - 1, and
Uk,ak := {z E C: Y 2: 0, x + ILk,ak log Izl < -H}.
Let us also introduce
Vk,/ := V (0, ILk,l, H) = {x E <C: Y 2: 0, Ix + ILk,/ log Izll :::: H}.
Figure 3.4 depicts these regions for 1 :::: I :::: ak - 1.
The U k ,/ together with the Vk,1 cover Tk (see Exercise 3.2.1). For R» 1,
the different sets Vk,/ n B(O, R)C, Uk,/ n B(O, r)C, are connected and disjoint.
Remark further that the "median" of V k ,/ is the curve x + ILk,/ log Izl = 0, which
is asymptotic to the curve x + ILk,/ log Y = O.
We keep from now until Remark 3.2.22 the assumption that 1/Ik = 7r: /2 and
the preceding notation.
Figure 3.4
3.2.10. Lemma. There is v > 0 such that for every Tk,p ¢ Lk,l then
mk,p - mk,l - J.Lk,l(ak,p - ak,l) < -v,
mk,p - mk,l+1 - J.Lk,l(ak,p - ak,l+d < -v.
Proof. Because of our choice of coordinates it is natural to consider variablt:s
a, m, so that the a-axis is the real axis. In these variables, the line Lk,l can be
represented by either of the two equations
m - mk,l - J.Lk,1 (a - ak,l) = 0,
In these coordinates, the point Tk,p is given by (ak,p, mk,p)' Since Qk is convex
and Tk,p ¢ Lk,l, this point lies below the line Lk,l, hence it satisfies the inequal-
ities
mk,p - mk,l - J.Lk,/(ak,p - ak,/) < 0,
mk,p - mk,l+1 - J.Lk,l(ak,p - ak,l+d < O.
Since there are only finitely many possible Tk,p, the existence of v > 0 follows.
o
3.2.11. Lemma. Let Z E Uk,}, then:
(a) If j = 1, assume Tk,p ¢ Lk,}; if2 :::: j :::: ak - 1, assume Tk,p ¢ Lk,} U Lk,}-I;
and if j = at. assume Tk,p ¢ L k,}_" then we have
with
lim s(z) = O.
z.... oo
ZEUk,j
(b) If 1 :::; j :::; Uk - 1 and 'Ck,p E Lk,j, or if2 :::; j :::; Uk and 'Ck,p E Lk,j-J. then
Izmk. p e Wk .pZ 1 :::; Izmk,j eWk,jZ le-Hlwk,p-wk,j I.
Proof. (a) If j = 1, ... ,Uk - 1, there is a It < Itk,j (It depends on z) such
that x + It log Izl = O. If j = 2, ... , Uk. there is a It > Itk,j-l with the same
property. (Just use the definition of Uk,j') Since Im(Wk,p - Wk,j) = 0 and
Re(wk,p - Wk,j) = Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j,
Izmk,p-mk,j e(Wk,p-Wk,j)Z 1 = Izlmk,p-mk,j-/L(ak,p-ak,j) log Izi
= Iz Imk,p-mk,j-/L(ak,p-ak,j).
Consider the case when Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j < O. Then definitely j i= Uk. hence 'Ck,p ¢
Lk,j, and It < Itk,j' The previous lemma implies that
mk,p - mk,j - 1t(Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j) < mk,p - mk,j - Itk,j(Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j) < -v
for some v > O.
In case Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j > 0, we have j > 1 and use the hypothesis that 'Ck,p ¢
Lk,j-l when j = 2, ... ,Uk. We obtain
mk,p - mk,j - 1t(Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j) < mk,p - mk,j - Itk,j-l (Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j) < -v.
Finally, if Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j = 0, we must have that mk,p < mk,j' Choosing v
smaller if necessary, we have in any case, le(z)1 < Izl- v •
(b) If j = l,oo.,uk - 1 and 'Ck,p E Lk,j, then mk,p - mk,j = Itk,j(Ci.k,p - Ci.k,j)'
On the other hand, we have x + It log 1z 1 = 0 (with the same choice of It
as in (a)) and x + Itk,j log Izl :::: H. Hence (ltk,j - It) log Izl :::: H and, since
Itk,j - It > 0, Izl :::: exp(H /(ltk,j - It)). Because 'Ck,p E Lk,j, we have Ci.k,p :::;
Ci.k,j and therefore,
= Iz I/Lk,j(ak,p-ak,j)-/L(ak,p-ak,j)
:::; eH(ak,p-ak,j) = e-Hlak,p-ak,jl
so that
The other case is verified in exactly the same way. o

3.2.12. Lemma. There exists r > 0 such that if z E Uk,j n B(O, rY then:
(a) Izmk,jeWk,jZI:::: Izmk,leWk,IZI; and
(b) 1zmk,j eWk,j Z 1:::: 1Zmk,Uk eWk,Uk Z I.
Proof. (a) If j =
1, the result is obvious. If j 2, 'Ck,l E = Lk,J. and we can
apply (b) of the previous lemma with p = 1, j = 2. Hence
If3.::: j .::: ab then <k.l ¢ L k.j- h and by Lemma 3.2. 11 (a), we have zmk,leWk,lZ =
s(z)zmk,jeWk,jZ, hence the inequality (a) holds if Izl » 1.
The proof of (b) is similar, with <k,Uk replacing <k.l' 0
3.2.13. Lemma. liz E Uk,j n Tb then

I(z) = LAk,pzmkP(1 +Sk,p(z»eWk,pZ,
where the sum is taken over the indices p such that:

(i) <k,p E Lk.l when j = 1;
(ii) <k,p E Lk,j n Lk,j-I when 2 .::: j .::: ak - 1;
(iii) <k,p E Lk,Uk- 1 when j = ak;
and, as always,
lim
Izl--+oo
Sk,p(Z) = 0.
ZEUk,jnTk
Proof. It is an immediate consequence of Lemmas 3.2.9 and 3.2.11(a). 0
3.2.14. Lemma. There are constants ro > 0, Ho > 0, such that if r ~ ro, and
H ~ Ho, then lor any z E Uk,j n Tk n B(O, r)C one has
I/(z)l> tIAk,jllzmk,jeWk.jzl.
Proof. We use the asymptotic development of I given in the previous lemma,
and then use Lemma 3.2.11(b). We obtain
I/(z)1 ~ IAk,jzmk,jeWkj(1 + Sk,j(z»l- L IA k,pzmk,p(1 + sk,p(z»eWk,pZI
p#j
= IAk,jZmk,j eWk,j I
x (11 + Sk,j(z)1 - L II~k'PIIII + sk,p(z)lzmk,p-mk,je(Wk,p-Wk,j)zl)

k,}
~ IAk,jZmk,j eWk,j I {II + Sk,j (z)1 - L

ph
II~k'PIIII + Sk,p(Z)le-HIWk,P-Wk,jl} .
k,}
It is clear that by choosing rand H sufficiently big, the required estimate holds.
o
From nOw On we will assume r ~ ro ~ 1 and H ~ Ho, so that the conclusion
of Lemma 3.2.14 holds. Note that the regions Tb and correspondingly the value
ro, depend on the opening e. On the other hand, we can take Ho independent
of e. Namely, it is enough to choose it so that
max ( L IAk,pl e-HOIWk,P-Wk,jl) .::: ~,

k,} p#j IAk,jl
3:2. Distributions of Zeros of an Exponential Polynomial 227
since we can take ro so that for Izl ~ ro, z E Tko we have

ISk,j(z)l.::: i
forallk,j.
3.2.15. Lemma. Let 0 < r < infk,j IAk,j 1/2. If z E Uk,j n Tko Izl ~ ro, and ~ E
P, then
le-('z f(z)1 > r.
Proof. If z E Uk,j n Tk n Sk we have from the previous lemma and from
{)emma 3.2.12(a)
le-('z f(z)1 ~ 1IAk,jZmk,jeWk,jZe-('zl
~ 1IAk,jZmk,l eWk,lZe-('Z I = IA~,jllzlmk'leRe«Wk-(')Z)
IAk,j
> - -z II Imk 'I > r
- 2 '
where the previous to last ineqUality uses Lemma 3.2.4(a).
If z E Uk,j n Tk n Sk+h the reasoning is the same, with mk,l replaced by mk,<1k'
D
3.2.16. Proposition. For r » 1,0 < r < infk,j IAk,j 1/2, by switching the condi-
tions ~ E P and z E (Uk,j Vk,j)C n B(O, rY, then
le-('z f(z)1 > r.
Hence,
If(z)1 > reH(z),
where H (z) is the supporting function of P.

Proof. We fix some 8 > 0, as we have done above and let Tk = Tk(8). Then, by
{)emma 3.2.8, the inequality le-~z f(z)1 > r holds if z E Sko r ~ ro » 1. This
value ro depends on the choice of 8, but if we make it sufficiently large the
conclusion of the previous {)emma 3.2.16 also holds for z E Uk,j n Tk for some
k, j. On the other hand, if z E Vk.j and Izl > rl, then z E Tk; if z E Uk,j Vk,j
either z does not belong to any Tko i.e., it belongs to some Sj, or it belongs
to some Uk,j n Tk. In both cases the inequality le-('z f(z)1 > r for Izi ~ rio
whenever z f/. Uk,j Vk,j'
Recalling that
maxRe(~z)
~eP
= max
weP
Re(wz) = max(wlz) = H(z),
weP
concludes the proof of Proposition 3.2.16. D
A consequence of the proposition is that all the zeros of f with large absolute
value lie in Uk,j Vk,j' Note that because the Vk,j do not depend on 8, the rl
can be considered independent of 8. The reader should verify that for those
segments Lko which contain no Wj in their interior, everything we did above

works, it is even simpler. We also suggest comparing Proposition 3.2.16 with
Corollary 3.1.27, we get more precision on the constants, and not only about
local maxima of f, albeit only for r ~ rl.
We shall presently study the behavior of f in one of the half-strips Vk,j'
3.2.17. Lemma. Let z E Vk,j' Then

(a) If T:k,p ¢ Lk,j, then
for some function e(z) .... 0 as z .... 00 (z E Vk,j)'

(b) IfT:k,p ¢ Lk,j, then we also have
same condition on S as that in the previous item.

(c) IfT:k,p E Lk,j, then
Proof. Since z E Vk,j we have x + JLk,j log Izl = K, for some K such that
IKI :::: H. By Lemma 3.2.10, if T:k,p ¢ Lk,j, we have
Izmk,p-mk,i e(Wk,p-Wk,i)Z I = Iz Imk,p-mk,i eX(ak,p-ak,i)
= Iz Imk,p-mk,i -J.Lk,i (ak,p-ak,i) e(ak,p-ak,i)K
:::: Izl-ve(ak,p-ak,i)K.
This proves part (a). Part (b) is entirely analogous.

If T:k,p E Lk,j then mk,p - mk,j = JLk,j(ak,p - ak,j), so that the previous
computation shows that
o
3.2.18. Lemma. For r » 1, one has:
(a) IZmk,1 eWk,lz I :::: Izmk,ieWk,iZI, if 1 :::: j :::: Uk - 1; and
(b) Izmk,ak eWk,ak Z I :::: Izmk,i eWk,i Z I, if 2 :::: j :::: Uko
for every z E Vk,j n B(O, rY.

Proof. (a) If j = 1, the estimate is clear. If2:::: j :::: Uk - 1, then T:k,1 ¢ Lk,j and
we can use Lemma 3.2.17(a).
(b) Similar proof, using Lemma 3.2.l7(b). 0
3.2.19. Corollary. If z E Vk,j n Tko then

f(z) = L Ak,p(1 + sk,p(z»zmk,peWk,pz,
T:k,peLk,i
with Sk,p .... 0 as z .... 00 in Vk,j n Tk.
3.2.20. Lemma. For r » I, if t; E P and z E Vk,j n B(O, rY, then

Izmk,j e(Wkr~)Z I ~ 1.
Proof. If z E Vk,j n ~h use Lemmas 3.2.18 and 3.2.4 to conclude that

Izmk,je(Wk,j-nZI ~ Izlmk,l ~ 1.
Similarly, if z E Vk,j n Sk+b the same argument holds with mk,1 replaced
by mk,ak' D
3.2.21. Lemma. Let z E Vk,j n Tb then
f(z) = zmk,jeWk,j L Ak,p(l + h,p(z»e(Wk,p-Wk,j)(Z+/Lk,jLogz),

Tk,pELk,j
°
where 8k,p -+ as z -+ 00 within '0,k n Tk, and Log z represents the principal
value of the logarithm.
Proof. When Tk,p E Lk,j, we have mk,p - mk,j = /.Lk,j(Wk,p - Wk,j)' We then
apply Corollary 3.2.19, and we are done. D
3.2.22. Remark. If we do not make the assumption that 1/Ik = 17: /2, and hence
that Im(wk,p - Wk,j) = 0, then we can introduce ({Jk = 1/Ik - 17:/2 in the expan-
sion of f as follows:
f(z) = zmk,jeWk,jZ L Ak,p(1 + 8k,p(Z»
Tk,pELk,j
x exp[eiq:>k(wk,p - Wk,j) (ze-iq:>k + /.Lk,j logz)].

In this case, eiq:>k (Wk,p - Wk,j) E lit and f becomes, up to a multiplicative factor,
a sum of exponentials in the variable ze-iq:>k + /.Lk,j log z, with coefficients almost
constant. It also follows that the Vk,j coincide with V «({Jk, /.Lk,j, H). In fact, the
main relation to remember is that 1/Ik = Arg(wk+1 - wd - 17:/2, so that one has
({Jk = Arg(wk+1 - Wk) - 17:, hence ({Jk = - Arg(wk,p - Wk,j) (modulo 17:).
3.2.23. Proposition. Let g(z) = l:1::J:o;n Aje WjZ , z = x + iy, Aj =f:. 0, Wj E JR,
WI < W2 < ... < Wn. For H > 0, h > 0, and YI E JR, consider the rectangles
R := {z E C: Ix I ~ H, Iy - YII ~ h}. There is a constant Ho ~ 0, independent
of YI and h, such that every zero of g lies in the strip Ixl ~ Ho. Moreover, if
H ~ Ho, the number N (R) of zeros of g in the rectangle R satisfies
IN(R) - ~(Wn - Wdl ~ n - 1.
Proof. Let G(z) = (l/Ade-WlZg(z) = 1 + l:2:o;j:::n Bje YjZ , Bj = Aj/A b and

°
Yj = Wj - WI, < Y2 < ... < Yn' Both functions G and g have the same zeros.
°
For Re z = x > we have
4,
with limx->oo f31 (z) = O. Hence, if x » 1 we have 11 + f31 (z)1 ::: and G cannot
have any zeros. Similarly, G(z) = (1 + f32(Z», where f32(Z) ~ 0 as x ~ -00.
Hence, there is Ho > 0 such that if I Rezl > Ho, G(z) =I O.
Clearly, if H ::: Ho the number N(R) is independent of H. Let us fix e > O.
Choose H ::: Ho such that
and
on the lines x = ±H, j = 1,2. For a given h > 0, YI E~, let us choose
8 > 0, 0 < 8 < min{h, Jre/2Yn}, with property that G has no zeros on the
boundaries of the rectangles RI := [- H, H] X [YI - h - 8, YI + h + 8] and
R2 := [-H, H] x [YI - h + 8, YI + h - 8]. This is possible because the zeros
of G are isolated.
Let us investigate now the variation of the argument of G along aRI' In
the vertical portion x = - H, it is at most rr e 12. On x = H, it is at most
rrel2 + (2h + 28)Yn. On the horizontal sides, the function Re G(z) has the form
Re G(z) =,1 + L EjeYjx,

2~j~n
On the other hand, by Rolle's theorem, a function of the form K (x) =

LI~j~m Fje ajx , Fj E ~*, al < a2 < ... < am, can have at most m - 1 real
zeros (counting multiplicities). We show this by induction on the number of
frequencies. It is clear for m = 1. If it is true for m - 1 frequencies, then we
consider e-a,x K(x) = L(x), L has the same number of zeros as K does. Its
derivative L' is an exponential sum of the above type with m - 1 terms, hence
L' has at most m - 2 zeros. Since between any two zeros of L there must be
one of L', the claim is correct.
Return to the function Re G(z) on a horizontal segment of aRI' We have that
either Re G(z) == 0 on that segment or it has at most n - 1 zeros. In the first
case, the variation of arg G along the segment is zero since G does not vanish
on this segment. In the second case, the variation of arg G does not exceed
4(n - 1)2rr. Therefore, the total variation of arg G along aR I does not exceed
rre + 2hYn + 28Yn + (n - 1)2rr.
Hence, by the argument principle
By a similar reasoning
hYn
N(R) ::: N(R2) ::: - - n + 1 - e.
rr
Since e > 0 was arbitrary, we obtain the proposition. D
The reader can easily verify that the example g(z) = 1 +e Z shows the esti-
mate in Proposition 3.2.23 is optimal.
We continue toward our goal of understanding the localization of the zeros

of f E AEP. We are now trying to prove a sort of Lojasiewicz's inequality (see
Proposition 3.1.30). We are still keeping the previous notation, i.e., 1/Ik = 17:/2.
Let us prove a few technical observations about the regions Vk,j, 1 :::: j :::: ak.
which were stated at the beginning of this section.
(1) If Z = x + iy E Vk,j, then limlzl ..... ooly/xl = 00.

In fact, if /-tk,j = 0 the result is immediate. If P,k,j =j:. 0, let p, = P,k,j and
let K(z) = x + 4p, log(x2 + y2) E [-H, H]. Therefore, when Izl -+ 00 we also
have Ix I -+ 00 and the sign of x must be the opposite to that of p,. We can solve
for y / x and obtain
(~r = x- 2 exp [2:(Z) - ~] -1.
The tenn 2K(z)/p, is bounded, while -2x/p, -+ +00 as Izl -+ 00, hence
Iy/xl -+ 00 as Izl -+ 00, z E Vk,j'
(2) If z E Vk,j, then limlzl ..... oo Arg z = 17:/2.

Namely, for large Izl we have 0 < Argz < 17: and, since Iy/xl -+ 00, it must
be that Argz -+ 17:/2 when Izl -+ 00.
(3) The curves x + P,k,j log Iz I = ±H are a symptotic to the curves x +
P,k,j log Y = ±H.
Let us show this for x + p, log Izl = H, p, = P,k,j =j:. 0, the case p, = 0 being
trivial. Let XI + (p,/2) log(x? + y2) = Hand X2 + (p,/2) log y = H, then we
have
since xJ/y -+ 0 as Izi -+ 00, by the previous item (2).

(4) For z E Vk,j denote W = z + p, Log z, p, = P,k,j, Log z the principal branch
of the logarithm. For 8 > 0, there is rl :::: 1 such that if IZI - z21 :::: 8, and also
Zl, Z2 E Vk,j n B(O, rl)C, then IWI - w21 :::: 8/2.
Let Yj = Imzj, Vj = 1m Wj. If IYI - Y21 :::: 8, then we can use that by (2)
VI - V2 = YI - Y2 + p,(Arg Zl - Arg Z2) -+ YI - Y2,
as Izl -+ 00, to conclude that IWI - w21 :::: IVI - v21 :::: 8/2 if rl » 1.
If IYI - Y21 < 8, let q = YI - Y2. We have
;~ = ~~ (~: +i) (~~ +i) -I = (1 + ;J (~: +i) (~~ +i)-I

In this case, we have XJ/YI -+ 0, X2lY2 -+ 0 and Y2 -+ 00 as rl -+ 00, hence
ZJ/Z2 -+ 1. Therefore,
WI - W2 = Zl - Z2 + p,(Logz l - Logz2) = Zl - Z2 + p,Log (;~)

and Log(zI!z2) --+ 0 as rl --+ 00. Hence, in this case, we can also conclude that
IWl - w21 ~ 8/2 if rl » 1.
3.2.24. Proposition. Let f E AEP, Z = Z(f) = {z E C: Izl > R, f(z) = OJ,

and H the supporting function of the P6lya polygon P of f. For any 8 > 0 there
exist < > 0, r > 0, such thatfor Izl > r lfd(z, Z) ~ 8, then
If(z)1 ~ reH(z).
Proof. From Proposition 3.2.16 we know the existence of Ho > 0 and <0 > 0
such that if we fix H ~ Ho there is ro > 0, so that Izl > ro, z rf. Uk,j Vk,j, implies
that If (z) I ~ <oeH(z). Therefore, it is enough to consider z E Vk,j, Iz I --+ 00.
Following Remark 3.2.22, we can expand f as follows:
f(z) = zmk,jeWk,jZ L A k,p(1 + ek,p(z))

rk,pELk,j
x exp[e itpk (Wk,p - Wk,j )(ze- itpk + ILk,j log z)],
and recall that the "frequencies" e itpk (Wk,p - Wk,j) are real.
Since, by Lemma 3.2.20 we know that for ~ E P, z E Vk,j, and Izl » 1, one
has Izmk,je(wkr/,")zl ~ 1, we can just consider
Then we can change variables and study the sum
gl(W) = L Ak,p(1 + YJk,p(w))exp(fh,pw),

rk,pELk,j
where W = ze- itpk + ILk,j logz, {h,p = eitpk(wk,p - Wk,j), and YJk,p(W) = ek,p(z).
Clearly, YJk,p(W) --+ 0 as Iwi --+ 00, and if d(z, Z(f)) ~ 8, we have
d(w, Z(gl)) ~ 8/2 as long as Izl » 1. Here Z(f) = {z: Izl > R, f(z) = OJ,
Z(gl) = {w: gl (w) = OJ, the variables z, W being restricted to z E Vk,j' Izl > R,
and W to the corresponding region. Note that as a consequence, I Re wi :::: Hand
1m W --+ 00, as z --+ 00. We are thus led to introduce the following exponential
sum, with real frequencies:
go(W) =L Ak,pefh,pw,
where the summation takes place over the same set of indices as above. From
what we have just said, if z --+ 00 in Vk,j, then
gl(W) - go(w) --+ O.
Using Remark 3.1.23, we conclude that if Z(go) = {w E C: go(w) = OJ, and

0<80 :::: 1, then d(w, Z(go)) ~ 80 and I Rewl :::: H implies
Ig(w)1 ~ c8~
for some c > 0, v ~ 1. Therefore, there is r ~ 1 such that Iwl ~ r, IRe wi S H,

and dew, Z(go» ~ 80 , then
c
IgI(W)1 ~ 280 '
In fact, it is enough to choose r so that IgI(W) - go(w)1 s (c/2)8 0 for Iwl ~ r.
As a consequence, we see that if WI E Z(gl), IRewI! S H, IwI! ~ r, we must
have d(WI, Z(go» s 80.
Hence, if Iwl ~ r, IRe wi ~ r, and dew, Z(gl» ~ 8/2 we will have
dew, Z(go» ~ 8/2 - 80 • Take 80 = 8/4, then 8/2 - 80 = 80 , so that
dew, Z(go» ~ 80 , and thus
Ifl(z)1 = IgI(W)1 ~ ~ (~r,

for z E Vk,j, Izl» 1, and d(z, Z(f» ~ 8 (since this would imply that
dew, Z(gl» ~ 8/2). It follows that:
If(z)e-s-ZI = Izmk,je(lVk,j-Slz fl(z)1 ~ 2

c (8)V
4
for z E Vk,j, Izl » 1, d(z, Z(f» ~ 8, and ~ E P. This concludes the proof of
Proposition 3.2.24. D
Let us define, with the preceding notations for a function f E AEP, a > 0,
s > 0, H > 0,
Rk,j(a, S, H) :={z E C : Im(ze-il"k) + /-Lk,j argz E [a, a + s),
I Re(ze-il"k) + JLk,j log Izll s H},
with argz E [cpk. CPk + n), and let N(Rk,j(a, s, H)) be the number of zeros of
f in Rk,j(a, s, H).
We are now ready to prove the P6lya-Dickson theorem on the distribution
of zeros of functions that are asymptotically exponential polynomials.
3.2.25. Theorem. Let fez) = L1::,:j~n Ajzmj (1 + ej(z»e lVjZ , Aj E e, mj EN,

Wj E C, and ej are holomorphic functions in the set Izl > R, such that
limz-+ oo ej (z) = O.
There are constants H > 0, r ~ R such that:
(a) all the zeros of f in B(O, r)C lie in Uk,j Vk,j; and
(b) for every e > 0 there is a(e) > 0 such that ifa ~ a(e), s > 0,
IN(Rk,j(a, s, H» - 2: IWk,j+1 - Wk,j II s nk,j - + e, 1

where nk,j is the number of frequencies lying in the segment Lk,j =
[Wk,j, Wk,j+I1.
Proof. The statement (a) is a consequence of Proposition 3.2.16. The proof of (b)
is a refinement of the proof of Proposition 3.2.24. Using the notation introduced
there, let fJk,p = ei<{Jk (Wk,p - Wk,j) E JR, and
gk,j(W) = L Ak,pefh,pw.
rk,pELk,j
°
Assume H > so that the conclusion of Proposition 3.2.23 holds for every gk,j'
Note that the quantity IfJk,j+1 - fJk,j I = IWk,j+1 - Wk,j I is the distance between
the furthermost frequencies of gk,j'
Choosing rl » 1 we can guarantee that for different choices of (k, j) the
sets V(qJt, JLk,j, H + 1) n B(O, rl)C are disjoint. (Recall Vk,j = V(qJb JLk,j, H).)
Note that rl can also be chosen so that for z E V(qJt, JLk,j, H + 1) n B(O, rlY
we can take arg z E [qJt, qJk + Jl'] and that for a convenient choice of ao
Im(ze-i<{Jk) + JLk,j arg z ~ ao > 0.
Therefore, for a ~ ao, the regions Rk,j(a, s, H) and Rk,j(a, s, H + 1) cover

Vk,j n B(O, rd c and V(qJt, JLk,j, H + 1) n B(O, rlY, respectively. Once we fix
() E ]0, Jl' j2[ we can also choose al »
1 so that for a ~ aI. s > 0,
Rk,j(a,s, H + 1) ~ n := V(qJb JLk,j, H + 1) n Tk«() n B(O, rl)c,
From Remark 3.2.22 we have
J(z) = zmk,j eWk,j L Ak,p(1 + ek,p(Z» exp[fJk,p(ze-i<{Jk + JLk,j log z)]
rk,pELk,j
+
in the region n (arg z E [qJk, qJk Jl'D. The transformation F k,{ z ~ W =
U + i v := ze-i<{Jk + JLk,j log z maps n conformally into the half-strip lu I :::
H + 1, v ~ ao. The regions Rk,j(a, s, H + 1) are mapped conformally onto
the rectangles
R(a, s, H + 8) = [-H - 8, H + 8] + i[a, a + s],
for a ~ ai, 8 > 0, 0::: 8 ::: 1.
Let /k,j(z):= J(z)z-mk,je-Wk,jZ and hk,j be defined by hk,j Fk,j = Jk,j'
°
0
Hence hk,j(W) = gk,j(W) + YJk,j(W), with YJk,j(W) -* as lui::: H + 1 and

v -* 00. We clearly have for a ~ ai, s > 0, ~ 8 ~ 1, that °
Nf(Rk,j(a, s, H + 8» = N/k,j (Rk,j(a, s, H + 8» = Nhk,/R(a, s, H + 8»,
where the index of N indicates the function whose zeros we are counting.
Moreover, these values are independent of 8, since all the zeros of J lie in Vk,j'
° °
It follows from Proposition 3.2.23, applied to the gk,j, that there is a constant
M > such that for any a E JR, < 8 ~ 1,
Ngk,j (R(a, 8, H + 8» ~ M.
Hence, for any a, there is a horizontal line segment A, in R(a, s, H + 8) such

that
8
d(w, Z(gk,j» ~ 2(M + 1)
for any point W EA. (The line segment A depends clearly on 8, a, and (k, j).)
It is enough to divide the rectangle in parallel horizontal strips of equal width
1/(M + 1), and take as A the bisectrix of a strip void of zeros of gk.j'
Fix (k, j), s > 0, and a:::: al + 1, let Ra,s be the rectangle whose
vertical sides lie in u = ±(H + 8) and whose horizontal sides are given
by the line segments Al and )..2 corresponding to R(a - 8, 8, H + 8) and
R(a + s, 8, H + 8), respectively. We have that Ra,s ;2 R(a, s, H) and that, for
every point W E 0 Ra,s one has
8
d(w, Z(gk,j)) :::: 2(M + 1)
From 3.1.3 we conclude that there is • = .(8) > °such that
Igk,j(w)1 ::::. on oRa,s,
If V:::: Vo » 1, we have l1Jk,j(w)1 :::: ./2, hence, for a :::: a2 :::: al + 1, we have
Ngk,/Ra,s) = Nhk,j(Ra,s).
We remark that the choice of a2 depends on 8, and eventually on B. The height
of Ra,s lies between s and s + 28, and now from Proposition 3.2.23 we infer
that
SI 8I w k,j+1 - wk,jl
l Ngk,j (Ra,s) - 27r IWk,j+1 - Wk,j I :::: nk,j - 1+ 7r .
°
Given B > 0, we can chose < 8 :::: 1 so that the left hand side does not
exceed nk,j - 1 + B. for any (k, j). Hence
Nf(Rk,j(a, s, H)) = Nhk,j(R(a, s, H)) :::: Ngk,/Ra,s)'

Repeating this construction with R(a, 8, H + 8) and R(a + s - 8, 8, H + 8)
we obtain a rectangle R~,s S;; R(a, s, H), such that all the previous reasoning
applies, so that Ngk,j (R~,s) = Nhk,j (R~,s) and the height of R~,s lies between
s - 28, s. Therefore
and
, S
Ngk,j (Ra,s) :::: 27r IWk,j+1 - Wk,j I - nk,j + I-B.
This concludes the proof of the P6lya - Dickson Theorem. o
3.2.26. Remarks. (1) We have already used in the proof of Theorem 3.2.25 the
factthatforany HI > H, and as soonasa » 1, the number Nf(Rk,j(a, s, H)) =
Nf (Rk,j (a, s, HI)).
(2) Taking B = 1 in the statement of Theorem 3.2.25, one gets the bound
INf (Rk,j (a, s, H)) - 2: IWk,j+1 - Wk,jll :::: nk,j
for every s > 0, once a » 1.

Taking B = ~, for those s such that (s 12:7l') IWk,j +I - Wk,j 1 E N* one gets the
sharper bound nk,j - 1 for the above quantity.
In any case, we get
We shall give below some consequences of the P6lya-Dickson theorem.
3.2.27. Lemma. Let f(z) = L:I::J:;::n Ajzj (1 + Bj(z))eWjZ be an AEP. Assume f

has infinitely many zeros going to 00 in a half-strip of the form V(cp, J.,L, K). Then
there exists (k, j) such that CPk = cP, J.,Lk,j = J.,L.
Proof. One starts by remarking that V(cp, J.,L, K) n (Uk,j Vk,j) is unbounded
since it contains a sequence converging to 00. Hence, for some (k, j), the
region V(cp, J.,L, K) n Vk,j is unbounded. We have shown in Lemma 3.2.1 that
this implies that cP = CPt. J.,L = J.,Lk,j' 0
Let f, g be two exponential polynomials,

f(z) = L Ai(z)ea;Z,
I:;::i:;::m
t g(z) = L Bj(z)e Pjz .

I:;::j:;::n
Let L be a side of the P6lya polygon P(g) of g, and denote by l(L) its
°
length. Let us denote by 1/IL the direction of the exterior normal of P(g) on this
side L. Set CPL = 1/IL + :7l'/2. Let < 0 < :7l'/2 be fixed and denote
TdO) := {z E C: 1argz -1/ILI < O}.
°
3.2.28. Proposition. If there is ro > such that the function fig is holomorphic
in TdO) n (ij (0, roW, then there is a side L * of the Polya polygon P (f) of f
such that L * is parallel to Land l(L) ::: l(L *).
Proof. Let Ph, 1 ::: h ::: a', be the vertices of P(g), L = Li. = [Ph, PHd, and
1/1L = 1/Ih. Let Q h(g) be the corresponding polygonal region, constructed as in
Lemma 3.2.9, resting on the side L, <h,p' 1 ::: p ::: a h, the vertices of Qh(g) lying
outside L'h' we also denote by Lh,p = [<h,p' <h,p+d, Vh,p = V(cpiz, J.,Li.,p' H), the
corresponding half-strips, and Th(O) = {z E C: largz -1/Ihl < O} = TdO).
We are going to show that if fig is holomorphic in Th(O) n (B(O, r)y,
then there is a side L * = Lk of P (f) such that Lk is parallel to Li. and the
corresponding vertices ak, ak+1 satisfy IPHI - Ph 1::: lak+1 - ak I·
We assume that H » 1 and r » 1 so that we can use the conclusion of
Theorem 3.2.26, if necessary (for both f and g) .
. For r» 1 we can also assume that V(cpiz, J.,Li.,p' H) S;; Th(O) n (B(O, r)Y.
Since fig is holomorphic in this region, then all the zeros of g in V (cph' J.,Lh,p' H)
are also zeros of f. Therefore, f has infinitely many zeros, in V(cph' J.,Lh,pH).
It follows from the previous lemma that there are ({Jt, I-tk.j such that ({J~ = ({Jk
and 1-t'".P = I-tk.j. Therefore, there is a side Lk of P(f) directed by ({Jt, hence
parallel to L'". By the same reason, for every P, 1 S P S af, - 1, there is
j E {I, ... , ak - I} such that I-t'",p = I-tk,j'
For a » 1, s > 0, let
'R~,p(a, s, H) = {z E V~,p: Im(ze-iqJ~) + I-t~,p argz E [a, a + sH.
It coincides with the region 'Rk,j(a, s, H), previously defined for f, and since
every zero of g is a zero of f (counting multiplicities) then
Ng('R~,p(a, s, H» S Nj ('Rk,j (a, s, H».
By Theorem 3.2.26 we have
s - -
Ng('R~,p(a, s, H» = 2n l,Bh,p+1 - ,Bh,pl + 0(1),
Nj('Rk,j(a, s, H» = 2: lak,HI - ak,j 1+ 0(1).
Since we can let s --+ +00, we conclude

l.Bh,p+1 - .Bh,p I s lak.HI - ak,j I·
Recall that the .Bh,p lie in the segment L'" and are ordered in such a way that
f(L~) = L l,Bh,p+1 - ,Bh.pl.

I:o:p:o:"'~-I
So that
f(L~) S L lak,j+1 - ak,j I s L lak.HI - ak,j I = f(Lk),
which is what we wanted to prove. o

We are now going to give a rather general division theorem in the class
of exponential polynomials due to Hajj Diab [Hajj]. The first such result was
proved by Ritt [Ril], [Ri2], it states the following:
Let f, g E Eo be such that fig = hE Jf(C), then hE Eo.
There have been several successive ameliorations due to [Shi], [BD2], [HRS],
among others.
We start by describing a division algorithm, a variation of the Euclidean
division algorithm for polynomials.
3.2.29. Definition. If fez) = 2:1<i<m Ai (z)eO!i Z is an exponential polynomial,

its real diameter is the number 8; (!) defined by
8R(!) := max {Re(ai)} - min {Re(ai)},
I:o:i:o:m I:o:i:o:m
i.e., the length of the projection of P(f) onto JR, 8R(f) ::: O. By PR[ai, ai+d
we denote the length of the projection onto JR of the segment [ai, ai+d.
3.2.30. Lemma. Let I, g be two exponential polynomials, g =1= O. There is an

exponential polynomial X =1= 0, with purely imaginary frequencies, and two other
exponential polynomials q and r such that
xl =qg+r,
with either r = 0 or ojR(r) < OjR(g).
Proof. Let u" ... , up be real numbers such that UI < ... < up (if p 2: 2) and
let {UI,"" up} = {Re(aj): 1:::; i :::; mI. Let us define I j := {i: Re(a;) = Uj}
and
<Pj(z) = LAk(z)exp[i(Imak)z].
kElj
Then
I(z) = L <Pj(z)eUjz .
I~J~p
Note that the frequencies of the <Pj are all distinct and purely imaginary. The ring
<5 of exponential polynomials with purely imaginary frequencies is a subring
of E.
Let us consider the set
F:= {h E E*: h(z) = L Eh(z)eYkZ,O:::; YI < ... < Ys, ek E <5\{0}} U {OJ.
l~k9
Let us write g(z) = I:1~j~n \II) (z)e WjZ , WI < ... < Wn, \II) E <5\{0}. Assume
first that UI = WI = O. Then I, g E F, OjR(f) =
up. and OjR(g) Wn. =
If up < W n , then we can choose X = 1, q = 0, 1= r, and we are done.
If up 2: Wn and n = 1, we can take X = \fI" q = I, r = 0, and we are also
done.
Hence, we assume up 2: Wn, n 2: 2. Let up, ... , Up-k be all the Uj 2: Wn.
Consider
ro(z) = \fin (z)/(z) - (<Pp(z)e UpZ + ... + <Pp_k(z)eUp-kZ)e-WRZg(z),
qo(z) = (p(z)e UpZ + ... + <l>p_k(z)eUp-kZ)e-W,z.
Then we have
\fInl = qog + ro,
qo E F, ro E F. and either ro =
0, or ojR(ro) :::; up - (w n - Wn-I). If ro = 0 or
if ojR(ro) < Wn• we are done. If not, repeat the procedure for ro and thus obtain
qlo rl E F. such that
\fInro qlg + rl,=
where either rl = 0 or ojR(rd :::; ojR(ro) - (w n - Wn-I). Since Wn - Wn-I > 0
we can continue to the point we find qo, ... ,qs-I E F, rs E F, and either rs = 0
or ojR(rs) < Wn, and one can write
= (\fI~-lqo + \fI~-2ql + ... + qs-I)g + r s,
\fI~1
which proves the lemma in the case UI = WI = O.
Let us now consider the case of two arbitrary values UI, WI. The functions
F(z) := f(z)e- U1Z , G(z) := g(z)e- W1Z , are now in the previous situation. Hence,
°
there are 1/r E 6, q, rEF, such that either r = or o]R(r) < O]R(G), and
1/rF = qG + r.
It follows that
1/r(z)f(z) = [q(z)e(ul-wilz]g(z) + eU1Zr(z).
Clearly, either eU1Zr = ° o]R(eU1Zr) = o]R(r)
or < O]R(G) = O]R(g). 0
3.2.31. Theorem. Let f, gEE, g =1= 0, and assume the coefficients of g are
relatively prime. If there is R ::: 0, and an angular sector S of opening strictly
bigger than lr such that fig is holomorphic in S n (B(O, R)y, then there is
h E E such that f = gh.
Proof Rotating coordinates if necessary, we can assume that the sector is
°
S = {z E C: - y/ < Argz < lr}, with < y/ < lr.
The proof proceeds in three stages. First, we shall show that if fig is
holomorphic in {1m z > 0, Iz I > R}, then fig = q 11/r, with q, 1/r E E, and 1/r has
only purely imaginary frequencies (i.e., 1/r E 6* in the notation of the previous
lemma.) We show later that q I 1/r being holomorphic in {z E C: I Arg z I < y/}
implies ql1/r = alb, a E E, bE C[z]. Finally, using that the coefficients of g
are coprime we show that q I a E E.
3.2.32. Lemma. If fig is holomorphic when Izl > R, Imz > 0, then there are
q E E, X E 6* such that xf = gq.
Proof of Lemma 3.2.32. Replacing z by z + i R we can assume fig
is holomorphic in 1m z > O. This transformation is compatible with the
condition 1/r E 6*.
We show first the following:
If £g is holomorphic in Imz > 0, then O]R(g) :::: O]R(f).
In fact, let O]R(g) = Wn - WJ, O]R(f) = up - UI as in Lemma 3.2.30. The

convexity of peg) and P(f) tells us that they have vertices ~l' ..• ,~n (resp.
ai, ... , a p), such that Re ~n = Wn > ... > Re ~l = WI (resp. Reap = up >
.,. > Real = UI), hence these vertices span the upper part of peg) and P(f),
respectively.
For 1 :::: k :::: n, let rk be the line through 0, with the direction of the outer
normal to peg) along [~k' ~k+d. Let 1/rk be the angle it makes with the positive
° ° °
real axis, then < 1/rk < lr. Choose () > such that < 1/rk - () < 1/rk + () < lr.
Let Tk (()) be the sector of bisectrix rk and opening 2(). Since fig is holomorphic
in Tk(()), we can apply Proposition 3.2.28 to conclude there is a side [ah. ajk+l]
of P (f) which is parallel to [tlko tlk+ d and whose length lajk+l - ajk I :::: I~k+ I -
~k I· Clearly. the length of the respective projections on the real axis preserves
u,
Figure 3.5
the same size relation, let us say PJR[Pko Pk+d ::::: PJR[aik, ait+l]' Therefore,
8JR(g) = L PJR[PkoPk+d::::: L PJR[ait,ajk+l]
::: L PJR[aj, aj+d = 8JR(f).

l~j~p
Appealing now to the preceding Lemma 3.2.30, we infer there are XES"',
and exponential polynomials q and r such that
xl =qg+r,
and, either r = 0, or 8JR(r) < 8JR(g). We can rewrite the previous equation as
-gr =x-Ig -q,
which shows that rig is holomorphic in {Imz > OJ. From what we have just
shown we must have
We conclude that r = O. Hence,

xl =qg,
as we claimed. o
3.2.33. Lemma. Let hE E, 1/! E 6*, and assume there are 1}, 0 < 1} < n, and
R > 0, such that hi1/! is hoiomorphic in {z E C: Izl > R, I Argzl < 1}}. Then
there are be C[z]*, q E E, such that
bh = q1/!.
Proof of Lemma 3.2.33. Let 1/r(z) =

b l (z)e iA1Z + ... + bn(z)e iAnZ , Al < A2 <
... < An, bj E C[z]. The P6lya polygon P(1/r) is a segment of the imaginary axis,
[-iAn' -iAIl. Proposition 3.2.28 states that there is a side [ak, ak+Il of the P6lya
polygon P(h) which is parallel to the imaginary axis and lak+1 - akl ~ IAn -
= =
Ad. Let us change to new variables, ~ iz, h*(~) h(z), 1/r*(~) 1/r(z). In this =
=
case, IAn - All 8JR(1/r*) and lak+1 ;- akl :::: 8JR(h*), hence 8JR(1/r*) :::: 8JR(h*).
Copying the proof of Lemma 3.2.30, we can show there is an s E N* and two
exponential polynomials q*(~), r*(~), such that
b!(-;~)h*(~) = q*(~)1/r*(~) + r*(~)

and, either r* = 0, or 8JR(r*) < 8JR(1/r*). Let r(z) = r*(iz). Then r(z)/1/r(z) is
holomorphic in {z: Izl > R, I Argzl < '1}. From the first part of the proof we
can conclude that 8JR(1/r*) :::: 8JR(r*). This shows that r* = O. Hence,
b~(z)h(z) = q*(iz)1/r(z). o
3.2.34. Lemma. Let f, g, h E E and c(f), c(g), and c(h), respectively, the
g.c.d. of their coefficients. If fg = h, then c(f)c(g) = c(h).
Proof of Lemma 3.2.34. Let f(z) = LI:5i:5m Ai (z)e(li; g(z) = LI:5j:5n Bj(z)efJj ;
and h(z) = LI:5k:5P We can assume that al -< ... -< am, fh -< ... -<
Ck(z)e Ykz •
fJn, and YI -< ... -< Yp·
Consid.er first the case where c(f) = c(g) = 1. We want to show that then
the Ck must be coprime, i.e., c(h) = 1.
Let WI, ... , Wq be the different values taken by ai + fJj, 1 :::: i :::: m, 1 :::: j ::::
n. Assume WI -< lV2 -< ... -< wq • We have
From the independence of {eAZhec over C[z] (Corollary 3.1.3) we obtain that
p :::: q, that for each frequency Yk == wit' for some It, and that
Ck(Z) = L Ai (z)Bj(z),
(li+fJj=W1k
0= L Aj (z)Bj (z),
(li+fJk=WI
Let us suppose that c(h) 1:- 1. This means there is a value z a which is a =
common zero of all polynomials Ck. Since c(f) = =
1, z a is not a common
zero of all Ai. Let io be such that Aj(a) = 0 for 1 :::: ; < ;0 and Aio(a) 1:- o. Let
WI = aio + fJI, whether I E {II. ... , Ip} or not, the corresponding sum vanishes
at z = a. On the other hand, if ai + fJj = aio + fJlo it is not possible that; > io
because of the ordering of the frequencies. Moreover, if i = io, then j = 1. Then
L Ai(z)Bj(z) = Aio(z)Bj(z) + L Ai(z)Bj(z).

;<;0
(J/;+{Jj=w/
Since the left-hand side vanishes at z = a, and the second sum also does, we
have Aio(a)BI(a) = O. In other words, BI(a) = O.
Let us now assume Bj(a) = 0 for 1 :::: j < k :::: n. We want to show that
Bk(a) = O. We consider
;<;0 ;=;0 ;>io
The total sum vanishes at z = a, as well as the sum for those indices (i, j)
with i < io. If i > io, then Clio -< Cli and, since Cli + f3j = Clio + 13k we conclude
f3j -< 13k. i.e., j < k. Hence the sum with indices i > io also vanishes at z = a.
For i = io we have only one term AioBk' Therefore, Bk(a) = O.
We have arrived at the conclusion that Bk(a) = 0, 1 :::: k :::: n, thus c(g) i= 1,
contrary to the hypotheses. Therefore, is must be the case that c(h) = 1.
We consider now the case where c(f), c(g) are arbitrary nonzero polynomials.
Then F = flc(!) E E, G = gjc(g) E E, c(F) = c(G) = 1. Hence, H = FG
also has c(H) = 1. H = hj(c(f) c(g)) is an exponential polynomial, and by
Corollary 3.1.3 (i.e., the independence of {eAZhelC over C[z]), we conclude that
c(f) c(g) divides all the coefficients of h. That is, c(f) c(g) divides c(h). On
the other hand, since c~H) = 1, we conclude that we have c(f) c(g) = c(h). 0
Let us now return to the proof of Theorem 3.2.31. By Lemma 3.2.32 we have
that there is X E 6*, h E E, such that
xf = gh.
It follows from the hypotheses that h j X is holomorphic in {Iz I > R, I Arg zI <
lJ}. We can apply Lemma 3.2.33 and conclude there are b E C[z]*, q E E
such that
bh = qx.
That is,
xbf = Xgq·
Because X i= 0 we have
bf = gq.
From the assumption c(g) = 1 and Lemma 3.2.34, we conclude that b divides
c(q). Hence, qjb E E and, afortiori
LEE,
g
as asserted by the theorem. o
3.2.35. Remarks. (1) The condition c(g) = 1 is necessary, as shown by the

entire functions (sinz)lz and (1 - eZ)lz that are not exponential polynomials
(use Corollary 3.1.3).
(2) On the other hand, the proof shows that if f, gEE, and fig is holomor-
phic in a sector of opening bigger than 7r, then there is h E E, b E C[z) such
that fig = hlb.
(3) The condition on the opening of the angle is necessary. The function
e Z 1(1 - e z+1) is holomorphic in the half-plane Rez > -1, but it is not an expo-
nential polynomial.
(4) There is an open conjecture of H.S. Shapiro that is related to
Theorem 3.2.31. Assume f, g E Eo have infinitely many zeros in common,
does there exist h E Eo, not a unit, such that h divides both f and g? (See
[Sha), [VT).)
Let us consider now the question of estimating the number of zeros of an

exponential polynomial in a disk. We first note for future reference the following
corollary of Proposition 3.2.24:
3.2.36. Lemma. If f E AEP is an entire function, then f is a function of

Proof. It is immediate that f satisfies an inequality of the form
If(z)1 < A(1 + IzI)NeH(z),
where H is the supporting function of the P61ya polygon P of f. On the other
hand, from Proposition 3.2.24 we have that for any k E N* there are rk > 0,
fk > 0, such that if Izl > rk and d(z, Z(f» ~ 11k, then
log If(z)1 ~ 10gTk + H(z).

It is then clear that
if)
hf (e if) = l'1m sup
log If(re )1 = H( e if)
.
r .... oo r
We can assume the values rk satisfy rk+ 1 > 2rk and
I log Tkl 1
--<-
rk - k'
Let Z = {zn: n ~ I} be the sequence of distinct zeros of f, IZnl ~ IZn+t/, and
define Pn =11k if rk < IZnl ~ rk+l. Let E =
Un~l[/znl- Pn, IZnl + Pn), then
. log If(re
if)
)1
11m
r;:¢r r
= H(e if)
).
This clearly implies that f is of completely regular growth. In fact,
I: Pn = (n(Z, r2) - n(Z, rl» + ... + ~(n(z, r) - n(Z, rk»,

rl::5lz.I::5r
when rk < r ~ rk+ 1. Hence, given 6 > 0, let j so that 1/j < 6, then
1" n(Z, rj) n(Z, r)
- L..J Pn ~ +6---,
r rl::::lz.19 r r
which shows that E has zero relative measure. o
3.2.37. Corollary. Let n(V, Zo, r) denote the number of zeros (counted with
multiplicities) of an entire function f E AEP in B(zo, r) and l(P) the length
of the boundary of the Polya polygon of f. Then
lim n(V, zo, r) = l(P) .
r-+oo r 2]l'
Proof. This follows from properties of functions of completely regular growth.
See [Lev, p. 288]. 0
Another way to express this corollary is that
n(V, zo, r) = l(P)

2]l'
r + 0(1),
so that, in particular, for every Zo there is a constant C ::: 0 such that

l(P)
n(V, zo, r) ~ 2]l' r + C,
which is due originally to P6lya.
In [Tu] it is shown that if f is an exponential polynomial one can prove that
the inequality holds with a constant independent of zoo Tunm also showed that
such an inequality has many applications in number theory and elsewhere. The
original estimate of Turan has been improved by Tijdeman [Ti], Waldschmidt
[Wa 1], and others. By a very ingenious argument, generalizing Rolle's theorem
to holomorphic functions, Voorhoeve [Voor] obtained the following sharpening
of Turan's estimate for the number of zeros of an exponential polynomial f:
n(V, zo, r) 4
~ -Or
]l'
+ 2d°f,
where 0 = max{laj I: aj frequency of fl. Using a geometric argument, he also
obtained
l(P)
n(V, zo, r) ~ 2]l' r + vdof,
where v denotes the number of vertices of the P6lya polygon.
Let us start by recalling some notation. If f is a meromorphic function in an
open set U of the complex plane, f ¢. 0, then for Zo E U, v(zo) = v(zo, f) is
the index of the first nonvanishing coefficients of the Laurent development of f
about Zo, i.e., if v(zo) < 0 then Zo is a pole of f and -v(zo) is the order of this
pole, if v(zo) > 0, then it is the order of Zo as a zero of f. finally, if v(zo) = 0,
then Zo is neither a zero nor a pole of f.
Following [Voor] we introduce a generalization of the total variation of the
argument of f along a closed interval [a, b] of the real axis.
3.2.38. Definition. Let f ¥= 0 be a meromorphic function in neighborhood of

[a, b] and Xl < X2 < ... < Xm the collection of zeros and poles of f in ]a, b[.
We set
A(a,b, f):= lb IIm(f'(~)lf(~))Id~

+ 7r { L Iv(xt, f)1 + ~Iv(a, f)1 + ~Iv(b, f)1}.
l~k~m
Let U be a complex neighborhood of [a, b], f E M(U), and [a, b] £

]c, d[cc U, then if we denote by ~l, •.• , ~n the collection of zeros and poles
of f in ]c, dr, they are the only poles of f'(z)lf(z) on ]c, dr, and there is a
domain V, ]c, d[ £ V £ U and a function g E Jt'(V) such that
f'(z) = L v(~j, f) + g(z) (z E V).

f(z) l~j~n Z - ~j
On the real axis the sum is real valued, hence,
Im(f'(~)lf(~» = Irng(~), c < ~ < d, ~ =1= ~j,
and we conclude that Im(f'1 f) can be considered as a continuous function in

]C, dr. In particular, A(a, b, f) is well defined. It is also clear that A is additive
with respect to intervals, i.e., if c < r < s < t < d, then
A(r, t, f) = A(r, s, f) + A(s, t, f).
Another useful property is the following. For rJ real, 1rJ 1 « 1, the func-
tion f,,(z) := f(z + irJ) is meromorphic in a fixed complex neighborhood, still
denoted V, of ]c, dr. Moreover, we can assume that for 0 =1= rJ, f" has no zeros
or poles on the real axis, so that
A(a, b, f,,) = lb Im(f~(~)lf,,(~»1 d~.

1
3.2.39. Lemma.
lim A(a, b, f,,)
,,--+0
= A(a, b, f).
Proof. By the additivity of the functional A we can assume that f has no zeros
or poles in ]a, b[, so that for some rJo > 0 we have
f'(z) ex f3
f( z) = -z-a + -
z-
b + g(z),
ex = v(a, f), f3 = v(b, f), and g holomorphic in

a-rJo.::::Rez.::::b+rJo, IIrnzl'::::rJo.
Then, for ~ E JR,
Im(f~(~)lf,,(~» = - rJ2 + ~rJ_ a)2 rJ2 + ~rJ_ b)2 + Im(g(~ + irJ»·

For 0 < e « 1, a < ~ < a + e, the last two tenus are bounded for all values of
y/,O < IY/I < Y/o. So that
A(a, a + e, fry) = 1 a s
+ I Im(f~(~)lfry(~»1 d~
= O(e) 1 a +£
+ laY/I a y/2 + (~ _ a)2
a~
= O(e) + lal arctan(e/lY/l).

Similarly,
A(b - e, b, fry) = O(e) + 1.81 arctan(e/ly/I).
Since Im(f/(~)lf(~» = Img(~), we also have
1IIm(f/(~)lf(~))!d~ = 1 IImg(~)ld~ +
a
b
a+s
b s
- O(e).
Therefore, we are led to consider
1 Im(f~(~)lfry(~»1 _l Img(~)1 d~
1
b s
-
a+s
I
a+s
b s
- I I
: : 1 IIm(f~(~)lfry(~» Img(~)ld~
b s
- -
1 + - + 1
a+s
b- s d~ b- s d~
::: laY/I a+£ y/ 2 (~ a)2 1.8Y/1 a+s y/ 2 + (~ - b)2
+ 1a+s
b s
- I Im(g(~ + iy/) - g(~»1 d~
::: (Ial + 1.8I)(b - a)IY/le- 2 + O(IY/i)·
We infer that
IA(a, b, fry) - A(a, b, f)1 :::0 (c) + O(IY/I) + 0(1Y/l/e 2)
+ (lal + 1.81)1 arctan(e/lY/1) - 7T121.
If we let IY/I = 0(e 3), then all the tenus above are O(e), which proves that
lim A(a, b, fry)
ry .... O
= A(a, b, f). o
3.2.40. Corollary. Let f, g be two nontrivial meromorphic functions on [a, b],

and let k E Z, then:
(i) IA(a, b, f) - A(a, b, g)1 ::: A(a, b, fg) ::: A(a, b, f) + A(a, b, g);
(ii) A(a, b, fk) = IkIA(a, b, f).
Proof. For 0 < Y/ « 1 we have that neither fry nor gry have any zeros or poles
in [a, b]. Moreover,
and
(f;)' II; = k(f~IfT/)'
hence the identity (ii) is clear for IT/ instead of I, and the estimates (i) are a
consequence of the triangle inequality for IT/' gT/. Using the continuity at rJ = 0
proved in the previous lemma, we conclude the corollary holds. D
3.2.41. Proposition. Let I be a meromorphicfunction on [a, b] such that neither

I nor I' have zeros or poles at the endpoints 01 the interval. Then
A(a, b, f) ::: A(a, b, I') + O(a) - O(b),
where O(z):= I Arg(f'(z)II(z)) I (Arg~ is, as usual, the principal value 01 the
argument 01 ~).
Proof. Note first that I Arg ~ I is a continuous function in C* with values in [0, rr].
Hence,O is a continuous function in a neighborhood of a and of b. Moreover,
for small 7} real,
0T/(Z) := I Arg(f'(z)IIT/(z» I = O(z + i7}),

so that
as 7} ~ o.
Therefore, by Lemma 3.2.39, if we can prove the inequality for IT/' 0 < rJ 1, it «
follows for I. Therefore, we assume that I and I' have neither zeros nor poles
on [a, b]. In other words, we can assume that f'1f is a holomorphic function on
[a, b], and thus Im(f'If) has only finitely many zeros on [a, b]. Let a < XI <
... < Xn < b be the zeros of Im(f'1 f) in ]a, b[, denote a = xo, b = X n +I, which
could be zeros of Im(f'If) or could be not. Whenever Im(f'(~)II(~» ~ 0 we
have Arg(f'(I;)II(I;» ~ 0 and conversely, so that in any interval ]xt, Xk+l[
we have
I Im(f'(I;)II(I;» I = ak Im(f'(~)II(~»,
with ak = ±1, and
0(1;) = ak Arg(f'(I;)II(I;»,
for the same value ak. Consequently, for ~ E ]Xk, Xk+1 [,
d d
dl; O(~) = ak dg Im(Log(f'(~)II(g)))
= ak 1m (:g LOg(f'(~)II(I;)))
= aklm(f"(g)II'(g) - 1'(I;)II(g))·
Using this identity we obtain,
l
~
X
k+1 I Im(f'(g)II(~))I dg = ak l ~
X
k+1 Im(f'(~)II(g» dl;
so that
A(a, b, f) = ~ 1:k+ I Im(f'(~)/I(~))i d~

1
n [Xk+!
= ~ iXk Uk Im(f"(~)/f'(~» d~ - (O(b) - O(a»
~ A(a, b, I') + O(a) - O(b). o

3.2.42. Corollary. Let I be meromorphic and not constant on [a, b], then
A(a, b, f) ~ A(a, b, I') + rr.
Proof. For 0 < 7J « 1, the functions I", I~ have no zeros or poles at a and b.
From the previous proposition
A(a, b, I,,) ~ A(a, b, I~) + O,,(a) - O,,(b) ~ A(a, b, I~) + rr,
since 0 ~ 0" (~) ~ rr. Letting 7J ~ 0 we obtain the corollary. o
Corollary 3.2.42 is the key to good estimates. It allows us to estimate the
variation of the argument of solutions of differential equations, as shown by the
following result:
3.2.43. Proposition. Let I be a nontrivial meromorphiclunction on [a, b] satis-

fying a nontrivial differential equation 01 the lorm
!!...
dz
[1/In!!...
dz
[... !!...
dz
[1/I1!!...
dz
I] ...]] = 0,
where 1/11, ... , 1/In are meromorphiclunctions on [a, b]. (For simplicity we shall
drop the brackets in the future applications 01 this proposition.) Then
A(a, b, f) ~ L A(a, b, 1/Ik) + nrr.

I~k~n
Proof. If n = 0, i.e., dl/dz = 0, then 1= c "# 0, and it is easy to see that

A(a, b, c) = 0 (see Exercise 3.2.3). The right-hand side is also zero in this case.
=
For n 2: 1, let g = 1/Id'. If g 0 then we are in the previous case, so we can
assume g is nontrivial. We can apply induction to obtain
A(a, b, g) ~ L A(a, b, 1/Ik) + (n - l)rr.

2~k~n
On the other hand, the previous corollary and Corollary 3.2.40(i) and (ii) yield
A(a, b, f) ::: A(a, b, /') + 7r = A(a, b, g1/lil) + 7r

::: A(a, b, g) + A(a, b, 1/Iil) + 7r
= A(a, b, g) + A(a, b, 1/11) + 7r
:: L A(a, b, 1/Id + n7r. o
One can prove, using this proposition, that if ({JI, ••• ,({Jm are linearly inde-
pendent meromorphic functions on [a, b], and CI, ... , Cm are arbitrary constants
such that I = L Cj({Jj ¢ 0, then an upper bound for A(a, b, f) is independent
of the values of the constants. The same holds for an upper bound of the total
number of zeros and poles of I on [a, b] (see Exercise 3.2.8).
We are now ready to go back to exponential polynomials. We recall from
Section 3.1 that we denote
I(z) = L pj(z)eajZ ,
I~j~n
deg Pj = mj ~ 0, dO I = m I + ... + mn + n - 1.
3.2.44. Proposition. Let a < b, N(a, b, f) be the number olzeros (counted with
multiplicity) 01 the exponential polynomial I in the segment la, b[. Set
/ := min Imaj, J := maxImaj.

J J
Then
(b - a)/ = 7r(dOI - N(a, b, f) ::: lb Im(f'(x)/I(x))dx
::: (b - a)J + 7r(dOI - N(a, b, f).

Proof. We can assume the indices have been chosen so that
It is easy to prove that
where D = d/dz (see Exercise 3.2.6 and the proof of Lemma 3.1.2). We are
using the notation from the statement of Proposition 3.2.43. Further, one can
write D2 = DID, D3 = DIDID, ... , where I is the constant function 1 acting
as a multiplication operator. Hence (*), has the form described in Proposi-
tion 3.2.43, applied to l(x)e- aIX , where we have a total dOl functions 1/Ik> some
1/Ik == 1, and the others 1/Ik(X) = exp«ak - ak+l)x). From Proposition 3.2.43 we
conclude that
A(a, b, f(x)e-aIX):s L A(a, b, e(ak-ak+I)X) + 7rdof,
l~k~n-l
19~n-l
since A(a, b, 1) = 0 and A(a, b, eWX ) = (b - a)1 Imwl (Exercise 3.2.3). Since
1m ak is increasing, we have
L 1Im(ak - ak+l)1 = L (Imak+l - Imak)
l~k~n-l l~k~n-l
= 1m an - Imal = J -I,
and hence,
A(a, b, f(x)e- aIX ) :s 7rdof + (b - a)(J -I).
On the other hand,
ib Im(f'(x)lf(x» dx :sib 1Im«(f'(x)lf(x» - adl dx + (b - a) Imal
:s A(a, b, f(x)e- a1X ) - 7r N(a, b, f) + (b - a)1

:s 7rdOf + (b - a)J - 7r N(a, b, f),
where in the third inequality we used the definition of the functional A and the
fact that N(a, b, f) = NCa, b, !(x)e- aIX ). This is half of the inequalities we
wanted to prove.
To prove the other half, we observe that it is also true that
Dml+ 1e(a2 -al)z Dm2+ 1 ••• Dmn+le(an-I-an)z Dmn+le- anz f = 0,
so that
A(a, b, f(x)e- anX ) :s 7rdof + (b - a)(J - I).
As earlier, we have
ib Im(f'(x)lf(x» dx ~ (b - a) 1m an - i
b
1 Im«(f'(x)lf(x» - an)1 dx
~ (b - a)J + 7r N(a, b, f) - A(a, b, f(x)e- anX ),

which proves
(b - a)1 + 7rN(a, b, f) -7rdOf :sib Im(f'(x)lf(x»dx,

as desired. o
3.2.45. Corollary. The number N(a, b, f) of zeros of f in a closed interval
[a, b] of the real line satisfies the inequality
-
N(a, b, f) :s dOf + 27r1 (b - a)(J - I).
Proof. For s > 0 we have N(a, b, f) ~ N(a - s, b + s, f). From the previous
proposition we have
(b - a + 2s)I + rr N(a - s, b + s, f) - rrdof
~ (b - a + 2s)J + rrdof - rr N(a - s, b + s, f),
so that
2rr N(a, b, f) ~ 2rr N(a - s, b + s, f) ~ 2rrdof + (b - a + 2s)(1 - /).
Letting s --+ 0+ we obtain the required inequality. D
We can obtain from Proposition 3.2.44 inequalities holding in any line segment
of the complex plane.
3.2.46. Corollary. Let a, bEe and denote by [a, b] the line segment joining
these two distinct points. If f has no zeros on la, b[, then
1m (r
i[a,b]
f'(z) dZ)
f(z)
~ rrdof + maxlm«b -
}
a)cxj)
~ rrdof + max{lm(z(b - a»: z E P},
where P is the P6lya polygon of f.
Proof. Let
g(~) = f(a + (b - aR) = L Pj(~) exp«b - a)cxj~),

l~j~n
for some new polynomials

hU;) = eaaj pj(a + (b - a)~),
of degrees m j as before. The exponential polynomial g satisfies dO f = dOg,

N(O, 1, g) = 0, and
r g'(~) d~ = t (b _ a) f'(a + (b -
1 a)~) d~
io g(~) io f(a + (b - a)~)
= r
i[a,b]
f'(z) dz.
f(z)
Hence, from the second inequality of Proposition 3.2.44 we infer that
1m (r
i[a,b]
ff'(Z) dZ)
(z)
~ rrdof + max{lm«b -
}
a)cxj)}.
Since P = cv{a, ... , an}, we have maxj {lm«b - a)cxj)} ~ maxzeP 1m (z(b - a».
D
As a consequence, we obtain an estimate of the number of zeros of f in any

square with sides parallel to the axes.
3.2.47. Theorem. Let Q be the square
Q := {z E C: a::: Rez ::: b, e ::: Irnz ::: d}
and N Q the number of zeros of the exponential polynomial f in Q.

Further, let
tJ. x := max {Irn(ai - aj)},

l:::oi,j:::on
Then,
1
NQ ::: 2dof + 2rr {(b - a)tJ. x + (e - d)tJ. y }.
Proof. For 0 < e « 1 we have that if Qe := {z E C: a - e ::: Rez ::: b + e,

e - e ::: Imz ::: d + e}, then aQe contains no zeros of f. (If aQ contains no
zeros of f we can let e = 0.) Rouche's theorem states that
NQ < NQ = _1_ (
- •
f'(z) dz = _11m
2rri JaQ. f(z) 2rr
(rJaQ, f'(z) dZ) .
f(z)
We divide aQe into four segments and apply Corollary 3.2.46 to each of
them. We obtain
1m (rJaQ, f'(z) dZ) ::: 4rrdof

f(z)
+ max (Im«b - a
l:::oj:::on
+ 2e)aj»
+ l:::oj:::on
max (1m «a - b - 2e)aj»
+ l:::oj:::on
max (Im(i(d - c - 2e)aj»
+ l:::oj:::on
max (Im(i(e - d - 2e)aj»
= 4rrdof + (b - a + 2e)tJ. x + (d - c + 2e)tJ. y •

It is clear that this inequality proves the theorem. o
We now obtain the promised Tunin type inequality. Let, as earlier, denote
by V = VU) = the multiplicity variety of f, let n(V, zo, r) be the number of
points of V in B(zo, r), and let Q = maxj lajl.
First, we state a result that the reader should compare with Proposition 3.2.23.
3.2.48. Corollary. If f has real frequencies, then the number Ns of zeros of f

in the strip S := {z E C: e ::: 1m z ::: d} can be bounded by
(c - d)
Ns ::: 2dof + - - - ~~ (aj - aj).
2rr IS,}:::on
Proof. It is easy to see that there is R > 0 such that f has no zeros in the
region IRezl > R. Let Q = {z E C, -R::: Rez::: R, e::: Imz::: d}, and apply
the previous theorem. 0
3.2.49. Corollary. For any Zo E C, r > 0, we have

4Q
n(V, zo, r) ~ 2dof + -r.
1t
Proof. Let Q = {z E C: Xo - r ~ Re Z ~ Xo + r, Yo - r ~ 1m Z ~ Yo + r}. Then

B(zo, r) ~ Q, so that
r
n(V, zo, r) ~ NQ ~ 2dof + -{~x + ~y}.
1t
Clearly,
~y ~ 2Q,
hence,
4Qr
n(V, zo, r) ~ 2dof + -.
1t
o
Finally, we need a little geometric argument to obtain Voorhoeve's strength-
ening of the P6lya estimate involving the perimeter l(P) of the P6lya polygon
of f.
3.2.50. Lemma. Let P and Q be convex polygons with exactly v vertices

ai, ... , a v and fiJ, ... , fiv, respectively, where their indexing corresponds to the
positive orientation of the respective boundaries. Let av+1 := aJ, fiv+1 := fil'
Assume that
1~ k ~ v.
Then,
= L Im(fik(ak+1 - ad)
I::;j::;v
= L Im(ak(fik+1 - fid).
I::;k::;v
Proof. Let H Q be the supporting function of Q and evaluate it at the exterior

unit normal nk to the side [fib fik+Il of Q, i.e., consider
HQ(nd = max Re(znk)
zeQ
as, in fact, the maximum is attained at any point of [fib fik+Il.

The condition Arg(ak+1 - ak) = Arg(fik+1 - fik) indicates that
i(ak+1 - ad
nk = - .
lak+1 - akl
Since H Q is a homogeneous function, we have

HQ(-i(ak+l - ad) = Re(-i(ak+l - ak)fik) = Re(-i(ak+l - ak)fik+l)
= Im(fik(ak+l - ak» = Im(fik+l (ak+l - ad),
and also
Similarly,
maxlm(z(fJk+l - fJk»
zeP
= Im(ak(fJk+l - fJk» = Im(ak+l(fJk+l - fJd)·
Moreover, because of the periodicity of the indices,
L fik+lak+l = L fikak,
and for a, bEe,

Imab = -Imba.
Consider now the expression we want to identify
L maxIm(z(ak+l - ak» =
zeQ
L Im(fik(ak+l - ak»
l~k~v l~k~v
= L 1m (fik+ 1 (ak+l - ad)

l~k~v
= 1m ( L fik+lak+l - L fik+l ak )
l~k~v l~k~v
= 1m ( L
l~k~v
fikak - L
l~k~v
fik+lak)
= 1m ( L (fik -
l~k~v
fik+l)ak)
= L Im(ak(fJk+l - fJk»
l~k~v
= L maxlm(z(fJk+l - fJk».
zeQ
l~k~v
This long chain of identities proves the lemma. o

We remark that each sum in the previous lemma is invariant under translation
of P or Q, e.g., for any zo, Zl, Z2 E C we have
L maxlm«z - zO)(ak+l - ak»
zeQ
= L Im«ak - Zd(fJk+l - fJd)
l~k~v l~k9
3.2.51. Theorem. Let v be the number of vertices of the P6lya polygon P of

the exponential polynomial f and V = V(f). Then, for any Zo E C
£(P)
n(V, zo, r):5 2Jl' r + vdof·
Proof. If v = 1, fez) = ea,z PI (z), dOf = ml = deg PI and £(P) = 0, so that
n(V, zo, f) :5 dOf is best possible.
If v = 2, then all the frequencies lie in a straight line in the complex plane.
Moreover, cOhsidering f(z)e-a,Z we can assume that al = 0. Rotate the vari-
ables, z = (an/Ian I)~. Then, in the variable ~ we have an exponential poly-
°
nomial with real frequencies, say = WI < W2 < ... < W n. Then £(P) = 2wn
and we can apply Corollary 3.2.48, which states that in any strip S of the form
S = {~ E C: c :5 Im~ :5 d} we have
(c - d)
N~ :5 2dof + ~Wn.
Clearly, B(zo, r) ~ S when c = Imzo - r, d = Imzo + r. Thus,

£(P)
n(V, zo, r) :5 2dof + 2Jl' r.
Assume now v ~ 3. Let us index the frequencies of f in such a way that

a
al, ... , v are the vertices of P in the positive direction, we set av+1 = al. We
can find a polygon Q, which circumscribes B(zo, r) and such that if ih, ... , Pv
are the vertices of Q, then Arg(ak+1 - ak) = Arg(Pk+1 - Pd, with Pv+1 = PI.
(See Figure 3.6.)
If aQ contains any zeros of f, we replace B(zo, r) by B(zo, p) for p > r
and let Q still be the corresponding polygon. We can do this with p so close to
r so that n(V, zo, r) = n(V, zo, p), and if we prove the estimate for p we will
a
be done by letting p -+ r. Hence, we may as well assume that Q contains no
1 1
zeros of f. Therefore, if N Q denotes the number of zeros of f in Q, we have
n(V, zo, r) < N Q = - 1 - - d z = - 1 1m

I'(z) f'(z)
- -dz
- 2Jl'i aQ fez) 2Jl' aQ fez)
Figure 3.6
From the proof of Lemma 3.2.50 we know the maxima are achieved at any
point of the segment [fit. fik+l). Since Q circumscribes B(zo, r) we can choose
a point Z that belongs to aQ so that Ii - iol = r and
max Im«i - iO)(ak+l - ak» ::: rlak+l - akl.
zeQ
As t(P) = Ll::ok::ov lak+l - akl, we obtain

v t(P)
n(V, Zo, r) ::: -dol + - - r ,
r 21l"
when v ::: 3. It is slightly better than the stated inequality. o
Comparing the estimates from Theorem 3.2.51 or Corollary 3.2.49 with the
conditions from Squires' Theorem 2.6.23, we see once more that if I is an
exponential polynomial and p(z) ::: Izi (or p(z) ::: I Imzl + 10g(1 + Izl) if the
frequencies are purely imaginary), then the only obstruction for the variety
V (f) to be an interpolation variety for Ap (C) is the separation condition of the
distinct zeros. That is, we would like to guarantee that if Zj i= Zk on any two
zeros of I, then
IZj - zkl ::: eexp(-Cp(Zk»
for some e, C > 0 independent of j, k. In which case we say that the zeros are
well separated for the weight p.
The example I (z) = sin Zsin AZ, A > 0, shows that given p we can choose
A so that this condition is not satisfied. Namely, we let A = L~l lO-n k , for
a sequence of integers nk t 00 sufficiently fast (depending on p). In fact, the
zeros of I are n1l", n E IE, and m1l" lA, m E IE. If A ¢ Q then all zeros are simple,
with the exception of Z = O. The distance between two zeros is bounded below
in each sequence, the difficulty arises between the sequences, so that
In1l" - m1l"/AI = ilnll A - : I,

and the problem is to see how fast A is approximated by rational numbers. If A
is a quadratic irrational one can easily see that [HWl
.1..- ml > ~ n E IE·, mE IE

1 n - n2 '
for some e > O.
More generally, if A E Q, i.e., A is an algebraic number, then for any 8 > 0,

°
there is 6 > such that
m\ >_6
\A- n - n2+~'
see [Ba]. Note that in this case the frequencies of f are ±i ± iA, which are
all algebraic numbers if A E Q. Moreover, the coefficients of f written as an
exponential sum are also algebraic numbers. So that for f (z) = sin Zsin AZ,
A E Q, guarantees that the zeros are well separated for any weight.
If we consider f(z) = sin(z - a) - sin("fiz - a), a > 0, then the frequen-
cies are again algebraic, but the coefficients are combinations of sin a and cos a
with algebraic coefficients, which in general are transcendental numbers. On the
other hand the zeros form the sequences
2kn: 2a + (2k + I)n:
M and r;:;' k E 7L..
l-v2 l+v2
Again, depending on the choice of a we can make the zeros well separated
or not.
Moreover, note that from the P6lya-Dickson Theorem 3.2.25 it follows that
when the frequencies of an exponential polynomial f are purely imaginary, then
there is a positive constant A such that the zeros of f lie in the logarithmic strip
I Imzl ~ A(1 + 10g(1 + Izl»
so that, if the zeros of f are well separated for the weight p(z) = IImzl +
10g(1 + Izl), it follows that there are 6 > 0, N > 0, such that
6
IZj - zkl ::: (IZkl + IZjl)N
for any two distinct zeros Zj, Zk.
These considerations led to the following conjecture of Ehrenpreis [Eh5] ,
[BY2]:
3.2.52. Conjecture. Let f be an exponential polynomial with algebraic frequen-

cies and with polynomial coefficients in Q[z], then the zeros are well separated
for the weight p(z) = Izl. That is, there are constants 6 > 0, A > 0, such that
for any pair of distinct zeros Zj and Zk we have
IZj - zkl ::: ee-Alzkl.
Moreover, if the frequencies are purely imaginary, then the zeros are well
separated with respect to the weight p(z) = I Imzl + 10g(1 +Izl). That is, there
are constants 6 > 0, N > 0, such that
6
IZj - zkl ::: (I + IZkl)N
for any pair of distinct zeros Zj and Zk.
It is very little we know about this conjecture. In trying to prove it, it is

natural to consider the Q-vector space r generated by the frequencies a!, ... , an
of f. The dimension of r as a Q-vector space is called the rank of r. The

Conjecture 3.2.52 has been shown to the true when rank r = 1, and also when
rank r = 2 under the further assumption that f is an exponential sum (see
[BY2D. This conjecture is equivalent to the fact that if the frequencies and the
coefficients of f are algebraic, then V (f) is an interpolation variety for the
space Exp(C), or for the space F(£'(IR».
Another consequence of the conjecture is that if /J, Iz are exponential poly-
nomials with algebraic coefficients and frequencies, without any common zeros,
then I E l(fl, Iz) in Ap(C) (for p(z) = Izl or p(z) = IImil +log(1 + Izl).
We shall mention some related questions about mean periodicity in Chapter 6.
It would seem strange that one could relate the separation properties of the
zeros of f to the arithmetic nature of its frequencies on coefficients, but, in fact,
following the work of Siegel and Shidlovsky one has quite a bit of knowledge
about the zeros of f. For instance, they are not only transcendental numbers
but one can even measure how closely can they be approximated by algebraic
numbers. The reader is referred to [Va] and the references therein for some
results of this type. Nevertheless, some simple looking arithmetic conjectures are
still open and may be related to Conjecture 3.2.52. For instance, the conjecture
of Schanuel stating that if aI, ... ,an E C are linearly independent over Q, then
the degree of transcendency of the field k generated by a I, ... , an, eat, ... , e an ,
is at least n, which has not yet been solved for n ~ 2 (see [Wa2D.
EXERCISES 3.2.
1. Using the notation from the proof of the P6lya-Dickson theorem show that:
(a) If z = x + iy E Vk • j , then limz ..... "" Iy/xl = 00.
(b) For z E Vk •j , lim z..... "" Arg z = 7r /2.
(c) Show that the curves of equation y + iLkj Arg z = c in V k•j are asymptotic to
y = c - iLk.j 7r /2 as Iz I --+ 00. Similarly, the curve x + iLk,j log Iz I = H is asymptotic to
x + iLk.j logy = H.
(d) Let w = z + iLj.k logz, z E Vk,j' Show that if IZI - z21 ~ 8> 0, then for Zl, Z2
large one has IWI - w21 ~ 8/2.
(e) For some R » I, (U Uk,/) U (U Vk./ ) ;2 (B(O, R)C n {y ~ O}).
2. Assuming the Conjecture 3.2.52 is correct, show that if II, fz are exponen-
tial polynomials with algebraic frequencies and algebraic coefficients, which have no
common zeros, then IE l(fl, fz), the ideal generated by II, fz in Ap(C)(p(z) = Izl or
I Imzl + log(l + Izl».
3. Let A(a, b, f) be the functional defined in Definition 3.2.38. Evaluate it in the
following cases:
(i) I(z) == C E IC;
(ii) I(z) = e''';
(iii) I (z) = e'P(z), rp holomorphic; and
(iv) If I is a polynomial of degree m, show that A(a, b, f) ::: 7rm.
4. (a) Show that lim...... o+ A(a - E, b + E, f) = A(a, b, f);

(b) Let / be a meromorphic real valued function in [a, b], show that
A(a, b, f) = 7r t~m IV(Xko f)1 + 4l v (a, f)1 + 4l v (b, f)1},

where Xlo ••• , Xm are the distinct zeros and poles of / in ]a, b[.
(c) Let / be holomorphic, real valued function on [a, b], with simple zeros at a and
b. For any 8 > 0 show that
27r :::: A(a - 8, b + 8, f) :::: A(a - 8, b + 8, /') + 7r.

Conclude that /' must have a zero in [a - 8, b + 8]. Thus, f' has a zero in ]a, b[ (Rolle's
theorem).
5. Let / be a meromorphic function on JR, periodic of period P > O.

(a) Show that 8(s) = 1Arg(f'(s)/J(s»1 = 8(s + p) if s E JR is such that neither /
nor f' have a zero or a pole at s.
(b) Show that A(O, p, f) :::: A(O, p, f'). (Hint: Use Proposition 3.2.41, for a conve-
nient interval.)
6. Prove that if /(z) = EI::;j::;n pj(z)e ajz is an exponential polynomial, degpj = mj'
Then
where D = d/dz.
7. Use the example /(z) = (2cosz)n-1 to show that the estimate in Corollary 3.2.45
is sharp.
8. Let ~I,"" ~m be meromorphic functions in the disk B(O, R), and let Wk =
W(~10 ... , ~k) be their Wronskian, i.e.,
~I ~k
~; ~k
Wk = det
~:i-I) ~kk-I)
(a) Show that for any other meromorphic function h, W(h~1o ... h~k) = hkWk.
(b) Show that ~I, ... , ~k are linearly dependent if and only if Wk == O.
(c) Show that for any k and I E N*
W(W(~I' ... , ~ko ~HI)' W(~10 ... , ~ko ~k+2)' ... , W(~I' ... , ~ko ~H/» = wt- I WH/ .
(Hint: Prove it by induction on k.)
(d) Let / = EI::;k::;1 Ck~ko Ck E C and ~I, ... ,~m linearly independent. Show that
D W~_I D W~_2 D .. . D Wi D wl DL = O.
Wm Wm- 2 Wm - I Wm - 3 W3 WI W2 WI
(Hint: Consider the auxiliary functions hk = W(~I' ... , ~k-I, f), for 2 :::: k :::: m + 1.)
(e) Let / be as in (d) and let N(a, b, f) be the number of zeros and poles of /
(counting multiplicities) in the closed interval [a, b], when -R < a < b < R. Give an
upper bound of N(a, b, f) independent of the choice of constants Clo ••• , Cm.
CHAPTER 4
Integral Valued Entire Functions
4.1. The G-Transfonn

In this section we study a transfonn of analytic functionals akin to the Cauchy
transfonn considered in Chapter I. This transfonn will allow us to obtain rather
easily those properties of entire functions of exponential type that can be derived
from their behavior on sequences of the fonn n ::: no, n E Z. It also provides
an elementary method to study the analytic continuation of power series of the
fonn Ln>o f(n)t n, where f is an entire function of exponential type. The main
references for this section are [Bo], [Avl], [Av2] , [AGI], [AG2] , [AG3].
If K is a convex compact subset of the strip
Q := {z E iC: I Imzl < ]f},
we denote by e- K := {e- z : Z E K} and by Q (K) the open neighborhood of zero
Q (K) := iC\e- K •
Let Jro(Q(K» denote the space of those holomorphic functions in Q (K) which
vanish at 00, considered with the usual topology of unifonn convergence over
compact subsets of Q(K). Note, that since every function in Jro(Q(K» is
holomorphic at infinity, this topology coincides with that of unifonn convergence
on compact subsets of S2\e- K •
If T is an analytic functional carried by such a compact set K we denote by
G(T) its G-transform:
G(T)(z) := / TI;,
\
1
1- ze
1;)'
4.1.1. Proposition. If T is an analytic functional carried by the compact convex
set K cc Q, then G(T) belongs to Jro(Q(K». Moreover, its Taylor series
development about z = 0 is given by
G(T)(z) = L J(T)(n)zn,
and its Laurent development about z = 00 is
G(T)(z) = _ "J(T)(-n).
L...J zn
n:;:O
260
4.1. The G-Transfonn 261
Proof. The proof depends on the relations between the Cauchy and
Fourier-Borel transfonns of an analytic functional which were established in
Section 1.3. To see that G(T) is holomorphic in Q(K) we can appeal to the
representation
1
(T, h) = 2i 1 y T(w)h(w) dw,
A
valid for every h E Jff(U), U a convex open neighborhood of K, y a loop in

U\K of index 1 with respect to every point of K, and T the Cauchy transfonn
of T. Namely, if B(zo, e) £; Q(K), one can find an open bounded convex set
U such that K £; U and e- u n B(zo, e) = 0, Hence, for z ¢ e- u we have
G(T)(z) = -2.
1
I
1 y
T(w) 1
A dw
-ze W
'
which immediately implies that G(T) is holomorphic in B(zo, e).

Let rl = rl (K) := d(O, e- K ), and r2 = r2(K) := sup{l~ I: ~ E e- K }. For any
fixed z with Izl < rl we have the development
which is unifonnly and absolutely convergent compact for w in a convex

open neighborhood Uz of K. Moreover, if Izl ~ PI < rl, we can take this
neighborhood to be independent of z. Hence,
G(T)(z) =L
n::::O
(;i 1 y
T(w)e nW dW) zn
is the Taylor development of G(T) about z = 0, convergent at least for Izl < rl.
Similarly, for Izl > r2 we have
so that
G(T)(z) = _ '" J(T)(-n)
L.J zn
n::::!
is the Laurent development of G(T) about z = 00, convergent for Izl > r2. D
4.1.2. Proposition. Let K be a convex compact subset of Q, U a convex open

set, K £; U £; Q, ex a loop in U\K of index 1 with respect to the points in K,
262 4. Integral Valued Entire Functions
and y the loop y = e- a lying in e-U\e- K • Then, for every analytic functional
T carried by K and every h E .1f(U) we have
(T,h)=-~
2HZ Jry G(T)(z)h(-Logz)dzz =~ rG(T)(e-S)h(s)ds.
2HZ Ja
Proof. Let z = e- s , for s E U, hence, s = - Log z. Therefore,
r
Ja
G(T)(e-S)h(s) ds =- r
Jy
G(T)(z)h( _ Log z) dz .
z
On the other hand,
1
- - = --U1 +qJ(u),
1- e U
where qJ is a function holomorphic in 2Q = {u E C: I1m U I < 2H}. Hence,
G(T)(e- S) = / Tw,
\ 1- eW
1_) = _ / _1_) +
S \
Tw,
W - S
O(s),
and O(s) := (Tw, qJ(w - s») is well defined, since W - s E 2Q and 0 E .1f(Q).
It follows from Cauchy's theorem that
1 O(s)h(s) ds = O.
_1_) =
Since
/ Tw , HT(S),
\ s- W
1 1
we have
- -1. G(T)(z)h(-Logz)- 1
dz = ----;- T(s)h(s)ds = (T,h).
A
D
2HZ y z 2z a
The previous propositions have the following corollary:
4.1.3. Corollary. Under the same hypotheses as the preceding proposition we
1 1
have
J(T)(~) = --.
1 dz
G(T)(z)e-SLogz_ = -.
1 G(T)(e-S)e SS ds.
2HZ y z 2m a
4.1.4. Corollary. Let K be a compact convex subset of Q, then the map

G: .1f'(K) 40 .1fo(Q(K», given by T 1--* G(T), is bijective.
Proof. It is clear from Proposition 4.1.2 that G is injective. To prove the surjec-
tivity, let g E .1fo(Q(K» and define
(T,h) = -~
2HZ
r g(z)h(_Logz)dz,
Jy z
which is independent of the choice ofloop y in C\e- K , as long as it has index 1
with respect to every point of e- K • We can thus assume it is a Jordan curve. It
is an easy consequence of this assumption that this fonnula defines an analytic

functional carried by K. In order to verify that G(T) = g, we use the definition
of G(T), for C; E Ext(y)
G(T)(l;) = (Tz, (1 -c;ez)-I)
= - -1.
2m
1
y
I dz
g(z)(1-c;exp(-Logz))--
z
= --1-.1
2m y
g(z)_I_ dz
z -C;
= g(l;).
The last identity holds because Indy (C;) = -1 and g(oo) = O. D
4.1.5. Corollary. A necessary and sufficient condition for two analytic func-
tiona Is T I , T2 E .J'f' (Q) to coincide is that there is no E Z such that the identity
~(TI)(n) = ~(T2)(n) for every n ~ no, n E Z.
Proof. Evidently there is a convex compact set K ~ Q such that both TI and T2
are carried by K. The analytic functionals Sj = enoz 1j (i.e., (Sj, h) = (1j, enoz h))
are also carried by K. Moreover, ~(SI(n)) = ~(S2)(n) for all n ~ O. By Propo-
sition 4.1.1, G(SI)(l;) = G(S2)(C;) for C; in a neighborhood of O. Since Q(K)
is connected, G(SI) == G(S2). The previous corollary implies now that SI = S2,
hence TI = T2. D
4.1.6. Theorem (Wigert, Leau, P6Iya-Carlson). Let f be an entire function of

exponential type such that there is a convex compact subset K of Q with the
property that for every 8 > 0 there exists a constant Ce > 0 verifying for all
ZEC
If(z)1 :::: Ce exp(HK(Z) + 8Izl)·
(a) If there is no E Z such that f (n) = 0 for every nEZ, n ~ no, then f = O.
(b) The Z-transform Z(f)(z) := L:n>O f(n)zn of the sequence (f(n)k,:.o is
holomorphic near z = 0, it has an analytic continuation to the whole open
set Q (K), and its Laurent development about z = 00 is
_ "f(-n).
~ zn
n:::O
(c) The discrete Laplace transform of the sequence (f(n))n:::o is defined by
the Dirichlet series F(s) := L:n>O f(n)e- nS , and it converges in the half-
plane Re s > -log rl (K). Moreover, it can be analytically continued to the
open set
C\ U(K + 2irrj),
je71
admitting the expansions:
(i) F(s) = - Lf(-n)e nS for Res < -logr2(K),
n:::1
and
(ii) F(s) = f(O) + lim ' " B(s + 2imr) in C\ U(K + 2irrj) ,
2 N-+oo L.J
Inl~N jEZ
where B is the Borel transform of f, rl(K) = d(O, e- K ), and r2(K) =

max{l~I: ~ E e- K }.
Proof. Since f = J(T) for a uniquely determined T E .jf'(K), (a) and (b) are
immediate consequences of the previous two propositions and their corollaries.
Furthermore, ZU) = G(T). It is also clear that F(s) = G(T)(e- S ) and, hence,
F admits an analytic to continuation to the connected open set
{s E C: e- s E Q(K)} = C\ U(K + 2irrj).

jEZ
The statement (i) of part (c) is now obvious from Proposition 4.1.1. To prove
(ii) we need to prove first a little lemma.
4.1.7. Lemma. The following expansion holds uniformly on compact subsets of

C\2rriZ:
1
---=-2+ I .
hm 1 .. L
1 - e- W N-+oo W - 2rrln
Inl~N
Furthermore, for every s ¢ UjEz(K + 2irrj), there is a neighborhood U of K

such that
1 1
- - : - - = 1 + lim ' " - - - - -
1 - et;-s 2 N-+oo L.i ~ + 2rrin - s
Inl~N
and this series converges uniformly for ~ E U.

Proof of Lemma 4.1.7. The function k(w) := 1/(1 - e- W ) - is meromorphic !
in C, is 2rr i -periodic, its poles are simple, located at the points 2rr i j, j E Z,
and of residue exactly 1, since
1 1 w
--- -
I
-2 = - - - + O(w 2).
1- e- W w 6
On the other hand, the auxiliary function defined by
l(w)'= lim L 1 = -I +2 L w
• N-+oo w - 2rrin w w 2 + 4n 2rr2
Inl~N n::-:I
is meromorphic in C with poles exactly in 2rriZ, since the convergence is

uniform in compact sets of C\2rriZ. This function is 2rri-periodic, its poles
are simple and with residue 1. Therefore, the function k - I is entire and 2rr i-
periodic.
Moreover, when 11m wi :s rr we have clearly,
1
lim = 1,
Re w-++oo 1 - e- W
1
lim
Rew-->-oo 1 - e- W
= O.
Fix some value 0 < CL < rr/2.1f WE Q and Iwi » 1, we have I Argw 21 ::: CL.
Then A := 2rr/w will also satisfy I ArgA 21 ::: CL and
~+2" w =~ 1+2" 1
w ~ w2 + 4n 2rr2 2rr ~ 1 + n 2A2
n~l n~l
IAI (
::: 2rr 1 +
2
~
in
n-l
dt
1 + (J2/2)t2IAI2
)
< ~
- 2rr
(1 + 2~ Jo IAI
roo ~)
1 + u2
IAI (
::: 2rr 1 +
rr~) '
TAl
which is bounded when IAI « 1, i.e., when Iwl » 1. These two observations
imply that k - I is bounded in 11m wi ::: rr, hence everywhere. Therefore, the
difference k( w) - I (w) = =
C constant, which can be evaluated at w O. It =
=
turns out that C = O. We conclude that k I, which proves the first part of the
lemma. The second part follows from the first by letting w = s - ~. We simply
take e > 0 sufficiently small, so that the sets Ve(K) + 2rrij remain pairwise
disjoint (recall that Ve(K) = (z E C: d(z, K) ::: eD, then ~ - s remains in a
compact set disjoint from 2rriZ when ~ E Ve(K). 0
Returning now to the proof of Theorem 4.1.6. We have already seen that
= /\ T, 1~) lim L
= !3'(T)(O) + N-->oo / T,
F(s)
1- e -s
Inl~N
\ S + 2rrln
1.
- ~
) .
On the other hand, from the diagram following Definition 3.3.12 we see that
/ T,
\ s +
2 1.
7rln - ~
) = rrT(s + 2rrin)
= C(T)(s + 2rrin)
=8(f)(s + 2rrin) = 8(s + 2rrin).
Thus,
F(s) = -1(0)
2
.
+ N-->oo
hm
L 8(s + 27rln), .
Inl~N
4.1.8. Example. Let T = [(-l)k/k!]8 k, so that K = {OJ. Then J(T)(l;) =

l;k/k!, C(z) = 7rT(z) = l/zk+l and
dk
( k!1 dl;k 1 )
G(T)(z) = 1 - ze~ ~=o
For k = 0 we have G(T)(z) = I/O - z) and
1 1
G(T)(e- S ) = 1- e- S
= 4+ N--+oo
lim '"
~ S -
.
27rln
(s ¢ 27riZ).
Inl::::N
For k ::: 1 we have G(T)(z) = Pk(z)/O - z)k+l, where Pk is a polynomial

of degree k. Moreover,
1
=L
nEZ
(s - 27rin)k+l
(s ¢ 27riZ),
which can be developed as
for Res> 0,
Res < o.
More generally, the G-transform of T = 8~k) is of a rational function of the

form Pk(Z)/(l - zea)k+l, with Pk a polynomial of degree k.
4.1.9. Remark (On the Inversion Formula for the G-Transform). Let y be a
loop in e-Q\e- K of index 1 with respect to the points of e- K , we denote by
9Jt(g), the Mellin transform of g E Jt"o(C\e- K ), the entire function
9Jt(g)(z) := - - .
27r1
1 1 y
-
g(w)
wz+l
dz,
where W Z = eZ Log w. The inversion formula of G can be obtained from the

commutativity of the following diagram (see Proposition 4.1.2):
;j
where
Exp(K) := {f E Jf(C) : "1£ > 0, 3Cs ::: 0
such that If(z)1 ~ CseHK(z)+slzl, z E q.
We also consider Exp(Q) := UKccn Exp(K).
We would like to find now some explicit formulas for the inverse m- i of the
bijective map m: Jfo(Q(K)) ~ Exp(K).
Let f = 'J(T). For 0 < ({J+ < rr /2 and -rr /2 < ({J- < 0 we denote by y+ =
y+(a, ({J+) (resp. y_ = y_(a, ({J-)) the half-lines of origin a E ] - 1, O[ making
an angle ({J+ (resp. ((J-) with the positive real axis. Let y be the broken line y_y+.
As we shall now see, for Izl sufficiently small we have the integral representation
G(T)(z) =~
21
1y
(w) e-irrwz w dw
SInrrw
(0 < Izl « 1).
For n ::: 0 let Yn be the loop of base point a suggested by Figure 4.1.
Let 0 < z « 1, the residue theorem yields
1
--:-
21
1v
,n
_.few) . z W dw
_ _ e- I1rW
SInrrw
= rr " Res (f(W)'
'~
O~k~n
_._ _ e- I1rW z W , w
SInrrw
= k)
= L f(k)zk.
O~k~n
(n+ 1/2-a) tan q\ - - - - - - -
a
-1 n + 1/2
(n + 1/2 - a) tan !p_ _ _____ _
Figure 4.1
Let us now verify that the integrand is integrable along y+. In fact, we let
z = re ie
and w = peiC(J+ + a. The denominator is bounded below, since
I sin:rrwl ::: cexp(:rrp sin<p+)
for some c = c(<p+, a) > O. Hence, when w E y+ we have for arbitrary e > 0,
If (w)e-ilfWz WI C eP(HK(ei~+)+e)ra+cosC(J+e-pe sinC(J+elfP sinC(J+
-'-'------'-_ _--'- < e
I sin:rrw I c exp(:rrp sin <p+)
On the other hand,
() sin<p+ - Hk(eiC(J+) - e - (cos<p+)logr > 0
for all 0 < r « 1, since cos <p+ > O. Therefore, the integrand satisfies
If(w)e-ilfWzwl _
-'-'---------'- < c' e p8
I sin:rrwl - ,
for some c' > 0 and /) > 0 that can be chosen independent of r, (), as long as
o< r « 1. This confirms that the integral over y+ converges uniformly and
absolutely for all z E B(O, ro)\{O}. The same is true for y_.
On the other hand, consider the vertical segment rn of Yn, w = n + ~ + iu,
(n + ~ - a)tan<p_ :::: u :::: (n + ~ - a)tan<p+. We have
If(w)1 :::: Ce eA (n+(1/2)+lu l) :::: C;e Bn
for some A, B > O. Furthermore,
and
elf1ul
I sin:rrwl I sin(:rr(n + ~) + iu)1 = I coshul ::: -2-'
so that
for some C, B' > O. Clearly, the upper bound tends to zero when n --+ 00 if
0< r < ro « 1.
As a consequence, we obtain that for 0 < Iz I < ro « 1
1
---:-
21
1y
_.f(w).
_ _ e- l1fW zWdw
Slll:rrw
= "~ f(n)zn = G(T)(z),
n~O
since the series also converges for small Izl. Note that the value of the integral
we obtained does not depend on the choice of arg z. On the other hand, for
z = 0, the value of the integral obtained setting Ow = 0 does not necessarily
coincide with G(T)(O) unless f(O) = O.
We are going to use these remarks to show that the integral converges and
represents G(T) for all z ¢ (e- L U {OD, L := K + ] - 00,0].
For that purpose we consider separately the convergence of the integral over
y+ and over y_. Let z ¢ (e- L U (O}), z = re ili , then the integral over y+ is
absolutely convergent if there is an 8 > 0 such that
On the other hand, the definition of Hdz) = sup{Rez~: ~ E K} implies that

a + if3 E K if and only if for every ({J with -n :s ({J :s n one has
Thus, a + if3 E L if and only if the inequalities (**) hold for -n /2 :s ({J :s n /2.
Since z ¢ (e- L U (O}), then the points -log Izl - i arg z ¢ L for any choice of
argz. Clearly, if a + if3 ¢ L, then a + if3 + t ¢ L for any t 2: O. Therefore, for
the given ({J+(O < ({J+ < n/2), since the inequality (**), with ({J = ({J+, determines
the supporting line of L slope tan(n /2 - ({J+), we can choose a determination
of arg z such that the point - log Iz I - i arg z lies on the open side of this line
and the set L on the other. (Namely, if argz E ] - n, n] does not work, we can
choose argz E ] - (2n + 1)n, -(2n - 1)n] for n » 1.) (See Figure 4.2.) It is
clear that we can find a half-strip R+ = {a + if3: a > ao > -00, f31 < f3 < f32,
f32 - f31 < 2n} such that -log Iz I - i arg z E R+ and there is 8 > 0 such that
for every a + if3 E R+
a cos ({J+ - f3 sin ({J+ 2: HK(ei'P+) + 28.
The image of R+ by the map a + if3 f-* e-(a+ifj) will be the open angular
sector S+ = R E C, 0 < Izl < e- ao , -f32 < arg~ < -f3d and z E S+. Since
(**) holds now for every point ~ E S we see that the integral over y+ defines
a holomorphic function of ~ in the sector S+. In exactly the same way we
construct a sector S_ such that the integral over y_ defines a holomorphic func-
tion of t;. Now z E S = S+ n S_ and we have a holomorphic function defined
in S, which for 0 < Izl < ro coincides with G(T)(~) since, as we said before,
1t
-1t
Figure 4.2
for those values the integral representation does not depend on the choice of
arg ~. We conclude that the integral representation is now valid everywhere in
C\(e- L U (O}) because G(T) is holomorphic and single valued there.
In the same fashion, if we take ({J+ E ]1l', 1l' /2[, ({J- E ] - 1l', -1l' /2[ and
consider the path Y«({J+, ({J-, a) = Y defined as before, then the integral
-~
21
1 !(w) (_z)W dw
JI S1D1l'W
represents G(T)(z) outside e- A , A = K + [0, oo[ (see Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3
4.1.10. Remark. If f = ~(T), T E Jr'(Q), let K denote the minimal convex

carrier of T. Then,
. log If(r)1
hf(O) = r-->oo
hm
r
= zeK
supRez
and the radius of convergence of the series Ln::-:o f (n )zn is exactly exp( -hf (0».
Hence,
lim sup v'lf(n)1 = exp(hf(O»
n-->oo
and
· log If(n)1
11m sup = hf (0) .
n--+oo n
This is a theorem originally due to P6lya which can be easily derived from the
previous Remark 4.1.9.
We are going to use the G-transform to study some classical results about
holomorphic functions. The first question to study is that of the convergence of
the Newton series of an entire function. (An excellent reference for this subject
is [Ge].)
We recall from [BG, p. 237] that if I is an entire function, its nth divided
difference Don = Don (f) is given by
Don = I: (~) (_l)n- j I(j)·

0< ·<n
_J_ ]
The Newton series I is the series
'"' z(z - 1) ... (z - n + 1)

~Don •
n~
O n!
Clearly, if I is a polynomial, the series terminates and its sum coincides with
I. The empty product has the value one, as always.
Let U = {z E Q: le z - 11 < I}. This set is an unbounded open convex subset
of Q whose boundary is the curve
x = log cos y + log 2, Iyl <]f.
Note that B(O, log 2) 5; U. (See Figure 4.4.)
7t
Log 2
-7t
Figure 4.4
4.1.11. Proposition. Let I be an entire function in Exp(K) lor some convex

compact set K 5; U. The Newton series 01 I converges uniformly over any
compact subset of C and
f(z) = L f:1.n(f)_z(_z_-_I_)._._.(_z_-_n_+_l_) (z E C).

O n!
n~
Proof. For z E C fixed, S > 0, and ~ E Ve(K) cc U, we can write

eZI; = [(el; - 1) + 11'
and use the binomial series to obtain
eZI; = L(el; _ It z(z - 1) ... (z - n + 1) .
O n!
n~
This series converges uniformly on Ve(K). Hence, if T E .tf1(K) is such that

f = ~(T) we have
f(z) = ~(T)(z) = (TI;, ezl;) = L(T, (el; _ l)n) z(z - 1)··· (z - n + 1).
O n!
n~
It is easy to see that
(T,(el;-W) = L (~)(-I)n-j(T,el;j}=f:1.n(f).
O:;;J:;;n
Therefore, the Newton series converges pointwise to f. Since T is carried by

K, there is an Me > 0 such that
If:1. n(f)1 = I(T, (el; - It}1 .::: Me sup leI; - lin.::: MeP. (K, s)]n,
l;eV£(K)
with A(K, s) := sup{lel; - 11: ~ E Ve(K)} < 1. We leave it as an exercise to the
reader to show that for any R > 0 the power series
L
R(R + 1) ... (R + n - 1) r n
__________________
n!
n~l
has radius of convergence 1. Letting Izl .::: R, r = A(K, s), this ensures that the
Newton series converges uniformly over compact subsets of Co 0
4.1.12. Corollary. If the function f in the preceding proposition satisfies f(n) E

Zfor every integer n ~ 0, then f is a polynomial with rational coefficients.
Proof. The divided differences f:1. n (f) E Z for every n ~ 0 but f:1. n (f) ~ 0 as
n ~ 00, since the Newton series converges. Hence, f:1.n(f) = 0 for n ~ no- 0
We are now going to study the influence on functions f E Exp(Q) of a poly-

nomial behavior on the integers, i.e.,
If(n)1 .::: Alnl P +B (n E Z).
For that purpose, let us consider the space A of analytic functionals carried
by a compact subset of {OJ + i] - n, n[, and by 13 the space of those carried
by a compact subset of 1l'\{-I}, 11' = aB(O, 1). There are two special subspaces
in A and B. In 13 we have the elements of 'V' (11') with compact support in
1['\ {-I}, let us call/3 this subspace. In A we have the subspace A of those
analytic functionals for which there is a distribution R E £' (] - rr, rr [) such that
(T, h) = (Ry, h(iy» for every h E Je(Q).
The relations between these spaces are given by the following statement:
4.1.13. Proposition. The map which to every TEA associates the element
S E B defined by
C(S)(z) = -G(T)(z), z E C\1[',
is a linear isomorphism of A onto B that maps A onto 13.
Proof. Let us recall (Definition 1.6.9) that the Fantappie transform of S E Je' (1[')
is the pair (Sl, S2) given by
Sl(Z) = \/ St, _1_)

t- z
for Izl < 1,
for Izl > 1,
so that Sl(Z) = -rrS(z) = -C(S)(z) for Izl < 1 and S2(Z) = rrS(z) = C(S)(z)
for Izl > 1. Moreover, the map S f-+ (Sl, S2) is an isomorphism of Je'(1[') onto
Je(B(O, 1)) x Jeo(C\B(O, 1».
If qJ is a function holomorphic in the complement of a compact set L £;
1['\{-1}, which is zero at 00, then the functional S E JeI(1[') defined by
Sl = qJIB(O, 1) and S2 = -qJl(C\B(O, 1) is carried by L. Let y be a loop
in C\] - 00,0] of index 1 with respect to L, then we can define T by
(T,h) = --I-.1qJ(Z)h(-LOgZ)dz.
2rrl y z
By Corollary 4.1.4, T is carried by any compact convex set K such that L £;
e- K , in particular, TEA. Furthermore, qJ = G(T).
=
Conversely, if TEA, the function qJ G(T) allows us to define S E B such
=
that C(S) -qJ, and hence, S (T). =
= = =
If S (T) 0, then qJ -C(S)
°A =
0, hence G(T) 0, and since T is =
carried by {O} + i[ -a, a], for some :os a < rr. we obtain T = 0. We conclude
that is a linear isomorphism from onto B.
If T can be represented by a distribution R E £10 - rr, rrD and S = (T),
we have
1~(T)(n)1 = I(TI;, enl;}1 = I(R y , einY}1 :os C(1 + Inl)D
for some C, D > 0. Since S = -(1/rr)G(T), we can apply Propositions 1.6.10,
1.6.14, and 4.1.1 to conclude that the Fourier coefficients Cn (S) satisfy
Icn(S)1 :::: C(1 + Inl)D
and S E V'(1['). Hence (A) £; 13.
Now let S E /3, then Sl and S2 have slow growth on a neighborhood of 1[',
i.e.,
=
for some M ~ 0, k ~ O. As a consequence, if G(T) -C(S), we have that
G(T)(e- S ) satisfies a similar inequality in a neighborhood of i] - rr, rr[. In the
proof of Proposition 4.1.2 we showed that
G(T)(e- S ) = rrT(s) + O(s), I Imsl < rr,
with 0 holomorphic in 11m s I < rr. Therefore, T has slow growth near i] - rr, rr [.
Since T is holomorphic inside a compact subset of i] - rr, rr[, the Edge-of-the-
Wedge Theorem [BG, Theorem 3.6.23] ensures the existence of distribution R
with compact support in ] - rr, rr [ such that
= (R y , h(iy»)
(T, h)
for every h E Jr(Q). We conclude that (A) = B. o
4.1.14. Proposition. Let T E Jr'(Q). A necessary and sufficient condition for
the existence of a distribution R E e' (] - rr, rr [) such that
(T, h) = (R y , h(iy»), hE Jr(Q),
is that ~(T)(n) = O(lnIP)for some pEN.

Proof. To show that the condition is necessary we observe that as a consequence
of the Paley-Wiener-Schwartz Theorem 1.4.15
1~(T)(z)1 = I{T~, e~Z)1 = I{R~, ei~Z)1 ::: C(1 + Izl)Peallrnzl
for some 0 ::: a < rr. Hence
1~(T)(n)1 ::: C(1 + Inl)p.
Conversely, if ~(T)(n) = O(jnI)P and S = (T), then cn(S) = O(lnI)P, so
we conclude that S E V'(']['). The conclusion follows from the preceding propo-
sition. 0
4.1.15. Corollary (Cartwright's Theorem). Let f be an entire function of expo-

nential type for which there is a convex compact set K £ Q such that for every
e > 0 there exists Ce ~ 0 such that
(z E C).
Iffor some pEN, f(n) = O(lnIP),for all nEZ, then there is a E [0, rr[ and
C > 0 such that
(z E C).
4.1.16. Corolla:ry. If f is an entire function of exponential type zero such that

for some pEN, f(n) = O(lnI P) (n E Z), then f is a polynomial of degree at
most p.
Proof. The distribution R from the preceding Proposition 4.1.14 will have
support at the origin. 0
There are elements of Exp(Q) such that their zero sets contain the complement
of a set of the form Z\pZ, for some p E N*. For instance, if w = e 2rri / 3 is the
cubic root of unity, consider the function
+ e WZ + eW Z)g(z)
2
fez) := (1
with g E Exp(~Q). Then f E Exp(Q) and it verifies
f(3n) = 3g(3n), f(3n + 1) = f(3n + 2) = 0
for every n E Z. Let g = J(T), then
f = J«o + Ow + o(2) * T)
and the function

G(z) = G«o + Ow + o(2) * T)(z) = Z(f)(z)
satisfies the functional equation
G(wz) = G(z).
In fact, for Izl « 1 we have

G(z) =L f(n)zn =L f(3k)z3k
n:O:O k:o:O
and
G(wz) = L f(3k) (wz)3k = L f(3k)z3k = G(z).
k:o:O
Let Jlfo := UK Jlfo(Q(K» and let K be a convex compact subset of Q. We

would like to determine all the G E JIf 0 such that for some w E C* one has
G(wz) = G(z), z E Q(K).
4.1.17. Lemma. If G E Jlfo\{O} and WE C* satisfy G(wz) = G(z) for all z E

Q (K), then w is a root of unity.
Proof. We have G = G(T), T E JIf'(Q)\{O}, and
G(wz) = L J(T)(n)(wzt = L J(T)(n)zn for Izl« 1.

n:O:O n:O:O
If J(T)(n) = 0 for n ::: 1, then G is a constant, hence G == O. Therefore, there

is n ::: 1 such that J(T)(n) =1= O. We conclude that w n = 1. 0
For G, w as in Lemma 4.1.17, let p = inf{n E N*: wn = I}. Then we can

assume w = e 2rri / p in the equation G(wz) = G(z). Let us denote by Sk the
angular sector
1 .:5 k .:5 p.
Let Dk be the ray

Dk := {z = -Au/, A::: OJ, 1 ::: k ::: p.
4.1.18. Lemma. There are compacts Lk S; Sk o/the/orm Lk = e- Kk , where Kk

are convex compact subsets 0/ n, pairwise disjoint, such that G is holomorphic
outside the set UI::::k::::P Lk;
Proof. We know G is holomorphic in a neighborhood of Dp = ] - 00,0]. The
functional relation G(wz) = G(z) implies G is holomorphic in a neighborhood
of each of the rays Db I ::: I ::: p. Therefore, there is a compact Ken, K
carrier of T, G = G(T), such that L = e- K is disjoint from all the rays Dk.
We can hence assume L = UI::::k::::P Lb Lk = e- Kk , with Kk convex compact,
pairwise disjoint. (See Figure 4.5.) 0
For every k choose Jordan curves Yk in Sb with Lk S; Int(yd. We have from

an obvious extension of Proposition 4.1.2 and Corollary 4.1.3 that
J(T)(~) = - -1. ~
2rrl
"1
I::::k::::p Yk
G(T)(z)e-SLogz_.
dz
z
Since any point in Yk is of the form z = wk-Iu, where u E YI, and Logz =
Log u + [2(k - l)rri]1 p, we have
1
G(T)(z)e-SLogzdz = e-[2(k-I)7ri/p]S
Yk z Yl
1
G(T)(u)e-pogudu.
u
On the other hand, there is an analytic functional S carried by (II p)Q such
that
(S,h} = --I-.1G(T)(e-iO-,/P)7rZ)h(-LOgZ)dz,
2rrl Y z
rc/3
rc
rc/3
Do
0
-rc/3
-rc -rc/3
(p = 3)
Figure 4.5
y = ei(l-l/p)Jr yl . Hence,
~(S)«() = __1_.ei(1-l/P)Jr~
2Jrl
1YI
G(T)(z)e-~Logzdz
z
and
~(T)(n = ei(l-l/p)Jr~ ( L e-[2(k_l)Jri/ PR ) ~(S)«().
l:;:k:;:p
We can now state the following proposition:
4.1.19. Proposition. Let p E N*, w = e2Jri / p. For any T E Je'(Q) thefollowing

three conditions are equivalent:
(1) The function G = G(T) verifies the functional equation
G(wz) = G(z) (z E Q(K».
(2) ~(T)(n = ei(1-I/p)Jr~ L: e-[2(k-l)1fi/ PR )

( ~(S)(n
l:;:k:;:p
for some S E Je'((1/p)Q).
(3) The function ~(T) satisfies ~(T)(n) = 0 for every n E 7L.\p7L..
Proof. We already know that (1) implies (2). The fact that (2) implies (3) follows
from the fact that for n E 7L.\p7L. one has
1 - w- np
1 + w- n + w- 2n + ... + w-(p-l)n = = O.
1-w-n
Finally, if ~(T)(n) = 0 for all n ¢ p7L., one clearly has
L ~(T)(n)zn = L ~(T)(n)(wzt
n:,:O
and thus, G(wz) = G(z). o

4.1.20. Corollary. Let f = ~(T), where T is an analytic functional carried by
a convex compact set K S; Q, be such that f (7L.) = O. Then f has the form
f«() = (sinJr()~(S)«(),
where S is an analytic functional carried by a compact subset ofR

Proof. Let R be the analytic functional carried by ~ K such that ~(R)«() =
f«(/2). Then ~(R)(2n) = 0 for all n E 7L.. Hence, G(R)(-z) = -G(R)(z).
Define RI by zG(Rl)(z) = G(R)(z). Then G(Rl)( -z) = G(Rd(z) and
~(Rl)«() = ~(R)«( + 1). This means that RI = eWR, Le., (RI, hew)} =
(R, eWh(w)}. Clearly RI is also carried by ~K S; n,
so that G(R I ) is
holomorphic in the half-plane Rez < O. Therefore G(R l ) is holomorphic in
C\iR From the preceding Proposition 4.1.19,
~(RI)(n = (1 + e-iJr~)ei~1f/2~(SI)(n = (2 cos ~( ) ~(Sl)«()'
with Sl E .n"/(~n), and G(SI)(Z) = 2G(R 1 )(iz). Hence G(SI) is holomorphic

in C\JR., as a consequence Sl is carried by a compact subset of R Moreover,
~(R)(l;) = ~(Rl)(l; - 1) = (2 sin ~l;) ~(Sd(l; - 1)
= (2 sin ~l;) ~(e-WS1)(l;)

and
f(l;) = (sin Jrl;)~(2e-W Sd(2l;).
From the properties of the Fourier-Borel transform we conclude there exists
S, carried by a compact subset of JR., such that
~(S)(l;) = ~(2e-W SI)(2l;).
Hence,
f(l;) = (sin Jrl;)~(S)(l;),
with S carried by a compact subset of JR., as we wanted to show. o
4.1.21. Example. Consider a special case of the previous Corollary 4.1.20 when
K is the minimal compact convex carrier of T, K s:; n, and an n K = {a -
i Jr, a + i Jr }, for some a E JR., always with the assumption f (Z) = O.
We have
f(l;) = (sinJrl;)h(l;),
with h(l;) = ~(S)(l;), S carried by a compact subset of R
The function e-a~ f(l;) corresponds to the minimal carrier K - a. We have
(K - a) nan = {±iJr}, Since,
e-al; f(l;) = (sinJrl;)e-al;h(O,
we have that gel;) = e-a~ h(l;) must be an entire function of exponential type
zero and g = ~(R), with R carried by to}. If not, let the minimal convex carrier
of R be [a, .8] and T be such that f = ~(T). Then
1
T = 2i (Oin: - Lin:) * R * oa
would have its minimal convex carrier of the form [a + a, .8 + a] = i [ -Jr, Jr]
which contradicts the hypothesis on an n K = {a ± iJr}. Therefore, we conclude
that
f(O = (sinJrOea~ g(l;),
with g a function of exponential type zero.
4.2. Integral Valued Entire Functions

In this section we shall consider entire functions of exponential type that are
integral valued, i.e., f (N) s:; Z. In signal processing it is standard to call Z-
transform of a sequence (unk:~o the series
If Un = !(n),! E Exp(Q) and z = lis we obtain the Z-transform Z(f)(s)

introduced in the last section. What we are be trying to find out is when Z (f)
is a rational function in case ! is also integral valued. In this case it will tum
out that ! must be an exponential polynomial.
Let us start by considering a rational function G, which is zero at 00 and has
no pole at z = 0,
G(z)
N(z)
= -D(z) =
ao + alz + ... + as_Iz s- 1
= -zn
L Un
bo + biz + ... + bs ZS n:::1
with bobs =I 0, although as-I may be zero. We write the decomposition of G in

partial fractions in the convenient form
°
where the values Zj =I are the poles of G of respective mj 2: 1, 1 :::: j :::: M.
The advantage of writing G in this form depends on the fact that the Laurent
expansion at 00 of the different terms is very simple. In fact, for v 2: 0, a =I 0,
where the polynomials Pv are given by

Po(w) = 1,
(w - l)(w - 2) ... (w - v)
Pv(w) = , v 2: 1.
v!
Since Pv (1)
sion as
= ... = PAv) = ° for v 2: 1, we can rewrite the previous expres-
Applying this formula to the Laurent expansion of G at 00 we obtain
where Qj is a polynomial of degree at most mj - 1.

Conversely, assume that the Laurent expansion at 00 of a function G defined
for Izl » 1 has the form
G(z) = -Un
zn L
n:::1
and the coefficients Un can be written as
Un = L Qj(n)zj
15;h'iM
for some collection of nonzero polynomials Qj, deg Qj ::: mj - 1, and complex
numbers Zj =f. 0, 1 ::: j ::: M. We can appeal to the fact that (P\!}\!~o is a basis
of the vector space C[w] to express each Qj as
Qj = L Aj,\!P\!,
O~\!~mj-l
for some uniquely determined complex numbers Aj,\!. Then, for Izi » 1 we have
G(z) = L := = L (L Qj(n)z;) z-n

n~1 n~1 l~j~M
=L (L L Aj,\!p\!(n)z;) z-n
n~1 l~j~M O~\!~mj-I
which shows that G is a rational function.

In other words, a necessary and sufficient condition for the Z -transform
G(z) = En>1 unz- n to be a rational function is that the Un are the values
taken at the natural numbers n by an exponential polynomial of the form
EI~j~M Qj(w)zj.
One can obtain a different characterization by comparing coefficients in the
identity
N(z) = D(z) (L :=) .

n~1
That is,
- = (boi
ao + alz + ... + as-Iz s + ...s
+ bsz) (UI
-; + -;
U2 + . .. ) ,
which implies
bsUI = as-I,
bs-IUI + ... + bsU2 = as-2,
b2UI + b3U2 + ... + bsUs-I = ai,

blul + b2U2 + ... + bsus = ao,
boul + blU2 + + bsUS+I = 0,
boun + blUn+1 + + bsus+n = O.

Hence, the hypothesis bs =f. 0 implies that the sequence (Un)n~1 satisfies the
linear recurrence relation
n 2: 1,
(which is said to be of order s when bobs,," 0), with the initial conditions
UI =as_J/bs ,
U2 = (as-2 - bs-IUI)/bs,
Us-I = (al - b2UI - b3U2 - ... - bs- Iu s-2)/bs.

Conversely, let us show that if a sequence (Unk':l satisfies the linear recur-
rence relation
n::: 1,
with bs "" 0 and UI, ... , Us-I given, then the Z-transfonn Ln>1 unz- n is the
Laurent development at 00 of a rational function. To see this, we define
ao, ... ,as-I by the fonnulas
as-I := bsUI,
as-2 := bsU2 + bs-IUI,
which, together with the recurrence relation (*), show that

2: Un ao+alz+···+asz s- I
n::>:1
-;;; = bo + bIz + ... + bsz s
Note this reasoning did not use anywhere that bo "" O.

There is a third way to conclude that Ln>1 unz- n represents a rational function
near z = 00. Consider the relations -
k=n,n+1, ... ,n+s.
They can be interpreted to say that the nonzero vector (b o, ... , bs ) belongs to the
kernel of the linear transfonnation defined by the (s + 1) x (s + 1) symmetric
matrix
Un+1
( Un+1
U. Un+2 Un+s+1
U* ) .
M nS = .
Un+s Un+s+1 Un+2s

Therefore the sequence of their detenninants must be zero, i.e.,
H~ := detM~ = 0, n:::l.
These detenninants are called Hankel determinants of order s.
We remark that the nonzero vector (b o, ... , bs , 0) is in the kernel of M~+I,
hence H ns + I = 0 for all n >
- l.
4.2.1. Proposition (Kronecker). A necessary a1;ld sufficient condition for the

series Ln::>:1 unz- n, convergent for all large Izl, to be the Laurent development
at z = 00 of a rational function is that for some s 2: 0 and N 2: 1 the Hankel

determinants H ~ are zero for all n 2: N.
Proof. It only remains to show that the condition is sufficient.· For that purpose
we need a preliminary lemma.
4.2.2. Lemma. Let A = (aij h~i,j~n be a square matrix with complex coefficients
and let Aij be the cofactor ofaij. Denote D = detA and d = det(aijh~i,j~n-I'
then we have the relation
Al1Ann - AlnAnl = Dd.
Proof of Lemma 4.2.2. One can easily verify the following matrix identity:
al1 al2 al n AI,I 0 0 Al,n
A2,1 1 0 A2,n
A3,1 0 1· .. 0 A3,n
An-I,1 0 1 An-I,n
ani an2 ann An,l 0 0 An,n
al,2 al,n-l
a2,2 a2,n-1
(I :1
=
an-I,2 an-l,n-I
an,2 an,n-I
and conclude that
D(Al1Ann - AlnAnl) = D 2d.
If D i= 0 we obtain,
Al1Ann - AlnAnl = Dd
as we wanted. Since the invertible matrices are dense in the space of all n x n
matrices, this formula remains valid by continuity. 0
Let us now return to the proof of Kronecker's Proposition 4.2.1. Applying to

the Hankel determinants the last lemma, for k 2: 2 we obtain the relations
(t)
If for some fixed n one has Hj = 0 for all j 2: jo then one obtains from
these identities that H:+ I = 0 for all j 2: jo, hence H~ = 0 for all j 2: jo and
all m ~ n.
Let s be the smallest integer such that H~ = 0 for all n sufficiently big. By
hypothesis such an s exists. If s = 0, then Un = 0 for all sufficiently big n, and
then the conclusion of the proposition is true.
If s = 1, then we conclude from Lemma 4.2.2 that u~ - Un-IUn+1 = 0 for all
n sufficiently big. Hence, either uno = 0 for some no »
1 and then Un = 0 for
all n ::: no, in which case we are done, or Un -=1= for all ° n ::: no » 1. In this
case the quadratic equations leads to the relations
~ = Un+1 = Un +2 = ... = 11- -=1= 0,
Un+1 Un+2 Un+3
and letting bo = 1, b l = -11- we obtain the linear recurrence

for n::: no,
which implies the desired conclusion.

°
If s ::: 2, it must be that H ~-I -=1= for all n ::: N. If not, let no ::: N such that
°
H~o-I = 0. Since we have that H~ = for n ::: N by hypotheses, from (t) we
conclude that also H:o;'1 = 0, this clearly contradicts the minimality of s.
r
Hence, for n ::: N we can consider the system of s equations and s + 1
unknowns
+ + bs-Iun+s-I + bsu n+s =0,
u + bs-Iu n+s + bsUn+s+1
(tt)
bOUn+1
,
+ =0,
~oUn+s-1 + + b s- I u n+2s-2 + b sUn+2s-1 = 0.

It has rank exactly s since the s x s determinant H~-I -=1= 0. All the solutions
(b o, ... , bs ) of the system are of the form
Un+1 n +s
U )
= /I.'Hn+I'
( s- I
bo = Adet :
U n+s Un+2s-1
Un Un +2
n s
Un+1 Un +3 U +
Un+s-I )
(
bl = (-l))..det :
Un+s-I Un+s+1 Un+2s-1 '
Un Un+1 Un+s-I )
bs = (-1)s Adet ( : = (-1) s AH:- I •
Un+s-I Un+2s-2
Thus, the solution is nontrivial if and only if A -=1= 0. For such a solution we also
have
boun+s + blun+s+1 + ... + b sUn+2s = 0,
since
Un
s ( •
0= Hn = det .
Un+s-I
U n+s
( _1)s+1
= ). [boun+s + ... + bsUn+2S] .
Therefore, exactly the same (bo, ... , bs) chosen above will be a solution of the
system
bOUn+1 + ... + bsUn+s+1 = 0,
{ Un+2 + ... + bsUn+s+2 = 0,
bO
boun+s + ... + bsUn+2s = O.

This means that if we make a particular choice of (bo, ... ,bs ) for the system (tt)
when n = N, for instance, taking ). = 1, then, for this particular choice, all the
systems (tt) with n ::: N are satisfied and, in particular, the sequence (Un)n?:.N
satisfies a linear recurrence equation. This shows that En>o unz-n represents a
rational function in a neighborhood of 00. - 0
4.2.3. Corollary. Let the series G(z) = En>1 unz-n be convergent for large Izl.
A necessary and sufficient conditionfor G to-be the Laurent expansion at z = 00
of a rational function, which vanishes at 00, is the existence of an integer s ::: 1
such that the Hankel determinants Ht vanish/or all k ::: s.
Proof. Namely, the linear recurrence bou n + ... + bsu n+s = 0 can be rewritten as
boun + ... + bsun+s + OUn+s+1 + ... + OUn+k = 0
for k ::: s. Thus, as we already know that if G is a rational function then H: = 0
for n ::: 1 and some s ::: 1, we conclude that H: = 0 for all k ::: s and all n. In
particular Hf = 0 for all k ::: s.
=
Conversely, if Hf 0 for all k ::: s ::: 1, then from (t) we will have (Hf)2 =
=
Hf Hf - H~+I H;-I 0 for all k ::: s, etc. We conclude that H: 0 for all =
n ::: 1 and all k ::: s. The preceding proposition can now be used to finish the
proof. 0
=
4.2.4. Theorem (Fatou). Let G(z) En>o unz- n be the expansion about z 00 =
of a rational function. Let s ::: 1 be the smallest of the integers k ::: 1 for which
there is a polynomial Nko deg Nk ::: k - 1, and a polynomial Dko deg Dk = k,
such that G = Nk/ Dko and let
N(z) ao + alz + ... + as_Iz - s 1
G(z) = --
D(z)
= - -------
bo + bIZ + ... + bsz s
be such a minimal degree representation of G. Then, if all the Un are integers we
can choose the denominator D(z) = bo + bIZ + ... + bsz s to be a polynomial
with integral coefficients and bs = 1. In this case, the numerator N will also
have integral coefficients.
Proof. We want to show that bs = 1. For that purpose, choose integers CI, ••• , Cs
such that if Wn := CIU n + ... + CsUn+s-1o then WI = W2 = ... = Ws =I- O.
From the factthatthere is a representation G = Nsf Ds, with deg (Ds) = s, we
know that it follows that H:
= 0 for n 2: 1, and hence that there are nontrivial
solutions bo, ... , bs of the system
boul + ... + bsUs+I = 0,

{
~OUS+I + ... + bsU2s+1 = 0,
and, for each of them, the recurrence equations
bou n + ... + bsu s+n = 0
will be satisfied. Since the Un E Z we can choose bj E Z and further assume

that gcd(bo, ... ,bs ) = 1. Choosing then aj by the rule
as-I := bsUI,
as-2 := bsU2 + bs_IUI,
we obtain two polynomials N(z) = ao + alz + ... + as_Iz s- 1 and D(z) = bo +

biz + ... + bsz s in Z[z] and such that N f D = G. Moreover bs =I- 0, otherwise
we would contradict the minimality of the degree s. For the same reason N and
D are coprime. We can therefore assume bs > O. All that remains to do now is
to prove that bs = 1.
We can make a further simplification of the problem. We can assume there is
no common factor to all the Un. If dlu n for n 2: 1, then from the definition of
aj we see dlaj, 0 ::::: j ::::: s - 1. Hence we can divide all the aj and all the Un by
d and preserve the identities. To continue the proof we need a slight variation
on the well-known Gauss' lemma for primitive polynomials.
4.2.5. Lemma. Let P(z) = Lk<1 Pkzk, Q(z) = Lk<m qk zk , R(z) = Lk<n rk zk
be three formal Laurent series with integral coefficients, PI =I- 0, qm =I- 0, and
PQ = R. If neither of the sequences (pkh:sl, (qkh:sm' has a common prime
factor, then the same holds for the sequence (rkh:sn.
Proof of Lemma 4.2.5. Since PI =I- 0 and qm =I- 0, then n = I + m and rn =I- O.
Assume there is a prime d which divides all the rko k ::::: n. If d does not divide
PI, then we have rn = Plqm and this implies that dlqm. From the next identity,
rn-I = Plqm-I + PI-Iqm, we conclude that dlqm-I. Continuing in this fashion
we see dlqk for all k ::::: n. Therefore, we can assume dlpl, and hence there is
j ::: 0 such that dlpl,.'" dlpl_j and dlpl_j_l. Consider now the identity
qmPI-j-1 + qm-IPI-j + ... + qm-j-IPI = rm+l-j-l,

we can conclude as before that dlqm' Using the corresponding identities for rk,
k :s m + 1- j - 2, we obtain dlqi for all i :s m. This contradiction proves the
lemma. 0
Let us return to the proof of Theorem 4.2.4. Since N and D are coprime,
there are polynomials A, B E Z[z] and an integer m E N* such that
AN+BD=m.
We can rewrite this as
m = (A ~ + B ) D = (AG + B)D = CD,

where C is a Laurent series with integral coefficients (which is in fact convergent
for Izl» 1), C(z) = Lk<1 Ckzk, CI =/:. 0 (l E Z). If m =/:. 1 then is must be that
mlck, for all k. This is a consequence of Lemma 4.2.5, because the coefficients
bo, ... ,bs of D are coprime. Therefore we can assume that m = 1. Then the
coefficient of the larger power of z in the product CD is precisely clbs =/:. O. It
must be that 1+ s = 0 and clb s = 1. Hence bs = ±1, therefore b s = 1 by the
assumption bs > O. 0
4.2.6. Corollary. If Ln>1 unz- n is the Laurent series expansion at 00 of the

rational function G and-all the Un are integers, then all the poles of G are
algebraic integers.
In order to continue our study of the z-transform G(z) = Ln>o unz- n we

need to remind the reader of the notion of transfinite diameter and-some of its
properties (see, e.g., [BG, Chapter 4]).
Let E be a compact nonempty subset of C, then one considers the quantities
Mn(E) = inf{max
zeE
IP(z)l: P(z) = zn + alz n - I + ... + an}.
One knows that this infimum is achieved for some monic polynomial of degree
n whose roots line in cv(E). Any polynomial that achieves this minimum is
called a Cbebyscbev polynomial for E.
The transfinite diameter of E is the quantity
r(E):= lim (Mn(E))I/n.

n->oo
If Y is a union of Jordan curves YI, "', YI, with disjoint interiors, we will denote
Int(y) = UI::J:::I Int(Yj)·
We shall need the following fact about the transfinite diameter. For every
e > 0 there is a rectifiable curve Ye, which is the union of finite many Jordan
curves with disjoint interiors, such that E ~ Int(y) and
r(E) < r(lnt(Ye)) ::: r(E) + 8.

The first inequality is just a consequence of the monotonicity of the transfinite
diameter. To find the curve Ye we proceed as follows. Let m :::: 1 be such that
Mm(E) ::: (r(E) + 8/2)m. Choose a Chebyschev polynomial Tm of degree m,
and let Ye be the curve defined by the equation
This curve Y is a rectifiable union of finitely many Jordan curves with disjoint
interiors and
Int(Ye) = {z E C: ITm(z)1 < (r(E) + 8)m}.
For z E E we have (Tm(z)) = Mm(E) ::: (r(E) + 8/2)2, hence E ~ Int(Ye).
Consider now the monic polynomials of degree mn
Pn(z) = (Tm(z))n.
For z E Int(Ye) we have IPn(z)1 ::: (r(E) + 8)mn, hence

Mmn(Int(Ye)) ::: (r(E) + 8)mn
and therefore,
r(Int(Ye))::: r(E) +8.
Now let E be a compact subset of C, D = C\E, and g E Jtlfo(D). Let Y be
a finite union of rectifiable Jordan curves in D such that E ~ Int(y). Then
Un = -1.
2TlI
1
y
Z n-l G(z)dz.
Extend the domain of definition of the sequence Un to Z by letting Un = 0 if

n < O.
Let Pk(Z) = zk + pk,lZk-l + ... + Pk,k be a family of monic polynomials,
k :::: 1. We set
Pk«Un)) := Un + Pk,IUn-l + ' .. + Pk,kUn-k.
Then it is easy to see that we have
G(Z)Pk(Z) = L Pkz~~:)) .
n2:0
Note that if we let Po(z) == 1, Po«u n)) = Un, the last formula remains valid
for k = O.
Consider the Hankel determinants
UO Ul
( Ul U2
H~ := det : n::::1.
Un
It is clear that for any choice of polynomials Pk we have

Po«uo» P1«Ul» ... pn«un»)
PO«Ul» PI «U2)) ... Pn«u:.n+l»
Ho ( t.
= de .
Po«un» Pl«~n+l)) Pn«U2n))

since the detenninant is a multilinear alternating function in the columns.
Applying the same argument to the rows, we obtain
Po«uo)) PO«Ul)) ... Po«un» 1
Ho [ t«Ul»
= de
PI
.
PI «U2»
.
... PI «U.:n+l» .
Pn«Un» Pn«~n+l» Pn«U2n»

Observe that if for fixed k ::: 0 we consider the new sequence u~ := Pk«u n)),
nEZ, then
that is, the composition of the operators corresponds to the product of the poly-
nomials. Therefore, we also have
Po«Uo» P1«ud)
Pn«U n» )
Ho = det ( PO«Ul» Pn«~n+l»
Po(~Un)) PI «~n+l» Pn«U2n»

pJ«uo» POP1«Ul» ... pn«un)))
( PI Po«U I)) pl«U2» ... P1Pn«Un+l» .
= det
PnPo~(Un)) PnP1«Un+l)) P;«U2n))
Moreover,
Vj,k = Pj Pk«U n» = -1-.1
2rrl y
Pj(Z)Pk(Z)G(Z) dz.
z
After these preliminaries we can state and prove the following theorem due
to P6Iya-Carlson:
4.2.7. Theorem. Let I:n>O unz- n be the Laurent series expansion at 00 of a

function G h%morphic in D = IC\E, where E is a compact set with r(E) < 1.
If the coefficients Un are integers, then G is a rational function.
Proof. Let 8 > 0 be such that r' = r(E) + 28 < 1 and let y be the previ-
ously found rectifiable curve such that E ~ Int(y), r(Int(y)) :::: r(E) + £. Let
(Tkh:::o (To == 1) be a sequence of Chebyschev polynomials for Int(y).
We are going to transfonn the sequence Ho

of Hankel detenninants of (un)n:-:O
with the help of the sequence (Tkh:-:o. As we have seen above, if
Vj,k = -.
1
27rl
1 y
dz
G(z)1j(Z)Tk(Z)-,
Z
then
Let M = max ZEY IG(z)/zl and L be the length of y. Since the Tk are
Chebyschev polynomials for Int(y), there is a constant A > 0 (independent
of k) such that for z E Int(y)
ITdz)1 ~ A(r(lnt(y» + tf ~ A(rY.
Therefore,
and
From the Hadamard inequality for detenninants we have
IBnl
o <- IT_ (Iv- j,O
1+'" + lv-j,n I) <
A n +1
1
- (1 _ r,)n+1
(r,)n(n+I)/2.
OSjsn
Since r' < 1 there is an no such that for all n :::: no we have
A 1 (r,)n/2
- - - < 1.
1- r'
Hence, for n :::: no we have
IHol < 1.
On the other hand, the Un E Z for all n, whence Ho
E Z for all n. We conclude
that Ho= 0 for n :::: no. This implies that G is a rational function. D
It is now immediate from the discussion at the beginning of this section that
the following result holds:
4.2.8. Corollary. Under the same hypotheses as the P6lya-Carlson theorem

we have
Un = L Qj(n)z'j,
ISjSN
where the Zj are algebraic integers lying in E, together with all their conjugates,
and the Qj are polynomials with algebraic coefficients in the field generated by
Zl, ... , ZN and their conjugates.
In order to be able to apply the preceding theorem and its corollary we need
to find an elementary way to estimate1:(E) for rather simple compact sets E.
In particular, we assume that E has no holes, i.e., S2\E is simply connected.
It is known (see [BG, Chapter 4]) that there is a conformal map cp from E e
onto B(O, r)C, r = 1:(E), cp(oo) = 00, of the form
W = cp(z) = Z + Gro + -GrlZ + ...

hence, its inverse 1/f has the form
Z = 1/f(w) = w + ao + -al + ... Z
(see, e.g., [BG, Exercise 4.9.6]). Let us assume for simplicity that E is connected
and its boundary aE is regular of class Coo. We know that 1/f, cp admit a
Coo extension up to the boundary of B(O, r) and E, respectively (see, [BG,
Theorem 4.8.17]).
= =
For w re i8 we have dz 1/f'(w)dw, and the arc-length parameter s in aE
is given by
ds = rl1/f'(re i8 )ldO.
On the other hand, one can compute by residues
~
27l'1
1. iwi=r
1/f'(w) dw
w
=1
or, equivalently,
fo21r 1/f'(rei8 )dO = 27l'.
Hence, for the length L of aE one has
L = fo27r ds(O) = r 127r 11/f'(rei8 ) IdO,

and we conclude that 27l' ~ Llr, i.e.,
L
r = 1:(E) ~ 27l"
Moreover, there is equality if and only if
127r 1/f'(rei8 )dO = 127r 11/f'(rei8 ) IdO,

which can only occur if 1/f'(rei8 ) == 1, hence when E is a disk of radius r.
Let A = m(A) be the area of E, then
A =! r
iaE
x dy - y dx
=7l' (r2_laI12 _ ... _nlanI2 ... ) <7l'r 2

r2 r 2n -
°
as an elementary computation shows. (Parametrize aE, as earlier, using "".)
Equality holds if and only if an = for all n ~ 1, i.e., if and only if aE is a
circle. It follows that
~::::: r = r(E).
Finally, we have obtained
L
~- < r(E) < -
n - - 2n'
and observed that any of the two equalities implies that E is a disk of radius
r(E) and one has equality throughout. One can relax the hypothesis of Coo
regularity of aE to C 1 regularity ([Porn]).
4.2.9. Corollary. Let I:n>O unz- n be the Laurent expansion of a function f

holomorphic in the exterior of the unit disk. Assume further that the radius of
convergence of the series in liz is exactly 1 and that Un E Z for all n ~ 0.
Then, either B(O, 1r is the domain of holomorphy for f or f is a rational
function whose poles are algebraic integers lying, together with their conjugates,
in B(O, 1).
Proof. If there is a regular point Zo of aB(O, 1), it means that f admits an

analytic continuation across an arc of the unit circle, one can therefore construct
a compact set E, with Coo boundary, E C simply connected and L < 2n, such
that f is holomorphic in E C • Namely, just replace a convenient arc of aB(O, 1)
by its secant and smooth up the endpoints. By the previous inequality r(E) < 1
and we can thus apply Corollary 4.2.8. 0
4.2.10. Corollary. Let T be an analytic functional carried by B(O, 1) such that

:F(T) (-n) E Z for all n E N* then, either the minimal convex carrier of T is
B(O, 1) or T has the form of a finite combination of derivatives of Dirac masses
T = "\'
L...J ak .J·8(k)
Zj ,
k,j
where the values log Zj are algebraic integers lying together with their conjugates
in B(O, 1).
Proof. The last part is just a consequence of Theorem 4.2.4 and computation of
G-transforms in Example 4.2.8. 0
4.2.11. Lemma (Fekete). Let E be a compact subset ofe with r(E) < 1, then
there can be at most a finite number of algebraic integers with the property that
they and all their conjugates lie in E.
Proof. We recall that the quantities
On(E)=max{ II IZj-ZkI2In<n_l):zl, ... ,znEE}

'~I#::;n
have the property that r(E) = limHoo onCE). If we had infinitely many
algebraic integers lying together with their conjugates in E, there is an increasing
sequence of integers nk -+ 00 that for any nk there is a family ZI,···, znk
of distinct algebraic integers that contains all its conjugates. The product
TI'::;j<h::;nk (Zj - Zh)2 is a symmetric function on the roots of a certain polynomial
with integral coefficients, hence it is a nonzero integer. In order words,
II IZj - zhl 2 2: 1.
'::;j¥-h::;nk
It follows that
and thus
r(E) 2: 1. D
4.2.12. Lemma. Let P be a monic polynomial with integral coefficients and

S := {z E C: IP(z)1 < I}. The only algebraic integers lying together with all
their conjugates in the closure S are the zeros of P and the solutions of any
equation of the form (p(z))m = 1, mE N*.
Proof. Let y, E S be an algebraic integer such that its conjugates Y2, ... , Yn E S
also. Their product a = P(y,) . P(Y2) ... P(Yn) must be an integer, since it is
a symmetric function of the Yj, but la 1 < 1 by the definition of S, hence a = 0
and so P(Yj) = 0 for at least one j. It follows that P(YI) = ... = P(Yn) = O.
If y, E S is an algebraic integer, Y2, ... , Yn its conjugates, Yj E Sand
P(Yj) =1= 0, then P(y,), ... , P(Yn) are all algebraic integers of absolute value 1,
and this set contains all its conjugates. It follows from a theorem due to
Kronecker (see [PS, Part VIII, Exercise 200]) that they are roots of unity. This
concludes the proof of the lemma. 0
4.2.13. Remark. The previous two lemmas are due to Fekete [Fe], [Bu], who
also showed that if r(E) < 1 there is a monic polynomial P E Z[z] such that
E £ S = {z E C: IP(z)1 < I} (see the construction of Ye after Corollary 4.2.6).
Let us now return to the consideration of integral-valued entire functions of

exponential type.
4.2.14. Proposition. Let K be a convex compact subset ofQ = {z: 1Imzl < rr}
such that reeK) < 1. Then, every entire function f satisfying f(N*) £ Z and
such that for every e > 0 there is Ce > 0 such that
If(z)1 ::: CeeHdzl+elzl (z E C),
has the form

f(z) = L Pj(z)cj,
l:sj :sN
where Pj E Q[z] and Cj are algebraic integers belonging together with their
conjugates to e K , 1 ::::: j ::::: N. (cJ = ezlogcj).
Proof. Let T be the analytic functional carried by K such that f = ~(T). Recall
that T is such that (T, h) = (T, h), where h(z) = h( -z). Then T is carried by
-K and ~(T) = j. The function G(T) is holomorphic in lC\e K and has the
Laurent expansion
about z = 00.
From the previous results of this section we conclude that G(T) is a rational
function, all whose poles Zl, ... , ZN are algebraic integers, which belong to e K
together with all their conjugates, and
v ao + alz + ... + as_Iz s-
1
G(T)(z) = ~---...:---~
bo + biz + ... + bsz s
ao, ... , as-I, bo, ... , bs E Z, bs = 1.
Applying the inversion formula 6.1.3, we have
j(t;) = ~(T)(t;) = --1-.1

21Tl y
G(T)(z)e-(LOgZ dz
z
= L Pj(t;)e-(LogZj.
l:sj :sN
When we compute the integral by residues we see that the polynomials Pj have
algebraic coefficients. Namely, this follows the usual rule of computation of the
residues of a quotient. In fact the coefficients are in the field generated over Q
by Zl, ... , ZN and their conjugates. 0
4.2.15. Corollary. Let K and f be as in the preceding proposition. If there is

an integer m ~ 2 such that
K ~ {z E Q: le z - ml < I},
then
f(z) = P(z)mZ
for some polynomial P E Q[z].
Proof. The compact e K cc B(m, 1), hence r(e K ) < 1. Moreover, by Lemma
4.2.12, m is the only algebraic integer that together with its conjugates belongs
to B(m, 1) = {z: Iz - ml < I}. The remark atthe end of the proof of Proposition
4.2.14 implies that the polynomial P has rational coefficients. 0
4.2.16. Corollary. If K and f satisfy the hypothesis of the Proposition 4.2.14

and if, moreover,
K £ {z E Q: lezi < I},
then
f(z) = L Pk(z)cic,
l~k~N
there the Ck are roots of unity, Pk E Q[z].

Proof. There is an e > 0 such that eK £ B(O, 1) n {z: Rez > -1 + e}, so that
-r(e K ) < 1. We can apply Lemma 4.2.12 to P(z) = z and obtain that the Ck are
roots of unity and moreover the Pk have coefficients in the field Q(w), where
wm = 1 for some m E N*. 0
4.2.17. Corollary. Let f, K be as in Proposition 4.2.14, and K £ {z E Q: le z -

11.:::: I} then
f(z) = Po(z) + L Pk(Z)(1 + e21rirk),
l~k~N
1 1 -
rk E ] - 2' 2[nQ, Pk E Q[z].
Proof. There is e > 0 such that eK £ B(1, 1) n {z: Rez > e}, which ensures
-r(e K ) < 1. We can now apply Lemma 4.2.12 to P(z) = z - 1. The nonzero
roots of (p(z»m = 1 have the form 1 + e21rik/n, -n12 < k < n12. 0
One can prove that if oro > 0 is such that

-r(exp(B(O, oro))) = 1,
then oro E ]0.834, 0.845[. (See [Pi].) With this notation, we can prove the
following result:
4.2.18. Corollary. Let f be an entire junction of exponential type such that

If(z)1 < Me alzi
for some M > 0 and 0.:::: or < oro. Assume f(N*) £ Z. Then
f(z) = L Pk(z)ck'
l~k~N
where Ck are algebraic integers in B(O, ex) (together with their conjugates) and
Pk E Q[z]. Moreover,
{ 3+iJ3 3-iJ3}
(i) if ex < 0.8 then Ck E 1,2, 2 ' 2 ;
(ii) ifex < log ( 3 +;J3) then Ck E {I, 2};
(iii) if ex < log 2 then Ck = 1 (and f is a polynomial).

Proof. See [Pi].
The reader will find other interesting extensions of the results of this section
in [Gra], [Grum], [Bez], [Bu].
EXERCISES 4.1 and 4.2.

1. Let T be an analytic functional carried by a convex compact subset K of Q. Show
that the following two conditions are equivalent:
(i) The analytic functional T has the fonn
T = L L Ak.v8~~),
l:sk:SpO:::1J:::mk
where al,"" a p E Q, mk EN', Ak.v E C.

(ii) G(T) is a rational function that belongs to .ifo(Q) = UK'CCQ.ifo(Q (K'», of the
fonn G(T) = AlB with
B(z) = II (1 - eak Z)ILk
l:sk:sp
ai, ... ,ap E Q, J),k EN'.
2. Let TI and T2 be two analytic functionals carried, respectively, by the compact

convex subsets KI and K2 of Q. Assume that KI + K2 S; Q and KI - KI + K2 S; Q.
Show that for z ~ Int(YI) . exp( -K2), G(T1 * T2)(z) is given by
G(TI * T2)(z) = __1_.

21ft i
r G(T)(t)G(T2) (:)t dtt
Y1
where YI = exp(-rl)' with r l a convex polygonal curve such that KI S; Int(rl) S;

Int(r l ) S; Q. Use this expression to find the Laurent expansions of G(T1 * T2) at the
origin and at infinity.
3. Let us recall the generating functions of four classical families of orthogonal poly-
nomials.
(i) Chebyschev polynomials of the first kind, Cn :
'"
gl(t,Z)=L...Cn(t)Zn= 1 - tz 2'
O 1 - 2tz + z
n~
(ii) Chebyschev polynomials of the second kind, Un:
g2(t, z) = 'L...
" Un(t)z n =
1-
1
2tz + z
2'
n~
O
(iii) Legendre polynomials, Ln:
g3(t, z) = 'L...
" Ln(t)z n = 1 ,
n~O
v'1 - 2tz + z2
(iv) Gegenbauer polynomials, C;(A > 0)
g~(t, z) = L C~(t)zn = (1 _ 2t: + Z2)A '

n::::O
(a) For t E ] - 1, 1[ let 0, E ]0, 11'[ be such that cosO, = t, and define the convex sets
r
K l " = {OJ, K j " = i[-O" 0,] (j =2,3,4). Let j " be a positively oriented Jordan curve
in C\] - 00,0] enclosing exp( -Kj ,,). Show that the relations (for Izl sufficiently small)
~(T;,,)(z) = --2'
I
11'1
1
rj.r
gj(t, ~)e- zLo~d~
g -;-
'>
(l ::: j ::: 4)
define analytic functions T;" carried by Kj ".

(b) Show that if n EN and Pn represents either of Cn, Un, L n, C~ and g is the
corresponding generating function then
1
p.(t) = 211'i
r d~
}y g(t,~) ~n+l'
where y is a Jordan curve enclosing the origin such that exp( - K 2,,) is contained in the
exterior of y.
(c) Let K be a convex compact subset of n and J E Jt'o(n(K» be such that its
Taylor series at the origin is Ln>o an zn. Show that for every t E ] - 1, 1[, j = 1, 2,
such that K + Kj" £; n and K - K + Kj" (or Kj" - Kj" + K £; n) there is an analytic
functional Sj., carried by K + Kj" with the property that:
(i) ~(S\,t)(n) = a.Cn(t) for all n EN.

(ii) :F(S2,,)(n) = an U.(t) for all n EN.
J(ze i9r ) + J(ze- i9r )
(iii) G(SI.,)(Z) = 2 ' z E C\exp(-(K + K l .,».
(iv) z E C\exp(-(K + K2 .,».

(Hint: If K - K + Kj" £; n let c be a convex polygonal curve enclosing K, C =
exp(-c), and for z ¢ exp(-(Int(c) + Kj ,,» define Sj" by
Use residue calculus to obtain (i)-(iv). If Kj" - Kj" + K £; n just replace K by Kj" in
the previous construction.)
(d) Let t, S E ] - 1, 1[ be such that 20s + 0, < 11' (or Os + 20, < 211'), and let
Q(t, s, z) = 1 - 4tsz - 2(1 - 2t 2 - 2s 2)Z2 - 4tsz 3 + Z4. Show that for Izl < 1
1- z2
L Un (t)Un(s)z' = Q(t,s,z )'
n~O
'"' 1 - 3tsz + (21 2 + 2S2 - l)z2 - tsz 3

L..J Cn(t)Cn(s)zn = Q()
n~O t,s,z
" n 1 - 2tsz + (2S2 - l)z2

(<4) L...J Un(t)Cn(s)z = Q(
n~O t,s,z)
"Un(t)CA(s)zn
fUn- 2(t) [t (~) C~m)Cn-2m(S)]
= n_=_O_ _---'=-m_=_O_ _ _ _-,---_ _ _--=-__
(-z)"
L...J
n~O
n Q(t
'
S Z)A
,
(e) For every r E N*, t E] - 1, 1[, show that
r! I: (' + 1) Cn(t)(-z)n
"(n + 1)··· (n + r)Cn(t)zn = ---"n_=o'---_n_ _--:---,-_
L...J (1 - 2tz + z2),+1
1- Z2 ~ (:!~) Un(t)(-z)n
L(n + 1) ... (n + r)Un(t)zn = r! (1 - 2
tz + z2) r +1
n~O
(Hint: Use part (c) with I(z) = (1 - z)-r-1.)

The reader will find other applications of this kind of the G-transform, as well as the
akin G-transformation, in the recent work of Avanissian and his student, Supper [Avl],
[Av2], [AS 1], [AS2], [SuI], [Su2].
4. Let 1 be an entire function of exponential type such that for some convex compact
K ~ n and every e > 0 there exists a constant Ce > 0 so that 1 satisfies the inequality
I/(z)1 ~ C e exp(HK(z) + elzl).

Recall that under these circumstances, if 1 (N) =
{O}, then 1 == O. Assume now that 1 (N)
is a finite set:f. {OJ. Let T be the analytic functional carried by K such that 'J(T) = I.
(a) Show that G(T) is holomorphic in the unit disk.
(b) Show further that there are m E N* and a polynomial P of degree < m such that
G(T)(z) = P(z) .
1- zm
(c) Deduce that if y is a Jordan curve in C\] - 00,0] enclosing the mth roots of unity
different from -1, then
I(z) = _1_. ( P(~) e-zLog~ d~ .

2:JrI i y ~m - 1 ~
(d) Conclude that 1 is m-periodic and can be written as
I(z) = L I(n)km(z - n)
!
O~n<m
where
sin7rz
if m is odd,
. (7rZ)
msm -
km(z) = m~ "L...J e2rrij(zjm) = . ( m 7rZ)
sm (m - 1)-
Ijl<mj2 m
if m is even .
. (7rZ)
m sm -;;
Thus, with m' = [m/2] - 1 if m is even and m' = [m/2] if m is odd, we have
f(z) = "L.J CkexP (27rikZ)
--;;;- .
Ikl~m'
5. Let f be an entire function of exponential type that is periodic of period r E C\R

and satisfies
lim f(n)
Inl-oo
= O.
neZ
Conclude that f == O. (Hint: If If(z)1 ~ Ae Blzl , let m = [Blrl/7r] + I, and apply the
previous exercise to g(z) = f(rz/m).)
6. Let f be an entire function of exponential type and a, f3 E C such that
Im(a - f3) =F O. Assume that for some no E N we have
Ref(n +a) = Ref(n + f3) = 0 for all n::: no,
and, moreover,
lim f(n) = O.
Inl-oo
neZ
Show that f == O. (Hint: Consider fa(z) = 4(f(z + a) + f(z + a» and fp(z) =

4(f(z + f3) + f(i + f3». Show that for x E R, fa(x) = Re f(x + a), fp(x) =
Re f(x + f3), and thus f(z + 2i Im(a - f3» = f(z) for all z E C.) Prove the same result
if we assume 1m f(n + a) = 1m f(n + f3) for all n ::: no, instead of (*).
CHAPTER 5
Summation Methods
5.1. Borel and Mittag-Leffler Summation Methods

Given a power series f(z) = En>oanz n of radius of convergence R,
o< R < 00, we are trying to find explicitly the analytic continuation of f
to the largest domain; star-shaped with respect to the origin, to which f admits
an analytic continuation. Let us denote by DU) that domain. (Why is it well
defined?) We shall obtain DU) as the union of certain domains BpU), such that
in each of them we shall be able to describe explicitly the analytic continuation of
f, these domains are parametrized by p ~ 1. The domain DU) is called the star
ofholomorphy of f. We start by explaining how to determine BU) = B,U),
usually called the Borel polygon of f.
For z E C* let us denote by Kz the closed disk Kz := B(z/2, IzIJ2). Kz can
also be defined by
Kz = R E C*: 3r E C* such that ~ = t'Z, Re(1/r) ~ I} U (OJ.
Since for. #- 0, Re(1/.) ~ 1 if and only if r E B(4, 4) - (OJ.
Let us denote MU) = M,U), the set
MU) := (z E C: K z S;; DU)}.
As an example, let Zk #- 0, 1 .::: k .::: N, R := inf{lzkl; 1 .::: k .::: N}, and the
series f(z) = En~oanzn be the Taylor series about z = 0 of the rational function
N Ak
L
k='
Z-Zk·
Then one can easily verify that
DU) = C\ ( U (AZk: A ~ 1})

':=,k:=,N
and that M U) is the intersection of the open half-places 1tko which contain the
origin and are bounded by the lines Lk perpendicular to Zk and passing through
Zk (i.e., Lk =(z: Re«z - Zk)Zk) =
O}.) In this case M(f) is a convex polygon.
On the other hand, if B(O, R) is the domain of holomotphy of a function f
then D(f) = MU) = B(O, R).
299
300 5. Summation Methods
One of the essential points of the theory is contained in the following simple
lemma. (Compare with Theorem 1.3.11.)
°
5.1.1. Lemma. Let < R < 00 be the radius of convergence of the series f (z) =
L:n~o anz n • In the disk B(O, R) we have the integral representation
f(z) = 1 00
e- t 131(f)(tz)dt,
where 131 (f)(z) := L:n~oanzn In!, which is an entire function of exponential type
exactly II R.
Proof. In fact, we have lim sUPn-+oo V'la n I = II R. Hence, for every e >
is an integer ne such that
° there
lanllzl n ) -Izl n
- - - < ( -+e
1
n! - R n!
This inequality shows that 131 (f) is an entire function and, moreover, it is of
exponential type at most 1I R. We leave to the reader the task of checking that
the type is exactly 1I R.
From the obvious identity
n! = 100
e-tt n dt, n ::: 0,
we obtain
On the other hand, for z fixed, Izl < R, we can choose e > °with the property
that f.L := Izl(11 R + e) < 1. Hence, for n ::: n e , t > 0,
-t '"" lanllzlnt n < -t '"" (tf.L)n < -(I-JL)t

e ~ , _e ~ ,_e ,
n~nt
n. n~nB
n.
which is an integrable function on [0, 00[. This allows us to conclude that
and the proof is complete. o

A similar proof leads to the following lemma:
5.1.2. Lemma. With the same notations as in the previous lemma, assume that
Zo E C* is such that the function t 1-+ e- t 131(f)(tzo) is integrable in [0, 00[.
Then:
(i) for every A, 0 < A :::: 1, Z = AZo, the function t f-+ e- t 13\(f)(tz) is inte-
grable on [0, oo[ and
1 00
e- t 13\(f)(tz)dt = s 1 00
e-st13\(f)(tzo)dt,
with s = 1I A ~ 1;
1
(ii) the function
e- st 13\ (f) (tzo) dt
00
S f-+ S
is holomorphic in the half-plane Re s > 1;

(iii) the function fzo defined by
fzo(z) := Zo roo e-tzo/z13\(f)(tzo)dt

z Jo
is holomorphic in K Zo and it coincides with f on the segment z = AZo, 0 <
A < min{1, Rllzol}. In particular, f and fzo define a holomorphic function,
still denoted fzo' in the open set B(O, R) U Kzo.
Proof. There is nothing to prove in (i), it is just a change of variables. On
the other hand, if Res ~ 1 we have le- st 13\(f)(tzo)l:::: e-tl13\(f)(tzo)l. This
immediately guarantees the condition (ii) (see [BG, §1.2.9]). To prove (iii), we
use that the earlier description of K Zo tells us that Re(zol z) > 1 is equivalent to
°
z E K zoo Hence, fzo is holomorphic in K Zo by (ii) and coincides with f on the
segment AZo, < Amin{1, Rllzl} by (i). Therefore, fzo = f on B(O, R) n K zo '
and the conclusion of the lemma is correct. 0
This lemma justifies the definition of the Borel polygon B(f) as the set
of those of ~ E C such that there is a compact neighborhood V~ of ~ and a
nonnegative function g~ E L \ ([0, oo[) with the property that for every z E V~
the inequality
a.e. t > 0,
holds.
5.1.3. Proposition. The sets M(f) and B(f) coincide.
Proof. Let us show that M(f) ~ B(f). Let Zo E M(f), then Kzo CC D(f),
therefore we can find a positively oriented circle y in D(f) enclosing Kzo'
For ~ E y, we have ~ =f. 0 and ~ f-+ Re(zog) is a continuous function strictly
smaller than 1 - 8, for some 0 < 8. Choosing y conveniently we can make 8
as small as necessary.
Hence, we can write for ~ E Y
--
1 - =
1 - zog
10
00
e-Ue(zog)u duo
We denote still by ! the analytic continuation of the series Ln~o anz n to D(f).
-1-.1 !(~)
Then
!(zo) = ( ('" e-Ue(zo!t;)u dU) d~.
27C1 Y ~ 10
Let A := maxy I!(~)gl < 00, hence for (~, u) E Y x [0, oo[ one has the esti-
mate
which allows us to interchange the order of integration so that
!(zo) = (Xl e-U

10
(-1-.1 !(~)e(zomu d~)
27C1 Y ~
duo
Let °< e < R be such that B(O, e) ~ Int(y). In this case,
~
27C1
1y
!(~)e(Zo/l;)ud~ = ~ {
2m 111;1=8
~
!(~)e(Zo/l;)ud~ = 131(f)(uzo),
~
where the last identity is an elementary computation of residues. Moreover, this
identity yields the estimate,
1131 (f) (uzo) 1::: A l~:) e(I-8)u.

Finally, we conclude that
!(zo) = 100
e-U131(f)(uzo) du,
and the integrand is bounded by the integrable function A[l(y)/27C]e-8u .

It is clear we can choose a compact neighborhood Vzo of zo such that for
all z E Vzo ' Kz cc Int(y) and Re(zg) ::: 1 - I) for z E Vzo ' ~ E y. Under these
conditions, all the previous reasonings are valid and, hence,
!(z) = 1 00
e- t 131(f)(tz)dt
for all z E Vzo ' and the estimate
e- u1131 (f)(uz) 1::: A l~:) e- 8u
holds for Z E Vzo ' U E [0,00[. This shows that Zo E B(f). We conclude that
M(f) ~ B(f).
Let us now prove the other inclusion, B(f) ~ M(f). Let Zo E B(f), and
°
ex > small enough so that B(zo, ex) ~ B(f) and there is a nonnegative inte-
grable function gzo such that e- t IB1 (f)(tz)1 ::: gzo(t), a.e. t > 0, z E B(zo, ex).
Consider the open set
Uzo := ( U KZ) \{O}.

zeB(zo.a)
From Lemma 5.1.2 we obtain a collection of analytic continuations fz of f,

defined on B(O, R) U kzo' z E B(zo, a)\{O}. We claim that Uzo U B(O, R) ~
D(f). In fact, the open set Uzo U B(O, R) is clearly star-shaped with respect
to the origin, and the different fz define, together with f, a single valued holo-
morphic function in this set. Indeed, if k Zl n k Z2 #= 0, then this intersection is
connected and fZI =
fZ2 in the nonempty open set B(O, R) n kZI n kZ2' so that
fZI = fZ2 in kZI n k Z2 ' Due to the maximality of the set D(f), we conclude
that Uzo U B(O, R) ~ D(f). In particular, Kzo ~ D(f), so that Zo E M(f). That
is, B(f) ~ M(f). 0
We can rephrase these results by means of the following proposition:
5.1.4. Proposition. Let f(z) = En>oanz n have radius of convergence

° < R < 00, 8, (f) (z) = En>o an zn / Ii!. The function f has an analytic
continuation still denoted f, to the Borel polygon B(f). B(f) is an open
set which can be characterized as B(f) = M(f) = (z E C: Kz ~ D(f)}. This
analytic continuation is given by
f(z) = 1
00
e- t 8,(f)(tz)dt, z E B(f).
This procedure to obtain the analytic continuation f in B(f) is called the

Borel summation method.
In order to obtain a similar explicit analytic continuation to the whole
star of holomorphy D(f) we must replace the exponential function by the
Mittag-Leffler function Ep. We proceed to give a succint description of Ep
and its properties. (The reader will find a detailed study of this function and its
applications in [Dr].)
5.1.5. Definition. For p > 0, the Mittag-Leffler function Ep of index p is

the entire function
=
It is easy to see that E, (z) eZ and that Ep is a function of exponential type,
for instance, from the decay rate of its coefficients (see [BG, Chapter 4]). We
need somewhat more precise asymptotic information. For future use we shall
restrict ourselves to p :::: 1.
Let us recall that the entire function 1/ r can be expressed in terms of the
Hankel integral
1 1 ( et
J
r(z) = 27ri ya .• fz dt.
where Ya,a is the Hankel contour in Figure 5.1, the indices satisfy 0< a, 7r/2 <
a < 7r, and t Z = eZ Log t (see [BG, Exercise 5.3.3]).
Figure 5.1
= uP = ePLog u, we obtain
1
Changing variables in the integral, t
_1__ ~ uP -pz+p-l d
f( ) - 2' e u u,
z Jrl Y~.a
= =
where Y~,a is in fact Yb,{J, with b a 1/ p , f3 a/ p. Since a > 0 is arbitrary
and alp E ]Jr/2p, Jr/p[, we can replace Y~,a by the Hankel contour Ya,lI, with
() E ]Jr /2p, Jr / p[. In particular,
1 p ( du uP
f(1 + n/p) = 2Jri i YO•9 e un+1 '

5.1.6. Lemma. For Izl <
1.
a we have
Ep(z) p
= -. euP -du
-,
2Jrl Yo.9 U - z
where 0 < a, Jr/2p < () < Jr/p.
Proof. Let u = rei<p, r ~ a, cp = ±(). Then uP = r Pe±ipll, Jr /2 < p() < Jr. Hence,
for u in one of the half-rays of Ya,lI we have leuP I = erP cospll, cos p() < 0, r > a.
If Izl < a is fixed. we have Izl/Iul :::: f..t < 1 for any u E Ya,lI. Then on both
half-rays we have
L Iun+!
zn eu pi <
__ 1 erPcosp/l
- (1 - f..t) r '
n;:::O
and, on the circular part we have
L Iu::1 e I S A <
n"::O
UP
00.
1 (1
Therefore,
-p e uP -du
-= L -p e uP -du- ) Zn
2ni Ya,e U - Z n"::O 2ni Ya,e un + 1
=L
Zn
f(1 + n/ p) = Ep(z). o
n"::O
1
5.1.7. Lemma. The function
Zf-+-
p uP -
e du-
2ni Ya,e U - Z
is holomorphic in C\Ya,(J.
Let us say that Z is to the left of Ya,(J, if it belongs to the component of C\Ya,(J
which contains the origin. To the right, otherwise.
5.1.S. Lemma. Let a > 0, n /2p < e < n / p.
1
(i) For Z to the left ofYa,(J we have
Ep(z) = -p. e uP du
2n[ Ya,e U - Z
(ii) For Z to the right of Ya,(J we have
Ep(z) = peZ + -.P Pipe U

du
--.
2n[ Ya,e U - Z
Proof. The first formula is an immediate consequence of the preceding two

lemmas. To prove the second identity, let a' > a and let Z be a point to the right
of Ya,(J and to the left of Ya',(J. Let Y be the contour described by Figure 5.2.
From Cauchy's theorem we obtain
1 r uP du
2n i } Y;,e e u - Z -
I ruP du p uP du zP
2n i } Ya,e e u - Z = 2n i } Y e u _ Z = e ,
r
which yields (ii). o
°
5.1.9. Corollary. Let p > I, < e < n / p, such that n /2p
tion E p has the asymptotic behavior:
+e < n. The func-
(i) lim IEp(z) - pezPI = 0,

Izl ..... oo
1Argzl:5rr/p-E
Figure 5.2
(ii) lim
Izl-H)O
IEp(z)1 = o.
Jr/2p+e:::1 Arg zl:::Jr

These lemmas also show that E p has order p and finite type. We are going
to compute now its regularized Lindelof indicator function L p with respect
to the order p (see Definition 1.3.15, p = 1 in that case).
Lp(z) := (lim sup ~P log IEp(tZ)I) *

1--+00 t
.
= hmsup ( hmsup
. log IE p (t~)I) .
~--+z 1--+00 tP
5.1.10. Lemma. For p > 1, we have

7r
Lp(z) = Re(zP) if I Argzl ~ 2p'
7r
if 2p 0, there is a constant Ce > 0

such that
Proof. Note that the result holds for p = I as E I (z) = e Z • Let 0 < 8 « I so
that I Argzl ::: rr/2p::: rr/p -8. Thus we have Ep(tz) = pe(IZ)P +qJ(tz), with
limHoo qJ(tz) = O. It follows immediately that
· log IEp(tz)1 -- Rez
I1m ( P) ,
1-+00 tP
and this limit is uniform for Izl 2: 1. In particular, for z = Izlei'l', we have that
if 8 > 0 there is Re » I so that for Izl 2: Re
log IEp(z)1 < Re(ei'l') + 8.

IzlP -
1
For rr /2p ::: I Arg zl ::: rr we can write
I
E (z)
p
= - rO-I/p) -zI + -2rri
p
Ya,e
e
uP udu
z(u - z)
,
since
I I u
- - =--+
u- z z z(u - z)
,
and
-p
2rri
1 Ya,e
eU P du = r(1-I/p)
I ,
because p > 1. It follows that
E z -- 1 -1 0 ( - I 2 )
p()- rO-I/p)z+ Iz1 '
It is now clear that
log IEp(tz)1 = _logt +0 (_1 ) ,

tP tP t 2p
where the "big oh" estimate is uniform if Izl 2: 1. So that
lim log IEp(tz)1 = O.

1-+00 tP
The continuity, as a function of z, of the limits obtained, avoids the use of the
regularization. Thus we obtain that L p is the continuous function described in
the statement of the lemma. We note that we have also shown that in the second
angular region we have that for any 8 > 0 there is Re » 1 such that for Izl 2: Re
one has
log IEp(z)1
--=--'---"'--'--'- < 8.
IzlP -
The function Lp is continuous and homogeneous of degree p, whence the
previous observations imply that for 8 > 0 there is Re » 1 with the property
that
308 S. Summation Methods
This implies the existence of a constant Cs > 0 such that
everywhere. o
5.1.11. Lemma. In the open set {z E C: Lp(z) < I} (p ~ 1) we have the relation
-1- =
l-z
1 0
00
e- tP t p- 1Ep(tz) dt.
Proof. Let K CC {z: Lp(z) < I}, then we can find e > 0 such that
sup(Lp(z) + elzl P - 1) = -k < O.
zeK
On the other hand, there is a constant Ce > 0 such that
IEp(tz)1 :s Cs exp(t P Lp(z) + etPz P),

so that
e- tP tp-1IEp(tz)1 :s Cst p- 1exp(tP{Lp(z) + elzl P - I}),
:s Cst p- 1exp( -ktP)
if z E K. This proves the unifonn convergence of the integral
zE K ~ p roo e- tP t p- 1Ep(tz) dt.

. Jo
Figure S.3
This integral defines hence a holomorphic function in {z: Lp(z) < I} and,
furthermore, one can justify for Izl < 1 the following computation:
p (')O e-tP t p- i Ep(tz) dt = P L zn [00 e- tP t n+p- i dt

Jo n~or(1+n/p)Jo
= ~zn = _1_.
L..J l-z
n~O
The lemma follows by analytic continuation. D
We are going now to return to the Borel method, but this time with the sets
Kf := {z E C*: 3t' E C* such that { = t'i', Lp(1/t'):::: I} U to},
for z E C*. It is easy to show that Kf = zDp, where
Dp := Ki = It' E C*: Lp(I/t') :::: I} U to},
which is a compact convex set with 0, 1 E 8Dp. Moreover, Dp is star-shaped
with respect to the origin, and the equation of 8 D p in polar coordinates is
r = (cos (1)i/p , iT
-- < (1 < - .
2p - - 2p
iT
Figure 5.4
For -n/2p < e < n/2p one has, with r' = dr/de and r" = d 2r/de 2 ,
r2 + 2r' - rr" = (cose)2/p(I + p + (1 + p)(tanpe)2) > 0,
which shows that D p is convex.
For f(z) = Ln>oanz n, with radius of convergence 0 < R < 00 as above,
and p ::: 1 we denote by M p (f) the open set,
Mp(f) := {z E C*: Kf ~ D(f)}.
5.1.12. Lemma. D(f) = Up 2:1 Mp(f).

Proof. It is left to the reader. The main point is to observe that Kf lies in an
angular sector of opening n / p. 0
As before, we denote by Bp(f) the family of those r; E C such that there is

a compact neighborhood V~ of r; and a function g~ E Ll([O, oo[), g~ ::: 0, such
that for every z E V~ we have
e-tPtP-lIBp(f)(tz)1 :s g~(t) a.e. t > 0,
with
B p(f)(z) := p ~ an n
~ z .
n2:0
r(1+n/p)
The function Bp(f) is sometimes called the Mittag-Leffler transform of
order p of f. One verifies without difficulty the following lemmas and propo-
sitions, whose proofs we leave to the reader:
5.1.13. Lemma. Bp(f) is an entire function of order p and finite type.
5.1.14. Lemma. Let Zo E C* be such that t f-+ e- tP t p- 1Bp (f) (tzo) is integrable
on [0, 00[. Then:
(i) For every z = )"zo, 0 < )" :s 1, t f-+ e- tP t p- 1Bp(f)(tz) is integrable on
[0, oo[ and
p {'XJ e-tPtP-1Bp(f)(tz)dt = £. ('XJ e-uP/)..PuP-1Bp(f)(uzo)du

io io
1
)"p
= psP 00
e-(US)P u p- 1Bp(f)(uzo) du,
=
with s 1/)".
1
(ii) The function
00
S f-+ psP e-(tsJPtp-1Bp(f)(tzo)dt,
sP = exp(pLogs), is holomorphic in the region {s: Re(sP) > I}.

(iii) The function
fzo(z) := p(zo/z)P 1 00
e- tP (zo/z)Pt p- 1Bp (f) (tzo) dt
is holomorphic in k~ and it coincides with f in the segment z AZo, =

0< A < min{R/lzol, I}, so that f and fzo together dejine a single-valued
holomorphicfunction, also denoted fzo' in B(O, R) U K~.
5.1.15. Proposition. The sets Bp(f) and Mp(f) coincide. Therefore,
D(f) = UBp(f).
p~l
5.1.16. Proposition. Let f(z) = Ln>oanz n have radius of convergence 0 <

R < 00. The analytic combination oFf to the region Mp(f), p:::: 1, is given
by the formula
Up to now we have applied the summation methods of Borel and

Mittag-Leffler to germs of holomorphic functions at z O. It is a rather old=
idea (see [Har]) to try this technique on divergent power series, i.e., formal
power series. Let us consider a simple example, due to Euler.
In Section 1.2 we have observed that the Euler differential equation
x 2y' + y =x
admits a hyperfunction solution. On the other hand, if we try to find a formal
power series solution we find
f(x) = x L(-Itn!x\
n~O
which converges only for x = O. Apply the Borel summation method of Lemma
5.1.1 to the formal series. We obtain
1
F(z) = L(-Wzn = - .
1+ z
n~
O
Applying formally the Borel formula of Lemma 7.1.1, we consider
f(x)=x 1o00 e-tF(tx)dt=x 100

1
e-t--dt= e-S / X _ 100
ds_
°
1 + tx 1 +s °
and we find an integral whose asymptotic development when x ~ 0+ has
already been considered by Euler and Poincare (see [DID. That is, if one develops
the exponential term as a power series, one obtains
f(x) = foo e-s/x ..!!....... = x _ 1! x 2 + 2! x 3 - •••

io 1 +s
+ (_I)n-l(n - I)! xn + Rn(x),
Rn(x) = (_I)n foosne-s/x~,
io 1 +s
IRn(x)1 ~ 1 00
sne-s/x ds = n!xn+l.
That is, the Borel summation represents the hyperfunction solution f in an
asymptotic sense.
These elementary remarks show that, at least in this example, there is a relation
between hyperfunctions, summability, and asymptotic developments. In fact, in
recent years these ideas have been carried out to develop a very beautiful theory,
which has already been used to solve several difficult problems. We refer the
reader to [Ec] , [MR], [Mal], and [Si] for these new results. Our presentation
owes much to [Lin].
EXERCISES 5.1.
1. Show that, a priori, it always makes sense to talk about the largest domain, star-
shaped with respect to the origin, into which a power series f admits an analytic
continuation.
2. Verify that if f (z) =

En>o anz n is the Taylor series about z = 0 of the func-
tion El<k<N Ad(z - Zk), Zk E C', then D(f) = C\(Ul<k<N L~), where L" is the ray
n
{AZk: A ~ f}, and - -
M(f) = (z: Re«z - Zk)Zk) < OJ.
l::;k::;N
3. Show that if f(z) = En>o anz n has radius of convergence R, 0 < R < 00, then the
entire function F(z) =
En~o(anln!)zn has exponential type exactly II R.
4. Show that for ex > 0, the set
Uzo := ( U KZ) \{O}

zeB(zo.a)
is open, and that Uzo U 8(0, R) is star-shaped with respect to the origin (see proof of
Proposition 5.1.4).
5. Justify the proof of Lemma 5.1.8, and prove Corollary 5.1.9.
6. Verify that D p is a convex compact set, M p (f) is open, as well as provide the
proofs of statements Lemmas 5.1.12-5.1.14 and Propositions 5.1.15 and 5.1.16.
7. Let rp be a holomorphic function in the closed half-plane Re z ::: ex, ex > O. Assume
there is '[', 0 ::::: '[' < 1(, with the property that for every e > 0 there is a constant c. > 0
such that 1(
IArgzl::::: 2'
(a) Let f3 ::: ex and m an integer so that m - 1 < f3 < m. Prove that for every integer
L rp(n)zn = 1erp(~)z{
N:::m
N
.~ d~, 2
n=m '" -1 YR
where YR is the contour described by the Figure 5.5. We denote rR the arc of circle
in YR.
R=N+1I2-13
m-l
Figure 5.5
(b) Let 1/10 E ]0,11"/2[. Show that there are constants Ro ::: 0, kJ > 0, k2 > 0, such that
for 0 < r < I, ~ = f3 + Re i1/t, one has
qJ(O(-r)~ 1 < k rfJe-R(log(l/r)coS"'o-r-E)

if 11/I1::s 1/10,
1 e2lrl~ _ 1 - J
and
qJ(~)(-r)~ 1 < k
1 e21ri~ _ 1 -
fJ
2r e
-R(lrsin"'o-r-E)
if 1/Io::S 11/11 ::s ~.
(c) Choose 1/10, ro so that r < 11" sin 1/10 < 11", 0 < ro < I, (-logro) cos 1/10 = 11" sin 1/10.
Let k = max(k J, k2) and show that for any 0 < r < ro, ~ ErR, one has
qJ(~)(-r)~ 1 < k fJ -R(lrsin"'o-r-E)

1 e2lri~ _ 1 - r e .
Conclude that for 0 < r < 1
and that
(d) Let ~ = f3 + it, a > 0 very small, r +a < () < 211" - r - a, r > 0, and z = re i8 .
Write (}J = () - 11" and show that
qJ(~)z~ 1- fJ -81 1 1 qJ(f3 + it) 1

1e2lri~ _ 1 - r e eilrfJ-1rI _ e-ilrfJ +1rI
::s rfJ exp {-It I (11" - r + I:I(}J + e(t)) }

with e(t) ~ 0 as It I ~ 00. Given 0 < "fJ < a, show there is A> 0 such that It I > A
implies 11" - r + (t/ltl)(}J + e(t) > "fJ and
1qJ(Oz~_ 1 1-- r fJ e-~III .

e2lri~
Conclude that the function
Z ~ l fJ+ iOO
(J-ioo e2"'~
rp(s)z~
,ds
- 1
is holomorphic in the angle r < arg z < 2l'l' - r.
(e) Let
00
F(z) := L:>(n)zn.
n=O
Show that F is holomorphic for Iz I < e- r • Moreover, if m > 0 and m - 1 < fJ < m,
l
then
L
{J+iOO rp(Oz~
F(z) = rp(n)zn - , e2"i~ _ 1 di;,
O:5n:5m-l (J-lOO
and for m < 0, -m - 1 < fJ < -m,
" rp( -n) r{J+iOO rp(i;)z~
F(z) = - L- -z-n- - J{J8-' e2"i~ _ 1 di;.
l~n~-m roo
Conclude that F has an analytic continuation to the angle r < arg z < 2l'l' - r.
8. The following are essentially direct applications of the previous exercise:
(a) Let 0 < a < 2, 0 < fJ < 1, and rp(z) := z-uz. Show that
zn r{J+iOO i;-u~z~
L nun = 1 -
n~O
J{J8 '
-roo
e2"i~ _ 1 ds
in the angle l'l'a /2 < arg z < 2l'l' - l'l'a /2.

(b) Prove that for 0 < f3 < 1
1 l{J+ioo Z,
- = 1- di;
1- Z {J-ioo e2"i~ - 1
when z E ((:\[1,00[.
(c) Let K CC C\[l, oo[ and ao > 0 be such that
l'l'ao l'l'ao}
K r; { 2 < argz < 2l'l' - 2 .
Show that if 0 < fJ < 1 and 0 ::: a ::: ao, then for z E K
zn 1 l{J+ioo (1 - i;-U~)
,,- - - = z~ di;.
L-
n~O
nun 1- z {J-'
roo
e2"i~ - 1
,,-=-
Deduce that
zn 1
lim
u.....o+L- nun 1- z
n~O
uniformly on every compact subset of ((:\[1, 00[.

(d) Let fez) = Ln>o anz" be a power series with finite nonzero radius of convergence.
Show that the series -
converges uniformly on every compact subset of D(f).

5.1. Borel and Mittag - Leffler Summation Methods 315
9. Let cp be a holomorphic function in C\ {aI, ... , aN}, aj E C\Z, such that there is a
value Ro > max{lajl: 1.::: j .::: N} with the property that for any e > 0 there is C, > 0
so that if Izl ~ Ro then
Icp(z)1 .::: C,e'lzl.
Use the results of this section and Exercise 5.1.8 to prove that:
(a) The series I(z) = L:.>ocp(n)z' has an analytic continuation to C\[1, 00[.
(b) Let No E N be such that all aj satisfy Re(aj) > -No, and define
(z) := 27r1.L.....
"
Res (cp(~)z~
e2Jri~ _ l' aj )
l'5j'5N
which depends on the choice of argz. Show that if z E C\[1, 00[,0 < argz < 27r, and
-No - 1 < f3 < -No then the function I of part (a) satisfies
I(z) =_ " cp(-n) _ (z) _ r+iOO cp(~)z~ d~.

L.....
l~j~N
Z. lPB'
-loo
e2Jrl~ - 1
(c) Let z E] - 00, -1[, f3 = -(No + 1/2), and ~ = f3+ it, then, for some e(f3) > 0,
cp(~)(-z)~ 1 < IzIPe-Jrltl+'(P),Jp2+t2

1 e2Jrl~ - 1 - ,
with the additional property that if we let No ~ -00 then e(f3) ~ O. Conclude that
r+iOO CP~~( -z)~ d~ I.::: 21zl P {e'(P)J2IPI rlPI e-

1lp-iOO
JrI dt + roo e-Jrt +'(P)J2t dt} .
e ~ - 1 lo llPI
Deduce that for Iz I > 1
= - L -z·- -
cp(-n)
I(z) (z).
n~l
(d) Let n = {z E C: Izl > 1, z ¢ [1, oo[} and 0 < argz < 27r for ZEn. With this
choice of arg z in n, let
I(z) := - L-
cp(-n)
- -
z·
(z) (z En).
n~l
Prove that for x > lone has

F(x + iO) - F(x - iO) = -(x) + (e 2Jri x)
= 27ri L Res(cp(~)x~, aj).
l'5j'5N
Let Fl(Z):=F(z)+27riL:l'5j'5NRes(cp(~)z~,aj). Compare the boundary values

Fl (x ± iO) and F(x ± iO) for x > 1.
(e) Show that if cp is an entire function of exponential type zero, then Fl = F = I,
and this is a function holomorphic in C\ {I}, which vanishes at 00.
(f) Let k E N*, cp(z) = Z-k. In this case,
z·
I(z) = Lk'
.;::1 n
27ri Res (~ z' 0) = (27ri)k (lOg z) (lzi > 1),

~k e2Jri~ _ l' k! CPk 27ri
where the rpk are defined by
~ = ~ + ~ rpk( -~) wk-l .

eW - 1 w L...J zn
k~l
Then
(log z)k-l
Fl (z) = F(z) + 2rri (k _ I)! .
5.2. The Lindelof Indicator Function

5.2.1. Definitions.
(1) The Lindelof indicator of order P > 0 for an entire function f of order
strictly less than p or of order p and finite type, is the function
. log If(tZ)I) *
hf,p(z) = ( hmsup----
P
t-+oo t
(2) The Lindelof indicator of order p > 0 of a subharmonic function u in C,
which is of order :::: p and finite type, is the function
. U(tZ»)*
hu,p(z) = ( hmsup--
t-+oo tP
5.2.2. Proposition. The indicator function h f,p of an entire function f ;f= 0 of

order < p or of order p and finite type, is a homogeneous function of degree p,
subharmonic and continuous.
Proof. The proof is analogous to that of Propositions 1.1.15 and 1.1.16. The
only thing that requires modification is the proof of the continuity. Hence, we
shall only give a detailed proof of the lemmas analogous to §§1.1.l7 and 1.1.18.
5.2.3. Lemma. Let (It «h, (h-OJ <rrlp. Assume that hf,p(ei()l) ::::hJ and
hf,p(eifh ) ::::: h2. Let
hJ sin P(02 - 0) + h2 sin p(O - OJ)
g(O) : = . .
smp(02 - OJ)
Then,for every 0, OJ ::::: 0 ::::: ~,
"()
hf,p(e' ) ::::: g(O).
Proof of Lemma 5.2.3. Let I) > 0 and let ga(O) = ap cos pO + bp sin pO be the
trigonometric function that takes the values hj + I) at 0 = OJ. Define
h(z) := f(z)e- i(a8+ib8 )zP
5.2. The Lindelof Indicator Function 317
The function h is of order p and finite type in the angle (h :::: 0 :::: 02, and
it converges to zero along the sides of this angle. By the Phragmen-Lindelof
principle, Ih I is uniformly bounded in the whole angle. It follows that
"9
ht,p(e' ) :::: g8(0), 0, :::: 0 :::: 02,
and the conclusion of the lemma follows by letting 8 -+ O. D
= =
Let us point out that if ht ,p(e i91 ) ht,p(eilh.) -00 and O2 - 0, < 1l/ p, then
the proof of the lemma implies that ht,p(ei9 ) = -00 for 0, :::: 0 :::: 02.
5.2.4. Lemma. Let 0, < O2 < 03, 03 - 0, < 1l / p. Let g (0) = a cos pO + b sin pO
be such that ht,p(ei91 ) :::: g(O,), ht,p(eilh.) ~ g(02). Then
ht,p(e'"93) ~ g(03).
Proof of Lemma 5.2.4. We argue by contradiction. Let 8 > 0 be such that
ht ,p(ei 9)) :::: g(03) - 8. Consider the auxiliary function
g8(0) := g(O) _ 8 s.inp(O - 0,) .

smp(03 - 0,)
Then g8(0,) = g(O,), g8(02) < g«(h), and g8(03) = g(03) - 8. The previous
lemma shows that
which is impossible. D
The same proof shows that if ht,p(eilh.) ~ g(02) and ht,p(ei9)) :::: g(03), then
ht,p(ei91 ) ~ g(O,).
The rest of the proof the continuity in Proposition 5.2.2 is analogous to that
of Proposition 1.1.15. D
5.2.5. Proposition. Under the same hypotheses as Proposition 5.2.2, for any
e > 0 there is a constant C e > 0 such that,for all Z E C,
If(z)1 :::: Ce exp(ht,p(z) + elzI P ).

Proof. Let Izol = 1, and find 0 < a < 1 so that if z E B(zo, a), then we have
ht,p(z) < ht,p(zo) + e/4. This is possible by Proposition 5.2.2. From the Hartogs
lemma [BG, §4.4.40], for a given a, 0 < a, < a, there is t, > 0 such that, for
all t ~ t, and z E B(zo, a,),
1 e
t P log If(tz)1 :::: ht,p(zo) + 2'
Clearly, we could choose a, sufficiently small so that for z E B(zo, ad we also
have ht,p(zo) :::: ht,p(z) + e/2. Hence,
1
t P log If(tz)1 :::: ht,p(z) +e (for t ~ t" z E B(zo, ad),
It follows immediately that there is a constant C(e, zo) > 0 such that for every
z E C· so that z/Izl E B(zo, al) one has
log If(z)1 ~ (hf,p(z) + elzl P ) + C(e, zo).
It is easy to finish the proof using the compactness of the unit circle. 0
5.2.6. Proposition. Let 1/F be a subharmonic junction in C that is homogeneous

of degree p, i.e., 1/F(tz) = t P 1/F(z) for all t > O. There is a constant A > 0 such
that for every (J, 0 ~ (J ~ 2n, there is an entire function fe of order p and finite
type such that
hf9,p(e )
;e = 1/F(e;e ),
Ife(z)1 ~ A(1 + IzI2)et (z>.
Proof. We can assume (J = 0 and search for a function f = fo of the form
f(z) = g(z) - h(z)v(z), where g, v E COO(C) and
h(z) := II (1 - ;j) .
j~l
For a given j ::: 1 and z E C such that ! ~ Iz - 2j l ~ ~ one has
4~ 2j <
- 2
j - !4<- Iz I -< 2j + !2-2
< ~ 2j •
Hence,
Ih(z)1 ::: 2-
j
II 11 - I::: 2- II
Zk
j
(i 2j - k - 1) II (1 - ~ 2j - k )
4 k<Fj 2 4 l~k<j bj
II II 2
j-3
> -C.- (3- 2J.- k - 1) > -C k > Cl > 0,
- 2J+2 4 - 32 -
l~k<j k=l
where C:= TIk>I(I- 3/2k+ l ) > 0 and Cl > 0 is independent of j.

Let ({J E 1)(C), (J ~ ({J ~ I, ({J 1 on Izl ~ = !, =
({J 0 for Izl ::: ~, and define
g(z) := ~ ({J(z - 2 j ) exp(1/F(2j ».

j~l
In fact, there is at most one no~ro term for each z, so g is a Coo function.
Moreover, g is constant on every disk B(2i , !).
For the Coo function f =
g - h v to be entire we must have
of og ov
o = oi = oi - h oi .
The function
og (z)
_1_. for z ¢ U B (7 j , !) ,
w(z) = { ~(Z) oi j~l
fQr z E U B (2 j , !) ,
j~l
5.2. The LindelOf Indicator Function 319
:!
is a Coo function. Furthennore, for some constant K > 0 we have
Iw(z)1 ~KI (Z)I·

Let
p(z) := ( sup 1/t(z + ~») * + 10g(1 + IzI2).
l~bl/2
Then p is subhannonic in C and
k (lgl 2 + I:! r) e- 2p dm ~ KI < 00.
From Theorem 2.1.3 we deduce that there is a function v E Coo(C) satisfying

av/a? = w, and
r Iv(z)1 2
lc (1 + Iz12)2e
-2p(z) d
m -
< K
2 < 00.
It follows that the function f = g - h v is entire. To estimate it, we use that

logO + x) ~ x for x 2: 0, so that if 2 j ~ Izl ~ 2j+1, then
log Ih(z)1 ~ L log (1 + ~~) ~ L log (1 + 2j+I-k) + L ;k

k~1 l~k~j+1 k~1
" . log2.
~ 1 + (log 2) L- (h + 2 - J) = 1 + -2-(} + 1)(}. + 1)
l~k~j+1
~ C2 (log2(1 + Izl) + 1)
for some C2 > 0, and this estimation holds everywhere if C2 is sufficiently
large. Let
q(z) := p(z) + C2(log2(1 + Izl) + 1) 2: p(z)
1
then
Iv(z)12 -2q d
----'::--::-e m < 00.
c (1 + IZ12)2
It follows that if ql (z) := q(z) + 10g(1 + IzI 2), then

klfI2e-2q1 dm < 00.
As we have done in Chapter 2, we have
If(z)1 = I~
7r
r
18(z.1)
f(~)dm(~)1 ~ ~
7r
r
18(z, l)
If(~)le-ql(~)eqIR)dm(n
:5Alexp(sup{ql(~): Iz-~I :51})
:5 A 2 exp [log2(1 + Izl) + (sup {1/I(z + ~): I~I :5 nr] .

Therefore, using that 1/1 is homogeneous of degree p > 0, we have
lim sup log If(tz)1 :5 lim sup (sup {1/1 (z +

1->00 tP 1->00 t
f): I~I :5 ~})* :51/1(z),
since 1/1 is upper semicontinuous. Hence,

hl,p(z) :5 1/I(z).
On the other hand, for z = 1 we can take t = 2 j , and we get
f(2 j ) = g(2 j ) - v(2 j )h(2 j )
= g(2 j ) = exp(1/I(2j ».
So, for those t
log If(t)1 = 1/I(t) = t P1/l(1).
tP
It follows that
hl ,p(1) ::: 1/1(1),
whence, hl ,p(1) = 1/1(1). This concludes the proof of the proposition. 0
5.2.7. Lemma. Let u be a subharmonic function in C that is homogeneous of

degree p > O. There is a decreasing sequence (Un)n~l of subharmonic functions,
homogeneous of degree p, and Coo in C\{O}, such that Un converge toward u
everywhere.
Proof. We have shown in [BG, Chapter 4] that we can always approximate u
by Coo subharmonic functions. The problem is to keep the homogeneity. This
requires a slight modification of the usual construction. For that purpose, let q; be
a standard radial function in C, i.e., q; E V(B(O, 1», 0:5 q; :5 1, q; dm = 1, Ie
q;e(z) = e- q;(z/e), let
2
ve(z):= [U(Z - w)q;e(w)dm(w),

and define
ue(z):= [U(Z - Izlw)q;e(w) dm(w).
It is easy to see that U e is Coo in C\{O} and it is homogeneous of degree p.
We know tBG, Chapter 4] that the Ve are Coo, subharmonic, and converge
decreasingly to u as e -+ 0+. On the other hand, for Izl = 1, we have
ue(z) = ve(z),
so that ue(z) -+ u(z) decreasingly on Izi = 1 when e -+ 0+. The homogeneity
now implies that U e -+ u decreasingly everywhere. (Note that for z = 0 we have
u(O) = ue(O) = 0.)
The only thing to verify is that the Ue are subharrnonic. Let us show first that
for each r > 0 the function
Ur(z):= 121T u(z -lzlreiO)dO
is a subharrnonic function of z. If z = re ict , we have

Ur(z) = 121T u(z - ze-ictre iO ) dO
= 12rr u(z - zre i(3 ) d{3

= lim
e---+O
1
0
21T
Ve (z - zre i(3 ) d{3.
Each of the last integrals is easily seen to be subharrnonic by direct compu-

tatioT} of the Laplacian. Since Ur is a decreasing limit, if follows that it is also
subharrnonic. Finally, q;e(r)r ::: 0 and J;
q;e(r)rdr = 1, so that U e is an average
of subharrnonic functions. It follows that U e is subharrnonic. 0
We are trying to prove that every subharrnonic function that is homogeneous

of degree p > 0 is the Lindelof indicator function h f,p of some entire function.
Since we know that indicator functions are continuous, we need to show first
that any such subharrnonic function is also continuous.
5.2.8. Lemma. Every subharmonic function u that is homogeneous of degree

p > 0 is a continuous function in the whole complex plane.
Proof. It is clear u is continuous at z = O. Therefore, its enough to prove that
in every angular sector of the form
SO,ct = { z E C*: I arg z - 0 I < a < ~} ,
the function q;o(z) = q;(z) := u(ZI/p) is convex. The previous proposition allows
us to assume first that u is Coo in C*.
From the homogeneity of degree 1 of q; we conclude that
aq; aq;
x-+y-=q;,
ax ay
a2q; a2q;
ax2 + ay2 ::: O.
Hence,
Therefore, for xy "# 0 we have

82cp 82cp (8 2cp ) 2
8x2 8y2 - 8x8y = O.
By continuity, this holds everywhere in the sector, so, (8 2cpI8x 2)
(8 2cpI8y2) ::: O. If we now consider CPs(z) := cp(z) + elzl 2 , its Hessian is now
a strictly positive quadratic form, so that CPs is strictly convex. Letting e ~ 0
we obtain that cp is convex, when u is Coo in C*. In the general case, by
Lemma 5.2.7 and what we have just proved, we have that cp is a decreasing
pointwise limit of convex functions in C*. Thus, cp is also convex.
This implies cp is continuous, whence u is continuous. 0
For a given function cp, subharmonic and homogeneous of degree p > 0, let
uS introduce the Banach space Btp of all entire functions f in C such that
If(z)le-tp(z) = 0(1)
with the norm IIflltp = sUPzeC If(z)e-tp(z) I.
Let CPn(z) := cp(z) + IzlP In, then we also consider
Etp = n
n~l
Btpn'
this space of holomorphic functions has countably many norms IIflitp. and it is
a Frechet space with the topology defined by these norms.
It follows from Proposition 5.2.5 that f E Etp if and only if
ht.p :::: cpo
5.2.9. Theorem. Let 1/1 be a subharmonic function in C, homogeneous of degree

p > O. There is an entire function f of order p and finite type such that ht,p = 1/1.
Proof. Consider a sequence (Zn)n~l' IZnl = 1, which is dense in the unit circle
and such that every point appears infinitely often in the sequence. Let Un be the
following set of subharmonic functions, homogeneous of degree p:
Un = {u: u :::: 1/1 in C, u(z):::: 1/I(zn) - ~ in B (z,;, ~) } .

Let us define a subharmonic function, homogeneous of degree p, by
Un (z) := (sup{u(z): u E Un})*.
We could appeal to a lemma of Choquet [Choq] to show that Un is the regu-
larization of the supremum of a countable family of elements in Un, but in
fact, it is easy to give a direct proof of the subharmonicity of Un. In fact, Un is
upper semicontinuous, un(z) :::: 1/I(z) < 00, hence locally integrable and for any
u E Un, U :::: Un. Therefore, for r > 0 fixed,
u(z) :::: A(u, z, r) :::: A(u n, z, r),
and the last function is continuous as a function of z. Hence,

sup u(z) ~ A(u n, Z, r)
ueUn
implies
Un(Z) ~ A(u n , z, r),
which is what we wanted to show. The fact that Un is homogeneous of degree

p is clear, and it follows that Un E Un. So that Un =
{U: U ~ Un}.
To simplify the notation, let En = Eu n • We have the strict inclusion
En ~ E""
since I E En implies that hU(z) ~ un(z) ~ l/I(zn) - lin for Z E B(zn, lin),
and we know from Proposition 5.2.5 that there is a function In E E",.such that
hU(zn) = l/I(zn). Moreover, the inclusion map
in: En ~ E",
is continuous and hence, by Proposition 1.4.11, En is a set of first category in

E",. Thus,
Let lEE", \ Un> I En, we claim that hf,p = l/I. If not, let ~ be such that
=
hf,p(~) < l/I(~), I~r 1. Choose 8 > 0 so that hf,p(~) < l/I(~) - 8. By conti-
nuity, there is a 8> 0 so that hf,p(z) < l/I(z) - 8/2 for all Z E B(~, 8). There is
a point zno of the sequence such that zno E B(~, 8). Since the same point appears
infinitely often, there will be an index n I ~ no such that
and
It follows that I E En,. This is a contradiction. The theorem is hence proved.

o
EXERCISES 5.2.
1. Let rp be a subhannonic function, homogeneous of degree p > O. Let E", be the
space defined in the text. Show it is a Frechet space. Prove that fEE", if and only if
hl,p ::: rp.
2. Let f be a holomorphic function of order p and finite type in the angular region
=
81 ::: argz :::~, ~ - 81 < '!rIp, and h hl,p, the indicator function of f of order p.
(a) Show that for 81 < 8 < 82 the following inequality is correct:
h(8) - h(81) h(~) - h(8d
-,-:......:.....--:....::...<----
sinp(8 - 8t> - Sinp(82 - ( 1)
8 -
+h(81)sinp ( -2-
2 9) seep (9- 2 -
2 - 81 ) seep (9-2-
-81 ) .
(b) Let (}2 - (}I :::: A < 7flp and let
k := max {I ih«(})/(SinPA)21 : (}I :::: () :::: ()2} .

Show that for (}I < () < (}2
h«(}) - h«(}t> h«(}3) - h«(}I)

. «() - () t> -<
SlOp
. ()
slOp«(}2 - I)
+ k(Oz - (}).
Conclude that
() 1-+ h«(}) - h«(}I) + k«(} - (}I)
sin p«(} - (}I)
is an increasing function. Deduce the existence of the right and left derivatives h~«(}I)
and h'-
«(}t>.
(c) Show that h'-«(}I) :::: h~«(}I).
(d) Show that if (}o is a local maximum of h and I() - (}ol :::: 7f / P then
h«(}) ~ h«(}o) cos p(}o.
3. (a) Let I be an entire function of order 0 < P < 1 and finite type, so that
i(z) = cz m n (1 - -=-)
k~1 ak
(ak =f:. 0, c =f:. 0, m ~ 0). Show that if Co = Icl,
colzl m n (1 -J:L)
k~1 lakl
:: I/(z)1 :::: colzl m n (1 + J:L)
k~1 lakl
.
(b) Let
II(z) :=cozmD (1- I:kl)'
and let hi be the indicator function of order P of II. Show that hi (7f) = SUP8 hi «(}).
(c) Let m(r) = min{l/(z)l: Izl = r}, M(r) = max{l/(z)l: Izl = r}.
Show that
.
11m log m(r) 1. log III (r)1
sup ~ 1m sup ::---=:"":':--:--'--'--7
HOO 10gM(r) r_oo 10gl/l(-r)1
. log III (r)1 hi (0) >

> 11m
-
sup
HOO hi (7f)r P
=- - COS7fp.
hi (7f) -
(Use part (d) of the previous exercise.)
(d) For e > 0 prove the existence of a strictly increasing sequence (rj)j~h rj > 0,
converging to 00 and such that
(j ~ 1).
4. Let I
be a holomorphic function of order p and finite type in the angular sector
f3. Assume -7f < a < 0 < f3 < 7f.
a:::: Argz ::::
(a) Show that for every y > 0 there is a sequence rn --+ 00 such that
log I/(rn)1 ~ (hf(O) - y)r:.

(b) Prove that if 0 < 8 « 1, then for I(} I < Arc sin(2e8) and r ~ r (y, 8) > 0 one has
log I/(re i8 )1 :::: (h f «(}) + y)r P :::: (h,(O) + 2y)r P •

(c) Let rpn(z) := I(rn + z)/I(rn). Show that for Izl ~ 2e8r,
log Irpn(z)1 ~ 3y(rn + Izl)p(rn+1zi).
Using the Minimum Modulus Theorem ([BG], [Lev]), infer that, for 0 < w < 1 and
H(t) := 2 + log(3e/2t), t > 0, the inequality
loglrpn(z)l::: -2yH (~) (rn +2e8rn)p(rn +2e8rn )
holds in Izl ~ 8rn , outside an exceptional set of finitely many disks, the sum of whose
radii does not exceed w8rn.
(d) Conclude that in the interval (1 - 8)rn ~ r ~ (1 + 8)rn one has the inequality
log I/(r)1 ::: {hf(O) - y - 3yH (~) (1 + 2e8)2P} r:,

with the possible exception of values of r lying in a finite collection of subintervals, the
sum of their length is at most 2w8rn.
(e) Since for rn ~ r ~ (1 + 8)rn, r:: ::: (1 + 8)-PrP, and for 0 < y « 1, 0 < 8 « 1,
hf(O) - y - 3yH (~) (1 + 2e8)2p ::: (hf(O) - e)(1 + 8)2 p,

prove that
log I/(r)1 ::: (hf(O) - e)r P
for rn ~ r ~ (1 + 8)rn, with the exception of a set of points r lying in a set of measure
~ 2w8rn •
Prove the same result for any ray Arg z = e E la, ,8[.
5. Let 1 be an entire function of order p and finite type, 1(0) #- O. Let n(r) be the
number of zeros of 1 in Izl < rand N (r) = (n(t)/t) dt. J;
(a) Show that
N(r) = _1_
rP 2:n:r P
r
10
log I/(reiB)1 de _ log 1/(0)1
rP
and conclude that
lim sup -
r-->oo
N(r)
-
rP
~ -1
2:n:
1 0
2"
hf(e) de.
(b) Prove that

lim sup -
r-->oo
n(r)
r P
~
ep
-
2:n:
1 0
2"
hf(e) de.
*(c) For p > 0, let ak = 22k / p , k::: 1, and
Show that 1 is an entire function of order p, hf(e) = l/pe, and
lim sup -
n(r)
= 1= -
ep 121f hf(e) de.
r-->oo rP 2:n: 0
6. Let 1 be an entire function of order p, 0 0,
n(t) ~ AlP as t ~ 00,
C\] -
n
(a) Show that for z E 00, 0[,
Log(f(z» = ~LOg (1 + t) = 1')0 Log (1 + dn(t)
= [n(t) Log (1 +:)]00 +z [00 ~dt=z [00 ~dt.

t 0 Jo t(t +z) Jo t(t +z)
(b) Show that given e > 0 there is A > 0 such that t > A implies
1 z 1
o
00
n(t) - At P I
t(t + z)
dt < Izl
-
lA
0
n(t) + (A + e)t P dt + elzl
tit + zl
1
0
00 tP
- - dt.
tit + zl
(c) Prove that using the principal branch of zP
z 1 00
- - dt
o t(t + z)
tP
= 7rZ P coseC7rp.
(d) Conclude that for -7r < () < 7r one has
Log(f(re iO » ~ eip°7rA(cosec7rp)rP
as r -+ 00.
5.3. The Fourier-Borel Transfonn of

Order p of Analytic Functionals
If T is an analytic functional, the entire function ~ p (T) defined by
~p(T)(z) := (Tt;, Ep(z~)} (z E C),
is called the Fourier-Borel (or Mittag-Lerner) transform of order p of T.
One can see that
;;,(T)(z),~ L ("~"~(,
n~O r 1 +-
P
and conclude without difficulty that ~p(T) is of order at most p and finite
type. The case p = 1 coincides with the Fourier-Borel transform considered in
Chapter 1, hence we shall restrict ourselves to p > 1 in this section.
5.3.1. Definitions.
(1) For a nonempty subset K of C let
Hp,K(Z) := sup Lp(~z)
t;eK
be the p-support function of K. We say that K is p-convex if

K = {~ E C: Lp(~z) ::::: Hp,K(Z) for every Z E q.
(2) For 0 =/; K £ C, its p-polar set is the set
K*P := R E C: Lp(~z) < 1 for every Z E K}.
5.3. The Fourier-Borel Transfonn of Order p of Analytic Functionals 327
5.3.2. Proposition. Let A, B, Ai (i E /) be nonempty subsets ofC.

(i) A £ B implies B*P £ A*p.
(ii) A £ (A *p)*p and A *p = «A *P)*P)*P.
(iii) For a> 0, (aA)*P = (l/aP)A*P.
(iv) If A is stable by multiplication by every a > 0, then
A*P = {~ E C: Lp(~z) = 0, Vz E A}.
(v) ( UAi)*P =
leI ieI
A? n
Proof. Item (i) and the first part of (ii) are evident. From them it follows that
«A*P)*P)*P £ A*P. Moreover, from the first part of (ii), A*P £ «A*P)*P). So
(ii) holds. Part (iii) is a consequence of the homogeneity of Lp.
It is clear that
R E C: Lp(~z) = 0, Vz E A} £ R E C: Lp(~z) < 1, Vz E A} = A*P.
On the other hand, if ~ E A*P and aA £ A, then for a > 0 and Z E A we have
Lp(~az) < 1,
so that
Since in part (iv), a > 0 is arbitrary, we obtain that Lp(~z) ::'S 0 for every ~ E
A*P, Z E A. As pointed out in Lemma 5.1.10, for p > 1, the function Lp ~ 0,
hence we conclude that A*P £ {~ E C: Lp(~z) = 0, Vz E A}.
From Ai E UjeI Aj and (i) we conclude that neI A? ;2 (UieI Ai)*p. Con-
versely, if ( E niEI A? and Z E UiEI Ai, then Z E Aj for some j E I and, hence,
Lp«(z) < 1 since ~ E A? Therefore, ~ E (Uiel A;)*P. D
Let us remark that the definition of p-convexity implies that every p-convex
set contains the origin and that, for every K £ C one has
5.3.3. Proposition.
(i) If K is p-convex, then K = (K*P)*P and, moreover, if K is also compact,
then
K*P =R E C: Hp,K(n < I}.
(ii) If K is compact and K = (K*P)*P, then K is p-convex.
(iii) The intersection of an arbitrary number of p-convex sets if p-convex.
(iv) If K =j:. 0 there is a smaller p-convex set containing K. It is called the
p-convex hull of K and denoted cVp(K). Moreover,
cv p(K) = {~ E C: Lp(z~) ::'S Hp,K(Z), Vz E K}.
(v) For any two closed p-convex sets KI and K 2, the inclusion KI ~ K2 is
equivalent to Hp.K :::: Hp.K2 .
(vi) For any nonempty bounded set K the/unction Z 1-* Hp,K(Z) is continuous.
Proof. (i) From the previous proposition we know that K ~ (K*P)*P. Assume
that K is p-convex. If there was I; E (K*P)*P such that I; rt K, then one could
find Zo E C such that Lp(l;zo) > Hp,dzo). Hence Lp(l;zo) > 0 and
Or, in other words,
Therefore,
Zo
- - - - - : - ; - E K*P,
(L p(I; zo» II p
whence, as I; E (K*P)*P, we have
Lp (I; (Lp(;;O» lip ) < 1,
which leads to the contradiction
It follows that K = (K*P)*P.

Let K be p-convex and compact and let B := {I; E C: Hp,K(l;) < I}. If I; E
K*P and z E K, then Lp(zl;) < 1. By the continuity of Lp and the compacity of
K, it follows that sup{Lp(l;z): z E K} < 1, so that I; E B. Conversely, if I; E B,
then for any z E K, Lp(zl;) :::: Hp,K(I;) < 1, hence I; E K*P.
(ii) Let K be a nonempty compact set such that K = (K*P)*P. To show that
K is p-convex it is enough to show that
A := {I; E C: Lp(zl;) :::: Hp,K(Z), 'Vz E K} ~ (K*P)*P.
Let 1;0 rt (K*P)*P. There is then Zo E K*P such that Lp(zol;o) ~ 1. On the other
hand, since Zo E K*P we have Lp(zol;) < 1 for alII; E K. By the compacity of
K it follows that Hp,K(ZO) < 1. Hence 1;0 rt A.
(iii) Let K = niEi K i , all Ki being p-convex. Let A be the set defined in (ii).
We need to show that A ~ K. Let I; E A, then for any z E C, i E I,
Lp(zl;) :::: Hp,K(Z) :::: Hp,K;(Z).

Hence, I; E Ki for all i E I, and so I; E K.
(iv) The existence of a smallest p-convex set containing K follows from (iii).
The set A defined earlier clearly contains K. Moreover, Hp,A = Hp,K, which
will show that A is p-convex. In fact, for z E C, we have
Hp,K(Z) :::: Hp,A(Z) = sup Lp(zl;) :::: Hp,K(Z),

~EA
by the very definition of A. Finally, if C is a p-convex set, K S; C, then for

~ E A, z E C,
so that ~ E C, i.e., A S; C. This shows that A = cVp(K).

(v) Assume Hp,Kl S; Hp,K2 and let ~ E Klo then
(z E C),
which implies ~ E K2.

(vi) We are going to prove something stronger, that Hp,K is locally a Lipschitz
function. Let Wlo W2 E C and define ((J(t) := Lp(Wl + t(W2 - WI)), 0:::: t :::: 1.
If we assume that Lp(Wl) = 0 and L p(W2) > 0, from the convexity of the region
I Argzl ::5 rr/2p we conclude there is a unique to E [0, 1] such that
({J(t) ={ 0 for 0 < t < to,

- -
Re{(wl + t(W2 - Wl))P} for to < t :::: 1.
The function ({J is hence continuous and differentiable except at to, where it has
right and left derivatives. Clearly
I { 0 for 0 :::: t < to,

({J (t) =
Re{(Wl + t(W2 - 1
Wl))P- (W2 - WI)} for to < t :::: 1.
It follows that
1({J(I) - ({J(O) I = IL p(W2) - Lp(Wl)1 = III ({J'(t)dtl
:::: p(lwtI + IW21)P- l lwl - w21.

If Lp(Wl) = L p(W2) = 0, then ((J(t) == 0, and if Lp(Wl) > 0 and L p(W2) > 0,
then ({J is differentiable everywhere and the same inequality holds.
Let now z E K, ~l, ~2 E C, and set WI = Z~lo W2 = Z~2. We infer that
ILp(Z~l) - Lp(Z~2)1 ::5 plzlP(Rd + 1~2Dp-ll~1 - ~21,
and so
hence
with Cp(K) := p max{izIP: z E K}. It follows that:
IHp,K(~l) - Hp,K(~2)1 :::: Cp(K)(I~d + 1~2DP-ll~1 - ~21,
which shows that Hp,K is Lipschitz on any bounded subset of C. The continuity
is now obvious. 0
5.3.4. Definition. Let E be a nonempty subset of S2. The conjugate set E is

defined by
E- := S2\ {I ~: Z E }
E ,
where 1/00 = 0, 1/0 = 00. For simplicity 0= S2, S2 = 0.
5.3.5. Proposition. For any E ~ S2, E= E. Furthermore, for any family Ei of

subsets of S2, i E I, we have
Proof. Left to the reader. o

Recall from Section 5.1 that for any Z E C* we have
Kf = R E C*: Lp(zg) ::::: I} U {O}.
5.3.6. Lemma. For any z E C*,
if = {W E c: Lp(wz) < I}.
Proof. Let us define Az := {w E C: Lp(wz) < I}. First, let us show that if ~
A z • If W rt A" then Lp(wz) :::: 1, hence wz =f. O. Let 1: = 1/(wz), ~ = n, then
Lp(zg) = Lp(l/r) ::::: 1, which means ~ E Kf. Since w~ = rwz = 1, we have
W ¢ if.
Conversely, to show that Az ~ if, let W ¢ if. Then there is ~ E Kf such

that ~w = 1. By definition, Lp(zg) ::::: 1, so that Lp(wz) ::::: 1, which means that
W rt A z • 0
5.3.7. Lemma. Let 0 i- B ~ C, then
UKf = (B*P)-.
zeB
Proof. In fact, let G = UzeB Kf, then
G= (U Kf) - nif
zeB
=
zeB
= (V E c: Lp(~z) < 1, Vz E B}
= B*P.
Hence,
o
5.3.8. Lemma. If K is p-convex, then
K= U Kf.
ZEK*P
Proof. From the previous lemma we have

U K{ = «K*P)*P)~,
zEK~
while (K*P)*P =K by the p-convexity. o

5.3.9. Lemma. Let 0 =1= K be a compact set in C, 8 > O. Then
Ks,p := {~ E C: Lp(zn :s Hp,K(Z) + 81z1 P, Vz E q

is a compact neighborhood of K.
5.3.10. Theorem. Let p > 1, K a compact nonempty set in C, and T E .if'(K).
Then,for every 8 > 0 there is a constant Cs > 0 such that for all ~ E C
Conversely, if f is an entire function for which there is a p-convex compact set

K such that for every 8 > 0
(V~ E q
for some Cs > 0, then there is an analytic functional T carried by K so that
~p(T) = f.
Moreover, if f(n = Ln>o an~n is the Taylor series of f, then the func-
tion qt(~) := Ln>o ['(1 + n7p)ang n + 1 , which is holomorphicfor I~ I sufficiently
large, has an analytic continuation to the set K C , and T can be defined by
(T, h) = -1-.11J1(~)h(~) d~, h E .if(K),

2Jrl y
where y is any piecewise C' loop in K C , which has index 1 with respect to K
and lies in the domain of holomorphy of h.
Proof. Since T is carried by K, and, for 8 > 0, K s/2,p is a neighborhood of K,
there is a constant As > 0 such that
l~p(T)(z)1 :s As sup{lEp(z~)I: ~ E K s/2,p}'

We also know that for every 8' > 0 there is B s' > 0 such that
IEp(znl :s Bs' exp(Lp,K(z~) + 8'lz~ IP),

and hence,
where 8(e') = e' SUP~EK£/2.p I~IP. Choosing e' > 0 so that 8(e') < el2 accom-
plishes the desired estimate.
Conversely, consider the integral
<;o(t) := P 1 00
e- t- Pt p- 1 f(t~) dt.
It converges uniformly on any compact subset of K*P. In fact, if Q c c K*P,

there is 0 ::; J.L < 1 and A > 0 such that Hp,K (~) ::; J.L and I~ IP ::; A for any
~ E Q. Choose e > 0 so small that v := J.L + eA < 1, then for t :::: 0 and ~ E Q
we have
so that
e- tP tp-llf(t~)1 ::; Ce t p- 1e-(1-v)t p •
We conclude that K*P ~ Bp(<;O) = Mp(<;O) (see Section 5.1). Therefore we have
Kf ~ Bp(<;O) for any z E K*P. It follows from Proposition 5.1.15 that <;0 has an
analytic continuation to UZEK*P Kf = K.
Now let y be a piecewise C 1 loop of index 1 with respect to K and contained
in the domain of holomorphy of h E JIf(K). We know that <;0 admits the Taylor
development
<;O(~) = .!. L r
P n":O
(1 + ~) an~n
P
in a neighborhood of ~ = 0 (and hence 0 is an interior point of K). Therefore the

function 1/1(~) = (pg)<;o(1/~) is holomorphic in K, i.e., in K C , and its Laurent
development at 00 is the one required above. This means that we can in fact
define the action of an analytic functional T on h by
(T, h) := ~ 11/1(~)h(~) d~.

2:rr1 y
This defines an analytic functional T carried by K and its Fourier-Borel trans-
form of order P is given by
~p(T)(z) = _l_.j Ep(z~)1/I(~)d~.

2:rr1 y
Taking as y the circle 8B(O, R), R» 1, we have
~
p
(T)(z) =~ (_I_.j
n~o 2:rr1 y
r(1 +nlp) an~n-m-ld~) zn
r(1 +mlp)
= Eanz n = f(z),
n":O
5.3.11. Corollary. Let P :::: 1 and T an analytic functional in C, then there is a
smallest p-convex carrier of T.
Proof. For p = 1 it was done in Theorem 1.3.5. For p> 1, let K be the
intersection of all p-convex carriers of T. If ~p(T) = En>oan~n, consider
1/f(~) = En>or(1 +n/p)ang n+ l • Then 1/f has an analytic continuation to K C •
Therefore, we can represent T by
(T, h) = -2
1 .1
7r1 Y
h(~)1/f(~)d~, h E .1t'(K),
where y is any piecewise C l loop in K C , of index 1 with respect to K, and can

be taken as close to aK as one wants. 0
EXERCISE 5.3.
1. Use Definition 1.3.12 to show that for p = 1 and T E .1t'(I(:),
B\ (ZC(T) G)) = iMT).

Verify the analogous identity for p > 1.
5.4. Analytic Functionals with Noncompact Carrier

In this section we indicate how some of the preceding results about analytic
functionals (with compact carriers) can be extended to a more general setting.
We follow the work of Morimoto [Mol], [M02].
Let L = [a, oo[ + i[kl, k2] be a closed half-strip of the complex plane, with
a E]R:, -00 < kl < k2 < 00. For e > 0, e' > 0, 0 < k' < 00, we define the
space
zeL,
where Le = [a - e, oo[ + i[k l - e, k2 + e]. This space is a Banach space with

the natural norm
f ~ sup If(z)e(k'+e')zl.
zeL,
If 0 < el < e, 0 < ei < e', the restriction map

Q(L, e, k', e') ~ Q(L, elo k', eD
is a linear continuous injective map, which is also compact. We introduce the
inductive limit [Hor]
Q(L, k'):= lim Q(L, e, k', e').
~
e,e' ....O
One can show that it is equal (including topologies) to a countable inductive
(1n n1)
limit
Q(L,k):=
I
hm
•
Q L, -,k,I - ,
~
n .... oo
so that Q(L, k') is a DFS space. Denote Q'(L, k') the dual space of Q(L, k').
An element of this space is, by definition, an analytic functional carried by
L and type::::: k'. Recall that a linear functional 8 on Q(L, k') is continuous if
and only if, for every s, s' > 0 there is C = C(s, s') ~ 0 such that
1(8, f)1 ::::: C sup If(z)e(k'+e')zl
zeL,
for every f E Q(L, s, k', s').
We shall frequently use the following version of the Phragmen-Lindelof
principle:
5.4.1. Lemma. Let 0 < s < r, f a function continuous on Lr and holomorphic

in L, such that there are n E N*, C > 0, with the property that
sup If(w)le- C1wl " < 00.
weL,
Then, the condition
sup If(w)l::::: M
weL,\L,
implies
sup If(w)1 ::::: M.
weL,
Let us introduce a new collection of spaces. For 0 < s < r, s' > 0, let us
denote R(L, r, s, k', s') as the space of continuous functions F on Lr \Le, which
are holomorphic in (L r\Let and satisfy
sup IF(w)e-(k'+e')WI < 00,
weL,\L,
Considered with the natural norm it is a Banach space. Let R(L r , k', s') be the
space of function F continuous on L" holomorphic in i"
and such that
sup W(w)e-(k'+e')wl < 00.
weL,
It is also a Banach space with the natural norm. Moreover, it can be considered
as a subspace of R(L, r, s, k', s'). Lemma 5.4.1 allows us to conclude that it is
a closed subspace.
For 0 < SI < s < r < rJ, 0 < si < s, we have the following commutative
diagram of restrictions:
- - _ . R(L,r,s,k',s')
1 1
R(L r [, k', s') - - - - . - . R(Lr,k',s')
The horizontal arrows are compact maps. We consider now the projective limits
R(C\L; k', s') := lim R(L, r, s, k', s')
(
r----+-oo,k' ,£----+0
= {F E.1f(C\L): if < s < r, then sup IF(w)e-(k'+e')wl < oo}.

WEL, \L,
R(C; k', s'):= lim R(L r , k', s')

~
r-+oo
= {F E .1f(C): Vr > 0 sup !F(w)e-(k'+<')wl < oo} .

WEL,
These two spaces are FS. Lemma 5.4.1 shows that the second one is a closed
subspace of the first.
If 0 < s; < s', we have the commutative diagram of continuous linear injec-
tions
R(C\L; k', si) - - _ . R(C\L; k', s')
1 1
R(C; k', si) ----~, R(C;k',si)
This diagram induces a continuous linear mapping among the quotient spaces
R(C\L; k', si) R(C\L; k', s')
----~---+ .
R(C; k', si) R(C; k', s')
5.4.2. Lemma. The preceding map is injective.

Proof. Let F E R(C\L; k', sD n R(C; k', s'). For 0 < s < r, we have
sup IF(w)e-(k'+e;)wl < 00
WEL,\L,
as well as sup{lF(w)e-(k'+<')wl: wE L r } < 00. Consider the entire function

I(w) := F(w)e-(k'+e;)w, s' - s; > 0, which satisfies
sup {e-(e'-e;)lw1I/(w)1} < 00

WEL,
because
e-(e'-e;)lwll F(w)e-(k'+e;)w I ::: e-(e'-e;) Re w!F(w )Ie-(k'+<;) Re w
::: IF(w)e-(k'+<')wl.
One can apply Lemma 5.4.1 to I to obtain

sup !F(w)e-(k'+e;)wl::: sup !F(w)le-(k'+e;)wl < 00,
WE4 WE4\4
which shows FE R(C; k', si) and concludes the lemma. o

5.4.3. Definition. Let

H(C, k') = lim R(C\L; k', e'),
+- R(C' k' e')
8' ...... 0 "
where the maps needed for the projective limit are the earlier maps (*).
An element [F] of H (C, k') is determined by a family of functions (Fe' )e'>O,
where Fe' E R(C\L; k', e') and if 0 < e~ < e', then -
Fe; - Fe' E R(C; k', e').
Let us assume 1 E Q(L, k') and [F] E H(C, k') are given. Choose eo, eo> 0
such that 1 E Q(L, eo, k', eo), then for 0 < e < eo, 0 < e' < eo, the integral
JaL.
r l(w)Fe,(w) dw, Fe' E [F],
converges absolutely. Namely, there exists A ~ 0 such that

I/(w)1 .::: Ae-(k'+e~)Rew, wE Leo.
and, if we let
B:= sup IF(w)e-(k'+e')wl < 00,
weL2e \L.
then
IF(w)1 .::: Be(k'+e')Rew,
I/(w)F(w)1 .::: ABe-(e~-e)Rew,
This reasoning not only implies the absolute convergence of the integral, but it
can be used to show that its value is independent of e and e'. In this way any
[F] E H(C, k') defines a continuous linear functional on Q(L, k') denoted by
Int([FD,
(Int[F], f) := - r
JaLe
l(w)Fe,(w) dw.
Furthermore, one can show that

H(C, k') ~Q'(L, k'),
[F] ~ Int([FD,
is a linear continuous map (see [Mol], [M02].)
We are going to verify that the map Int is bijective by exhibiting the
inverse map.
5.4.4. Lemma. For w E C\L, e' > 0 given, the function

e(k' +e')(w-z)
z~
w-z
is an element 01 Q(L, k').
k £
I
a-£ o
Figure 5.6

5.4.5. Proposition. Let f E Q(L, eo, k', eo), 0 < e < eo, 0 < e' < eo, then for
all Z Eie
1
f(z) = -. f(w)
1
e(k'+e')(w-z)
dw.
2HZ aLe W - Z
Proof. One applies Cauchy's formula to the contour Yt suggested in the

Figure 5.6, and then let t ~ 00. 0
5.4.6. Definition. For S E Q'(L, k') its Cauchy transform is the family 8 of
functions (8e, )e'>O defined by
1 ( e(k'+e')(w-z) )
= --2
A
Se'(w) . Sz, .
HZ W - Z
5.4.7. Proposition. Let 8 E Q'(L, k'). For any e' > 0 the function 8e, is holo-
morphic in C\L, and for every e > 0 it satisfies the inequality
sup 18e, (w)e-(k'+e')w 1< 00.
w¢L,
Proof. The functional S can be represented by a convenient measure. Using
Lemma 5.4.4 and the theorem of Morera it is easy to conclude that the function
Se' is holomorphic in C\L. Furthermore, for every s > 0, e' > 0, there is a
=
constant C C(e, s') ::: 0 such that for every f E Q(L, e, k', e')
I(S, f>1 s C sup If(z)e(k'+e')zl.
zeL,
For any w E L2e one clearly has

-(k' +8')Z 1
sup e
zeL,
I W - Z
e(k'+e')z <_
- 8'
and thus,
I
sup ISe'(w)e-(k'+s'lw = sup _1 I( St. _e-(k'+e')Z)
_ __ <-
C
w¢L2' w¢L2e 2:rc w- z - 2:rc8'
which proves the proposition. o

5.4.8. Proposition. Let S E Q'(L, k'), 0 < 8" < 8'. The holomorphicfunction
wE C\L,
admits an analytic continuation to an entire function satisfying the estimate
where u = Re w, u+ = max(u, 0), u_ = min(u, 0).

Proof. From Proposition 5.4.7 we conclude that for any 8 > 0
sup W(w)!e-k'u-e'u+-e"u- < 00.
w¢L,
Fix w E Le. Let

e(k'+e')s _ e(k'+e")s
G(~) := - - - - -
~
then z ~ G(w - z) is an entire function. Moreover, for any z E L2e we have
!G(w - z)e(k'+e")Z!:::; (e(k'+e')U e(e"-e')(a-2el +e(k'+e")U).
In other words, z ~ G(w - z) belongs to Q(L, 28, k', 8"). Thus, the function
1
F(w) = - - . (Sz. G(w - z)}
2:rc1
is defined for w E Le and, by the continuity of S, satisfies
sup W(w)! ::: Cle(k'+e'lu + C2e(k'+e"lu,
weL,
for some convenient constants C b C2. This concludes the proof. o

We are now ready to give the following definition:
5.4.9. Definition. The Cauchy transform C(S) of S E Q'(L, k') is the element
[S] E H(C, k') defined by the family S = (Se)e>O.
5.4.10. Proposition. For S e Q'(L, k'), one has

S = Int([S]) = Int(C(S».
In other words, Int oC = id on Q'(L, k').
Proof. Let f e Q(L, so, k', so), 0 < s < so, 0 < s' < so. The integral represen-
tation
f(z) =
1
-2'
1
f(w)
e(k'+e')(w-z)
dw,
7r1 aLB w- z
given by Proposition 5.4.5, actually converges in the topology of Q(L, k').
(Exercise for the reader, see [Mol], [Mo2].) One concludes that
(S, f) = -1 aLB
f(W)Se,(w)dw,
which is exactly the statement of the proposition. o

Co Int = idH(C.k') .
Proof. Let [F] e H (C, k') defined by a family (Fe)e>o, and set S = Int([F]).
From the definition of S we deduce that for every f e Q(L, so, k', so), and
every 0 < S < So, 0 < s' < so'
w~---
w-z
belongs to Q(L, So, k'-oso). In fact, it is continuous in Leo, holomorphic in to
(even holomorphic in L2eo)' and one can verify that
-(W-Z)2 I
sup 1e e(k'+e')w < 00.
weL.o W - Z
Hence, for all z e L3eo \L2eo
(t) 1 aL.o
(Ss'(W) - Fe,(w»
e-(w-z)2
w- z
dw = O.
1
Let us introduce an auxiliary function G, holomorphic in L4so' by
I A e-(w-z)2
G(z) := -2' (Ss'(w) - Fe,(w» dw.
7r1 aL4<o w- z
If z e L3so \L2so' we can apply (t) and Cauchy's theorem to obtain
G(z) = Ss,(z) - Fs'(z).
A 0
Thus, the function Se' - Fe' admits an analytic continuation G e' to L4eo by G,
hence G e' is an entire function. Moreover, one can prove without difficulty that
le-(k'+e')zGe,(z)1 remains bounded in L3eo. It follows that G e, E R(C; k', e'),
which finally proves that
C(lnt[FD [F]. = o
We are now going to extend the Fourier-Borel transform to Q'(L, k').
5.4.12. Lemma. The function z ~ eZ~ belongs to Q(L, k') if and only if
Re~ < -k'.
Proof. It is elementary and left to the reader. o
5.4.13. Definition. The Fourier-Borel transform of SEQ' (L, k') is the func-
tion ~(S) defined in the half-plane Re ~ < -k' by
~(S)(~) = (Sz, eZ~).

5.4.14. Definition. The space Exp(] - 00, -k'[ + ilR) is the collection of all
holomorphic functions F in the half-plane Re ~ < -k' such that
sup 1F(~)le-HL(~)-el~1 < 00
Re ~:5 -(k' +e')
for every e, e' > 0, where HL is the supporting function of the half-strip L.
It is easy to see that letting ~ = ~ + i T/
+oo if ~ > 0,
Hd~) = supRe(~z) = { a~ - klT/ if ~ :::: 0, T/ ~ 0,
zeL a~ - k2T/ if ~ :::: 0, T/:::: o.
5.4.15. Proposition. The Fourier-Borel transform ~ maps Q'(L, k') into

Exp(] - -k'[ + ilR).
°
00,
°
Proof. Let S E Q'(L, k'), hence for every e, e' > there is a constant C =
C(e, e') ~ such that for ~ = ~ + iT/, ~ :::: -k' - e',
I~(S)(~)I = I(Sz, eZ~)1 :::: C sup lez~e(k'+e')zl
zeL,
Ce(Hk'+e')(a-e)-kl'l if T/ ~ 0,
{
:::: Ce(Hk'+e')(a-e)-k2'1 if T/ :::: o.
This estimate is precisely of the form
I~(S)(~)I :::: c' eHd~)+el~l, Re ~ :::: -(k' + e').
Therefore, ~(S) E Exp(] - 00, -k'[ + ilR). 0
We are now trying to prove that ~ is a bijection between the two spaces consid-
ered above. Let F E Exp(] - 00, -k'[ + ilR) and fix two complex numbers ~o =
~o + iT/o,~' =~' + iT/', such that ~o < -k', I~'I = 1,~' :::: O. The ray starting at
~o and direction ~' is denoted ~o + ~' 00, i.e.,

~o + ~'oo = Ro + t~': 0::; t < oo}.
Let us introduce the function
F(w, ~o, ~') =~ { F(r)e- wr dr =~ roo F(~o + t~)e-w(~o+t~') dt,

2m i~oH'oo 2m io
which is a sort of Laplace transform of F. The first thing to determine is for
what values of w is the integral convergent. Due to the conditions on ~o and ~'
there is s' > 0, such that for all t ~ 0
~o + t~' ::; ~o < -k' - s',
so that for z E ~o + ~'oo

!F(z)1 ::; CeHdz)+elzl,
for some C = C(s, s') ~ O. It follows that if z = ~o + t~'

!F(z)e-ZWI ::; C'et(a-e)~'-(kl-e)71'-Re(~'w)}.
Hence, if we consider the open half-plane

We(n := {w E IC: Re(~'w) > (a - sW + s117'1 - k l l7'}
the integral converges absolutely and uniformly in WeW), and thus the function
F(w, ~o, ~') will be holomorphic in this half-plane. It is also clear that if
W«() := {w E IC: Re(~'w) > Hd()} ,
Figure 5.7
then
wen = UW£(n.
£>0
We summarize this fact in the following statement:
5.4.16. Lemma. For any ~o E C, ~' E C, I~'I = 1, Re~' :s 0, the function given
by w 1-+ F(w, ~o, n
is holomorphic in the open half-plane Wen.
Observe that we also have

U W£(~') = C\L e ,
1~'1=1
Re~'~O
U W«() = C\L.
1~'1=1
Re~'~O
In order to gain information from these two identities we need to relate

F(w, ~o, () for different values of ~'.
5.4.17. Lemma. Let I~'I = I~"I = 1, Re~' :s 0, Re~" :s 0, then

F(w, ~o, ~') = F(w, ~o, ~")
for all WE Wen n WW').

Proof. It is enough to show this identity for every w in W£(~') n W£(~"), for
some 8 > 0. In the angular sector bounded by the two half-rays ~o + (00
(that is, {~o + ~'t : t E [0, oo]}) and ~o + ~"oo, the function r 1-+ F(r)e- Wr
is of exponential type and decreases exponentially on the boundary. By the
Phragmen-LindelOf theorem it also decreases exponentially in the sector. Thus,
one can use Cauchy's theorem to obtain
r F(r)e- rW dr = r F(r)e- rW dr
J~o+~'oo J~oH"oo
5.4.18. Lemma. Let ~o = -(k' + 8'). One can define a holomorphic function
F(w, ~o) in C\L by
F(w, ~o) = F(w, ~o, n for w E W(~').
For every 8 > 0, this function satisfies

sup IF(w, ~o)e-(k'+e')wl < 00.
w1L,
In particular, F(w, ~o) E R(C\L; k', 8').

5.4.19. Lemma. Let 0 < s" < s'. The function
G(w) := F(w, -(k' + s')) - F(w, -(k' + s"))

has an analytic continuation to the whole plane. It satisfies the estimate
for some C 2: 0, where u = Re w, u+ = max(u, 0), u_ = min(u, 0). In partic-

ular,
G E R(C; k', s').
Proof. It is an immediate consequence of the fact that for C\L we have
G(w) = -.j
1
27T1
-(k'+e")
-(k'+e')
F(r)e- TW dr. o
5.4.20. Definition. For F E ExpO - 00, k'[ + ilR, L) we define for every s' > 0
a function B(F)e' by
B(F)e'(w) = F(w, -(k' + s')), wE C\L.
The family (B(F)e')e'>O determines an element B(F) of H(C, k'), called Borel
(or Laplace) transform of F. Denote
B: ExpO - 00, -k'[ + ilR, L) ~ H(C, k'),

F ~ B(F).
5.4.21. Example. The function F(~)=ezl; belongs to ExpO - 00, -k'[ +iR L)
if and only if Z E L. The Borel transform of F is the "Cauchy kernel" used in
Definition 5.4.6,
1 e-(k'+e')(z-w)
B(F)e'(w) = -.
27T1
-- --
Z - W
(w E C\L).
5.4.22. Proposition. The following identity holds:
Jo Int oB = idEXp(]_oo,-k'[+ijR,L)'
Proof. Let F E ExpO - 00, -k'[ + ilR, L), S = Int([B(F)]). From the defini-
tion of Int we have, for Re ~ < -k' - s',
J(S)(~) = - r
JaL,
B(F)e,(w)e-wl; dw.
Decompose the path aLe into three parts following Figure 5.8.
Denote ~o = -k' - s', and since in the portion I, we have 1m w = k2 +s >
k2, we can let Fe,(w, ~o) = F(w, ~o, -i). Then
W2~---+----~-----------------
IT W2 (a - £) = + i(k2+ E)
m
Wl~---+-----+-----------------
Figure 5.8
1eW~ F(w, ~o) dw 1

= eW~ F(w, ~o, -i) dw
=~ lew~
27r1 I
(1 ~o-ioo
F(r)e- WT dr) dw
=~ 1 F(r) (le{~-T)W dW) dr
1
27r I ~o-ioo I
1 e{~-T)Wl
= ----. F(r) dr.
27r1 ~o-ioo ~ - r
Similarly, if 1m ~ i- 0 we have
f e~w F(w, ~o) dw = f e~w F(w, ~o, -1) dw
~I ~
= ---
1 1 e{~-T)Wl - e{~-T)W3
dr.
27ri ~o-l.oo ~ - r
Finally, we also have
f e~w F(w, ~o) dw = f e~w F(w, ~o, i) dw

Jm Jm
= ~ f eW~ ( f F(r)e- WT dr) dw
2m Jm J~o+iOO
1
= ---.
1. F(r)
e{~-T)Wl
dr.
27r1 ~o+ioo ~ -.r
1 1
Thus, for Re ~ < -k' - 8', 1m ~ i- 0, we have
1 e{~-T)Wl 1 e{~-T)W3
J(S)(~) = ---. F(r) dr + ---. F(r) dr,
27r1 C1 ~ - r 2m . Cz ~ - r
where Clo C2 are the paths suggested in Figure 5.9.
k' E'
Figure 5.9
1
An application of Cauchy's theorem yields
I e(~-~)Wl -F(~) if Im~ < 0,
°
{
- F(r) dr =
I1
27r i C1 /; - -r if 1m/; > 0,
- F(r)
e(~-~)W3
dr =
{O if Im~ < 0,
27ri C2 ~ - r -F(~) if Im~ > 0.
Therefore,
J(S)(~) = F(~)
whenever Re~ < -k' - s'. This concludes the proof. o
5.4.23. Proposition. The following diagram is commutative. Each arrow is a
bijective linear map:
Q'(L, k')
~ c • EXr - 00, -k'[ + fIR, L)
.... ~ H(C,k').
(In fact, all the maps are topological isomorphisms [Mol] [Mo2].)
Proof. We have already shown that C and Int are inverses of each other and
JoInt B = id. It is enough to show B J = C to conclude the proof. Let
0 0
S E Q'(L, k'), F(~) = J(S)(~), ~o = -(k' + 8'). For W E W(~') one has
F(w,
- ~o) = -.
1
2rrl
1
~o+~'oo
F(r)e-W'I: dr = -.
1
2rrl
1~oH'oo
(Sz, eZ'l:)e-W'I: dr
= _1_ / S 1
2rri \ z, ~oH'oo
e'l:(Z-W) dr) = __1_
2rri
(s "
e-(k'+e')(Z-W»)
z- w
= -Se'(w). 0
We are now going to extend the results of Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
Let 0:::: k' < 1, ~ E e- L , then the function Z 1--* 1/(1 - ~eZ) belongs to
Q(L, k') (as the reader can easily verify). Thus, for any T E Q'(L, k') we can
define a function G(T) by
G(T)(~) := / Tz , 1 ) ,
\ 1 - ~ez
which is hence defined for ~ E Q (L) := C\e- L and has the following properties:
5.4.24. Proposition. Let T E Q'(L, k'), 0 :::: k" < 1. Then:

(i) Thefunction G(T) is holomorphic in Q(L).
(ii) The Laurent development of G(T) at ~ = 00 is given by
G(T)(~) = - L J(T)~ -n) ,

n?:l ~
Proof. The first item is an immediate consequence of Morera's theorem. The
second item follows from the development
which, for I~ I > e-(a-e), converges in Q(L, k'). o

If the half-strip L has width k2 - kl < 2rr, then Q(L) contains the angular
sector A(-kl' -k2 + rr) := R E C*: - kl < arg~ < -k2 + 2rr}.
We are now going to describe the behavior of G(T) in this angular region.
5.4.25. Proposition. Let L = [a, oo[ + i[kb k2] with k2 - kl < 2rr and let 0 ::::
k' < LIfT E Q'(L, k'), then for every 8 such that 0 < 28 < 2rr + kl - k2 and
every 8' such that 0 < 8' < 1 - k' there is a constant C ~ 0 with the property that
C
IG(T)(~)I :::: 1~Ik'+e'
e-a
Figure 5.10
for every
Proof. From the continuity of T there is a constant C' :::: 0 such that if r; f/.
e- L '/2, then
1 e(k'+E')Z
IG(T)(r;)1 = I(Tz, z}1 ~ c' sup
1 - r;e zeL,/2 1 - r;e z
e(k'+e'-l)z
~ C'sup
zeL e- Z - r;
~ C'dist(r;,e- L ,/2)-k'-E' sup Il-ezr;(+E'-I.

zeL,/2
Since e- L ,;2 S; A(-k2 - s/2, -kl + s/2), for ~ E neLs) we have

dist(;, e- L';2) :::: 1;1 sin(s/2).
On the other hand, for Z E Ls/2 and ; E A (-kl + s, -k2 + 2rr - S), we have
S
I arg(;e Z ) I :::: 2(mod2rr),
so that
inf 11 - ;ezi :::: sin(s/2).
zEL,;2
Therefore, the inequality of the statement holds with C = C'I sin(s/2). 0
Let us keep the hypotheses of the preceding proposition from now on. Denote
Ho(n(L), k') the space of all holomorphic functions rp in n(L) such that:
(i) lim rp(O = 0; and
I~I-c>oo
(ii) sup{lrp(;Rk'+s'I: ; E A(-kl + s, -k2 + 2rr - s)} < 00, whenever 0 < 2s
< 2rr + kl - k2, 0 < s' < 1 - k'. This space provided with the seminorms
sup{lrp(;)I: 1;1 > e- a +S } < 00,
sup{lrp(;)~k'+<'I: ~ E A(-k 1 +s, -k2 +2rr - s)} < 00,
is a space of Frechet-Schwartz.
5.4.26. Proposition. The linear map

G: Q'(L, k') ~ Ho(n(L), k')
is continuous.
Proof. It follows from the fact that the two sets
{(l- ~ez)-l: I; I:::: e- a+S }, {;k'+s' 0- ;ez)-l: ; E A( -kl +e, -k2 + 2rr - e)},
are bounded in Q(L, k'). o

5.4.27. Lemma. Let h E Q(L, k') and let e > 0, e' > 0, be sufficiently small so
that 0 < 2e < 2rr - kl + k2' 0 < e' < 1 - k', and h E Q(L, e, k', e'). Then:
1
(i) For p > 0 the function
hp(z)
1
= -. hew) dw
2rrl aL"p 1 - eZ - W
belongs to Q(L, 1) (and hence to Q(L, k')), with the contour aLs,p =
aLs n {w:Rew::: pl.
(ii) For Z E t
h(z) = - 1 hew) dw.
2rr i aL, 1 - eZ - w
1
(iii) The limit

lim hp = h
p-+oo
holds in the space Q(L, k').

Proof. (i) The fact that hp is holomorphic is clear. On the other hand,
because fJLe,p is compact and the integrand is continuous. 0
(ii) Let Le(P) = Le n {w E C: Re w :::: pl. Then, if Z E Le and Rez < p, we

have
h(z) = - .
1 h(w)
Z
2JTl aLe(P) 1 - e -w
dw.
1
Denote by Ee(P) = Le n {w E C: Re w ::: pl. We only need to show that for
zE Ie
.1
hm
p-+oo
h(w)
aEe(P) 1 - e Z - W
dw =0.
+ e') there is C ::: 0 such that

1
Since h E Q(L, k'
11 h(w)
- - - d w :::: C
aEe(P) 1 - e Z - W
I e-(k'+e')Rew
aEe(p) 1 - e Rez - p
dlwl,
and it is easy to see that the right-hand side converges to zero as p --+ 00.
(iii) We need to show that if Ye,p = aLe \aLe,p, then
1 Y€,p
_h(_w_)_ dw------+O
1 - eZ - W p-+oo
in Q(L, k').
For w E Ye,p we have e- w E A( -kJ + e, -k2 + 2JT - e), thus
inf le- z - e-wl ::: e- Rew sin(e/2)

zELe /2
inf 11 - ez-wl ::: sin(e/2).

zEL e /2
Hence, for some convenient constants C, C' ::: 0
sup e(k'+e'/2)z
e
ZEL /2
1 h(~~w dw
Ye,p 1 - e
sup
e
ZEL /2
1 Ye,p
h(w)(e- Z - e- w)-k'-e'/2(1 - e Z - W )-l+k'H'/2 dw
~ CI Ye,p
Ih(w)le(k'+e'/2)Rew dlwl
<
-
c'l Ye,p
e-e'/2(Rew) dlwl
p ..... 1t o. o
5.4.28. Proposition. Let T E Q'(L, k'), h E Q(L, k'). Choose 8, 8' > 0
sufficiently small so that 0 < 28 < 2rr + kl - k2' 0 < 8' < 1 - k', and h E
Q(L, 8, k', 8'). Then
(T, h) = 21. r
rrl JaLe
G(T)(e-W)h(w) dw.
Proof. From part (i) of the last proposition we have
_1 r /
2rri JaLe,p \
Tz , 1
1 - eZ -
\ h(w)dw
W /
= (Tz, _1 r h(w)
2rri JaLe,p 1 - eZ - W
dW).
As a consequence of part (iii) of the same proposition, the right-hand side

converges to (T, h) when p ~ 00. It is also clear the left-hand side converges to
_1_.
2m JaLe
r G(T)(e-W)h(w) dw
by Proposition 5.4.25. o
As a consequence of this proposition, we can recover T from G(T). We can
apply this to obtain a generalization of the Carlson theorem (see Theorem 4.1.6).
5.4.29. Theorem. Let 0 ~ k' < 1, L = [a, oo[ + i[k 1 , k 2], k2 - kl < 2rr. If the
function F E Exp(] - 00, -k'[ + ilR., L) is such that F( -n) = 0 for all n E N*,
then F == O.
Proof. There is T E Q'(L, k') such that ~(T) = F. The hypotheses and the
connectedness of Q(L) imply that G(T) == O. Thus, T = 0 and F == O. 0
EXERCISES 5.4.
1. For L = [a, oo[ + i[ -Jr /2, Jr /2], k' E ~, define a functional T by
(T, ({)) := ~ { (()(~) exp(e{) d~

2Jrl JaLe
for e > 0 sufficiently small and (() E Q(L, k').
(a) Show that T E Q'(L, k'). .
(b) Show that 3'(t)(z) = -1/ r(1 - z) (use a Hankel integral for the function n.
(c) Show that for any R E ~, M > 0, e > 0, there is c > 0 such that
_1_ < cexp (-MRez

If(z)1 -
+(~+
2
e) IImzl)
for Re z ~ R (see [GrR], [01].)
(d) Conclude that Gr(w) = e 1/ w - 1.
2. For L = [a, oo[ + i[-1I"/2, 11"/2], k' E JR, A > 0, let

1.
(SA, ({J) := -2
11"1
r ({J(~)exp(Asinhnd~.
J8L.
(a) Show that SA E Q'(L, k').
= -Lz(A) (Iv the Bessel function of order v).
°
(b) Show that ~(SA)(z)
(c) Show that for any R E JR, M > 0, 6 > 0, 6 > 0, there is c > such that
IJz(A)1 :::: C exp ( -M Rez + (~ + 6) IImzl)

for Re z ::: R (see [OrR], [01].)
(d) Show that
GSA (w) = L In(A)W n = exp (~ (~ - w)) - L Lm(A)Wm.

n::=:1 m~O
3. (a) Show that for ({J E 'H.o(O (L), k'), L = [a, oo[ + i[ -k, k] (a E JR, k > 0), the
1
integral
M«({J)(z) := - .
1 -((J(W) dw
211"1 8(exp(-L.» wz+1
makes sense and M«({J) E Exp(] - 00, -k'] + iJR; L).

(b) Assume further that °: : k < 11", k' < 1.
c+;oo Irnz
-5 -4 -3 -2-1
Rez
c -;00
Figure 5.11
For F E Exp(]- 00, -k'] + iffi.; L) we define
I 1
---:-
C
+iOO _.F(z)
__ (_w)Z dz (k < largwl ~ rr),
={
1~(z)
M-1(F)(w) 21 c-ioo smrrz
-~ (-w)' dz
21 r smrrz
where r is the path suggested by Figure 5.11 and -1 < c < -k'.
Show that for every 8 > 0, 8' > 0, there is a constant C > 0 such that, with x = Re z
and y = Imz,
F(z)(-w)Z I < C exp«a - + (k + 8)lyl + x log Iwl - y arg( -w».
I
8)X
sinrrz - (sin2(rrx) + sinh2(rry»1/2
Conclude that the two integrals defining M- 1(F)(w) are holomorphic functions in their
respective regions. (Note, so far there is no claim that M- 1(F) is well defined.)
(c) Prove that for every 8 > 0, 8' > 0, there is a constant D > 0 such that
I ~21 1C+iOO sm~(z)rr z (_w)Z dzl ~ Dlwl-k'-e'

c-ioo
if k+8~largwl~rr.
Conclude that the two integrals defining M- 1(F)(w) coincide whenever k e- a •
(d) Show that for Iwl > e- a
M-1(F)(w) =- L F(-n)wn
n~l
and deduce that M-1(F) E .1foUJ(L), k').

(The reader will find further developments in [Mer], [Mol], [Mo2], [MoYol],
[MoY02], [YoI]-[Y05].)
CHAPTER 6
Harmonic Analysis
The ongms of Hannonic Analysis lie in the work of Euler [Eu] and the
Bemoullis who proposed to write periodic functions in tenns of the exponen-
tials e inx , nEZ, in their study of the vibrating string. It is known that every
COO-function which is 2rr-periodic in the real line has an expansion of the fonn
2::;:"00 aneinx (we remind the reader one can estimate these coefficients an very
precisely, and that we do not need to restrict ourselves to COO-functions). It was
the work of Fourier [Fo] on heat conduction that showed, once and for all, the
importance and the interest of such expansions, and since then they have been
called Fourier expansions. It is clear that another way of saying that a function
! is periodic with period r is to say that ! satisfies the convolution equation
(8 r - 8) *! = O.
In this chapter we will consider the properties of solutions of convolution

equations IL * ! = 0, where IL is either a nonzero distribution of compact support
in lR or a nonzero analytic functional in C. The solutions ! of such an equation
are called IL-mean-periodic or simply mean-periodic if no confusion about the
convolutor IL can arise. In particular, we will discuss the existence of expan-
sions for mean-periodic functions generalizing the Fourier series expansions of
periodic functions.
The name mean-periodic was introduced by Delsarte [Del] who observed that
in Physics one usually only knows the average of a "quantity" !, i.e., a function
!, and hence these quantities are only a detennined modulo functions ! with
zero average over any interval of length r (r > 0 is fixed), i.e.,
11x+r/2
IL*!(X)=- !(t)dt=O,
r x-r/2
where IL = (ljr)X[-r/2,r/2). This function! is periodic of period r (as it can be
seen by differentiation of the above convolution equation) and has zero "mean"
(average) over any interval of length r, whence the name mean-periodic.
353
354 6. Harmonic Analysis
6.1. Convolution Equations in IR.

Recall that according to the Paley-Wiener theorem, F: e'(R) -+ Ap(C) is
an isomorphism where p(z) = I Imzl + Log(2 + Izl). As before, we denote by
e(R) the space of the COO-function on R, with its usual Frechet topology.
6.1.1. Definition. Let 0 =f:. JL E e'(R). We say that a function f E e(R) is JL-
mean-periodic (or simply mean-periodic) if it satisfies the convolution equation
JL * f = O.
6.1.2. Proposition. The set VJt = (f E e(R): JL * f = O} is a closed subspace
of e(R) which is invariant (under translations).
Proof. We first recall that given hER one defines the translation operator rh
by rh(f)(x) = f(x - h). To say that VJt is invariant under translations means
that rh (VJt) ~ VJt for every hER
Since rh (f) = Oh * f, the fact that VJt is invariant is clear. The other prop-
erty is also immediately apparent from the fact that the convolution operator
JL*: e(R) -+ e(R) in continuous. 0
6.1.3. Proposition. If JL =f:. 0 and JL =f:. COa for any a E Rand C E C*, the space
VJt = Ker JL* is a proper invariant subspace of e(R).
Proof. First we remark that VJt ~ Ker jJ" where jJ, is considered as a continuous
linear functional on e(R) (and not as a convolutor). This follows from the
definition of convolution:
0= JL * f(O) = (jJ" f).
Hence, if JL =f:. 0, then VJt =f:. e(R). On the other hand, if JL is not of the form
coa , then the entire function FJL has zeros [BG, §4.S.11]. Let J... be such a zero
and f(x) = exp(iJ...x), then
JL * f(x) = FJL(J...)f(x) = o.
Therefore VJt =f:. {O}. o
6.1.4. Remark. This proof shows that the exponential eiJ..x of frequency J... lies
in VJt if and only if J... is a zero of F JL. There are other simple functions in
VJt, namely, the exponential monomials xkeiJ..x, when J... is a zero of FJL of
mUltiplicity m > k. In fact, one has the identity
k
(JLr, (x - tleiA(x-t)} = eiJ..x 2: (~) x k- j (-i)j (JLr, t j e- iAt )
j=O }
= eiAX t
j=O
(~) x k-
}
j (-i)j (F JL)(j) (J...).
6.l. Convolution Equations in ~ 355
From this identity we see that if the multiplicity of the zero A of F IL is

m, then xke iAx E rot for 0 :::: k :::: m - 1. Conversely, if for some k, A we have
xke iAx E rot, the polynomial on the right-hand side of this identity is identically
zero, hence (FIL)(j)().. ) = 0 for j = 0, ... , k. Therefore, A is a zero of FIL of
multiplicity m > k.
6.1.5. Proposition. Let rot be a closed invariant subspace of £(JR), and let
(vJt).L = {IL E £' (JR): (IL, /) = 0, 'If E rot}. Then (vJt).L is a closed ideal of the
convolution algebra £'(JR). Moreover, (vJt).L = {IL E £'(JR): IL * f = O,for all
f E rot}.
If'J is a closed ideal of £' (JR), then (J).L = {f E £ (JR): (j'L, f) = 0, 'IlL E 'J} is
a closed invariant subspace of £(JR) which coincides with the subspace of £(JR)
given by {f E £(JR): IL * f = 0, 'IlL E 'J}.
Furthermore, under these conditions, (((vJt).Ln.L = rot and (((J).Lf).L = 'J.
Proof. It is evident that (vJt).L is closed even if rot were not closed. Once we
*
show that (vJt).L = {IL E £'(JR): IL f = 0, 'If E rot} is true, it becomes clear
that (vJt).L is an ideal of £'(JR).
Let IL E (vJt).L, f E rot then
(IL * f)(x) = (ILl, f(x - t»)= (ILl, (Lx (f)f(t») = 0,
since LAf) E rot. Hence (vJt).L £ {IL E £'(JR): IL * 1= 0, 'If E rot}. The other
inclusion is evident.
We also have, for IL E 'J and f E (J).L,
'CAin = (IL * 'CAf) (0) = (IL * Ox * f)(O) = (IL * ox, /) = 0,
(IL,
since IL * Ox E 'J for every x E R Hence 'Cx (f) E (J).L. The identification of
(J).L is similar to the previous case.
The final statement is a consequence of the Hahn-Banach theorem [Hor]. 0
Now let 0 =f:. IL E £' (JR) and consider rot = Ker IL*. We can identify (vJt).L
immediately as follows. Let 1= F«vJt).L). Then I is a closed ideal in the
algebra Ap(C). From Remark 6.1.4 we know that if (A, m) E V(FIL), the multi-
plicity variety associated to FIL, then xke iAX E rot for 0:::: k :::: m - 1. Hence,
if v E (vJt).L we must have v * xke iAx = O. This implies that Fv vanishes at
the point A with multiplicity at least m. Therefore Fv = </>FIL for some entire
function </>. In the terminology of Chapter 4, if we let f be the algebraic ideal
in Ap(C) generated by FIL and let (FIL) be the algebraic ideal generated by
FIL in Jf(C), we see that 1= Ap(C) n (FIL). In other words, I = floc.
If we define rot o as the invariant closed subspace generated by the expo-
nentials monomials xke iAx , with 0:::: k:::: m -1 and (A,m) E V(FIL), then the
preceding argument shows that 10 := F«vJto).L) coincides with floc. The reason
is that to show that I = floc we only used the exponential monomials in rot. It
follows, from Proposition 6.1.5 that roto = rot. That is, the exponential polyno-
mials solutions of IL * f = 0 are dense in the family of all solutions.
356 6. Hannonic Analysis
Lemma 6.1.8 and Theorem 6.1.9 extend this result to arbitrary closed invariant
subspaces rot Before we proceed, let us point out that there is another way to
obtain invariant subspaces.
6.1.6. Definition. Let I E [(lR). We denote by 'r(f) the closure of the space
spanned by rx(f), x E R
This space is the smallest closed invariant subspace of [(lR) containing I.
6.1.7. Proposition. A lunction I E ['(lR) is f,L-mean-periodic lor at least one

f,L =j:. 0, f,L E ['(lR), if and only if'r(f) =j:. [(lR).
=
Proof. It is clear from the previous Proposition 6.1.5 that 'r(f) [(lR) if and
only if the ideal ('r(ff)1. is the zero ideal. Ifnot, let 0 =j:. f,L E ('r(ff)1.. Using
the same proposition we conclude that f,L * I = O. 0
We have just seen that the exponential polynomial solutions of a single convo-
*
lution equation f,L I = 0 are dense in the family of all solutions of the same
equation. Of course, we could not hope to obtain Fourier-type expansions of
the solutions unless this density property were true. We will show in detail how
to accomplish this expansion in Theorem 6.1.10 under some restrictions on f,L.
What is not immediately apparent is whether a given function could not have
two different Fourier expansions. For instance, the reader could ask himself what
happens with a function I which is both I-periodic and 2-periodic. How about
I-periodic and J"2-periodic? More generally, we could ask what happens with
the solutions of systems of homogeneous convolution equations. Is it possible
for such a system to have some nonzero solutions and, at the same time, have
no· exponential solutions?
This problem is a particular case of toe spectral analysis problem, which
asks to decide whether given a nonzero closed invariant subspace rot there is
or there is not an exponential monomial xkeiJ...x E rot. Let us denote by roto the
closure of the span of the exponential monomials in rot. The spectral analysis
problem becomes:
Does rot =j:. 0 imply roto =j:. O?
From the previous Remark 6.1.4 and Proposition 6.1.3 we know that when
rot = Ker f,L* then ooto =j:. {OJ if and only if f,L is not of the form c8a , in which
case rot = roto = {OJ.
We also have seen for rot = Ker f,L* that rot = roto always hold. This question
can be posed for arbitrary nonzero closed invariant subspaces rot. The spectral
synthesis problem for rot is:
Is roto = rot?
If this holds for every closed invariant subspace rot, we say that the spectral
synthesis property holds for [(lR). It is a famous result of L. Schwartz [Schw1]
that the spectral synthesis property holds, in fact for [(lR).
One can generalize these concepts to [(JRn) and find the surprising fact that
the spectral synthesis property does not hold for [(JRn), n ~ 2 [Gu1], [Gu2].
6.1. Convolution Equations in IR 357
We are sure the reader recognizes the relation between this question and the
Wiener-Tauberian theorem for the algebra L I (JRn ).
We need a few more definitions before proceeding to prove Schwartz's
theorem. Let rot and roto be as above, denote by I, 10 the closed ideals in
Ap(C) given by .r«vJt).L) = I, 10 = .r«Mo).L). Let V be the multiplicity
variety associated to I, it is called the spectrum of rot. We recall also that Iloc
is a closed ideal.
For a function f, its spectrum is simply the spectrum of'r(f).
6.1.8. Lemma. 10 = Iloc.

Proof. We remind the reader that Iloc = Ap(C) n I (V), where I (V) is the ideal
in Je(C) of functions vanishing on V.
First we want to show that Iloc ~ 10. Let xke iAx E roto. Then, by Remark 6.1.4,
.rJ-L()") = 0 with multiplicity > k for every J-L E (vJt).L, since roto ~ rot. It
follows that ().., m) E V for some m > k. Hence, if .rv E Iloc, .rv will vanish at
the point).. with order at least m. The same remark shows that v * xke iAX = O.
Therefore, v E (vJto).1 and .rv E 10.
On the other hand, if .rv E 10 and ().., m) E V, we need to show that .rv
vanishes at ).. with multiplicity at least m. If that were the case we could conclude
that.rv E I(V), hence.rv E Iloc. By the definition of V, for every J-L E (M).1
we have that .rJ-L()..) = 0 with order at least m, hence for 0 ~ k ~ m - 1, J-L *
xke iAx = O. Thus, xke iAx E «(vJt).Lf).L = rot. In other words, xke iAx E roto for
o ~ k ~ m - 1. This forces any .rv E 10 to vanish at ).. to the order at least m.
That is, 10 ~ Iloc. 0
From this lemma we can conclude that rot admits spectral analysis if and only
if hlC #- Ap(C), which is equivalent to the statement that V #- 0. On the other
hand, from the same lemma we can conclude that rot admits spectral synthesis
if and only if I = hoc. Namely, I = Iloc if and only if I = 10. Equivalently, if
and only if, (vJt).L = (vJto).L.
6.1.9. Theorem. e(JR) has the spectral synthesis property.

Proof. We follow the ideas of the proof given by Schwartz [Schwl]. Let rot
be a closed invariant nonzero subspace of e(R) and let I be the corresponding
ideal of Ap(C). In order to prove I = Iloc we can apply Lemma 2.5.5 to reduce
this problem to the case where the spectrum V of rot is empty. In this case, all
we need to prove is that I = Ap(C). Let us first prove an auxiliary lemma.
6.1.10. Lemma. Let I be a closed ideal in Ap(C) which is invariant under
differentiation. Then, either I = {O} or I = Ap(C).
Proof of Lemma 6.1.10. Assume that I is a proper ideal of Ap(C) and let I
be the proper ideal of e'(lR) such that .r(I) = I. Then, from the properties
of the Fourier transform, we conclude that I is invariant under multiplication
by the function x, hence, by multiplication by polynomials. Since I =f. {OJ,

there is J-L =f. 0 E I. As we can find cp E V(JR) such that cp * J-L =f. 0, thus
*
cP J-L E In V(JR), we might as well assume that J-L E V(JR). Further, using
a translation if necessary, we can assume J-L(O) =f. O. Let R > 0 be such that
supp J-L C [- R, R]. The Weierstrass approximation theorem allows us to find a
sequence of polynomials Pn such that:
(i) Pn :::: 0 on [-R, R];
(ii) J~RPn(x)dx = 1; and
(iii) for any e > 0, Pn(x) -+ 0 uniformly in [-R, -e] U [e, R] as n -+ +00.
1:
Let f E I1., thus T:yf E I1. for any y E R Since PnJ-L E I we have
0= (PnJ-L, T:yf) = Pn(X)J-L(X)T:y(f)(x)dx -+ J-L(O)(T:y(f)(O)).
Therefore, 0 = T:y f (0) = f (- y) and so, f == O. This proves that I1. = {OJ and
I = £'(JR), a contradiction. 0
It is clear now that to conclude the proof of Theorem 6.1.9 we need to prove
that if cP E I then its derivative cp' E I also. Recall from [BG, §4.6.15] the
Hadamard canonical product of cp is
cp(z) = zneaz+fJ D[(1 _~) eZ/Zk] mk ,
where n :::: 0 denotes the multiplicity of Z = 0 as a zero of cp and mk are the

multiplicities of the distinct zeros Zk =f. 0 of cpo As cp has order one, we have
L -mkkl- <00
IZ 2 •
k?:l
Taking the logarithmic derivative of cp we see that
cp'(z) = ~ +a
cp(z) Z
+ Lmk
k?:l
(_1_ +~),
Z - Zk Zk
which converges locally uniformly in C\Z(cp). Hence
(*) cp'(z) = ncp(z) + acp(z) + Lmk (cp(Z) + CP(Z))

Z k?:l Z - Zk Zk
and the series converges locally uniformly in C. Since V = ¢ we know that

cp(z)/(z - Zk) E I and, if n=f. 0, cp(z)/z E I also. In fact, we recall from the
proof of Lemma 2.5.5 the following identity. Let h E I be such that h(Zk) =f. 0,
then
cp(Z) h(Zk) - h(z) cp(z) h(z)
- -
Z - Zk
= cp(z)
h(Zk)(Z - Zk)
+ ----,
Z - Zk h(Zk)
and the functions [h(Zk) - h(z)]/[h(Zk)(Z - Zk)], cp(z)/(z - Zk) E Ap(C), while
cp(z) and h(z)/ h(Zk) E I. Thus cp(z)/(z - Zk) E I.
6.1. Convolution Equations in R 359
Therefore, if we could prove that the series (*) converges in Ap(C) it would
follow that q/ E I. This convergence might not hold, so we use the trick of
introducing an extra element of 1 in each term of the series. Namely, we rewrite
(*) as
mp(z)
(**) cp'(z) = -z- + acp(z)
+ "L.t" ( mk--
cp(z) + -cp(z)
mk + mkzCP(z))
2 - (""
L.t 2mk) zcp(z).
k::::l z - Zk Zk zk k::::l zk
This is similar to the Mittag - Leffler procedure for the expansion of merom orphic
functions. On the other hand,
liZ) cp(z) z2
mkCP(z) ( - - + - + -
Z - Zk Zk z;
= mZk ---,
- Zk z;
and there are constants A, B > ° that

(1 + IzI 2)lcp(z)1 :::: AeBp(z)
and
Therefore, when Iz - zkl ~ 1,
:::: IzI 2 Icp(z)1 Mk :::: mk AeBp(z)

Imk Zcp(z) z21
- Zk z; IZkl2 IZkl2
and, for Iz - zkl :::: 1, we have
/ (ZCP~Z;k) / :::: max{l({J'(~,)I: I~ - zkl :::: I},
so that the inequality
cp(z) z2/ < mk A Bp(z)

/m k - - - -- e
Z - Zk z; - IZkl2
also holds in the last case.
Hence, the terms in the series (**) are bounded by mk/lzkI2AeBp(z), which
implies the convergence of (**) in Ap(C). Thus q/ E 1 as we wanted to prove.
D
Returning to convolution equations, if we let rot = Ker J.t*, J.t =f:. 0, we have
that the spectrum of rot coincides with V = V (FJ.t). For any f E [(lR.) satis-
*
fying J.t f = 0, we can find finite sets An <.;Z(FJ.t) and polynomials Pn,J..,
).. E An, deg Pn,).. < multiplicity of ).. as a zero of F J.t, such that
f(z) = lim "" Pn,)..(x)eiJ..x,

n-+-oo L..J
J..EA.
where the limit is in the topology of E(lR). This is nothing other than the state-
ment 9J10 = 9J1. In fact, one can find an actual representation of f in the form of
a series of exponential polynomials in 9J10 . These exponential polynomials tum
out to be unique but the proof that this representation exists is rather delicate. It
was originally given by Schwartz [Schwl], who used it to obtain the first proof
of the Spectral Synthesis Theorem. We will restrict ourselves, for simplicity, to
a special case of convolutors JL such that FJL is slowly decreasing and V is
an interpolation variety. Our proof can be generalized to the case of arbitrary
convolutors in E' (JR) and even further to the case of several variables, althought
the spectral synthesis property is false for E(JRn ), n ~ 2. We refer the interested
reader to [BT2], [BT3], [BYl], [Eh5], [Pa], [BSt2].
6.1.11. Theorem. Let JL E E' (JR) be such that F JL is slowly decreasing and let
V = V(FJL) is an interpolation variety for Ap(C). Then, every CC'O-solution f
of the convolution equation JL * f = 0 can be written in the form
(A,m)eV (A,m)eV O~j~m-l
The coefficients aA,j are uniquely determined. The last series is convergent
in the topology of the space E(JR), i.e., absolutely and uniformly convergent on
every bounded interval and the same is true for every derivative of this series,
which then converges to the corresponding derivative of f.
Moreover, the coefficients aA,j satisfy the estimates
L eBp(A) ( L j! laA,jl) < +00

(A,m)eV O~j~m-l
for any B > O.

Conversely, any series of such exponential polynomial solutions, whose coef-
ficients satisfy these estimates converges in E(JR) to a function f solving the
equation JL * f = O.
Proof. We let I = I (V). This closed ideal coincides with the principal ideal
generated by FJL in Ap(C) as FJL is slowly decreasing. Let p:Ap(C) -+ Ap(V)
represent the restriction operator. Recall that if V = {(Zb md: k ~ I} then, .for
¢ E Ap(C),
With this notation Ap(V) is the space of sequences b = (bk,t) such that, for
some C > 0
IIblic = supe-Cp(zkl Ibk,tl < +00.
k~l
The condition that V is an interpolation variety means that p is surjective.

6.1. Convolution Equations in ~ 361
The idea of the proof is the following. Consider the map

a=pO:F.
Using functional analysis we show that the transpose ta is a topological
isomorphism between (Ap(V»' and its image, which turns out to be rot =
*
(f E £(lR): JL f = OJ. We also show that (Ap(V»' is a space of sequences
a = (ak,I)' The duality bracket is (a, b) = Lk,1 aklbkl. Let us show that these
statements are enough to obtain the Fourier representation of a function f
*
solving JL f = O. Namely, there would be a unique a = (ak,l) E (Ap(V»' such
that f = ta(a). For x E IR we have
j(x) = (8x , ]) = (8 x , ta(a»)
= (a(8x ), a) = (p(e- ixz ), a)
_ / ( -i)1 xle-iXZk) a )
- \ I! ' ( k,I)
=" " ~ak,I-,-X

(_i)l I
e
-iXZk
.
k[ l.
Hence,
f(x) = I: Ak,[xleixZk
k,1
where Ak,[ = ak,[(-iill!.

Let us proceed now to prove the above claims.
6.1.12. Lemma.
(i) The space Ap(V) is an DFS space that can be represented as the inductive
limit of the Banach spaces Ap,c(V) (c > 0), where
Ap,c(V) = {b = (bk,lh~!
O="I="mk-!
: IIbli c = supe-cp(zkl (
k O="I="mk-!
I:
Ibk'lr) < +oo}.
(ii) The dual space (Ap(V»' can be identified to the space of the sequences
a= (ak,[h~! such that,for every B > 0,
O~[~mk-!
~eBP(") C~I~_llak.d) < 00.
Proof. The space Ap(V) was described, as a set, as the union of the sequences
of spaces Ap,c(V) in Chapter 2 (§2.7.1). We have only to show that the
quotient map
p: Ap(C) -+ Ap(V)
I
becomes a topological isomorphism when Ap(V) is described as the inductive
limit of Ap,c(V)' It is clear that the spaces Ap,c(V) are Banach spaces and that,
if Cl > C2, the canonical injection Ap,cl (V) ~ Ap,C2(V) is a compact map. It is
also evident that if we restrict the value of C to a strictly increasing sequence
converging to +00 the corresponding .c~-topology is stronger that the topology
of the coordinatewise convergence for Ap(V). Then this topology is the same
as the one obtained using all values of c. It follows that this topology is DFS.
Since the map p is continuous and surjective from Ap(C) to Ap(V), and Ap(C)
is also a DFS space, it follows from the Open Mapping Theorem that p is a
topological isomorphism.
To prove the second part, let us show that any sequence a = (ak,l) satisfying
the estimates from (ii) defines a continuous linear functional on Ap (V) by
b 1--* (a, b) =L L aklbkl.

k:::l O:~;:l~mk-l
In fact, we have
I(a, b}1 :::: L L laklbkil
k:::l O~I~mk-1
:::: IIbli c LeCP(Zk) L laul:::: const.llbll c •

k:::l O~I~mk-1
This shows the continuity on each space Ap,c(V),

Conversely, given an element v E (Ap(V»', we define
ak,l = (v, Ek,/),
where Ek,/ is the sequence in Ap(V) whose only entry different from zero
is the one whose index is (k, I), and the value for this entry is exactly one.
°
Let B > be fixed and define bkl = eBp (zklf3kl, where f3kl = aki/akl if akl #- 0,
f3k,/ = 0, otherwise. Since there are positive constants Al and A2 such that
mk :::: AIP(Zk) + A2 for every k (see Exercise 2.2.9) then
L Ibkil = eBp(Zk)mk :::: (A1P(Zk) + A 2)e Bp (Zk).

O~I~mk-l
Choose any c > B, then it follows that b = (bk,/) E Ap,c(V), (It is this reasoning
that allows maxI lak,ll and LI lak,ll be interchangeable in the definition of
(Ap(V))'.) Therefore, all the finite sequences
satisfy
Since v is continuous on Ap(V) we have

I(v, b(n)}1 :::: Mcllb(n)lIc :::: Mcllbllc < +00.
On the other hand,
= E eBp(zkl E /ak.!/
1::;I::;n O::;I::;mk-1
by definition of f3kl. Thus
E eBp(zkl E /ak.!/ < +00.
k::; 1 O::;I::;mk-1
This shows that the sequence a = (ak.!) satisfies the desired estimates. It also
follows that, for any b E Ap(V), we have
(v, b) =E E aklbkl = (a, b),

k:;::l O::;I::;mk-1
since the last series is absolutely convergent. D
6.1.13. Lemma.
(i) la: (Ap(V»' -+ £(JR.) is a topological isomorphism onto its image.
(ii) 1m la = (Kera)-L = {f E £(JR.): J1, j = OJ. *
Proof. We know that a: £'(JR.) -+ Ap(V) is a continuous surjective map between
two DFS spaces. It follows from Section 1.4 that 1m la is closed and la is a
topological isomorphism from (Ap(V»' onto 1m la.
The equality 1m la = (Kera)-L is a result from functional analysis (see [Hor]).
On the other hand, .r(Kera) = I, hence Kera = J1, £'(JR.). From Proposition *
6.1.5 we get
(Kera)-L = {f E £(JR.): J1, * j = OJ. o
As we observed at the beginning of the proof, when J1, satisfies the hypotheses
of the theorem Lemmas 6.1.12 and 6.1.13 imply that for any J1,-mean-periodic
function I there is a unique sequence a E (Ap(V»' such that
I(x) = E E AklxleixZk,
k:;::l O::;I::;mk-1
where Ak,! = ak,/(-i)'II!. To see that the series converges in £(JR.) one notes
that
(~) m(xleixZk) = ( . L
O::;J::;mf(l,m)
(7) l(l- 1) ... (l - j + 1)x l - j (iZk)m- j ) eiXZk .
For Ixl :::: R and IZkl ~ 1, whenever k ~ ko we obtain the following inequal-
ities:
since
and
This shows that the differentiated series converges absolutely and unifonnly
over all compact subsets of R This concludes the proof of Theorem 6.1.11. 0
Given a IL-mean-periodic function f it would be interesting to have a simple

fonnula computing the coefficients Akl of the above development of f (at least
when IL satisfies the hypothesis of Theorem 6.1.10). For that purpose we need
to construct distributions ILk,/ such that
(
ILk,/,xe
s -izrx) _
-
{O(_1)1 if (r, s) '" (k,I),
if (r,s) = (k,l),
where V = V(FIL) = {(Zk, mk), k ~ I}, 0 ::: 1::: mk - 1, and 0::: s ::: mr - 1.
6.1.14. Lemma. Given an arbitrary 0 '" IL E [ ' OR) one can find explicit distri-
butions ILk,l satisfying the above properties. Moreover, if [a,,8] is the smallest
closed interval containing the support of IL, then supp(lLk,d S;; [a, ,8].
Proof. From the fonnula

(v,xqe- iAx ) = (-i)q(Fv)(q)(>..),
which holds for every v E ['(lR), we conclude that FlLk,l must vanish to the
order mr at Zr for every r '" k and the Taylor expansion at Zk is given by
'1
Fllk
,., ,/(z) = :"(z
I! - zd
. + O«z - zk)mk).
We note that for any polynomial Pk,l(Z) = L:j aj(z - Zk)j of degree strictly less
than mk, the function
Pk,/(Z)FIL(Z)
(z - Zk)m k
is entire, belongs to Ap(iC), and has the required order of vanishing at Zr for
r '" k. We claim that for a convenient choice of the polynomial Pk,l we obtain
6.1. Convolution Equations in ~ 365
the Fourier transform of the distributions J-Lk,1 we are looking for. To verify the
claim it is enough to observe that the Taylor development of F J-L about Zk is
(z Z )mk
FJ-L(z) = - k (FJ-L)(mkl(Zk) + O«z _ Zk)mk+l).
mk!
It is immediate from this expression that there is only one polynomial Pk,l
that satisfies all conditions. In fact, it coincides with
Pk,l(z) = il(z - Zk)m k {PrinciPal part of (Z ~!zd / FJ-L(Z») at Z = Zk}'
By the Paley-Wiener theorem we conclude that the support of J-Lk,! is also

contained in [a, ,8]. These distributions are of the form
Pk'!(~ ~) Tk,
where FTk(z) = FJ-L(z)/(z - Zk)m k. This last distribution is easy to compute.
We leave as an exercise to the reader to show that
(Tk,1/f) = (m:: I)! (J-Lx, e- iZkX 1 00

(s - X)m k-l eizks1/f(S) ds}.
The distribution Tk thus defined has support in [a,,8] because FJ-L(j)(Zk) = 0

for 0 ::::: j ::::: mk - 1. 0
6.1.15. Corollary. Let f E g(~) and let J-L E £'(lR), Assume that
f(x) =L L aklxleizkX,
k::;:IO::;:I::;:mk- 1
where V(FJ-L) = {(Zk, mk)} and the series converges in the topology of £(~).
Then the coefficients akl can be computed by the formula
akl = (J-Lk,l, j).
In particular, if F J-L is slowly decreasing and V (F J-L) is an interpolation variety
then b = (I! akl) E (Ap(V»'.
Proof. Due to the convergence of the series, the function f is J-L-mean-periodic
because that is true for each term. The formula for the coefficients is an imme-
diate consequence of Lemma 6.1.14. Finally, if J.L satisfies the hypotheses of
Theorem 6.1.11, then we know that the coefficients of f must satisfy the prop-
erty (l! akl) E (Ap(V»'. 0
6.1.16. Remark. It is clear that this corollary holds even if the series converges
in £ (~) only after some summation procedure has been applied. In fact, the
theorem of Schwartz [Schwl], [BTl], [BT2] shows that every J-L-mean-periodic
function has such a series representation which is convergent after grouping
terms and Abelian summation.
It is also clear that if J-L is a distribution of order N, one needs the convergence
to be in the topology of eN (~). This is the case since all the distributions J-Lk,1
have order at most N. Moreover, one can prove that the expansion theorems
*
hold in V'(JR), i.e., if f.L f = 0, f E V'(JR), then f has a Fourier expansion
of the same kind as before which converges in V'(JR).
6.1.17. Corollary. Let f.L E e' (JR) satisfy the hypotheses of Theorem 6.1.11,
supp(f.L) £ [a, ,8], a < ,8. Let f E e(JR) be f.L-mean-periodic which vanishes
identically on [-,8, -a]. Then f is identically zero in JR.
Proof. It is a known fact of the theory of distributions ([Schw2, Theorem
XXVIII]) that if v E e'(JR) has supp(v) £ [a, ,8], then (v, = O. From the 1>
previous corollary, the coefficients ak,l = (f.Lk,l, = O. Thus f == O. 1> 0
6.1.18. Remark. It is also clear from the proof and Remark 6.1.16 that the
restrictions on f.L of F f.L being slowly decreasing and V an interpolation variety
are not necessary. It is also clear that f is determined by its values on any interval
of length L = ,8 - a (if L > 0). When L = 0, f.L is an ordinary differential
operator with constant coefficients (up to a translation). In this case, one needs
the values of f and a certain number of derivatives at one point to vanish. We
will assume that L > 0 unless stated otherwise.
6.1.19. Proposition. Let fEe (JR) be the solution of two convolution equations
f.L * f = v * f = 0, and assume that f has two representations
f(x) = L P)..(x)eiJ..x = L Qa(x)e iax
()...m)eV(.1"/L) (a.n)eV(.1"v)
which converge in e(JR). Then each a in the second series for which Qa t= 0 is
a zero of Ff.L and moreover Qa = Pa• and a similar statement holds for ).. in the
first series.
Proof. If Qa(x) contains the nonzero term aa.lx1e iax let Va = va,o be the distri-
bution defined in Lemma 6.1.14. It is easy to see that
Va * f(x) = Va * ( L QfJ(x)e ifJX ) = Qa(x)eiax .

(fJ.n)eV(.1"v)
Hence
f.L * (Qa(x)e iax ) = (f.L * Va * f)(x) = 0,
which implies that Ff.L(a) = O. In the same way the zeros).. of Ff.L which
appear in the first representation must be zeros of Fv. The fact that Pa = Qa
is due to the uniqueness of the coefficients in Corollary 6.1.15. 0
6.1.20. Corollary. If f has a convergent representation

f(x) = ~
" " P)..(x)e''Ax ,
)..
in terms of v-mean-periodic exponential polynomials, then the only nonzero coef-

ficients are those P)..(x)e iAx in ~(f).ln other words, P).. is different from zero if
6.1. Convolution Equations in lR 367
and only if A belongs to the spectrum 01 I with multiplicity bigger than or equal
to (degree P'A) + 1.
Proof. It is enough to observe that in the previous proposition one does not
need to know that I has a representation with respect to f.L to conclude that F f.L
vanishes at A to the order (deg P'A) + 1 when f.L * I = O. 0
6.1.21. Examples.
(1) If a function I E e(lR) is periodic of period t" > 0, then I is the solution
of the convolution equation
IL * I(x) = «8 T - 80) * f)(x) = I(x - t") - I(x) = O.

The variety V of FIL(z) = e- iTZ - 1 is exactly the collection of points 2krr/t",
k EZ, every point with multiplicity one. The function F IL is slowly decreasing
since it is an exponential polynomial and V is an interpolation variety. The
distributions ILk = ILk,O are given by
(ILk> 1/1) = iPk,o \ 8 T - 80 , e- i (2rrk/T)X 1 00

1/1 (s)e i (2rrk/T)Sds )
= -i Pk,o foT 1/1 (s )ei (2rrk/T)S ds.

Here, Pk,O = 1/(FIL)'(Zk) = 1/(-it") and the coefficient ak of I is given by
ak = (ILk. /) =.!.
t"
r 1(_s)ei (2rrk/T)Sds = .!.1°
Jo t"
l(s)e-27riks/Tds
-T
=.!. r l(s)e-27riks/Tds.
t" Jo
This is the classical Fourier coefficient of I, f is represented by the series
L
00
I(x) = ake27riks/T,
k=-oo
and the estimates from Theorem 6.1.11 are
L
00
eBp(Zt)lakl < 00
k=-oo
for every B > O. Here P(Zk) = log(2 + 1(2rri/t")kI 2), hence we have
j;ro (2+ I~j kl') B la.1 < 00,
which is equivalent to lakl =

O(lkl- N), as Ikl -+ 00, for every N > O.
(2) Let IL = L::=o *
ck8~k) so that IL I = 0 means that I is a solution
of the ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients, namely,
the equation CN I(N) (x) + ... + col (x) = O. The characteristic equation is
FIL()..) = L:f=D Ck(i)..)k = 0 and the exponential monomial solutions are x j ei)..x
if ).. is a root of F IL of multiplicity bigger than j. This is the classical result of
Euler.
(3) As a final example let us consider the difference-differential equation
!'(x) = f(x + 1).
This equation corresponds to convolution with IL = 80- L 1, its Fourier trans-
form is FIL(z) = iz - eiz and (FIL)'(z) = i(1- eiz ). The zeros of FIL are all
simple as we can thus see easily. Let V = V(FIL) = {zd, since (FIL)'(Zk) =
i + Zk, then V is an interpolation variety by Proposition 2.7.8.
In fact we can describe reasonably well the roots Zk as follows. Let iz = pe iO ,
then the equation defining V becomes
{
pcose = logp, -n < e :::: n,
p sine = e + 2kn, k E Z.
The first equation implies that cos e > 0 for p > 1, this restricts e to the interval
-n /2 < e < n /2. Furthermore, we can see that
p2 _ (logp)2 = (e + 2kn)2,
{
tane = e + 2kn.
logp
From the first equation Pk ::: 2lkln. Hence, the second equation becomes
2kn
tan e ::: ,
log21kln
which shows that for k -+ +00 one has a root ek -+ n /2 and for k -+ -00 one
has a root ek -+ -n /2. Therefore, one can improve the estimate of Pk to
Pk ::: 21kln + (Signk)~.

The corresponding roots Zk are such that
and
arg Zk ::: Arctan ( 2kn ) - ::..
log21kln 2
It follows that the Zk lie in the lower half-plane. For k -+ +00, arg Zk -+ 0
and, for k -+ -00, argzk -+ -no Furthermore, one can see I Imzkl = Log Izk!
hence p(zd ::: Log IZk I ::: log 2lkln. From these considerations we obtain that
any COO-solution of this difference-differential equation has the form
L
00
f(x) = akeizkX
k=-oo
with lakl = O(lkl- N )

for all N > O. We can also give an explicit formula to
compute the coefficients ak. We have, after a simple computation, and setting
JLk = JLk,O,
ak = (JLk. j) = ~
I +Zk
{1°eiZkS f(-s)ds -
-1
-/- f(O)}
IZk
=. -Zk. [te-iZkSf(N)(S)ds_~(N)(O)].
(I + Zk)(/Zk)N Jo IZk
The last line is obtained using the equation and integration by parts. It shows
the coefficients have the correct rate of decay.
We have seen some properties of Fourier development and uniqueness for

solutions of a homogeneous convolution equation and one could ask when is
*
the inhomogeneous equation JL f = g solvable.
6.1.22. Proposition. Let 0 i= JL E e'(lR). Then the operator JL*: £(lR) ~ e(lR)
is surjective if and only if F JL is invertible.
Proof. The surjectivity of JL* is equivalent to the injectivity and closed range
of the transpose operator iJ-*: e'(lR) ~ £'(IR). By Fourier transformation the
last statement is equivalent to the fact that the multiplication operator by F iJ-
in Ap(1C) ~ Ap(1C) must be injective and have closed range. The injectivity is
obvious since JL i= 0 and the range is the principal ideal i generated by F iJ- in
Ap(lC). Since FJL is invertible then [ = (FJL)Ap(1C) is closed. Since [ is closed
if and only if i is closed we have proved the surjectivity.
Conversely, if JL* is surjective, then i is closed, and by the spectral synthesis
property [ = floc, which is precisely the definition of the invertibility for FJL. D
Before continuing the discussion of inhomogeneous convolution equations,

let us consider the relation between the two concepts, slowly decreasing and
invertibility for JL E £'(lR). Let us recall that in Definition 2.2.13 we have defined
f = F JL to be slowly decreasing if and only if there exist constants 8 > 0, c > 0,
and A, > 0, such that the connected components Va of the set
S(lfl, 8, c) = {Z E <C: If(z)1 < ee-cP(z)}
are relatively compact and, for every z, W E Va we have

p(z) ::: A,p(w).
We have also proved in Proposition 2.2.14 that if f is slowly decreasing
then the ideal [ = f . Ap(1C) coincides with the local ideal [loco In other words,
f is invertible. We would like to show here that these two properties, slowly
decreasing and invertible, are equivalent. We follow the proof given by Ehren-
preis in [Eh3].
6.1.23. Theorem. Let 0 i= JL E e'(R), f = FJL, [= f Ap(lC). Then the

following properties are equivalent:
(1) f is slowly decreasing.
(2) There exists a constant a ::: 1 such that lor each x E JR. there is x' E JR. so
that:
(i) Ix - x'i .::: a log(2 + Ix I);
(ii) I/(x')1 ::: (a + Ix'l)-a.
(3) There exists a constant C > 0 such that lor every ZE C there is z' E C so
that:
(i) Iz - z'l .::: Cp(z);
II (z') I ::: e-Cp(z').
(ii)
(4) [IvE &'(JR.), :Fv/I E Jt'(C), then :Fv/I E Ap(C).
(5) [ = [Ioc (i.e., I is invertible).
(6) [ is closed.
(7) f.L*: &(JR.) ~ &(JR.) is surjective.
(8) For every subset B £; &' (JR.), if f.L * B is bounded in &' (JR.), then B is bounded
in &'(JR).
Proof. We will first show that conditions 0), (2), and (3) are equivalent. Then
the proof of Proposition 6.1.2 shows that (6) implies (7) and (7) implies that
[L*: &' (JR.) ~ &' (JR.) is an isomorphism onto its image. The definition of bounded
sets in a topological vector space shows that this last condition implies that
whenever B £; &'(JR.) verifies that [L * B is bounded in &'(JR), then B must also
v
be bounded in &' (JR.). Since v 1-+ is an isomorphism of &' (JR) onto itself then
condition (7) implies (8). Finally, to conclude the proof we will show that (8)
implies (2).
6.1.24. Lemma. Conditions (1), (2), and (3) are equivalent.

Proof of Lemma 6.1.24. Since I = :Ff.L is slowly decreasing there are constants
s > 0, c > 0, Al > 0, A2 > 0, with the properties imposed earlier. Let a > 0
be such that
'rIr ::: O.
Assume x E JR. and I/(x)1 < (a + Ixl)-I, then x E S(I/I, s, c). Let 0 be the
connected component of SOil, s, c) containing the point x and let x + iy be a
point in ao
n (x + iJR.). Then
Iyl .::: p(x + iy) .::: A1P(x) + A2,
that is,
and
I/(x + iy)1 = e-cp(x+iy) ::: 8(2 + Ixl)-Y
for convenient 8 > 0, y > O. From the Minimum Modulus Theorem [BG,
§4.5.14] or Lemma 2.2.11 above, we have that for any R > 0 there is a value
r, R/4 .::: r .::: R/2, such that
min log I/(~)I ::: 9y log(2 + Ix I) + 9 log 8 - 8 log M,
1~-(x+iY)I=r
where
M = max
1~-(x+jY)I:::2eR
If(~)I.
Let us choose R = 51yl. then for any ~ in B(x + iy. 2eR) we have that
I1m ~ I ::: 311yl. I Re ~ I ::: Ixl + 301yl. Thus. for any such ~.
If(~)1 ::: CleC2P(~) ::: (2 + Ixl)BI
for a convenient constant BI > O. since
p(~) ::: 311yl+ log(2 + 611yl + Ixl)
::: 31A I log(2 + Ixl) + 31A2 + log(2 + 61A I log(2 + Ixl) + 61A 2)
::: Bolog(2 + Ixl).
Therefore there exists KO > 0 such that
min log If(~)1 ::: KO log(2 + Ixl)
1~-(x+jY)I=r
and since r ::: ilyl there is x' E JR so that lx' - (x + iy)1 = r. then it follows
that Ix'-xl::: r::: ~IYI. Thus
lx' - xl ::: ~(AIlog(2 + Ixl + A2 ) ::: a log(2 + Ixl)
and
If(x')1 ::: (2 + Ixl)-KQ ::: (a + Ix'l)-a
for a > 0 conveniently chosen. Hence. we have just proved that (1) implies (2).
To show (2) implies (3) given a point z = x + iy. using (2) choose x' E JR.
lx' - xl ::: a log(2 + Ixl). and If(x') ::: (a + Ix'l)-a. We can assume that a ::: 1.
thus Iz - x'i ::: a log (2 + Ixl) + Iyl ::: ap(z). Therefore z' = x' satisfies (3).
We are going to prove that (3) implies (1). Given a point z we know there
exists a point z' such that Iz - z'l ::: Cp(z) and If(z')1 ::: e-Cp(z') for some C :::
1. Let R = 51z - z'l. then for I~ - z'l = 2eR we have
I Im~1 ::: I Imz'l + I~ - z'l ::: I Imz'l+ 281z - z'l
::: I Imzl + 291z - z'l ::: 30Cp(z).
Similarly. we have
I~I ::: Iz'l + I~ - z'l ::: Iz'l + 2eR ::: Iz'l+ 281z - z'l
::: Izl + 291z - z'l ::: Izl + 29Cp(z).
Hence.
p(~) = I Im~1 + 10g(2 + I~I)
::: 30Cp(z) + log(2 + Izl + 29Cp(z» ::: AIP(z)
for some Al > O.
Applying the Minimum Modulus Theorem as done earlier we obtain a circle
r of center z' and radius r ::: Rj4 so that z E Int(r) and on r we have an
inequality of the form
If(~)1 ::: ee-cp(~)
for a convenient choice of E > 0, c > O. Moreover, the same computation shows
there is A2 > 0 such that for any two points w, w' of Int(f) one has p(w) ::5
A2P(W'). 0
6.1.25. Lemma. If f is not slowly decreasing there is an unbounded family (gj)j

in Ap(C) such that the family (fgj)j is bounded.
Proof of Lemma 6.1.25. Since f is not slowly decreasing then condition (2)
cannot be satisfied for any choice of a ::: 1. Hence, for any j E N* there is
Xj E JR so that:
(i) IXj I ::: e3j ; and

(ii) for any x E JR, Ix -xjl::5 j log IXjl implies If(x)1 ::5lxl-j.
For each j let k = [j log IXj I]. Recall that sinc z = sinz/z and let us define
the function
hj(z) = (sinc(rrz/j»j
=.r( (!rrX[-i/rr,j/rr])*j) (z),
where the power represents repeated convolution. The family that will work is
given by
First, we observe that all the functions h j are of exponential type rr. Hence,
the same is true for the gj. On the real axis, we have the following properties:
(a) hj(O) = 1;
(b) Ihj(x)1 ::5 1 (x E R); 'and
(c) Ihj(x)1 ::5 (j/rrlxl)j for Ixi =f. O.
We claim that the sequence (gj) is not bounded in Ap(C). For that, it is
enough to show that there is no value n > 0 such that Igj (Xj) I ::5 IXj In for every
j ::: 1. In fact,
We want to show now that the sequence fgj is bounded in Ap(C). All
these functions are of exponential type ::5 rr + (type of f). From the Phragmen-
Lindelof theorem we conclude that it is enough to prove that f gj are uniformly
bounded on R by a function of the form (2 + Ixl)N for some N.
For Ix - Xj I ::5 j log IXj I we have from (b) that
Igj(x)1 = eklhj(x - xj)1 ::5 ek ::5 IXjli.
On the other hand, for Ix - Xj I ::5 j log IXj I we have

IXjl ::5 Ixi + j log IXjl
while
so that
and
2j ~ Ix!.
Therefore, for the same range of x, Ix - xjl ~ j log IXjl, one has that
I/(x)gj(x)1 ~ IXjljlxl- j ~ 2j ~ Ix!.

For the complementary range, Ix - Xj I ::: k, using (c) one has
II (x)gj (x) I ~ I/(x)l/rr j ~ I/(x)1 ~ (2 + Ixl)N
for some N. This concludes the proof that the family (f gj) j is bounded in
Ap(C) while (gj)j is not. 0
The last lemma shows that condition (8) implies I is slowly decreasing. This
concludes the proof of Theorem 6.1.23. 0
6.1.26. Remark. Using the same type of argument the reader can find in [Eh3]
a few other important equivalences of the slowly decreasing condition. For
instance, I is slowly decreasing if and only if:
(9) JL* 1J'(IR) = 1J'(IR);
(10) IL*: 1J(IR) -+ 1J(IR) is an isomorphism onto a closed subspace of 1J(IR);
*
(11) for any v E e'(IR), if IL v E 1J(IR), then v E 1J(IR).
These equivalences are also valid in IRn. The reader should consult [Eh3] or
[H02] for details.
For IL slowly decreasing such that cv(supp IL) = [a,,8] let us consider the
Cauchy Problem
{
IL*I =g,
il[a,.8] = h,
where g E e(IR), h E e([a, .8]). From Corollary 6.1.15 we know that if V(FIL)
is an interpolation variety for Ap(C) then (*) has at most one solution I E
e(IR). (Remark 6.1.16 implies that the uniqueness is true for any IL '# 0.) The
obstruction to find a solution is only to be able to solve the simpler problem
{ IL * 10 = 0,
iol[a,,8] = ho,
for ho E e([a, ,8]). Namely, to solve the Cauchy problem (*) we choose an
*
arbitrary solution II of IL Ii = g, which exists by Proposition 6.1.21. If I is
a solution of the Cauchy problem (*), then 10 = I - II is a solution of (**)

with ho = h - (II I[a, 1m· Conversely, if (**) is solvable we take I = 10 + II
to solve (*).
It is not true that (*) and (**) are always solvable when IL is slowly decreasing.
The first difficulty is that (**) requires obvious compatibility conditions for ho
and its derivatives: for any integer n :::: 0,
0= (IL * Idn))(O) = (IL, (io)(n)) = (IL, hbn)}.
The corresponding compatibility conditions for (*) are
g(n)(O) = (IL * l(n)(O) = (IL, (j)(n)) = (IL, h(n)}.
The above procedure of reducing (*) to (**) when :FIL is slowly decreasing
preserves the compatibility conditions. In any case, it is not generally true that
(**) can be solved. If every h satisfying 0 = (IL, hbn)} can be extended to a
solution of (**) one says that IL is hyperbolic. The necessary and sufficient
condition for hyperbolicity is the following:
6.1.27. Theorem. A slowly decreasing distribution IL such that V is an inter-

polation variety is hyperbolic if and only if there exists a constant C > 0 such
that:
11m Zk I ::: C log(2 + IZk I)
lor every zero Zk 01:FIL.
6.1.28. Remark. The theorem is valid without the assumption that V(FIL) is an
interpolation variety [Eh3]. The proof is similar to the one given below except
for the grouping of terms.
Proof. Let 9J1 = Ker IL* and E = {t/> E £([a, ,8]): (IL, t/>(n)} = 0, "In EN}. Since
the map 1----+ il[a,,8] is an injective continuous map from 9J1 into E, it is
° °
surjective if and only if it is a topological isomorphism. Hence, if IL is hyperbolic
and € > is fixed, there are C 1 > and N E N such that for any I E 9J1
sup I/(x)1 ::: C 1 sup 1/(j)(y)l.
xE[a-s,,B+sl YE[a,,Bl
O:'Oj:'ON
Let Zk be a zero of :FIL and I (x) = e- iXZk • We obtain immediately
sup I/(x)1 = eX Imzk ::: C 1 (2 + IZkl)N exp ( sup YlmZ k).

a-s:'Ox:'O,B+s YE[a,,Bl
From this inequality one can easily conclude that

esllmzkl ::: C I (2 + IZkI)N,
which is the condition we wanted to obtain. Note that we only need to use the
extension to an open interval of length > L = ,8 - a. We continue the proof
with the following lemma:
6.1.29. Lemma. Let be 0"# J.L E £'(JR.), cv(supp J.L) =

[a, ,8], a < ,8, FJ.L slowly
decreasing, V(FJ.L) = V = {(Zko mk)} an interpolation variety satisfying
11m Zk I ::: C log(2 + IZk I) (k :::: 1).
If FJ.L(O) = 0 we denote Zo = 0, ifnot the index k runs only through k :::: 1.

Then,for every S E £'(JR.), there exist two distributions So and S" such that S,
is of the form Lk>O Sl,k, the series is convergent in £'(JR.). Each Sl,k is a linear
combination of th; derivatives J.Lkql for a convenient q E N (q = 0 for k = 0), so
that
S = J.L * So + s,
cv(supp Sd ~ [a, ,8] and the J.Lk,1 are the distributions defined in Lemma 6.1.14.
Furthermore, for any B > 0, q can be chosen to depend only on B so that
the map S -+ S, is linear and continuous from F-'(Ap,B(C» into £[a,tll(JR.) (the
distributions with support in [a, ,8].) Finally,for R > 0 and any x E JR., Ixl ::: R,
ax
the coefficients of J.Lk,/ for the distributions Sl,k which correspond to S = are
linear combinations of x j e- iXZk , 0 ::: j ::: mk - 1.
Proof of Lemma 6.1.29. From the proof of Theorem 2.2.10 we obtain disjoint
disks B(Zko rk), 0 < rk ::: ~, such that on 8B(Zko rk) we have
1.rJ.L(~)1 :::: 8, exp(-C,P(Zk».
The condition on the zeros Zk implies that this inequality can be replaced by
8
IFJ.L(~)I :::: (1 + IZkl)N
for some 8 > 0 and N E N.
Let q be a nonnegative integer to be chosen later. For those Zk such that
o ¢ B(Zko rk) we define a function
¢k(Z) = _1_ f FS(~) d~.
27ri JaB(Zk,Tt) ~qFJ.L(~)(~ - z)
When Iz - zkl > rk one can compute ¢k(Z) easily by residues. In fact,
This function is a rational function, linear combination of the functions

(z - Zk) -I, 1 ::: I ::: mko hence the function
'f/tk(Z) = zqFJ.L(Z)¢k(Z),
which is a priori defined only outside B(Zko rk) is a holomorphic function which
admits a continuation to the whole plane as in entire function. For those Zk such
that 0 E B(Zko rk) we define ¢k and Y,k by the same formula except no factor ~q
is used. (There are at most two such Zk. Why? In fact. by changing the values of
the corresponding radii rk we only need to consider the exceptional case when
:FJL(O) = 0 and we can then reduce ourselves to have at most one exceptional
value, Zo = 0.) We claim that the series
g(Z) = - L 1/1k(Z)
k:::O
converges in Ap(1C) and defines a distribution with support in [a, ,8], In fact, for
each B > 0, q can be chosen so that the map :FS 1-+ g is a linear continuous
map from Ap,B(1C) into :F(£[a,t!](lR».
Namely, for Iz - zkl ?: 2rko if k is not an exceptional value, then
AeBp(ztl
l4>k(Z) I ::: I
elzk q
(1 + IZkl)N ::: A 1(2+ IZkI)M-q,
where I:FS(z) I ::: AeBp(z), M = B(e + 2) + N. Choosing q = M + 2 we obtain

I1/1k(z) I ::: A 1(2+ IZkl)-2Izl q l:FJL(z)l,
(I + Izl)q+r exp(H(Imz))
IVtk(Z)I:::A2 (2+l zkI)2 '
where H is the supporting function of [a, ,8] and
I:FJL(z) I ::: const.(1 + Izl), exp(H(Imz)).

For the exceptional value of k = 0, we obtain the same estimate for Vtko with
q =0.
We need to estimate Vtk inside the disk B(zk, 2rk)' There is a k > 0 such that
the weight function w(z) = H(Imz) + (q + r) 10g(2 + Izl) satisfies
Iw(z) - w(w)1 ::: K
if Iz - wi::: I. Therefore, by the maximum principle, the above estimate for Vtk
holds inside the disk B(zk, 2rk) up to a small modification. Since the series
it follows that:
which proves the claim.

We will show now that g interpolates the values of :FS on the variety V. If
we consider a zero Zk of :FJL, then all the functions Vtj, j # k, are mUltiples
of :FJL in a neighborhood of Zk. Therefore, it is enough to show that :FJL + Vtk
vanishes at Zk with multiplicity at least mk. Consider a point w E B(zk, rk)\{zkl.
Let 0 < e < Iw - zkl, then letting y = 8 (B(zk, rk)\B(zk, e)) we have
:FS(w) _
wq:FJL(W) - 2rri
-1-1 ~q:FJL(~)(~
y
:FS(~)
- w)
d
~,
hence
(t)
For Iz - zkl > rk one has
1aB(Zk,rk)
FS(~)
~qFJL(~)(~ - z)
d~ = 1 aB(zk,s)
FS(~)
~qFJL(~)(~ - z)
d~;
therefore, for those z,
l/!k(Z) = zqFJL(z)
2rri
1aB(zk,s)
FS(~)
~qFJL(n(~ - z)
d~.
Since the two sides in this expression are holomorphic in C\B(zk, s) they coin-
cide at the point w. Hence, the above expression (t) for FS(w) can be rewritten
as
FS(w) = -l/!k(W) + FJL(w)hdw),
with
hk(w) = -
wq
2rri
1aB(zk,rd
FS(~)
~qFJL(~)(~ - w)
d~,
which is holomorphic in B(Zb rd. This proves that FS - g is a mUltiple of

FJL in Jf'(C). Since FJL is slowly decreasing we conclude there is a function
h E Ap(C) such that
FS = g + FJL' h.
Let Sl E £'(IR.) with cV(SUPPSl) ~ [ex,,8] be such that FS 1 = g and define
So E £'(IR.) by FSo = h, then we have
S = JL * So + Sl.
To conclude the proof we first observe that, from the expression of ifJk as a
linear combination of l/[(z - Zk)j], 1 :::: j :::: rnk, it follows that each 1/Ik is a
linear combination of F«d/dx)q JLk,I), 0:::: I :::: rnk - 1, for k ::: 1, and similarly,
of F(JLO,I), 0:::: I :::: rno - 1, if Zo = 0 is a zero of FJL. Here, the JLk,[ are the
distributions introduced in Lemma 6.1.14.
Furthermore, if S = Ox for some x E JR., the computation of the residues that
define ifJk shows that the coefficients of l/[(z - Zk)j] are linear combinations
of xl e- iXZk with 0 :::: I :::: rnk - 1. We note that the coefficients of these linear
combinations depend on q, which can be taken to be the same for all x, Ix I :::: R.
This concludes the proof of Lemma 6.1.29. 0
Now let us return to the proof of Theorem 6.1.27. We need to show that the
inequalities on the zeros of FJL imply the hyperbolicity. To see how to proceed,
suppose f E 9J1 and let 8x= /-t * So + St. then

j(x) = (8 x * /)(0) = (f * /-t * So)(O) + (Sl * /)(0)
= (Sl * /)(0) = (Sl, j).
Therefore, if we start with h E E, we define an extension j of h to the whole
real line by
j(x) = (Sl, h),
8x = /-t * So + Sl.
First, we need to show that this definition of j is independent of the choice
of decomposition of 8x . In fact, let
8x = /-t * So + Sl = /-t * To + Tl
with cv(supp Sl) ~ [a, ,8] and cv(supp Tl ) ~ [a, ,8]. Then
Tl - Sl = /-t * (So - To)
and, from the support theorem,
[a, ,8] + cv(supp(So - To» = cv(supp(Tl - St}) ~ [a, ,8].
Therefore, cv(supp(So - To» = {OJ, which indicates that So - To = P(d/dx)(80)
for some polynomial P. Hence
(Tl - Sl, h) = \/-t * P (:x) (8 h) 0),
= \/-t, P ( - :x) (h) ) =0

by the compatibility conditions defining E.
Note that, in particular, if x E [a, ,8] it follows that
j(x) = h(x)
=
since we can take So 0 and Sl 8x in this case.=
Second, we are going to show that the function j is of class Coo. If we fix
R > 0, then the decomposition of 8x can be made so that 'R: S ~ Sl given
by Lemma 6.1.29 is linear and continuous. It is a general fact from functional
analysis that j is Coo since the map x f-+ 8x is Coo for Ixl < R. For the sake of
completeness let us show the existence of the first derivative. For x fixed and
o =f:. It I small we have
1 v /1 )
t(f(x + t) - v
f(x» = \ t['R(8 x +l ) - 'R(8 x )], h
The limit
. 8x+I - 8x
11m ~I
= 0
1-+00 t x
is valid in the sense of distributions. hence

1 v
lim -(f(x + t) - f(x» = ('R.(8~). h).
v
1-+00 t
Repeating this procedure we see that
j<n)(x) = ('R.(8!n». h).
To conclude the proof of this theorem we need to verify that the function f
*
is a solution of /L f = O. This follows from the last part of Lemma 6.1.29
I
which tells us that (x) is given by an infinite series of the form
L L Cklxle-ixzt
k O:::I:::mt-1
with coefficients Ckl independent of x as long as Ix: I < R. and the series
converges in £(] - R. RD. This representation shows that (/L f)(x) = 0 if *
Ixl < R - Max(lal.I,BI). Since R is arbitrary. f E rot D
6.1.30. Example. We will give a general method to construct slowly decreasing

functions q, in Ap(C) with V(q,) an interpolating variety and q, not hyperbolic.
The method consists of moving some of the zeros of the function sin rr z away
from the real axis. Let En =
(logn)2. We choose a subsequence A (nk) of =
integers::: 3 and a sequence (8n )neA of positive numbers such that:
(1) n - 8n ::: E~ for n E A;
E
L
00
(2) ~ < +00;
k=18nk
(3) nk + 8nk < nk+l - 8nk+ l •
=
For instance, we can take 8n .fii and nk = k 6 for k ::: ko where ko is a
convenient integer. (The construction holds for other sequences En. Note that
En ::: 1 and Lk>l (EnJnk)2 < 00.)
We define -
f(z) = [u (1- ::)]lg (1-

n;loO
(n :iEnr)]·
This function has zeros at the integers n E Z*\A and at the points ±(n + iEn)
for n E A. Therefore. it is a function of exponential type by Lindelof's theorem
(see [Lev. Chap 1. Theorem 15]). To show that f E Ap(C) it is enough to show
that it grows at most like a power of x for x E JR.. This fact and the fact that f
is slowly decreasing will be a consequence of the following lemma:
6.1.31. Lemma. Let n E A and 8n• En ::: 1 as above. For x E JR. we have:
(1) 1- (- -X)2
- > n2 I1- (X)21
-
n + iEn - n 2 + E~ n'
(2) When Ix - n I :::: 8n we have

1- ( -X- )2
n + iEn
(3) For Ix - nl ~ 8n we have
1 _(_X)2 n2 ( 2En )2 1 _(X +i)2.
n + i En :::: n2 + E~ 1 + 8n n
Proof. (1) We have
1
1---x-l= In-x+iEnl > In-xl> n 1 1 -::1
n+iEn In+iEnl - In+iEnl -In+iEnl n
the same inequality holds when we replace x by -x. Multiplying the two
inequalities we obtain (1).
(2) Remark that because En ~ 1,
11 - __ x_I = In - x + iEn I < En In - x - i I

n + i En In + i En I - In + i En I
= In: i En I En 11 - x ; i I·
Hence, replacing x by -x and multiplying the inequalities
11 - (n +Xi En )21 :::: n2 n+ E~ En21 1 -

2 (x+i)21
-n- .
From the condition (1) we obtain that x ~ En, SO that
11- (-n +-X.En- )21 :::: --Ixl 21- (x+i)21

n 2
-- .
I n2 + E~ n
(3) We have
11- (_x_) I = In -x + iEnl = In -x - i'11 + _i(_En_+_l_) I

n+iEn In+iEnl In+iEnl n-x-i
:::: In :iEn,1 1 - (X_;_i) 1(1 + -I~-~-:I)

:::: ,n:iEn,1 1 - (x;i)lll+2::I·
In the last line we have used that Ix - nl ~ 8n and En ~ 1. Applying now the
same argument as in the previous parts we obtain
1- ( - -X)2
.-
n + I En
:::: n
2
-2--2
n + En
( En)2 1- (X+i)2
1+2-
8n
--
n
. D
6.1.32. Corollary. For x E JR we have

I/(x)1 .::: C(lxl + 1)1 sin1l'(x + i)l.
Thus, I is 01 at most linear growth on the real axis.
Proof. It is easy to show that for x E JR,
The function I being even we can limit ourselves to x ::: O. Consider first
the case where, for some n E A, we have Ix - nl .::: 8n . By property (3) of
the sequence A we have Ix - kl > 8k for any k E A \{n}. Therefore, using the
definition of I and the inequalities (2) and (3) of the previous lemma we have
I/(x)1 = II
mtf-A
m#O
1 (;rl· II
1-
keA\{n)
1- (-
k+
X)Z
-
iBk
·1--- (X)Z
n + iBn
.: : II 1- +')Z
(~ . II (kZ) 2)Z
-z--z ( 1+~ 1- (+
~')Z
mtf-A m k +
keA\{n) 8Bk k k
m#O
X 2
nZ
zlxl
Z
1-
(.)2
x
--
+1
.
n +Bn n
Wehaveallthetermsoftheinfiniteproductexpansionofl sin1l'(x + i)I/(1l'lx + il)

and the numerical constants form a convergent infinite product. Therefore
I/(x)1 .::: Clxll sin1l'(x + i)1 .::: Cllxl + C2.
In the case where 0 :::: x f/. UneA[n - On, n + on], the above proof works expect
that there is no need to consider one separate term. In fact, for these x we have
I/(x)1 .::: C,I sin1l'(x:- i)l.
Ix+zl
Altogether, we obtain the required inequality
I/(x)1 .::: CI sin1l'(x + i)I(lxl + 1) :::: C'(lxl + 1). o
6.1.33. Corollary. There is a constant A > 0 such thatlor every x E JR we have
I/(x)1 ::: A 1 Sinx1l'X I·
Hence, I is slowly decreasing in Ap(C).
Proof. From the definition of I and the first inequality in Lemma 6.1.31, we
obtain
I/(x)1 ::: II ( n n2)
neA +
II 1 -
-Z--2
Bn n#O
1 (X)21
-
n
= sin1l'x
AI 1- -1
1l'X
with Ai> 0, since the infinite product is convergent. Given any point x E IR
there is y E IR such that Ix - y I :::: 1 and I sin n y I = 1. This is clearly sufficient
to show that I is slowly decreasing. 0
It is clear from Corollaries 6.1.32 and 6.1.33 that I is the Fourier transform of
a distribution f..t which satisfies cv(suPPf..t) ~ [-n,n]. A simple application of
the Squires theorem (Remark 2.6.24) shows that V (f) is an interpolation variety.
(We give a direct proof below.) Clearly the zeros of I of the form = n + ien,
with n E A, do not satisfy
I Im(n + ien)1 :::: C log(2 + In + ien!}

since this would imply
for n E A, n ~ 00. Therefore f..t is not a hyperbolic distribution.

We proceed now to estimate If'(zdl from below for any zero Zk of I. It is
clear that all zeros of I are simple.
It is easy to see that
Consider first the case where Zk is a real zero of I, by the first part of Lemma
6.1.26 we see that if we replace every zero n + ien, n E A, by n we obtain
II ' (zk)1 > -2

- IZkl
(rr n2 )
neA n2 + e~
rrl
j#
1 - (Zk)21
-
j
= Clcos(nzk)1 = -
nlzkl
C -
1
n IZkl'
j'?i
since, up to the constant C2 =

fIneA[n 2/(n 2 + e~)], we have evaluated the
derivative of sinnz/nz at the integer Zk.
Let us now consider a zero of the form n + i en. The op.ly terms that have not
been considered in Lemma 6.1.31 are of the form
1- ( - -
n+ien)2 .
k + iek
For k E A \{n} we compare 11 - [(n + ien)/(k + iek)]1 with 11 - n/ kl. We have
n +-ien
\1 - - \ = I 1--
n 1\ -k- \\ 1+1. (Ck
-- -cn) \
k + iCk k k + iek k- n
Similarly,
n +-iCn
\1 + - \ > I 1+-n 1\ 1 \
k+iek - k l+i(ck/k)
On the other hand the convergence of the series 2:kEA (sd k)2 implies there
is a constant A such that
1~ IT 11+(~rl~A<OO
kEA\{n}
independently of n. Therefore
IT 1- (nk ++i
kEA\{n}
Sn ) 2 >
iSk -
~
A
IT 11 - (~r
kEA\{n} k
I.
For k E N*\A we have, by the same method,
1- ( -n +k.)2
-
ISn
~ I1-(k) 21 .
n
It follows that
If'(n + isn)1 ~ Aln! isnl g 1 - (~rl 1
k#n
C1
>---
In+isnl
with C 1 > O. Therefore, for every zero Zk of f we have If'(Zk)1 ~ D/lzkl for a
convenient choice of D > O. This proves that VU) is an interpolating variety.
o
6.1.34. Remark. In the paper [Eh3, p. 333] one finds an example of f.-L E £' (lR)
such that all zeros of F f.-L are real but f.-L fails to be hyperbolic because F f.-L is
not slowly decreasing. In this example
= IT ( cos dz )d
n
Ff.-L(z)
n~l n
for the choice dn = n! log2 n.
6.1.35. Example. Any difference-differential operation is a hyperbolic oper-

ator. That is, we consider the finite sum
(f.-L * f)(x) = Lak,j/(j)(X - t'k).
j,k
In this case
Ff.-L(z) = Lak,jijzje-iTkZ.
j,k
The zeros Zk of F f.-L satisfy the inequality
I1m Zk I ~ C log(2 + IZk I)
by the results of P6lya described in Chapter 3. We also know from Chapter 3
that Ff.-L is slowly decreasing. On the other hand, the variety V(Ff.-L) is not
necessarily an interpolation variety. This is the meaning of Remark 6.1.28. For

instance, if F J.L (z) = cos Z . cos AZ, then V (F J.L) is an interpolation variety if
and only if A is not a Liouville number. This FJ.L corresponds to the difference
operator
(J.L*f)(x) =! [J(x+l+A)+/(x+l-A)+/(x-l+A)+/(x-l-A)].
The previous example and the conjecture of Ehrenpreis mentioned in Chapter 3
are also related to the concept of an almost periodic function. Let us recall [Kat]
that a function I continuous on ~ is called almost-periodic if for every 8 > 0
there is a number L = L(8, f) > 0 such that for every interval I ~ ~ oflength
L there is a E I with the property that III - raflloo ~ 8. L is called an almost-
period. Note that I is automatically bounded. One can prove that there is a
collection A ~ ~ of frequencies and coefficients {C>.hEA such that for x E ~
I(x) = Lc>.ei>.x and L IC>.I < 00.
>'EA >'EA
Conversely, any such series of exponentials is almost periodic. The set A of
frequencies could be dense in ~, but it is clearly countable. If I were also
mean-periodic, then A would have to be a discrete set, it would coincide with
the spectrum of I and every point of the spectrum will be simple. Kahane
[Kahl] has proved that every bounded mean-periodic function is necessarily
almost periodic. The conjecture of Ehrenpreis can be interpreted as follows: let
J.L be a difference-differential operator with algebraic coefficients and involving
only translations with algebraic steps. Assume further that each zero ak of F J.L is
real and simple, then every J.L-mean-periodic function must be almost periodic.
(Clearly, this extends to the case where J.L is slowly decreasing, V (F J.L) is an
interpolation variety, all terms are simple and real.)
The theory of this section can be easily extended to the Beuding algebras
ew(~) [Bj] and similar algebras of Coo functions where one imposes restrictions
on the growth of the derivatives ([Grud2], [Ni2], [BSt2]).
EXERCISES 6.1.
Unless explicitly mentioned every function belongs to t:(lR), convergence is understood
in the sense of t:(lR), and every distribution belongs to t:'(lR).
1. Show that if P is a polynomial, P(x)e iAX is JL-mean-periodic if and only if xke iAx
is JL-mean-periodic for 0 ::s k ::s deg P.
2. Show that the spectrum 'r(f) of a function f is either empty, discrete, or the whole
complex plane.
3. Let M be (closed) invariant subspace of t:(lR). Show that (d/dx)(M) ~ M,
JL *M ~ M. If P is polynomial and P(x)e iAx E M, conclude that xke iAX E M for
O::s k::s degP.
4. Find all finite dimensional invariant subspaces of t:(lR).
5. An invariant subspace M is minimal if M #- {OJ and there is no proper invariant
subspace N ~ M. Find all the minimal invariant subspaces of t:(lR). Show every
invariant subspace contains a minimal subspace.
6. Show that if a function f ¥= 0 then there is an exponential eil- x which can be

obtained as a limit of finite sums of the form L ad (x - Xj).
7. Let f be a I-periodic function, f(x) = L~ooane2lrinx. What can be said about the
coefficients an if f is also periodic of period 1/2?
8. Let f be I-periodic and also r-periodic, r Ii Q. Find f.
9. (a) Let f(x) = ex2 . Show that for any polynomial P, P(x)e X2 E'I(f).
(b) Show that f is not mean-periodic.
10. Let 0 i= f E Ll(~) n £(~), show f cannot be mean-periodic. Is it possible when
f E U(~) n £(~), for some p, 1 < p .::: 2?
11. Show that if 0 i= f E 'D(~), then every continuous function in ~ can be locally
uniformly approximated by linear combinations of translates of f. Generalize to the case
f E C~(~).
12. Let f be /L-mean-periodic, f(x) = Ln,k an,kxkeil-nX. Show that for any polynomial
P, P(x)f(x) is also mean-periodic. Find its Fourier expansion. What about the function
g = (X/L) * f? Show that any derivative and any primitive of f is mean-periodic.
13. Is f(x) = eX mean-periodic?
14. Let 0 i= f E £(~) be such that If(x)1 .::: A(1 + Ixl)N for some A, N ~ O. Assume
further that f E LP (~) for some p E N*. Show f cannot be mean-periodic. (Hint:
Consider supp(.r(fP».)
15. Let /L E £'(~) be slowly decreasing, the zeros of .r/L all real and simple, V(.r/L)
an interpolation variety. Using Theorem 6.1.11 show that every f E £(~) which is
/L-mean-periodic can be written as f(x) = Lk ckeiOlkx, Lk ICkl < 00. (In fact, the esti-
mations on Ck are even better than this one.) In particular, f is almost periodic.
16. Show that if f E C(~) is almost periodic then f E LOO(~).
*17. Using Theorem 6.1.11 show that if /L = 81H + 81-1- + 81--1 + L1_1- and A is a
Liouville number, then there exist f E £(~) which are t-t-mean-periodic but not almost
periodic.
18. Let f E £(~) (f E C(~) is enough) be mean-periodic with respect to a measure /L
of support in [a, b]. Define f+ = fx[o,oo[, f- = f - f+. Show that if g := f+ * /L then:
(a) g = - f- * /L and suppg S; [a, b];
(b) the functions Lb(g) = G, Lb(/L) = M (Lb is the bilateral Laplace transform) are
entire functions.
Show that if v is another measure of compact support such that v * f = 0, h := f + * v,
H = Lb(h), N = Lb(V), then the meromorphicfunctions G/ M and H / N coincide. (This
meromorphic function is called the Fourier-Carleman transform of f.)
6.2. Convolution Equations in C

We recall that the convolution of an analytic functional T in <C and an entire
function f is given by
We note that this definition is slightly different from the one used in the
previous section for distributions. Regretfully, both terminologies are standard.
We will therefore adhere to the definition (*) in this section. We also recall from
Chapter 2 that we can convolve analytic functionals T, S as follows:
(T * S, f) = (S, T * f) (f E Jf'(C))
and that the Fourier-Borel transformation
~(T)(z) = (T~, e~Z) (z E C)
is a topological isomorphism between the algebra Jf" (C) of analytic functionals
and the algebra Exp(C).
The considerations from the previous sections about the relations between
translations, invariants, (closed) subspaces of Jf'(C), and closed ideals of Exp(C)
hold verbatim. We summarize them in the following statements:
A subspace rot of the space Jf'(C) is said to be invariant if rot is closed and
fh(rot) ~ rot for all hE C, where fh(f)(Z) = f(z + h).
A subspace rot is invariant under differentiation if rot is closed and f' E rot
for every f E rot.
It is clear that if rot is an invariant subspace of Jf'(C), then it is invariant
under differentiation but the converse is also true because
f(z + h) = L
f(n)(z)h n
n!
n2!O
is a series convergent in the topology of Jf'(C). We leave it to the reader to
verify that this equivalence does not hold in the space t:(IR).
If T E Jf"(C) then Ker T* is an invariant subspace. Moreover, if ~(T)(a) = 0
then eaz E Ker T*, hence Ker T* =j:. 0 in and only if T =j:. C8a (c =j:. 0, a E C) and
Ker T* =j:. Jf'(C) if and only if T =j:. O. The following is an easy result:
6.2.1. Proposition. rot is an invariant subspace of Jf'(C) if and only if the

subspace rotol := {T E Jf"(C): (T, f) = 0, Vf E rot} is a closed ideal of Jf"(C).
Equivalently, let [ =
~(rotol) then rot is invariant if and only if [ is a closed ideal
of Exp(C).
If J is a closed ideal of Jf"(C) we observe that Jol = {h E Jf'(C): (T, h) = 0,

VT E J} coincides with the invariant subspace rot given by
rot = n
Tel
KerT*.
We also note that zk eaz E rot if and only if there exists meN, m > k such that
(a, m) E V(l), [ = ~(rotol).
It follows that zj eaz e rot for all 0 ~ j ~ k.
6.2.2. Definition. An invariant subspace rot =j:. {OJ admits spectral analysis if
there exists a E C such that eaz e rot.
rot admits spectral synthesis if and only if [ = [loco
6.2.3. Theorem. Every nonzero invariant subspace rot of Jft?(C) admits spectral
analysis and spectral synthesis.
Proof. This follows from Chapter 2 where we have showed that every nontrivial
closed ideal of Exp(C) is localizable. 0
6.2.4. Definition. A function f E Jft?(C) is mean-periodic if there exists T =f:. 0,

T E Jft?' (C), such that T * f = O. We also say that f is T -mean-periodic in this
case.
6.2.5. Lemma. A function f is mean-periodic if and only if the invariant sub-

space 'r(f) generated by all rh(f), hE C, is different from Jft?(C).
Every T -mean-periodic function admits a unique expansion in terms of the

exponential-monomials zke az , k ~ n, with (a,m) E V(J(T)).
We shall now proceed to give a proof of this statement, which though similar
to the proof of Theorem 6.1.11, requires in the general case to introduce the
concept of series convergent after grouping of terms.
6.2.6. Theorem. Let V = V(J(T)) = {(at, mkh:::d, la,1 ~ la21 ~ .... Either
this sequence is finite or there exists a sequence of indices k, = 1 < k2 < ... such
that any T -mean-periodic function f in Jft?(C) admits the following expansion
convergent in Jft?(C) (that is the series in n converges absolutely and uniformly
on every compact of C):
where Pk is a polynomial of degree < mk. (If the sequences (ak) is finite then
(**) is a finite sum.) Moreover, the function f is identically zero if and only if
all the polynomials Pk are zero.
Proof. Let us denote J(T) by and recall that there is a sequence 0 < R, <
+,
R2 < "', with Rn + 1 ~ Rn ~ 2Rn, n 2: 1, such that
(t)
for some e > 0 and A > 0 (see proof of Proposition 2.7.14). It follows that the
principal ideal (<I» of Exp(C) is closed.
The same proof of Lemma 6.1.12 shows that if fJ: Jft?'(C) -+ Exp(C)/(<I» is
the composition of the Fourier-Borel transform and the canonical quotient map,
then tfJ is a topological isomorphism of (Exp(C)/())' onto Ker T*. We need
therefore to identify the quotient space Exp(C)/(<I» to a subspace of A(V).
Since, in general V is not an interpolation variety for the space Ap(C) with
p(~) = I~ I, the identification of this quotient is more complicated and requires
the double summation in the statement (**) (i.e., grouping of terms) which did
not appear in Theorem 6.1.11.
Let us denote by Vn = {(at, mk): k n :::: k < kn+d the family of (at, mk) E V
such that ak belongs to the annulus Cn,
(n ~ 2),
while C1 is the disk C1 = {~ E c: I~I < Rd. In this case we have a canon-
ical interpolation formula. Namely, if g is a holomorphic function on Cn and
continuous up to the boundary, we consider
In(g)(~) =~ [ g(w) (w) - (~) dw

21f1 lac. (w) w - ~
for ~ E Cn. It is easy to see that In(g) is also holomorphic on Cn. It is clear,
using the residue formula, that In(g) depends only on the restriction Pn(g) to
the multiplicity variety Vn •
We have the estimate:
.e Aoe BoR•
II In (g) 1100 :::: 21fn IIglioo ee-'
AR = CeBR'lIglloo,
where .en is the length of 8Cn, and e and A are given by (t) and
I(W~ =~(~) 1= Ilw '(t)dtl :::: AoeBoR•.
Thus, the constants C and B depend only on and not on n.

We can give a norm to the finite dimensional vector space A(Vn ) as follows:
if a E A(Vn)
lIalin := inf{lIhll oo: h E .Jr(Cn), Pn(h) = a}.
It is clear that if a = Pn (g), then

lIalin :::: IIIn(g)lIoo :::: CeBR·lIali n.
In fact, if h is another function with Pn(h) = a then In (g) = In (h), this implies
the second inequality. In future, we shall write In(a) for In(g). Remark that if
Vn = 0, then A(Vn) is the trivial vector space {OJ.
We define the space A.(V) of sequences with grouping in the following way:
given a E A(V) we can write it in a unique way as a sequence (an)n~l with
an E A(Vn), then
A.(V) := {a = (an)n~l E A(V): 3D > 0: lIaliD := sup II an line-DR. < +oo}.
It is clear that if g is an entire function such that

Ig(~)1 :::: KeLI~I,
then p(g) E A.(V) with:

IIp(g)IID :::: KC, D=L+B,
so that, the map P of Exp(C)/(<I» into A.(V) is continuous and injective when
we provide A*(V) with the natural inductive limit topology. We want to show
that it is an isomorphism.
6.2. Convolution Equations in IC 389
Let a = (an)n:::b lIaliD < +00, for some D > O. Choose a sequence (hn)n:::1
with h n E JIt'(Cn ) satisfying
Pn(hn) = an,
IIhn 1100 ::: 211a IIDe DR•.
Since the components of the set S(I4>I, 8, A) are contained in Un>1 Cn we
can apply the Semi-Local Interpolation Theorem 2.6.4 and obtain h EExp(C)
such that
p(h) = a,
Ih({)1 ::: MliaIlDe(D+N)I~I,
where M > 0, N > 0 depend only on 4>.

In order to obtain the Fourier expansion of the T -mean-periodic function
f we need to identify the strong dual A:(V) of the space A*(V). It is easy
to see that any element b E A:(V) can be written as a sequence b = (bn)n:::1'
bn E A'(Vn), with the dual norm
IIbnll~ =max{(an,bn}: Ilanlln ::: I},
where the duality bracket is
{an, bn} = L XjYj,

1:s,j:s,d.
when we identify A(Vn) with Cd. by enumeration of the values g(l)(ak)/ I!,
an= Pn (g). Hence, for every D > 0 we have
IIbn II~ := L IIbnlI~eDRn < +00
n:::1
and
{a, b} = L{an , bn }.
n:::1
From these considerations it follows that to every f E JIt'(C} such that
T * f = 0 corresponds to a unique element b(f) E A: (V) in such a way that
for S E JIt" (C)
(~) (S, f) = (p(~(S», b}.
(The verification of this last identity is done the same way as in Theorem 6.1.11.)
Moreover, the continuity of f as a linear functional on JIt" (C) tells us that
the convergence of the series that are implicit on the right-hand side of {~} are
uniform for any bounded family of analytic functionals S. In particular, we can
take S = 8z , z belonging to a compact subset of C. Then
and
where
o
It is clear that the choice of grouping is not unique, though one can construct
examples showing that they are necessary for the convergence of the series
[Leo]. One natural way to group terms is to use the connected components
of S(II, e, A), this observation and basically the same proof as that of
Theorem 6.2.6 can be used to prove the expansion of Coo /L-mean-periodic
functions in JR when /L E e' (JR) is just slowly decreasing.
In order to find an explicit formula for the coefficients bk,I/ I! we need to
construct analytic functionals Tk,j such that:
(~(Tk I»(j) 1
p(~(Tk,/»i,j = :,
J.
(a;) = -1'. ~/,j . ~k,i'
Let () be a holomorphic function near w = 0 which vanishes at w = 0 with
order exactly m E N*. Then
1 A-m
--=-+--+ A-m+1
... A_I ....
+-+
B(w) w m w -
m I W
Denote the principal part of Wi jB(w) at w = 0 by
[B~~)L '
then, for 0 ::: 1 < m,
Wi ]
[- -
B(w) 0
=W - + ... +--
I (A-m
wm
A_I_I)
wl+ l
=w I (1
B(w) -
{A_I A_I+I A_I })
Wi + wl-I + ... + --;;; + ...
wi
= B(w) + HI(w),
where HI is holomorphic near w = O. Hence,
B(w) [~]
B(w) 0
= wi + B(w)HI(w),
for w near 0, and the order of vanishing of the term () HI at the origin is bigger
or equal to m. Therefore, when 0 :::: j < m,
We define Tk,1 by the formula
T.
J( k,I)(~)'-
'- 
(~)
- ad]
[(~l!(~) ak'
where [. ]ak represents the principal part, as done above.

Clearly the right-hand side of this expression is an entire function of expo-
nential type, namely it coincides with times a rational function. Besides, it
is obvious that is vanishes at every ai, for i "# k, with multiplicity at least mi.
Therefore this analytic functional Tk,/ has the properties we were looking for.
As we did in the previous section we can write more explicitly the functional
l
Tk,/. First we define a functional Tk by the formula
z
(Tko f) = ( Tz , eakZ I f(w)(z - w)mk-le-akw dw ) .
(mk - 1). Zo
One can see that this formula is independent of the c!toice of base point
zoo Changing Zo amounts to adding (Tz, eakZ P(z») where P is a polynomial of
degree less than or equal to mk - 1, but this quantity is zero because ak is a zero
of multiplicity mk of <1>. Using the same observation one obtains by integration
by parts
'1:'(T.)( ) - (~)
v k ~ - (r., -ak )mk
It is also easy to see that if K is the minimal convex compact carrier of T

then K is a convex compact carrier of Tko for instance, by taking Zo E K on the
explicit integral formula.
Now one can consider the polynomial Pk,1 of degree I
p (r).-
k,l.,
(r -ak)mk [(~1!(~)
.-.,
-ad] ak'
then
Moreover,
(Tk,l, f) = (p(J(Tk,I», b(f») = It·
bk I
6.2.7. Proposition. Any mean-periodic function f "# 0 in Jf!'(C) has a unique

Fourier representation of the form
(~)
where the series (in n) is uniformly and absolutely convergent on every compact
subset of C, the CXk are among the zeros of some function <1> of exponential type,
and the Pk are nonzero polynomials of degree dk < mk = multiplicity of CXk as
zero of <1>.
Proof. There exists aTE ye' (C) nonzero, such that T * f = O. From the
previous theorem we know that f has such a Fourier expansion with frequencies
CXk which are zeros of <1> = J(T). Since we are only considering those CXk
for which Pk =1= 0, the frequencies which appear in the representation do not
necessarily exhaust all the zeros of <1>. We want to show that both the frequencies
CXk and the polynomials Pk are independent of the choice of T.
Let Tk,O be the analytic functional defined above, then
and
ho * zl efJ z = (:f3) I (Tk,O * efJ Z ) = (~) I (J(ho) (f3)efJ Z)
= L
0:9~1
C) (J(Tk.O»(S)(f3)zl-se fJz ,
If f3 = CXj =1= CXk. since 1< mj, we have (J(Tk,o»(s)(CXj) = 0, and if f3 = CXk
then (J(Tk,o»(s)(CXk) = 0 for 0 < s ~ I ~ mk. Hence,
if j =1= k,
Tk,o * Pk(z)e"k Z = Pk(z)e"k Z •

Therefore, if f is also S-mean-periodic we have
S * Tk,o *f = S * Pk(z)e"k Z
= Tk,o *S *f = O.
This implies that Pk(z)e"k Z is S-mean-periodic and therefore J(S) must vanish
at CXk with multiplicity strictly bigger than dk. For the same reason if the
expansion of f with respect to S is of the form
1(') ~ ~ C~'H Q/(ZkP") ,

with QI =1= 0, J(S)(f3I) = 0 with multiplicity VI strictly bigger than deg QI = 01,
then J(T) must also vanish at f31 with multiplicity strictly bigger than deg QI.
Assume now that there is a frequency CXk in (D.) which does not appear in
(D.D.). Consider Sk,O defined by J(Sk,O)(~) = J(S)(~)/(~ - CXkYk, then
o ~ 8',0 * I ~ 8',0 * ( ~ ~ P j (,),",')

In other words,
0= L L Sk.O * (P/z)e
n j
ajz )
= Sk.O * Pk(z)e = Pk(z)e

akZ akZ ,
which is impossible. Therefore the frequencies that appear in both expansions

are exactly the same. On the other hand, if ak is a frequency that appears in
(d) then
*
Qk(z)e akZ = Sk.O f = Pk(z)e akZ
this concludes the proof of the proposition. o
Now we would like to make more explicit the estimates of the coefficients
l! of a mean-periodic entire function. For that purpose one needs to find
bk,l /
norms equivalent to the norms II . lin used in the proof of Theorem 6.2.6. This
depends on the fact that given Pn (g) there is another natural interpolation
formula, Newton's interpolation formula. We proceed to recall some properties
of divided differences and of Newton's formula. (See [Os].)
6.2.8. Definition. Let f E Jt"(Q) and Zo, Zl, ... , Zm be distinct points in n. The
mth divided difference of the function f at the points Zo, ... , Zm is
d m f(zo, ... , zm):= L f(zj) II(Zj - Zk)-l
O~j~m bf.j
and the Newton polynomial of f of degree m is

Pm(z):= L d j f(zo, ... , Zj)(z - zo)··· (z - Zj-l).
O~j~m
One can also define d m f by recurrence as follows:

dO f(z) := f(z),
A If( ) ._ f(ZI) - f(zo)

u ZO, Zl .- .
Zl - Zo
=
Consider now the function g(z) d l f(zo, z) for Z =1= Zo, then
d 2 f(zo, Zl, Z2) := d l g(ZI' Z2),
and so on. We can verify that this inductive definition coincides with the
previously given formula. One advantage of the formula for d m f given in
Definition 6.2.9 is that one can see immediately that divided differences are
symmetric on the arguments Zo, Zl, ... ,Zn of the Newton polynomial.
One can show that Pm interpolates the values of f, namely
Pm(Zk) = f(Zk), 0~k ~ m.
In fact, for arbitrary Z E Q\{zo, Zl, ... , zm} one has
f(z) - Pm(z) = d m+l f(zo,.·., Zm, z)(z - zo)··· (z - zm)
which is an exact expansion of the remainder.
The divided differences I::.. m! can be still defined by continuity when some
of the points coincide. For instance, for Zl, ... , Zk such that Zj =j:. Zj for i =j:. j,
=
each repeated mj + 1 times, m mj + ... + mk + k - 1
I::.. m!(Zlo ... , Zl, Z2, •.• , Z2,· •• , Zko· •. , Zk)
1 am1 +·+mk
" ,a a
= ml·m2··· ·mk· zlm1a z2m2 ... zkmk I::.. k- 1!(Zl, ... , Zk).
The interpolation formula has to be interpreted to mean that Pm interpolates
the values of ! and its derivatives, and the remainder formula remains true.
The reader will find other expressions for divided differences and applications
to interpolation in [Os], [MiT].
For our purposes we need to relate the size of the function!, the Newton poly-
nomial Pm, and the corresponding divided differences, that is, the coefficients
of the Newton polynomial.
6.2.9. Lemma. Let ! be a bounded holomorphic function in 0, I) > 0, and

zo, ... ,Zm in 0 0 = {z E 0: d(z, OC) > I)}. Then
2m
Il::.. m!(zo, ... ,zm)1 :::: I)m 1111100.
Proof. It is clear that it is enough to prove the statement when the points are
distinct. We proceed by induction on m. For m = 0 it is evident. For m ~ 1 let
us define
!(z) - !(zo)
{ g Z = , Z =j:. Zo,
()
z -zo
g(zo) !'(zo), =
in other words, g(z) = 1::.. 1!(zo, z). Clearly g is holomorphic in 0 and if we
have Iz - zol ~ I) then
Ig(z)1 :::: 211~1I00.
By the maximum principle, this is true everywhere in O. By induction
m-l 2m- 11lg1l 00

II::.. g(Zl, ... , zm)1 :::: I)m-l
Since I::.. m!(zo, Zl, ... , zm) = I::..m-1g(Zl, .•. , zm) the induction step is correct.
o
Let us denote by Vn the number of zeros counted with multiplicity of ~ =
~(T) in the annulus en. Denote by zo' ... , Z:._l these points, each of them
repeated according to their multiplicity. It is clear that the divided differences
I::.. j (g) for Pn (g) = an E A (Vn) are independent of the choice of g. For this
reason, we denote
o~ j ~ vn - 1. The diameter On of Cn is 2Rn, using this notation, we introduce

a new norm in A (Vn)
Let Pn be the Newton polynomial of degree Vn - 1 given by

Pn(z) = L' f)"J (an)(z - z3)'" (z - zj_l)'
O::;:j::;:vn-l
then Pn(Pn) = an and, for z E Cn, we have
IPn(z)1 ~ Illanllln L o;jlz - z31" 'Iz - zj_d
O::;:j::;:vn-l
" IIla"lIl" C~-, 1) " v" II la" Ilk
Since Vn ~ KoRn for a constant KO > 0, which depends only on <1>, we have
II an lin ~ IIPnil oo ~ KoRnlllanllln.
To obtain an inequality in the opposite direction, given an E A(Vn) we consider

the sequence a = (am)m:>:l E A*(V) with am = 0 if m =1= n. Then, for D > 0
fixed
lIaliD = lIan IIn e- DRn .
From the proof of Theorem 6.2.7 we know there is h E Exp(C) such that
p(h) = a,
Ih(~)1 ~ MliaIlDe(D+N)lsl.
We apply Lemma 6.2.10 with Q = B(O, 5Rn ), 0 = 2o n , then
If)"j (an)1 = If)" j h(z3 , ... , zj)1 ~~ max Ih(~)1

(2o n}l Isl::;: 5R n
M M
~ jllaIlDe 5(D+N)Rn ~ jllan IIn e(4D+N)Rn.
On On
Choose D = ~ to obtain
Illanlll n ~ Me(N+l)Rnllanlln'
We conclude that we could have defined the topology of A*(V) using the norms
IllalllD = sup IIlanlllne-DRn
and the dual space with the corresponding dual norms

Illbnlll~ = max{(an , bn ): IlIanllln ~ I}.
To make completely precise the estimates of the coefficients bk.l/ I! of the
Fourier-expansion of a mean-periodic function we still need to determine the
norm Illbnlll~.
Let us assume first that the points z8, ... , Z~n-I are distinct and consider
the map
J: an = (ao, ... ,avn-I) f-+!:!. = (!:!.(O) (a), ... , !:!.(vn-I)(a)).
Its inverse can be computed very simply, we just observe that

ak = Pn(zn = L: !:!.j(a)(zZ - z8)'" (zZ - zl-I)
O::Sj:::svn-1
= L: !:!.j (a)(zZ - z8) ... (zZ - zl-I)'

O::Sj::Sk
In other words, the matrix representing J- 1 is
o
(zl' - z8)
o
o
o ...
o ... 0)
0
(z2 - z8) (z2 - z8)(z2 - z[)
~. ::: ~. .
If we let Cn = (co, ... , Cn-I) = t(J-I)(bn), we can conclude that
Illbnlll~ = L: ICjI8;;-j.
O::Sj::svn-1
In fact, if 'D denotes the diagonal matrix of entries 8~, we have
Illanllln = I'DJanl oo .
For U E CVn we let Iuloo = max{lujl : 0 ~ j ~ Vn - I} and lull = I:;:,~llujl.
Hence,
Illbnlll~ = max{(an, bn}: I'DJanl oo ~ I}
= max{(J-I'D-Iu, bn}: lul oo ~ I}
=max{(u, t('D-I) t(J-I)bn}: lul oo ~ I}
= max{(u, 'D-Ic n}: lul oo ~ I} = 1'D-IcnlI,
which is precisely the above identity.
In case there are multiple zeros the principle is the same but the matrix J- I
is more complicated.
6.2.10. Remark. The most important point is the observation that except for the
factor 8;;- j the computation of the norm II Ibn III~ is entirely computed from the
knowledge of the zeros zJ and the values bk,l. We also note that, in the definition
of the norm III 'III Dwe could replace the weight exp(-DRn) byexp(-DlzJD
for an arbitrary j and, up to a change of D, the norms are equivalent. This
depends on the fact that the weight p(z) = Izl does not change too much in the
region en.
As an application of the previous theory we will study the entire solutions of

a difference-differential equation with constant coefficients.
6.2. Convolution Equations in IC 397
Let
T = L (_1)1 ak,lo~~) ,
l::sk::sp
l::sl::sqk
where ak,!, r:k are complex numbers, r:j =ft r:k if j =ft k. Then
(T * f)(z) = L akd(l)(z + r:k)
l::sk::sp
l::sl::sqk
and
with
Qk(~) = L ak,l~/.
l::sl::sqk
°
As we pointed out after the proof of Theorem 6.2.6, the groupings in the
Fourier-expansion of solutions of the equation T * f = are really determined
by the connected components Qn, n ~ 1, of the sets S(I<l>I, e, A). In Proposi-
tion 3.1.31 we have shown that one can choose e > and A > such that the
diameter of every component is bounded by 1. It follows that the number of
° °
zeros of <l> in any such component is bounded by some constant v > 0, inde-
pendent of the component. It is then easy to see that the norms III . Illn can be
defined without introducing the diameter On in the definition. The topology of
the corresponding spaces are absolutely equivalent. In other words, the function
f has the expansion
where In is the set of indices of distinct zeros otk of <l> that are in Q n and
'" bkl I
Pk(Z) = LJ i!Z'
O::sl::smk
with Vn = Lkeln mk :s v. The estimate of the coefficients becomes

L Illbnlll~eDlflnl < +00
n!'::l
for every D > 0, where fin is one of otk in Q n and
IIlbnlll~ = L ICjl,
O::Sj::svn-l
where Cn = t(J-l)(bn ).
Furthermore, we recall that in this case we have a large amount of information
about the asymptotic distribution of the frequencies otk (see Chapter 3).
We would like to study in more detail the case where

(~) = (ea~ - I)(eb~ - I).
In this case the zeros of can be at most double. Double zeros different from
~ = 0 can only occur if alb E Q.
If r = alb E Q then the variety of zeros of is an interpolation variety since
different zeros lie in a finite number of sequences
fJ1+ -2rri
fU.
'71
r
In fact, there are always double zeros when r E Q, for instance, if a = b all
zeros are double. In any case, if f is an entire function satisfying the equation
<*) f(z + a + b) - f(z + a) - f(z + b) + f(z) = 0,
then
f(z) = LPn(z)e anZ ,
n~l
where (an) = 0 and degree of Pn ~ 1. If bn represents one of the coefficients

of Pn , then
lim log Ibn I = -00
lanl
n-+oo
because the condition that for every D > 0
L IbnleDla.1 < +00
is obviously equivalent to the condition that for every D > 0

IbnleDlanl = 0(1).
(If the degree of Pn is I, Pn(z) = bn.o + bn.1z just replace Ibnl by Ibn.ol + Ibn.d.)
If aI b ¢ Q then all the zeros are simple, with the possible exception of ~ = 0,
and they lie in one of two sequences
2rrik 2rril
~ = -a- or ~ =b (k E Z, I E Z).
Since
lea~ - 11 2: C(a(~, (2rrila)Z»,
where a(~, (2rrila)Z) = inf(l,~, (2rrila)Z) (see Theorem 3.1.22) and the
corresponding inequality for eb~ - 1 also holds, it follows that in the case there
are constants 8 > 0 and A > 0 such that
(H) 1
2: ik - 2:ill2: 8e-AOkl+llD (for all k, I E Z),
then, we can find 81 > 0 and AI > 0 such that the disks B(a, 8Ie- Atlal ), a E V,
are disjoint and I(~)I 2: const. exp( -A 2 IaD on IJB(a, 8Ie-Allal). Therefore, V
is an interpolation variety and the same considerations of the case alb E Q hold
so that any entire solution f of (+) can be written as
f(z) = COZ + CIZ + L bneanZ

n~1
with
. log Ibnl
lIm - -
n-+oo Ian I
= -00 (0 < laii ::: la21 ::: ... ).
For instance, the condition (:j::j:) is satisfied if alb is not real. Among the
real numbers alb that satisfy (:j::j:) we have all the irrational algebraic numbers.
Since, in this case,
la ml
b - -;; ~ n1+li
Cli
for every Ii > 0 and some Cli > O.

On the other hand, if for every A > 0 there are infinitely many rationals min
such that
(§) I~ - : I::: e-A(lnl+1ml),
then (H) is not satisfied and we represent any solution f of (:j:) in the form
f(z) = COZ + CI + L bkeakz + L(bl,oea/,oz + bl,lea/,IZ),
k~1 I~I
where the two infinite series are convergent in Jff(C), the first one corresponds
to the frequencies ak that can be isolated and the second one to the pair al,o
and al,l that have to be grouped together because (:j::j:) fails.
The coefficients bk satisfy the condition
lim log Ibk I -00, =
k-+oo lakl
and the coefficient pairs (bl,o, bl,l) satisfy the two conditions
lim log Ibl,o + bl,II = -00
1-+00 lal,o!
and
lim log lal,o - al,llIbl,II -00. =
1-+00 !al,ol
Note that the failure of (H) is exactly the condition
lim log lal,o - a/,l! = -00.
1-+00 lal.ol
Moreover, the conditions on bl. 1 and on bl.o are actually symmetric (just use
that Ibl.ol ::: 1- b/,ll + Ibl.o + bl.d).
It is very easy to see that the groupings are necessary in this case where
(§) holds. The two conditions on the coefficients bl.o and bl,l are satisfied by
=
taking bl.o 1 and bl,l = -1. If the series was convergent without grouping,
the general term of this series should be bounded at every point. Let us suppose
for simplicity that a > 0, b > 0, and set Z = -i, then
Ib1,oe-a/,oi I = e21tmtla,
which is unbounded for a certain sequence ml -+ +00. This example which
shows that groupings may be necessary is due to Leont'ev.
6.2.11. Remark. It follows from the proof of Theorem 6.2.6 that a sufficient
condition on the analytic functional T for the convergence of the Fourier series
representations fez) = Lk>l Pk(z)e ClkZ without groupings is that for some 8 >
0, A > 0, each component-of S(I4>I, 8, A) contains only one zero of 4>. This
happens precisely when V is an interpolation variety so that also the series
'""'
~ c k.J.zj eClkZ
k~l .
O::;j<mk
is absolutely and uniformly convergent over compact sets. In the previous formu-
lation we are really grouping all the terms (LO::;j<mk Ck.jzj)e Clk = Pk(z)e Cltz
together.
We know from Section 2.4 that if T E Jr'(C)\{O}, then T * f = g, g E Jr(C),

is always solvable in Jr(C). It is clear how to solve explicitly an equation of
the form
T * f = zmeClz
but it is not so clear how to find an explicit solution for an arbitrary entire
function g. Nevertheless, there is a method, due to Gelfond and Leont'ev,
which we will explain in detail in the following section for the very simple
equation fez + 1) - fez) = g(z). It consists of the following: Given g(z) =
Ln~o(an/n!)zn, there is an increasing sequence Rn > 0 such that the function
fez) = P(z) + LanBn(z, Rn)

n~O
is an entire function solving the equation T * f = g, where P is a polynomial

of degree strictly less than m, m is the order of vanishing of 4> = 'J(T) at z = 0,
and
Bn(z, Rn) = - 1 1
2rri lul=Rn
e zu du
u n 4>(u)
(see [Gel, Chapter 5, Section 7, p. 358). Observe that the map g 1-+ f we have
just defined is not in general a linear operator since the choice of Rn depends
on g.
Another application of Theorem 6.2.7 is the analysis of overdetermined
systems of convolution equations. For instance, let us consider the system
(*) {S *ff =
T
*
=h
g
where g, h E Jr(C) are given and we are looking for an entire solution f. There
is clearly a compatibility conditions, namely,
T*g=S*h.
Is this condition sufficient for solvability of the system (*)? To simplify we
consider only the case where 'J(T) and 'J(S) have no common zeros. We leave
the general case to the exercises.
6.2.12. Lemma. Assume that J(T) and J(S) have no common zeros. The neces-
sary and sufficient condition for the previous system to have a solution for every
pair satisfying the compatibility condition is the existence of SI, TI E .1f' (C) such
that
*
SI S + TI T = 8. *
Proof. Consider 'R-:= {(g, h) E (.1f(C»2: S * h - T * g = OJ. Then 'R- is a
closed subspace of (.1f(C»2. Let
a : .1f(C) ~ 'R-,
aU) := (S * f, T * f).
This map is injective as a consequence of the hypothesis that J(T) and J(S)
have no common zeros (see Proposition 6.2.7). Therefore a is surjective if and
only if a is an isomorphism, and this is equivalent to the fact that to' is also an
isomorphism. By the Hahn-Banach theorem every element of the dual space
'R-' can be represented as a pair (SI, T1), SI, TI E .1f'(C). Therefore there exist
Sh TI such that
On the other hand,

(ta(SI' TI), f) = (SI, T1), aU)} = (SI, T1), (S * f, T * f)}
= (SI, S * f) + m, T * f)
= (SI * S + TI * T, f),
i.e.,
ta(SI, T1) = SI * S + TI * T = 8.
Conversely, if this convolution equation has a solution then we can choose
f = SI * g + TI * h,
which one can verify is a solution of the system because g and h satisfy the
compatibility condition. 0
* * =
The equation S1 S + TI T 8 is sometimes called the Bezout equation.
It is equivalent to finding functions ¢I, Vrl E Exp(C) such that
¢IJ(S) + VrIJ(T) = 1.
We have already considered this last problem in Lemma 2.6.15 and we can state
the following corollary:
6.2.13. Corollary. Under the assumptions of Lemma 6.2.12, the necessary and
sufficient condition for the existence of a solution f of the previous overdeter-
mined system for every pair satisfying the compatibility condition is the existence
of constants 8 > 0, C > 0, such that
IJ(S)(~)I + IJ(T)(~)I ~ 8e-Cl~1 (~ E q
(strongly coprime condition)
We would like to consider next the case in which ~(T) and ~(S) do not
have common zeros but they do not satisfy the strongly coprime condition. The
question is: What extra conditions should g and h satisfy in order that the system
is solvable?
To simplify the analysis let us assume all the zeros of ~(S) and ~(T) are
simple. Since the convolution operator S* is surjective, we can find a function
G E J'r(C) such that
*
S G = g.
Consider F = f - G, then letting H := h - T * G we have
S *F = 0,
T*F = H.
The compatibility condition becomes
S*H =S *h - S*T *G = S * h - T * g = O.
Hence F and H are S-mean-periodic. Let V = {ak} be the variety of zeros of
~(S), then
F(z) = LakeClkZ,
k;O:!
H(z) = LbkeClkZ ,
k;o:!
where these series may require groupings to be convergent. Therefore,

H(z) = T * F(z) = Lak~(T)(ak)eClkZ
k;o:!
is the Fourier-expansion of the S-mean-periodic function H = T * F. By the
uniqueness of the coefficients in the expansion we conclude that
bk
(0) ak = ~(T)(ak).
The extra necessary conditions on the functions g and h appear now as
a condition on the sequence (bk) so that the sequence of the coefficients
(ak) defined by (0) must satisfy the growth conditions discussed before
Remark 6.2.11. For instance, if V is an interpolation variety for Exp(C), then
the condition for solvability is
lim log lakl = -00.

k~oo lakl
That is,
. log Ibkl -log 1~(T)(adl
bm
k~oo lakl
= -00.
This condition is definitely stronger than the minimal condition
lim log lak I = -00
k~oo lakl
because we have assumed that ';j(T) and ';j(S) are not strongly coprime, and in
particular we have
. -log 1';j(T)(ak) I
11m sup = +00.
k..... oo lakl
If V is not an interpolation variety and we need groupings we can make a
similar analysis using the nonos III· Illn.
EXERCISES 6.2.
1. Verify the details of the example of Leont'ev given in the text about groupings for
any solution I E JtI'(C) of the equation IL I * = =
0, IL 8a+b - 8a - 8b + 80• Consider
also the case alb is not real.
* *
2. Study the system S I = g, T 1= h, as given in the text, in the cases (a) there
are no common zeros but some zeros of lV(S), lV(T) are multiple; (b) there are common
zeros to lV(S) and lV(T); and (c) there are no common zeros but the variety of zeros of
lV(S) is not an interpolation variety.
3. This exercise is a self-contained treatment of results from the recent manuscript
[BezGr].
(a) Show that JtI'(C) is a reflexive Fr~het space and that the transposed map
\Y': (Exp(C»' ---+- JtI'(C) is a topological isomorphism such that \Y'IJtI"(C) lV. Deduce =
that one can introduce a convolution product in (Exp(C»' by means of the formulas:
* I)(z) := (R~, I(z + ~»

(R
for R E (Exp(C»' and I E Exp(C), which satisfies R * IE Exp(C), and
(Rl * R2, f) := (Rio R2 * f)

for R I , R2 E (Exp(C»', I E Exp(C). Show that
\Y'(R I * R2) = \Y'(R )\Y'(R2).
I
Moreover, if g = \Y'(R) and c E C, show that \Y'(eC~ R)(z) = g(z + c).

(b) Show that I E JtI'(C) is T -mean periodic (T E JtI"(C» if and only if lV(T)R = 0
in the sense of (Exp(C»', where R E (Exp(C»' is such that ;r(R) I. =
Show also that for R E (Exp(C»', g E Exp(C), one has R * g 0 in Exp(C) if and =
only if the product pT = 0 in JtI"(C), where p = \Y'(R) and lV(T) = g.
For pEN and R E (Exp(C»" define the derivative R(p) by (R(p), g) :=
(-l)P(R, g(p» for any g E Exp(C). Show that R(p) = *
8~P) R, where 80 is the Dirac
delta at the origin.
(c) Show that for any am E C, a E C, R E (Exp(C»" 1= \Y'(R) we have
Show also that if Qm(z) := EO!:<q!:Nm am,qzq E C[z], and
1rk(O:= E E (-l)q (0 am,q(ma)q-kema~,

OsmsM kSqSNm
then
(d) Let a, f3 E C· be linearly independent over JR, let P(z) = E:=o

amz n and Q(z) =
E:=o bnz , be two complex polynomials such that ao ::f= 0, bo ::f= O. Show that there are
n
y > 0, R > 0, with the property that
IP(eaz)1 + IQ(etlZ ) I ~ y whenever Izl ~ R.
Deduce the existence of a nonzero polynomial l!;. E C[z] such that the two functions
P(eaz ) Q(e tlZ )
/J(z):= ll.(z) , h(z):= l!;.(z) ,
are entire functions of exponential type without common zeros and show there are 8 > 0,
C > 0, satisfying
for all z E C.
Prove that under these conditions any entire function f{J satisfying the system of equations
M N
E am f{J (z + rna) = E bnf{J(z + nf3) == 0

m=O n=O
must be an exponential polynomial.
(e) Let a, f3 E C be JR-linearly independent, ao, ... , am E C, ao ::f= 0, Qo, ... , QN be
polynomials in C[z], QN ::f= O. The purpose of the following question is to show that if
f E Jt"(C) satisfies the syst~m of equations
M N
Eamf(z + rna) == 0, E Qn(z)f(z + np) == 0,
m=O
then f
must be an exponential polynomial. Denote P(z) = E:=o
amz n, F(~) P(ea~), =
R E (Exp(C»', such that ~(R) =
t, and let 1rk(~) be the sums of exponentials intro-
duced in part (c).
(el) Show that R verifies the equations (in (Exp(C»')
N
FR = E1rkR(k) = O.
k=O
(e2) Let LEN· be arbitrary, p the column vector
(R(N+L-I), R(N+L-2), ... , R', R)
with entries in (Exp(C»'. By differentiating (N - 1) times the functional F Rand (L - 1)

times E:=o
1rkR(k) find a (N + L) x (N + L) upper triangular matrix A with entries in
Exp(C) of the form
A= o
F
o N
o F
such that Ap = O.
6.3. The Equation fez + 1) - fez) = g(z) 405
(e3) Deduce from (e2) that for all 0 :5 j :5 N +L - 1

7T~FN R(j) = O.
Conclude that (7T~FN)(j) R = 0 for all 0 :5 j :5 N + L - l.
(e4) Use (e3) to prove by induction an kEN that
(FN)(k)7T~(k+l)/2 R = O.
(Note that TTN appears raised to a power, not a derivative, in this equation.)
(es) Show that there is an integer k such that FN, (FN)', ... , (FN)(k) have no common
zeros, and there are polynomials U o, ... , Uk such that
k
L, Uj(eC<S)(FN)(j)«(;) == l.
j=O
Conclude that 7T~(k+l)/2 R = 0, and use the equation F R = 0 to deduce that f is an

exponential polynomial.
6.3. The Equation fez + 1) - fez) = g(z)

In the previous section we have studied convolution equations for entire
functions in the complex plane. In particular, the simplest equation, that
of periodicity: fez + 1) - fez) = o. We have also mentioned the existence
of "explicit" solutions to the inhomogeneous equations /J- * f = g, without
going into the details. In this section we consider the very simple equation
fez + 1) - fez) = g(z) for meromorphic functions in the plane, though the
methods are elementary the results are interesting and not so well known. One
can think that this equation gives another illustration of one of the main themes
of this book, describe the functions that are close to being periodic.
The theory developed in the last section, as well as the classical theory
of Fourier series, show that if f is an entire function of period 1, that is
fez + 1) - fez) = 0 for all z E C, then fez) = LnECane2rrinz, and the series
converges absolutely and uniformly on every horizontal strip 11m z I :::: A < 00.
We now proceed to give a different proof of this fact, which will also allow us
to consider also periodic meromorphic functions. The key step is the following
simple definition and lemma:
6.3.1. Definition. A meromorphic function f in the complex plane is said to

be I-periodic if for any z E C such that neither z or z + 1 is a pole of f, f
satisfies the equation
fez + 1) - fez) = o.
In this section we shall just say that f is periodic. It is clear that if Zo is a
zero of a periodic function, then any ZI E Zo + Z is also a zero and of the same
multiplicity. Clearly, the same statements hold for the poles of f. Note that we
could also consider periodic functions with essential singularities, we will not
do that here.
Let us recall from [BG] that we denote by C* = C\{O}, and by Log{, for
{ E C\] - 00, 0], the principal branch of the logarithm, i.e., the principal branch
of the argument of ~ is taken to be -rr < Arg ~ < rr. By arg ~, log ~, we denote
arbitrary branches of the argument and logarithm of ~ E C*. Let exp: C ~ C*
be the map z t-+ e1:Jriz, this map is the universal covering map of C*. We can
relate periodic meromorphic functions in C to meromorphic functions in C* by
means of the following lemma:
6.3.2. Lemma. Let f: C ~ S2 be a periodic meromorphic function, then there is

a unique meromorphic function F: C* ~ S2 such that f = F 0 expo Moreover,
if P(f), P(F) denote their respective polar sets, then P(F) = exp(P(f» and
the order of the corresponding poles is the same.
Proof. Since the group of automorphisms of the covering map exp is generated
by the transformation z t-+ z + I, and f being periodic is exactly the same as
saying that f is invariant under this group, then F is uniquely defined by passage
to the quotient. As exp is a local biholomorphic map, the other assertions follow.
o
Note that F is explicitly given by
F(~) = f (~IOg{)
2m
for any { ¢. P(F), the choice of branch of the logarithm is irrelevant.
6.3.3. Corollary. Any meromorphic periodic function f can be represented as

f = g / h, with g, h entire periodic functions without any common zeros, h ¢ O.
Proof. Let F(~) = f«I/2rri) log~) as in the previous lemma. F is meromor-
phic in C*, hence by the Weierstrass factorization theorem F = G / H, with
G, H holomorphic functions in C*, without any common zeros, H ¢ 0 (see,
e.g., [BG, Corollary 3.3.2]). Clearly g(z) = G(e 2:n:iz), h(z) = H(e 2:n:iz), satisfy
the statement of the corollary. 0
As an immediate consequence we obtain the following result:
6.3.4. Proposition. Any entire periodic function f admits a Fourier series expan-
sion
f(z) = Lcne2:n:inz,
neZ
which is uniformly and absolutely convergent on every horizontal strip of fmite

width. Moreover, the coefficients are determined by
Cn = l
Zo
zo +1
f(z)e- 2:n:inz dz
6.3. The Equation I(z + 1) - I(z) = g(z) 407
for any Zo E C, n E Z. Any meromorphic periodic function g admits a represen-

tation as a quotient of two Fourier series
each of the series with the same kind of convergence properties as above.
Proof. It is clear it is enough to prove the assertions for periodic entire functions.
Let F (~) = f «(1 /2rr i) log ~), then F is holomorphic in C*. It admits a Laurent
expansion about ~ = 0,
which converges absolutely and uniformly on every annulus

00. Its coefficients can be computed by Cauchy's formula
° < r :::: I~ 1:::: R<
c -
n -
-1-1
2 .
7rl Isl=p"
F(~) d
rn+1~' ° < p < 00.
Letting p = le2Jrizo I, ~ = e 2Jriz , the chain rule implies that

Cn = 1 [zo,zo+l)
f(z)e- 2Jrinz dz,
where [zo, Zo + 1] denotes the horizontal segment from Zo to Zo + 1. Since f

is entire, the integral has the same value if we take any path starting at Zo
and ending at Zo + 1. The properties of the exponential map imply that the
Fourier series
f(z) = F(e 2Jriz ) = cne2Jriz L
nEZ
is absolutely and uniformly convergent on any horizontal strip of finite width

IImzl::::A<oo. 0
We remind the reader that it is also possible for a merom orphic function to
have two independent periods. This fact leads to the beautiful theory of elliptic
functions. One of the particular systems of inhomogeneous equations (associated
to the two periods) leads to the study of theta functions. These subjects are
beyond the scope of this book, the reader can find an excellent introduction in
[Mark], [Ra].
Let us consider now the inhomogeneous difference equation
f(z + 1) - f(z) = g(z),
where g is an entire function. It follows from the general theory of the last
section that there are always entire solutions to this equation. Clearly any two
solutions differ by an entire periodic function and we have just studied them. We
are going to give here an explicit construction of a solution to (*). The original
idea of this construction is due to Guichard, Appell, and Hurwitz a century ago,
we refer the reader to [HuI], [Ap] and the beautiful monographs of Whittaker
[Whi] and Gelfond [Ge] for other related results.
We start by solving (*) in a few particular cases. We denote by 6 g, a sum
of g, any particular solution of the equation (*). Then g is called the difference
of f. It is similar to the concept of primitive and derivative. For instance, it is
easy to verify that one can take
61 =z, 6z = z(z -
1).
2
We leave other examples to the exercises. The one example important to us is
the following, let a > 1 be a fixed number and consider the entire function a Z
(fixing a determination of log a). Then it is easy to see that
aZ
6a z = - - .
a-I
Clearly the same result holds for any a E C\{O, I}. In particular, if we let a = et,
t ¢ 2rriZ, 6e tz = e tz I(e t - 1), where the sum is with respect to the variable z.
Consider the auxiliary function
tetz
B(z, t) =- - = t6e tz = 6(tetz ),
e -1
t
which satisfies
B(z + 1, t) - B(z, t) = tetz
and it is holomorphic, for every z fixed, for It I < 2rr. (This was the reason of
the multiplication by t.) If we expand B(z, t) in a Taylor series in t about t = 0,
we have
tn
B(z, t) = '"' Bn(z)-, It I < 2rr.
L..J n!
n:;:O
It is very easy to convince ourselves that Bn (z) is a polynomial of degree
exactly n (usually called the Bernoulli polynomial), but more interesting, by
comparison of the two sides of (**) we see that
Bn(z + 1) - Bn(z) = nzn-l,
so that
6zn = Bn+! (z)
n+I
for n ?: O. We also note that if 0 < p < 2rr, then Cauchy's formula for the
1
Taylor series coefficients gives the representation
n!
Bn(z) = - .
etz dt
-t----;; (0 < p < 2rr).
2rrl Itl=p e - I t
Let us assume g(z) = L:n:;:O gnzn, then, at least formally,
6g(z) = '"' gn
L..J --Bn+!(z).
n:;: O
n+I
If the series were to converge unifonnly over compact sets, then it would repre-
sent a solution of (*). Whether it does or not, depends on the behavior of the
coefficients gn of g. If we only make the assumption that g is entire, all we
have is the Hadamard estimate
lim
n~oo
yIjgJ = O.
On the other hand, we could modity each Bn by adding a periodic function,
and, as in the Mittag-Leffler expansions of meromorphic functions, force the
series to converge to a sum of g. One way to do this is to observe what happens
to the integral defining Bn if we make p larger. For instance, if 2n < p < 4n,
then we have to add the residues at t = ±2n i, so that
- n! 1 tz dt
-e - -
2ni Itl=p et - 1 t n
= Bn(z) +n! ( e-
2niz
(-2ni)n
2niz
e -) .
+-
(2ni)n
In other words, we obtain Bn (z) plus a periodic trigonometric polynomial. In
1
general, let
n!
Bn, k(Z)-- - e tz- -dt if 2n(k - 1) < p < 2nk,
- 2 . nl
t
Itl=p e -
1 tn'
k E N*. It is clear that

B
n,k+l
(z) = Bn,k (z) + (2nik)n
n! (e2nikz + (_I)n e -2nkZ)
and Bn,l = Bn. Thus, we also have

6z n = Bn+1,k(Z)
and we could choose any sequence kn E N* and, at least fonnally,
6.3.5. Proposition. For any entire function g(z) = Ln~o gnzn, the series
f(z) = "" + 1 Bn+1,n+l (z)
~ n gn
n~O
converges locally uniformly and it defines an entire function solving the difference
equation
f(z + 1) - f(z) = g(z).
Proof. We need to find estimates for Bn+1,n+l so that the fonnal series of
f converges. Let us choose p = (2n + 1)n in the integral representation of
Bn+1,n+l' Note that there is a constant c > 0 independent of n such that for
It I = (2n + 1)n
as one can reduce this inequality to the Lojasiewicz inequality for sin z. Hence,
using Stirling's fonnula, we can prove the existence of A > 0 such that for
all z, n
IB 1 l(z)1 < (n + I)! e(2n+l)nlzl < Ae(2n+l)n(lzl+l)

n+ ,n+ - c«2n + 1)1l')n+l -
This bound, together with the Hadamard estimate for gn, shows that the series
defining f converges absolutely and unifonnly on any disk of C. 0
6.3.6. Remarks.
(1) If g is a function of infraexponential type, i.e.,
lim 10gM(g, r) = 0,
r-->oo r
where M(g, r) = max{lg(z)I: Izl ::::: r}, then one can prove that the series
'"' gn
L..J n + 1 Bn+l (z)
n2:0
is locally unifonnly convergent (see Chapter 4).

(2) In general, one can choose kn in the last proof so that for any given e >
0, () > 1 there are constants c > 0, ro > 0, 8 = (1 + e) / log (), so that the
function f defined in Proposition 6.3.5 satisfies
If(z)1 ::::: CM(g, ()r)8, Izl ::::: r.
In particular,f is of the same order as g, and of finite (resp., minimal) type
if g is of finite (resp., minimal) type. (See [Ge, Chapter 5].)
(3) In case g is a meromorphic function, the case we shall consider next, one
can also find a meromorphic sum f with good estimates on the Nevalinna
characteristic T(r, I). (See [Whi, Theorem 4].)
We want to find now the sum of a meromorphic function. We observe that

the difference equation (*) can be used to find two fonnal solutions as follows:
f(x) = -g(x) + f(x + 1) = -g(x) - g(x + 1) + f(x + 2) = ... ,
so that one is lead to consider the "right fonnal sum"
fr(x) = - Lg(x + n).

n2:0
If this series converges in a certain region, it is a solution of (*) in that region.

Similarly, we have
f(x) = g(x) + f(x - 1) = g(x) + g(x - 1) + f(x + 2) = . '-',
which leads to the "left fonnal sum"
ft(x) = L g(x - n)
n2:0
as a candidate for a solution.

Returning to the equation (*) with g merom orphic , let us assume that there
is real number p so that all the poles of g lie in the half-plane Re z < p. The
idea is to try to find polynomials Yo, YI, ... so that the series
qJl(Z) := {yo(z) - g(z)} + {Yl(Z) - g(z + I)} + ...
converges to a meromorphic function in the whole plane. (Note that this function
is obtained by applying the Mittag-Leffler procedure to the right formal sum
of g.) In order to choose the aj, let kEN be the smallest value such that
p - k < O. Choose Yo = ... = Yk-I = O. The poles of g(z + n) lie in the half-
plane Rez O. Choose Yn as the
partial sum of the Taylor series of g(z + n) about z = 0 such that
Ig(z + n) - Yn(z)1 ~ Tn for Izl ~ n - p.
For any R > 0 we have that the series
L {Yn(z) - g(z + n)}

n?:.R+p
converges absolutely and uniformly on Izi ~ R, hence it defines a holomorphic

function in Izl < R. It follows that the series qJl converges to a meromorphic
function in Co Moreover, outside a discrete set,
qJl(Z + 1) - qJl(Z) = g(z) - Yo(z) + L{Yn(Z + 1) - Yn+I(Z)},
n?:.O
and the series converges locally uniformly. Thus, we have

qJI (z + 1) - qJI (z) = g(z) + 1/11 (z),
where 1/11 is an entire function. From Proposition 6.3.5 we know we can choose
an entire function fh = 1,51/11, then
is a merom orphic sum of g.

If g had all its poles to the right of a vertical line we could have modified
in the same way the left formal sum of g to obtain a merom orphic sum of g.
In general, choose any p E lR such that the line Re z = p contains no poles of
g. The Mittag-Leffler theorem (see [BG]) allows us to find a meromorphic
function gl, whose poles lie to the right of that vertical line and whose principal
parts at their poles coincide with those of g. Then g = gl + g2, where the poles
of g2 lie to the left of the same line. Thus, from the previous construction we
have two meromorphic functions II, h such that /J = 6g l , h = 6g2. Clearly,
we can take
6g = 1:= /J + h
Let us remark that this construction of a sum of the meromorphic function g
has a special feature, if all the poles of g are simple, then the same is true for
this particular sum I. Moreover, if the residues of g at those poles are integral,
the same is true for f. The importance of this feature lies in the following
application. Recall that for a meromorphic q;, its logarithmic derivative q;' Iq;
has only simple poles with integral residues. Conversely, for any meromorphic
function <l> with this property we can find q; meromorphic such that <l> = q;' Iq;.
These two remarks together tell us that given a merom orphic function 1/1 there
is another merom orphic q; such that
q;' Iq; = 6(1/1'11/1)·

That is,
q;'(z + 1) q;'(z) 1/I'(z)
---=
q;(z + 1) q;(z) 1/I(z)
By integration we obtain that
q;(z + 1) = 1/I(z).
q;(z)
Retracing the steps we have shown that given a meromorphic function 1/1 one
can find meromorphic function q; such that (**) is satisfied. Clearly we can
multiply q; by an arbitrary periodic meromorphic function and obtain a new
solution of (**). All solutions are obtained this way. Being meromorphic, q; is
of the form e f Pt! P2, where f is entire and PI, P2 are Weierstrass canonical
products, but following the technique of the right and left formal sums used to
solve (**) one can anticipate the form of PI and P2. We shall illustrate this
below in the case of the r -function.
We can now state the main theorem of this section.
6.3.7. Theorem. Let ao, al be a pair ofmeromorphicfun~tions in the plane such

that neither is identically zero. For any meromorphic function g in C there is a
meromorphic solution f of the linear difference equation
al (z)f(z + 1) + ao(z)f(z) = g(z) (z E C).
Proof. From the previous remarks we know there exists a nontrivial meromor-
phic function fl such that
The equation (t) now becomes

fl(z)
l1(z + 1)f(z + 1) - 11 (z)f(z) = --g(z).
ao(z)
We have also shown there is a meromorphic fz such that
11 (z)
fz(z + 1) - fz(z) = ---g(z).
ao(z)
Letting f (z) = fz (z) I fl (z) we obtain a solution to (t). D
6.3. The Equation f(z + 1) - f(z) = g(z) 413
As a title of example let us consider the equation

(!) f(z + 1) = zf(z).
If we assume f(l) = 1, then f(n) = (n - I)! for n E N so that f interpo-
lates the factorials. One of the solutions to this equation is Euler's r-function.
Following the previous method we let cp(z) := f'(z)/f(z) so that:
1
cp(z + 1) - cp(z) = -.
z
The right formal sum of this equation is
CPr(z) =- L:-1
z +nO
n~
which has its poles at the points z = 0, -1, -2, .... From here we conclude
that a solution of the equation (!) is given by
e"'(z)
f(z) = z '
(1 + -)
00
z I1 e- z/ n
n=! n
where 1/f is entire and the denominator is the Weierstrass canonical product with
zeros at z = 0, -1, -2, .... Letting
e"'(z) m! exp (1/f(Z) + n~ z/n)

fm(z) = m Z =
Z II (1 + _) e-z/n z(z + 1) ... (z + m)
n=! n
we have f(z) = limm->oo fm(z) exists, locally uniformly in C\{O, -1, -2, ... },
and
zf(z) = lim zfm(z)
f(z + 1) m->oo fm(z + 1)
= m->oo
lim (z + m + 1) exp [1/f(Z) -1/f(z + 1) - ~ .!.]
~ n
nl
n=!
~ .~oo(1 + m: l)exp [,v(ZH* + 1)+~Og(m + 1)- ~
-
The limit
y lim [~!
= m->oo log(m + 1)] ~ 0.557
~n
n=!
is the Euler-Mascheroni constant. Inserting this value and using equation (!)
we obtain
zf(z)
1 =
f(z + 1) =
exp[1/f(z) -1/f(z + 1) - y).
In other words, 1/1 satisfies a difference equation of the form

1/I(z + 1) -1/I(z) = -y + 2Jrik,
for some k E Z. The simplest solution is 1/I(z) = -yz. With this choice of 1/1
we have
Hence,
1(1) = m--+oo
lim Im(l)
lim exp [1/1(1) + ~ ~ -

= m--+oo ~n
log(m + 1)]
n=l
lim exp [-y +

= m--+oo t ~-
n=l
n
log(m + 1)] = 1.
This 1 satisfies the extra condition 1(1) = 1, so that it is the correct choice.
This solution is exactly the r -function.
r(,) ~ [.", fl ( '-'/f

1+ ;)
We conclude this section studying a sort of unexpected relation between

difference equations and analytic continuation, which is hinted at in the proof
of Lemma 6.3.1. Consider a function F which is holomorphic in the simply
connected region C\] - 00, 0] and assume it admits an analytic continuation
along any path in C*. Thus, we can talk about F(;;) for any ;; E IC* as a multi-
valued holomorphic function, or, what is the same, a holomorphic function on
the Riemann surface of log;;. Let us denote for the rest of this section S) the
vector space formed by these multivalued functions F. It follows that for ~ < 0
the values F(~ ± iO) = lim~--+o+ F(~ ± iT}) are well-defined but the jump is not
necessarily equal to zero. Let
This function is identically zero for ~ > 0, continuous for ~ < 0, and it repre-
sents a distribution on IR if and only if there is k :::: 0 such that 1T}l k F(g + iT})
remains bounded in a punctured neighborhood of ;; = 0 (see [BG, Proposi-
tion 3.6.12]). In general ({! is a hyperfunction, as explained in Chapter 1. Intro-
ducing a change of variables;; = e27riz (or uniformizing parameter z), let us
define 1 by F(;;) = I(z), in other words,
1 (~IOg;;)
2Jrl
= F(;;).
Thus, 1 is an entire function of z which satisfies, for x = Re z = -!, y = 1m z,
the difference equation
I(z + 1) - I(z) = ({!(e 27riz ) = ({!(_e- 27rY ).
6.3. The Equation fez + 1) - fez) = g(z) 415
Note that with this notation it is natural to rewrite the original equation as
(; < 0).
(Equations of the form F(q;) - F(;) = cp(;). 0 < q, often arise in Number
Theory and are related to the theta functions mentioned at the beginning of this
section.)
Let us consider a special example, cp(;) = Log 1;1 for; < O. Then we have
cp(_e- 2Jl'Y) = -2rry for y E R By an easy inspection we see that fez) = rriz 2
satisfies
fez + 1) - fez) = -2rry (Rez = -4).
Hence,
F(n = -~Log2~,
4rrl
in C\] - 00,0]. Since cp E V'(IR), this answer could also have obtained with the
help of the Cauchy transform, as suggested by the general theory in Chapter 1
and in [BG, §3.6].
After these preliminaries, let us consider a type of question raised by Hurwitz
[Hu2, Vol. 2, p.752]. The homotopy group rrt (C*) of C* is isomorphic to Z and
it is generated by the unit circle I~ I = 1, oriented counterclockwise. This group
acts on S) by sending a function F to the function obtained by analytic continu-
ation along the unit circle. This is precisely what we have denoted by F(e 2Jl'in.
In this case F(e 2Jl' in n, n E N, means the new function in S) obtained from F by
analytic continuation along the unit circle traversed n times counterclockwise,
and for n < 0, traversed Inl times clockwise. Since the space S) is very large it
is natural to consider subspaces invariant under the action of rrt (C*). Typically
they are defined by functional equations. For instance, the equation
F(e2Jl'i~) = F(~)
describes all the functions in S) that are single valued, that is, the collection of
all Laurent series
convergent in C*.
Observe that if F E S), then its derivative F' also belongs to S). So that in S)
we have three types of operators acting:
D: F(n ~ F'(n;
A: F(n ~ A(~)F(~), multiplication by A E Jf(C*); and
r: F(~) ~ F(e2Jl'i~), "monodromy" operator.
It is not hard to see that r commutes with D and with A. For this reason Hurwitz
considered the following simple-looking equation in 1918:
(H)
DF = r F, that is,
F'(~) = F(e2Jl'i~).
The solutions of such an equation, if there are any, also form an invariant
subspace for the action of rrt (C*). It is clear that if we assume F is single
valued, then there is essentially only one solution for (H), namely F(l;) = ce s ,
for any c E C*. Hurwitz seemed to believe this was the only solution. Note
that when using the uniformizing parameter l; = e2rriz this equation becomes
essentially more complicated than those in Theorem 6.3.7. Namely,
d
(H*)
2 .
dzf(z) = 27rie rr/z fez + 1),
where fez) = F(e 2rriz ) as earlier. In 1975, Naftalevich [Na] used the method of
the formal sums to obtain many nontrivial solutions of (H*), i.e., different from
c exp(e 2rriz ). Earlier Hans Lewy had found the explicit solution
Fo(l;) = to e-sl exp (~LOg2

10 47rl
t) dt,
which is well defined and holomorphic for Re l; > O. To show that this function
belongs to the class S), let us consider for () E IR the auxiliary functions
FIJ(l;) :=
o
l
°oe;e 1
exp(-l;t + -. log2 t) dt.
47rl
In the integral defining FIJ we have t = re ilJ , 0 < r < 00. If I; = pe ia , p > 0,
then the integrand is absolutely convergent when cos«() + a) > 0, in particular,
if -7r /2 - () < a < 7r /2 - (). It follows that FIJ is holomorphic in the half-plane
-7r /2 - () < arg I; < 7r /2 - (). Note that if 0 < ()2 - ()\ < 7r, then the functions
FIJI and F~ have a common domain of definition, and applying Cauchy's
theorem they can be seen to coincide there. It follows that the collection (FIJ)IJEIR
defines a single function F E S). Moreover, for Re l; > 0 we have
F(e 2rri l;) = F2rr(I;).
This last integral can be computed from the observation that for r > 0
1 . 1 1 () ()2
- . log2(re'lJ ) = -. (Logr + j())2 = -. Log2 r + - Logr - - . '
47r1 47r1 47r1 27r 47r1
For () = 27r, we get
~ log2(re ilJ ) = ~ Log2 r + Logr + 7ri,

47r1 47r1
so that
F2rr(l;) = - roo re-sr exp (_1_. Log2 r) dr.
10 47rl
On the other hand, Fo(l;) can be computed differentiating under the integral sign
F~(I;) = roo ~(e-sr) exp (~LOg2 r) dr,

10 dl; 47r1
= _ roo re-sr exp (_1_. Log2 r) dr,

10 47r1
which shows that Hans Lewy's function Fo is indeed a solution to the Hurwitz
equation (H).
It is not clear that this solution is obtainable by Naftalevich's method. It has

been shown recently [BSe] that Fo generates all the solutions to (H). Namely,
any such solution F E 5) can be written in one and only one way in the fonn
F(~) = ce~ + LCnF(e2Jrin~),

nEZ
where the series converges locally unifonnly in the Riemann surface of log ~ .
This example indicates that it is natural to consider a wider class of equations
for multivalued holomorphic equations. Their natural name should be mono-
dromic differential equations, e.g., an equation of the fonn
L An,k(ODkr n F(O = 0
n.k
for F E 5), where the (finite) sum has coefficients A n .k E Jt"(C*).
More generally, we could consider infinite order differential operators or
consider other domains like C\{O, I}, C\{al, ... , ad, C\Z, etc. We remind the
reader that the case C\{O, I} is intimately related to the hypergeometric func-
tions. Here the group 1l'1(C\{O, I}) has two generators, and Riemann showed
that if a multivalued function F has the property that at any point ~ =J 0, 1, the
number of linearly independent branches of F is exactly 2, then F satisfies a
hypergeometric differential equation (see [BG, Exercise 5.15.2], [Tr] [Pool]).
The domain C\Z appears in the closely related theory of resurgence [Ec],
[Ram], [Mal].
EXERCISES 6.3.
1. Prove the converse of Lemma 6.3.2. Show also that if I is periodic meromorphic
and F(~) = 1((1/27ri) logO. the order of the corresponding zeros for I and F coincide.
When is f entire? When is the function F entire?
2. Construct a periodic function I holomorphic in IC except for a discrete set of points,

where it has essential singularities.
3. Recall that a trigonometric polynomial of degree m is a function of the form

I(z) = 2:::=-m cneZrr;nz with either em or Cm is =j:. O. Show that it has the form
fez) = ao/2 + 2:::=1 (ak cosz7rkz + bk sin 27rkz). Show that an entire periodic function
I is a trigonometric polynomial if and only if I is a function of exponential type (Le.,
lim sUPr--> 00 (log M (r, f) / r) < (0). Could it be of infraexponential type if I =j:. constant?
Could it be of type < 27r if I =j:. constant?
4. (a) Let I be a periodic meromorphic function such that limx-.oo I(x + iy) a for =
every y E R. Show that I(z) == a.
(b) Let I be a periodic meromorphic function such that the limits
limY-doo I(x + iy) = a± (possibly infinite) exist and are independent of x E [0,1], then
I is a rational function of eZrr;z.
5. Verify that the following sums are correct:
z)
(a) 6 ( n =
( z
n + l'
) (Z)
n
__ z(z - 1) ... (z - n + 1) n EN.
where
n."
(b) 6e21Cinz = ze21Cinz, n E N.

) "'" . cos(z - 1/2)
(c ,,-,smz = - .
2 sin(i/2)
(d) u(z)(6v)(z + 1) + v(z)(6u)(z) = v(z)(6u)(z + 1) + u(z)(6v)(z).
6. Compute the first five Bernoulli polynomials Bn(z).
7. Use right formal sums to find the following sums:
(b) 6 1 . (c) 6e- z •

z(z + 1) ,
What happens with the left formal solutions in these cases?
8. Does Theorem 6.3.7 hold when either ao or at are identically zero (but not both)?
*9. Let g be an entire function of infraexponential type, g(z) = 2::n>O gnzn its Taylor
series about z = O. Show that the series fez) = 2::n>o[gnl(n + l)]Bn+~(z) converges to
a sum of g and it is also of infraexponential type. -
10. Study the solvability of the equation fez + 1) - af(z) = g(z), a E C\{O, I}, as
done in the proof of Proposition 6.3.5.
11. (a) Show that a solution of (z -1)f(z + 1) = 2z(z - 2)f(z) is the function
fez) = 2Z [r(z)/(z - 2)]. Find all the solutions of this equation.
(b) Let r(z) be a rational function. Find all the meromorphic solutions of the equation
f (z + 1) = r(z) f (z) with the help of the r -function.
12. Let 1/I(z) = r'(z)1 r(z). Show that
1 (l)m
6 - - = ----1fr(m)(z), mEN.
zm+t m!
Determine 6(z - a)-m. Verify that 6 log z = Log r(z) (at least for z E ]0,00[.)
13. Show that any function F E j) admits the expansion 2::n>O an 10gn C;, absolutely
and locally uniformly convergent in the Riemann surface of log f
14. For a E C solve the equation F(e 21Ci c;) = aF(C;), F E j).
15. For f E Jt'(C), D = dldz, a E C, one defines eaD fez) := 2::n~o(an In!)D n fez).
(a) Show that eaD fez) = fez + a).
(b) Fix P E Jt'(C) and define operators Land K in the space Jt'(C) by the formulas
Lf := e- Df - e P Df, Kf := e-D(e DDf). For an entire function rp define Urp to be the
formal series Urp = rp + Krp + K2rp + .... Show that formally
LUrp(z) = rp(z + 1).

16. (a) Let fez) = 2::n>oane21Cinz be such that an ~ 0 for all n EN. Show that if f is
not a trigonometric polynomial, then f is a function of infinite order.
(b) Let 1 be an entire function, W E C* is called an asymptotic period if the order
of growth of the function Z 1-+ I(z + w) - I(z) is strictly less than that of I. For 1 of
infinite order, this difference is assumed to be of finite order ([Whi)).
Let fez) = 2::n=t[e 21Cin !Z I(n!)!]. Show that 1 is of infinite order but that for every
w E Q*, f (z + w) - f (z) is a function of order 1. (That is, every nonzero rational is an
asymptotic period.)
(c) Use Exercises 9 and 3 of this section to show that if f is a function of infraexpo-
nential type it cannot have any asymptotic period.
6.4. Differential Operators of Infinite Order

Let T E JIf'(C) be an analytic functional, if
~(T)(s) =L ans n ,
n2:0
then
(T * f)(z) = Lanf(n)(z).
n2:0
In other words, one could write
T = L(-l)n an c5(n).
n2:0
We are interested in a particular class of operators of this kind, those for
which ~(T) is an entire function of exponential type zero, that is, T is carried
by {OJ. As we shall see, these operators have a number of interesting properties,
not shared by general convolution operators.
6.4.1. Definition. An operator of the form

(T, f) = Lanf(n)(O),
n2:0
where the coefficients an satisfy
lim sup n
n-+oo
vTaJ = 0
is called a ditTerential operator of infinite order.
The function ~(s) = ~n>O ans n is in this case an entire function of expo-
nential type zero (see [BG, Chapter 4]) and we usually denote T f by *
~ (~) (f)(z) = Lanf(n)(z).
dz n2: 0
Recall that we denote Exp({O}) the space of entire functions of exponential
type zero.
6.4.2. Proposition. If Q is an open set of C and ~(d/dz) an infinite order

differential operator, then
~ (:z): JIf(Q) ~ JIf(Q)

is a continuous operator. The same is true lor this operator acting on the space
Oa = Jt'({a}), a E C.
Proof. The proposition is clearly correct once we know it holds for disks. On
the other hand, Propositions 2.4.2 and 2.4.3 have already shown this for any
open convex set Q. 0
If L is a linear continuous operator in 0 0 , it is automatically a continuous

operator from Jt'(C) into Jt'(B(O, r» for some r > 0, by the definition of the
topology of 0 0 , Therefore, it makes sense to say L commutes with translations
La, at least for small lal. In fact, Jt'(C) is dense in 0 0 so that L is completely
determined by its action on Jt'(C), then, if lal < r and I E Jt'(C), the function
La(L(f)(z) = L(f)(z - a) is holomorphic for Izl < r - lal, that L commutes
with La means that
L(La(f»(Z) = La(L(f»(z), Izl < r -Ial.
Let us consider
L: 0 0 .... 00
linear continuous and such that L commutes with translations. We can define it
also ,as. an operator from 0 a .... Oa by
Now, I t-* L(f)(O) defines an analytic functional T. We want to show that

:F(T) = ell is an entire function of exponential type zero and L(f) T I. = *
The last identity is an immediate consequence of the definitions. On the other
hand, the continuity of L: 00 .... 0 0 implies that for every e > 0 there exists a
constant Cs > 0 such that
I(T, f)1 = IL(f)(O) I :::: Cs sup I/(z)l.
Izl9
In particular,
lelI(~)1 = I(Tz,eZ~)I:::: Csexp(sup Iz~D = Csesl~l.
Izl:::s
This proves the following proposition:
6.4.3. Proposition. Any linear continuous operator L: 0 0 .... 0 0 which com-

mutes with translations is an infinite order differential operator.
We now proceed to give a detailed proof of a result already mentioned in

Chapter 2, §4.
6.4.4. Theorem. Let Q be a convex open set in C (resp. K convex compact) and
elI(d/dz) =I: 0 an infinite order differential operator. Then:
(i) ell (:z) (Jt'(Q» = Jt'(Q).

(ii) (:z) (.if(K» = .if(K).

(iii) If M =
Ker{(d/dz): .if(f2) -+ .if(f2)} and Mo = span{zkeaz EM},
thenMo=M.
(iv) Similar to (iii) for .if(K).
Proof. (i) The transpose of the map h E .if(f2) -+ (d/dz)(h) E .if(f2) is given
*
by S ~ T S from .if'(f2) into .if'(f2), where :F(T) = <1>.
To prove the surjectivity of (d / dz) it is necessary and sufficient to show
that its transpose is injective and has closed image. Since :F(T S) = :F(S), *
the injectivity is obvious and we only have to prove that the ideal Exp(f2) is
closed in Exp(f2). Due to the properties of the space Exp(f2), it is enough to
prove that, for every f E Exp(f2), which is of the form
f = nlim
..... oo
<l>fn,
fn E Exp(f2) (the limit in the topology of Exp(f2», then f = <l>g for some func-
tion g E Exp(f2) (see Corollary 2.3.13). Since convergence in Exp(f2) implies
convergence in .if(C) we know there is a unique entire function g such that
f = <l>g.
From [BG, §4.S.S] (or the following lemmas), g is an entire function of expo-
nential type. We need to show that the indicator function of g is of the form
He, the supporting function of C, for some compact convex subset C of f2.
This depends on the following lemmas:
6.4.5. Lemma. Let C be a convex compact subset of C, let S E .if' (C) be an

analytic functional carried by C, f = :F(S). If is an entire function of expo-
nential type zero and g = fI is an entire function, then there is an analytic
functional R carried by C such that g = :F(R).
We shall prove first a lemma due to Martineau, which is a variation on a

result of V. Avanissian (see [BG, §4.5.S.].) Let us recall the notation for the
area average A(, z, r) = (1/1l'r2) f8(z,r) <l>dm.
6.4.6. Lemma. Let be an entire function of exponential type zero such that
<1>(0) #- 0, then,for every '). > 0 and every e > 0, there exists a constant De E lR
such that for z #- 0
A(log 1<1>1, z, ').Izl) ::: (I: '). ) 2 log 1<1>(0)1
+ (1- C:1)') (8(1 H)I,I + D,).
Proof of Lemma 6.4.6. Let R = (I + ').)Izl. Since is of exponential type zero,
given e > 0, there exist De E lR such that log 1(u)1 :5 elul + De. Hence, the
subhannonic function
U t-+ log 1(u)1 - eR - De
is negative in lui ~ R. On the other hand,
B(z, Alzl) ~ B(O, R);
therefore,
R2 A (log 1<1>1 - eR - De, 0, R) ~ (Alzl)2 A (log 1<1>1 - eR - De, z, Alzl).
By subhannonicity,
log 1<1>(0)1 - eR - De ~ A(log 1<1>1 - eR - De, 0, R).
Thus,
In other words,
1..2 A (log 1<1>1, z, Alzl) ::: (1 + 1..)2 log 1<1>(0)1 + (1..2 - (1 + A)2)(eR + De),
which implies the stated inequality. o
Proof of Lemma 6.4.5. Let e > °be given. We are going to show that
Ig(z)1 ~ Ae exp(HcCz) + elzl)
for some Ae > 0.
Up to translation we can assume that <1>(0) oj:. O. The hypothesis implies that
°
for every e, > there exists Eel> 0 such that
log I/(w)1 ~ HcCw) + e,lwl + Eel'
Let M := max{HcCu): lui ~ 1}, z oj:. 0, and A> 0, then
max
WEB(z,Alzl)
HcCw) ~ HcCz) + AMlzl.
Since log Igl is subhannonic we have
log Ig(z)1 ~ A(log Igl, z, Alzl) = A(log III, z, Alzl) - A(log 1<1>1, z, Alzl).
°
For e, > and e2 > 0, to be fixed later, there exist constants Eel and De2 given
by Lemma 6.4.6 such that:
log Ig(z)1 ~ HcCz) + AMlzl + e, (1 + A)lzl + Eel
- (1
+1..)2 log 1<1>(0)1 +
-1..- ((1 +1..)2 - 1) (e2(1 + A)lzl + De).
-1..-
Let us choose A > 0, eJ. > 0, e2 > 0, such that

AM < e/3,
e,(1 + A) < e/3,
Let
Ne = - (1+).)2
-).- log 1<1>(0)1 + ((1+).)2)
-).- - 1 De2 + Eel'
then
log Ig(z)1 ~ Hc(z) + slzl + N e •
In other words, there is R an analytic functional carried by C such that the
function g = F(R). 0
From Lemma 6.4.5 we can now conclude that part (i) of the theorem is correct.
(ii) Since (.1f(K))' is the space of analytic functionals carried by K the proof
of part (i) works verbatim.
(iii) Let J.1, E .1f' (Q) be orthogonal to M o, this implies that J(J.1,) is divisible
by <1>, J(J.1,) = <1> . h, h is an entire function. By Lemma 6.4.5 h E Exp(Q).
Hence there is R E .1f'(Q) with J(R) = h, thus
J.1,= T*R.
If f E M, then
(J.1"f) = (T*R,f) = (R,T*f) =0,
therefore Mo = M.
(iv) The same proof as (iii). o
We shall now prove that any solution f E .1f(Q) of a homogeneous differen-
tial equation of infinite order has a Fourier-expansion convergent in .1f(Q) of
the same kind as that found in the previous sections. It is clear that once we
have proved this result for an arbitrary open convex set Q it also holds in the
space Va. This Fourier representation goes back to the work of Valiron [Val],
Gelfond [Ge], Dickson [Di2]. On the other hand, the novelty of our proof is that
it obtains estimates for the coefficients of the expansion and it is essentially the
same as Theorem 6.2.7 up to technical details.
6.4.7. Lemma. Let <1> =I- °be an entire function of exponential type zero and let
°< s ~ ~. There exists R = Re °such that for any z with IzI ::: R there are
constants °< (I,s/8 < < sl4so thatforanyi; suchthatAlzl-(I
>
A Ii; -zl ~ ~
Aizi one has
while exp(-2slzl) ~ (I ~ 1.
Proof. Let us recall a property of entire functions of exponential type zero (see
° °
[Bo, Corollary 3.7.3, p. 52]), given 8 > and Y) > there exists ro > and a
measurable set E8 ~ [0, +oo[ such that if r ::: ro
°
m(E8 n [0, r]) ~ Y)r
and if r ::: ro, r ¢ E~, then

log 1cI>(~)1 ::: -8r, I~I =r.
We shall choose convenient 8 > 0, ." > 0, later. The first condition on ." is
that
4.,,(1 +e) < e,
under this condition, if r > 2ro, then
e
m(E~ n [r, r + erD ::: '9r.
Therefore, there is a value s such that

e e
r + -r < s < r + -r
8 - - 4
and
log 1cI>(~)1 ::: -8s
for I~I = s. For z with Izl = r, let z' = (s/r)z. We are going to apply the
Minimum Modulus Theorem ([BG, §4.5.14] and the previous Lemma 2.2.11)
to the function
cI>(~)
1fr(~) = cI>(z')
in the disk B = B(z', (e/2)r). For this purpose we have to estimate
M = max 11fr(~)I.
I~-z'l::::eer
Since cI> is of exponential type zero there is a constant D~ > 0 such that
log 1cI>(~)1 ::: 81~1 + D~ (~E q,

we conclude that
log M ::: 48r + D~.
Let H = 1/4s, then the Minimum Modulus Theorem says that, outside a finite
collection of disks Cj in B such that the sum of their diameters is less than or
equal to 4H er the function 1fr satisfies
log 11fr(~)1 > - (2 + log ;~ ) log M.
Let us remark that the disk B(z, (e/4)r) S;; B. Since the sum of the diameters
of the Cj is 4Her < (e/8)r, there exist A, e/8 < A < e/4, such that
aB(z, Alz!) n Cj =0
for all j. On this circle we have
log 1cI>(~)1 ::: log IcI>(z') I - (2 + log(60))(48r + D~)
::: -8r(13 + 4 log 60) - (3Iog60)D~
::: -308r - 8D~.

Let 0 = £/60 and rl > 0 such that

£
2r1 = SDo + log 2.
Hence if r ~ max(rl, 2ro) we have
whenever Iz - ~ I = Ar.
In order to obtain an estimate in the annulus, let us point out that the derivative
<1>' is also of exponential type zero, thus there is a value D~ such that
(~ E C),
therefore I'(~)I :::: exp((1 + A)(£/4)r + (D~ + 1)) for U E B(O, (1 + A)r + 1).
Let w = z + le iIJ with Ar - a :::: 1 :::: Ar + a, then, for ~ = z + Are iIJ
1(w) - (~)I :::: a sup{l<l>'(z + reio)l: Ar - a :::: r :::: Ar + a}
:: a exp ((1 + A) ~r + (D~ + 1)) :::: aexp Gr + D~ + 1) .
Gr + D~ + 1) : :
We want
a exp e-er.
If this condition is satisfied we have

1(w) I ~ I(~) I - I(~) - (w) I ~ e-er.
On the other hand, for r ~ r2 = 2(D~ + 1)/£ > 0, we have that the choice
'- exp (-3£r

a .- 2 - D'e - 1)
will satisfy a
~ exp(-2r). Thus to conclude the proof it is enough to choose
R ~ max(rl' 2ro, r2). 0
In order to define the space A*(V) for V = V(<I», we first note that the
number of zeros n(r) of <1>, counted with multiplicity, in the disk B(O, r) satisfies
n(r)
lim - =0.
r--+oo r
If we denote the zeros repeated according to multiplicity by (Zn)n~l' with
Izd :::: IZ21 :::: .. " either they form a finite sequence or
. IZkl
hm -k
k--+oo
=+00.
Moreover, taking the constant Re from Lemma 6.4.7 bigger if necessary we
can assume
n(r) :::: £r for r ~ Re.
Assume has infinitely many zeros, otherwise is a polynomial.
Let us denote V = {(at. mk), k::: I}, lall ~ la21 ~ "', with distinct ak. Let
On = 2-n and Rn = max (Rsn , 2Rn_ l ) as given by Lemma 6.4.7.
We denote by kl,1 the first index k such that lakl ::: RI. Let AI,I > 0 associated
= =
by Lemma 6.4.7 to al,1 akl.l and 0 01. Denote
BI,I := B(al,l, AI,llal,Ii).
We let hi be the collection of indices such that ak E BI,I.

If there is any k > kl,1 so that ak is in the annulus RI ~ Izl < R2 and it
does not belong to BI,I, we let k l ,2 be the first such index and consider the
corresponding disk
with Akl,2 chosen with respect al,2 := ak1,2 and 0 = 01. We let h,2 be the collec-
tion of indices of the ak E B I ,2 \BI,I. We continue in this fashion until we exhaust
all the zeros of in this annulus.
We obtain in this way disks BI,j, 1 ~ j ~ Nlo and corresponding disjoint
index sets JI,j, 1 ~ j ~ Nlo with JI,j the collection of indices of the ak
belonging to the set
BI,j \ ( U
1~I~j-1
BI,I).
Observe that if ak does not belong to Uj BI,j and R3 > lakl ::: R 2 , then the
index k > kl,N I • We let k2,1 the first such index (if there is any such zero).
Denote
B2,1 := B(a2,1, A2,da2,1i)
with A2,1 chosen with respect to a2,1 := ak2,1 and 02 according to Lemma 6.4.7.
One can construct in this way a double indexed sequence of zeros (al,j),
1 ~ j ~ NI, disjoint index sets JI,j and closed disks BI,j.
Let Jo denote the collection of indices such that lakl < RI and also ak ¢
UI~j~NI BI,j.
This construction exhausts all the zeros of and defines the groupings that
we need in the definition of III . III. Let us also point out that BI,j never intersects
Izl > RI+2' Let us now denote by VI,j the set of zeros aj of counted according
to their multiplicity when i E JI,j, and let VI,j be the total number of points in
VI,j. Remark that we have
VI,j ~ n(ial,jl(1 + AI,j)) ~ 20tial,jl.

Hoping that there is no confusion with the previous notation in Section 6.3,
we denote a E A(V) as
al,j E A(VI,j).
We recall that
where ol,j is the diameter of B/oj

%j = 2Al,jla/ jl.o
Let (Kp)p~l be an exhaustion of w by convex compact sets, and let Hp = H Kp '

then we denote
With the last definition in mind we define

AAV) := (a E A(V): 3p ~ 1: Illalllp < +oo}
considered with the natural inductive limit topology.

For further reference, we let Mp = sUPlul~l Hp(u) and let 'rip > 0 be such that
(z E q,
that is, Kp+l contains the 'rip-neighborhood of Kp.
6.4.8. Theorem. Let be a nonzero entire function of exponential type zero,
then
Exp(Q) p
 Exp(Q) ---+ A*(V)
is an isomorphism. Moreover, every f E ;f(Q) such that (d/dz)(f) = 0 has

a Fourier expansion
fez) = L(L
/o} aEJ/,j
p(AZ)e az ) ,
where Pa is a polynomial of degree < ma = multiplicity of a as a zero of <P.

The series on the indices (l, j) converges absolutely and uniformly on compact
subsets of Q.
The frequencies for which Pa =f. 0 and the corresponding coefficients of the
polynomial Pa depend only on the function f, and the coefficients satisfy esti-
mates of the same kind as in Theorem 6.2.7.
Proof. Given g E Exp(Q) there exists p ~ 1 so that for every 0 < e < 1 there
is a constant Co ~ 0 such that
(z E q.
Consider a = peg) = (a/oj) and apply Lemma 6.2.lO to the set B(ak"j' o/,j),
then
ILli(a/,j)loj,j .:::: 2i max{lg(z)l: Iz - a/,jl .:::: ol,j}'
For Iz - a/,j I .:::: o/,j we have

Hp(z) + elzl .:::: Hp(al,j) + ela/,jl + (Mp + e)o/,j
.:::: Hp(a/,j) + la/,jl(e + 2Al,j(Mp + 1».

On the other hand, we can find l(p) ::: 1 such that for 1 ::: l(p), we have
2A/.j(Mp + 1) ::: ¥(Mp + 1) ::: i'

Choose e = Y}p/2 then
IIlal,jlll/,j = m!lX Id i (al,j)8i) ::: Ce exp(Hp(exl,j) + Y}plexl,jl)
I
::: Ce exp(Hp+l (exl,j))'
Since there are only finitely many indices 1, j with 1 < 1(p) there is a constant
Bp > 0 such that
with
This implies the continuity of the restriction map p.

To prove the surjectivity and the openness of p, we observe first that given
a E A*(V) such that IIlalilp < +00, if PI,j denotes the Newton interpolation
polynomial such that PI,j(PI,j) = al,j, then
IPI,j(z)1 ::: vI,jeHp(a/·j)lIlalllp
for z E BI,j' We recall that

Vl,j ~ 2eil a l,j I.
It is also clear that for z E BI,j, one has
lexl,j I ::: Iz I + A/,j lexl,j I ::: Iz I + i lexl,j I·

Hence
For the same reason,
Therefore, for z in BI,j,

IPI,j (z)1 ::: lila IlIpeHp(z)+e/(3+Mp/2)lzl.
We need to construct disjoint open sets UI,j and cut-off functions (}I,j subor-
dinate to them, so that the Coo function
() = L (}I,j PI,j
I,j
coincides with Pl,j on a neighborhood of any ex E V1,j and there are good esti-
mates for a() / az, to be able to apply the idea of the semilocal interpolation
Theorem 2.6.4. The difficulty here is the need to estimate, very precisely, the
constants so that at the end of the process we obtain a function of Exp(Q). We

introduce the disjoint open sets
UI,I := BI,I,
U1,2 := B1,2\ BI,I ,
and an open set Uo which is the union of small disjoint disks surrounding each
ak with k E 10 and which is also disjoint from the U[,j'
We need to estimate the size of a region inside the aU[,j where we have good
lower estimates for <1>. This region is provided by the last part of Lemma 6.4.7,
For instance, for U1,2 we have a value O'l,l such that
and
I«()I ::: e-EIIal,ll,
whenever AI,ilal,ll- 0'1,1:::: I( - al,11 :::: AI,llal,ll,
For U2 ,1 we have the subregion union of the two open subsets:
(i) AI,ilal,l1 < I~ - a 1,1 I < Al,llal,ll + 0'1,1 «( E U2,\),

(ii) Aula\,21- 0'\,2 < I~ - aul (~ E U2,\).
The construction of these regions for the general region U[,j is similar. We
shall call these regions collars. We need to determine what estimates we have
on these collars and their size. For this purpose, we recall that if two disks B[,j
and Bk,i, with I :::: k, intersect, the indices k and I differ at most by 1. Therefore,
at a point,
and
we have
and
Hence, for such a point

I«()I ::: e-E!la/.il ::: e-e/(4 Ia k·d+I)I«()1
For the same reason the width of that portion of the collar is CTl,j which satisfies
the inequality
Therefore we can find functions 8/,j E 'D(UI,j) which are identically 1 except
on the collar, 0 ::: el,j ::: 1, and
1 8:~j (Z)I ::: Cei6Bda/,j\

for some constant C independent of I and j. Furthermore, the Coo function of
compact support (l/ef>)(8e/,d8z) satisfies
_ 1 _ 8el,j
1ef>(z) 8z
(Z)I < ei/2Ce24eda/,j\ < ei/2Ce48Bdz\.
- -
Since e = E/,j e/,j P1,j we are searching for a function Ili such that
g = e + \I1ef>
belongs to Exp(n). For this reason, we choose \11 as a solution of the equation
8\11 1 8e "" 1 8el j
(*) 8z = - ef> 8z = - L..-J
1 ' P1,j ef> 8i .
,} ,
In U/,j, one has the estimate
1 ~Z) : : (Z)I ::: ei/2C1l1alllpeHp(Z)+B/(51+Mp/2)\z\.

For a convenient choice
for I ~ l(p).
Thus, up to a multiplicative constant Dp, which depends only on p, we have

everywhere
1 ef>~Z) ~~ (Z)I ::: DplllalilpeHp(z)+l'/p/2\z\.
From Theorem 2.6.3, with the subharmonic weight
g>(z) = 2Hp(z) + I'/pizi + 210g(1 + IzI2),
[I
we use the fact that
1 8e 12 -q>(z) 2 2 [ dm
Jc ef>(z) 8z (z) edm ::: Dpillalilp Jc (l + Iz12)2
::: D~lIlalll;
to choose \11 so that it solves (*) and
!
C
(1
11fr(z)12
+ Iz12)2
e-q>(z)dm < ID' IIla1l1 2.
- 2 P P
Therefore, the holomorphic entire function g defined above, satisfies

p(g) =a
and
Ig(z)1 2 :::: 2(IO(z)1 2 + 11/r(z)1 2 I<1>(z)1 2)
:::: 2(Dplllalll;e2Hp(z)+'1pIZI + 11/r(z)1 2C;ee zl).
1
Now, we introduce
CPo(z) = cp(z) + 2 log (1 + Iz12) + Eizi
and we obtain
J Ig(z)1 2e-q>o(z)dm :::: 2(D; + C;D~)IIlalll;.

c
Let
CPl(Z) = max Icpo(u
lul~l
+ z)1 :::: CPo(z) + Ep,
by the mean value property, we obtain
Ig(z)1 2 :::: Bp.eeq>o(z)IIla lll;
for some convenient constant Bp.e which depends on p and E. Hence,
Ig(z) I :::: B~:; Ilia IllpeHp(z)+[(e+'1p)/21Izl+210g(l+lzI2) .
We can choose E = T/p/2 and find a new constant Bp > 0 such that
Ig(z)1 :::: BplllalllpeHp(z)+'1pIZI
:::: BplllalllpeHp+l(z).
This concludes the proof of the isomorphism between Exp(Q)j<l> Exp(Q) and
A.(V).
The rest of the proof of Theorem 6.2.7 and subsequent considerations, includ-
ing estimates of the coefficients of the Fourier expansion hold verbatim. The only
thing that requires a minor remark is the fact that if f has two Fourier-expansions
converging in Jt'(Q) the coefficients are the same because the operators Tk used
in the proof of Proposition 6.2.8 are also infinite order differential operators in
this case, since :F(Tk)(z) = (z)/[(z - ak)m k ] are entire functions of exponen-
tial type zero. 0
As in the case of mean-periodic functions, if the variety V of is an

interpolation variety for the space Exp({O}) of entire functions of exponential
type zero, then the Fourier representation of an arbitrary solution of equation
(d/dz)f = 0 converges in Jt'(Q) without groupings. One can prove that the
condition for V = (ako mk) being an interpolation variety in the space Exp({O})
is that for every E > 0 there is a constant Ae > 0 such that
(k 2: 1).
(See [BLV].) The following theorem ofP6lya-Levinson [Levs, Theorem XXXI,

p. 92] furnishes a very simple geometrical condition on the at. when mk I =
for all k, for V = (adk:::! to be an interpolation variety in Exp({O}).
6.4.9. Theorem. Let (adk:::! be a sequence of nonzero complex numbers such

that:
.
11m k
(i) - =0.
k~oo ak
(ii) There is a constant y > 0 such that for any k, i E N*

lak - ajl ~ ylk - il.
e
(iii) There exists E [0, 21r[ such that limk~oo ak/lakl = ei8 •
Then, the function
cI>(z) = II
k:::!
(1 _z:) .
ak
is of exponential type zero and satisfies,for every B > 0,
(a) IcI>~z) 1= O(es1zl ), whenever Iz - akl ~~, Vk ~ 1;

(b)
We remark that condition (iii) is missing in the statement of this theorem in

[Levs], [Bo, p. 146], but it is used in the proofs given there. Letting a2k+l =
-a2b one can easily see that some condition on arg ak seems necessary to
ensure (b) for the function cI> defined above.
Note that condition (b) implies that the variety V of zeros of cI> is an interpo-
lation variety in the space of functions of exponential type zero. In particular,
the sequence {ad is an interpolation variety. This is not included in Chapter 2
since Exp({O}) is not Hormander space Apo One can do this directly as follows,
let (akh:::! be a sequence with the property that for every B > 0,
lakl = O(eSlakl) (k ~ 1),
then there is a way to choose integers nk ~ 0 so that
g(z):= 2: ~ cI>(z) (~)nk

cI>'(ak) z - ak ak
is an entire function of exponential type zero such that
g(ak)= ak, k ~ I,
g(-ak) = O.
Instead of the proof of Theorem 6.4.9 we shall give an important generaliza-
tion of this theorem, due to Vidras eVil], [Vi2]. Namely, that the condition (iii)
is not necessary for the conclusion that the sequence {ad is an interpolation
variety.
6.4.10. Theorem. Let Z = {ak }f:1 be a sequence of complex numbers satisfying

the following two properties:
(i) ad k ~ 00 as k ~ 00.
(ii) There is c > 0 so that/or any n, k E N*: Ian - akl ~ cln - kl. Then, there
exists an entire function F of exponential type zero, with simple zeros (Zm }~=I
which include all the at, and such that Ve > 0 one has
(a) l/W(re i9 z)1 = O(e Er ) whenever Ire i9 - zml ~ l/8c for all mEN as
r~ 00.
(b) l/W'(zm)1 = O(eelzml) as m ~ 00.
In particular, not only the sequence {zdf:1 is interpolating, but this property
also holdsfor the larger sequence {zm}~=1 of zeros of F.
The proof of Theorem 6.4.10 consists of a sequence of lemmas, some of

which already appeared in [Levs]. The main idea to get around the problem that
we have no control on the arguments arg ak is the following grouping critierion:
6.4.11. Definition. Let Z = {an}~1 be a sequence of complex numbers satis-

fying the properties (i) and (ii) of the statement in Theorem 6.4.10. Then we
say that am is paired to an, n t- m, if and only if
(iii)
We say that am has the property 'P if there exists n so that {am, an} forms a
pair (i.e., it satisfies condition (iii».
An immediate consequence of the definition is that any am is paired to at

most 'One element of the sequence Z. Indeed, assume that am is paired to ak
and a p • The property (ii) implies that
c ::: elk - pi :::: lak - apl
+ ami + lam + apl
::: lak
< c /2 + c /2 = c,
which is a contradiction. Thus we are able to separate the terms of the sequence
Z into two disjoint groups
ZI = {an: an not satisfying the property 'P},
Z2 = {am: am has the property 'P}.
The following lemma is a simple generalization of Levinson's Theorem 6.4.9
given in [Levs]. The main differences are that we do not assume that ReA n > 0
or that 1m An/An ~ 00 as n ~ 00.
6.4.12. Lemma. Let Al = {An}~1 be a sequence of nonzero complex numbers

satisfying the properties (i) and (ii) of Theorem 6.4.9. Assumefurther that no point
of A 1 has the property 'P and that there is a constant e satisfying 0 ::: e < T{ 12,
so that for every n E N
either I arg An I ::: e or I arg An - ]I" I ::: e.
Then there exists an even entire function Fl of exponential type zero, vanishing
only at the points z = ±An and satisfying "Ie > 0:
(a) I/1F1(re ia )1 = O(e Br ) whenever Ire ia ± Ani::: c/8 as r -+ 00.
(b) I/IF{(A n )1 = O(eBIAnl) as n -+ 00.
Proof. Let us define Fl (z) = n:l

[l - (z2 IA~)]. The hypothesis (i) is equivalent
to the fact that the counting function nAI (r) = o(r), thus Fl E Exp({O}) [Lev].
Since no point of Ai has the property 'P, every zero of Fl is simple. In order
to show that Fl has the other desired properties, we first note that since Fl
is an even function it is enough to prove (a) and (b) for Rez ::: 0 and, given
0< e < ~, only for r = Izl sufficiently large. Following Levinson, assume that
z ¢ Ai, and divide the terms of the sequence into three disjoint sets as follows:
A = {An E Ai: IAnl ::: (1- e)lzl},
B = {An E Ai: (1 - e)lzl < IAnl < (1- e)lzl},
C = {An E Ai: (1 + e)lzl ::: IAnl}.
Let us denote FA (z) := nA EA[1 -
n (z2 IA~)] and define similarly FB, Fe. Then
Fl = FAFBFc ,
and we can divide the proof in several steps.
Step 1. Assume An E B, then we have (1 - e)lzl < IAnl < (1 + e)lzl, and
therefore
J:.L < (1 + e)lzl < 1 + e < 3.
IAnl IAnl - 1- e -
We are trying to estimate IFB(Z)I from below, and since every An appears
squared, we may assume that Re An > O. Hence
Iz + An I ::: Re(z + An) ::: Re An = IAn I cos e > O.

So that
1 IA~I (1 + e)lzl
---=--~= < .
11 - z2/A~1 Iz - Anllz + Ani - coselz - Ani
Let N be an index that minimizes Iz - An I. Then, as
IAN - Ani::: Iz - Ani + Iz - ANI::: 21z - Ani,

we have
1 2
---<---
IZ-Anl-IAN-Anl
The term AN could be in any of the three sets A, B, or C; to simplify the
notation we will assume that AN E B, which is the worst case, but the reasoning
that follows is not affected by this assumption. Denote by L the number of the
terms in B distinct from AN. Let B(z) be the finite product
( z)
B~)= 2 .
I1 1--
AneB,n"#N A~
Thus,
IB(z)1 S II (1+£)lzl s (I+£)l z l)L II 1

AneB,n"#N cos&lz - Ani cos & AneB,n"#N Iz - Ani
< ((1 +£)IZI)L 2L II 1.

- cos& ..L IAN - Ani
AneB,n.,..N
On the other hand, since IAN - Ani ~ clN - nl, we have

1
---<---
IAN - Ani - clN - nl
Therefore,
IB(z)1 s ((1 +£)lzl)L (~)L II 1.

cos& c B
Ane ,n"#N
IN - nl
Observe that for every n there are at most two terms equal to IN - nl. Hence,
[4
the last product has at least L] distinct terms, so that
II IN - nl ~ ([L/2]!)2.
AneB,n"#N
And the estimate of B is reduced to
IB(z)1 S (1 + £)IZI) L (2/C)L

cos &
([~]!) -2 S
2
(_4_) L IzlLe3Le-LlogL
ccos&
S (_4_)L e(LlogL)lzle3Le-logL
ccos&
= (_4_)L e3Lellzl(L/lzlloglzl/L)}.
ccos&
On the other hand, for Izllarge enough, L S nA, «1

+ £)Izi) s 2slzl, thus, using
the inequality x 10g(1/x) < xl/2 valid for 0 < x < 1, one sees that
L Izl (L)I/2
-log - < -
Izl L - Izl
<
-
h vIee ,
so that
for a convenient constant I.t > O. The last point of this step of the proof is to
bound the term involving AN. From (*) we obtain
I( 1 - I
.::.) > cosOlz - ANI
A~ - 21z1 '
so that, altogether,
for a convenient constant v > O.
Step 2. This time we are going to estimate IFA (z)1 from below. Similarly
to the previous step, let a be the value of the index n that minimizes IAn - zl
among An E A. We see, as earlier, that when An E A we have
1
2(1 - e)lzl 21z1

< < .
-IAa-Anlcose - cla-nlcosO
Let us denote by A(z), as in the previous step, the product of the terms
1/[1 - (z2 IA~)] for An E A, n ¥= a, and by M denote the number of terms of
this product. It is easy to see that we have M ::s elz I and, as earlier,
IA(z)1 < IT 2(1 - e)lzl

- AnEA.n#a cos81Aa - Ani -
< (_2_)M
cose
IzlM IT
AnEA.n#a
1
cia - nl
2 )M 1
::s ( - - IzlM ([MI2]!)
cose
2 ::s r M e3M exp[Mlnlzl- MlnM],
for some constant r > O. Again we conclude that for a convenient constant
a > 0 and all Izl » 0 we have
IA(z)1 ::s e<TJElzl.
On the other hand, we have that IAal ::s (1 - e)lzl and, hence, we also have
Iz - Aal 2: IZI-IAal. Thus,
1 IAal2 1 IAal 1 IAal
= < -- < - - --'---'---
II - z2/A~1 Iz - Aallz + Aal - cosO Iz - Aal - cose Izl-IAal
1 (1 - e)lzl 1 (1 - e)lzl 1 (1 - e)
<-- --- =-----
- cosO Izl- (1- e)lzl cosO elzl cosO e
Combining this inequality and the bound for A, we obtain for some constant,
1] > 0, the lower estimate
valid for Izl » o.

Step 3. Finally we have to consider the function Fe. When An E C one has
Izl/IAnl < 1/(1 + e) < 1, so that
1 £tl = £t.
1-
IAnl2
1-
IAnl 2
Thus, if r = Izl, rn =lAnl, we have
IIe (1 - r:)
rn
~ II
e
11 - Anz: 1= lFC(z)l·
1 1
It is immediate that
"e .rn!.
~
<
2-
00
(l+e)r
dnAI (u) <
U
2 -
00
(l+e)r
2nAI (u)
du
u3 '
21
where the last inequality was obtained after integration by parts. Note that
00
2nAI (u) d nAI (u)
r u <r max - -.
(I+e)r u3 - u~(1+e)r U
Since nA 1 (u)/u ~ 0, we obtain that r2 Le(1/r;) < er for r large enough.

In order to profit from the last observation we need a small side remark.
=
Let {3 {3(e) > 1 be defined by the equation (1 - e){3 + loge O. Note that =
e{3(e) ~ 0 when e ~ O. Then, for 0 ~ x ~ 1 - e, the inequality 1/(1 - x) ~
e{3x holds. Therefore, since (r/rn)2 ~ r/rn ~ 1 - e, we have
IIe (1 -r2/r2)
1 " .!.))
~ exp ({3r 2 (~ r2 ~ e2{3er.
n e n
This inequality implies that
lFC(z) I ::: e-2{3e lzl•
This concludes the third step of the proof.
It is clear that, after convenient renormalization of the constants, we have
shown that given e > 0 there are constants rE > 0 and y > 0 such that for
Izi ::: rE we have
Ylz - ANle- elzl ~ IFI(z)1 ~ eelzl.
Since F{(AN) = lim --+Z AN FI(z)/(z - AN), the two properties (a) and (b) follow.
This concludes the proof of Lemma 6.4.12. o

6.4.13. Lemma. Let A2 = {An }~I be a sequence of complex numbers satisfying
the properties (i) and (ii) of Theorem 6.4.9. If every term An has the property 'P
then lim,...oo LI Anl:sr(1/An ) exists.
Proof. By the Cauchy criterion we have to show that for 0 < rl < r2
Let us now observe that, because the counting function nA 2(r) = o(r), given
8 > 0 if r > 0 is sufficiently large then
'" ~ < nA2(r) < 8.

L..t A - r -
r~IAnl::::r+c/2 n
This implies that adding the other element of the pair, if it is not already included
in the sum (**), does not change the nature of the problem. On the other hand,
if Am, An is a pair we have
1 1 I lAm + Ani c 1
1
Am + An = IAmAn I ~ 21 AmAnI'
Moreover, IAmAnl ~ IAmI2. Hence, there is a constant C > 0 such that
Since the series L::l (l/IAn 12) is convergent, the lemma is completely proved.
o
The main point of the next lemma is that we do not make any assumption on
the arguments of the sequence.
6.4.14. Lemma. Let A2 =

{An}~1 be a sequence of nonzero complex numbers
satisfying properties (i) and (ii) of Theorem 6.4.9 and also assume that every
element has the property P. Then there exists an entire function F2 E Exp({O})
vanishing exactly at the points of A2 and so that for every 8 > 0 the following
estimates hold:
1
(a)
1F2(re iB ) I
=0 (e")
'
whenever Ire iB - An I >_ -21 C as r ~ 00.
1
(b) = O(eEIAnl) as n ~ 00.
IF~ (An)1
Proof. If the genus of the sequence were zero, we could use a simpler construc-
tion of F2, but we prefer to give a unified formula, irrespective of the genus.
Using Lemma 6.4.13 define w := limHoo L:IAnl~,(1/An). Let us consider the
function
F2(Z) = e- wz IT (1 - ~) An
e Z / An := lim e-wz
'-'>00
II (1 - ~)
An
e Z / An ,
n=1 IA.19
where the infinite product is defined by the limit of the finite products. The
reason is that the IAn I are not necessarily increasing. Note that in the genus
zero case, this product is not the Weierstrass canonical product [Lev], while
this is true when the genus is 1. Nevertheless, the usual estimates show that
F2 E Exp({O}) (see [Lev, Theorem 15, p. 26].) Thus, we need to concentrate in
proving lower bounds for F2 , in a way altogether similar to Lemma 6.4.12, so

that we shall be able to skip the details when they are the same.
Given 0 < £ < 4,
we fix z ~ A 2 , with Izl» 1. Divide the terms of the
sequence into three disjoint sets as before
A = {A.n E A2: IAnl :'S (1 - £)Izl}'
B = {An E A2: (1 - £)Izl < IAnl < (1 + £)Izl},
C = {An E A2: (1 + £)Izl :'S IAnl}.
Step 1. This is practically identical to Step 1 in the proof of Lemma 6.4.12.

We denote by N the index that minimizes Iz - Ani, and assume AN E B without
loss of generality. We let L be the number of terms in B district from AN. We
obtain
II 1
< (1 +£)LlzIL2L
1
II
AnEB.n#N 11 - Z IA nI - AnEB.n#N IA N - AnI
As was done in Lemma 6.4.12, we can now find a constant K ~ 1 such that for
Izl » 1 we have
Iz - ANle-Kv'elzl <II 11 -: 1<

An EB n
eElzl .
Step 2. It is clear that the same proof used in Step 2 of Lemma 6.4.12 yields
the following estimate:
II 11 -: I ~ e-K'v'elzl,
An EA n
for some convenient value K' > O.
Step 3. Let us now assume that Izl is sufficiently large so that £Izl > e12. It
follows that if an element of C is such that the other member of the pair is not in
C, then it must lie in B. Let us consider here the subset D of elements of C such
that the other member of the pair is not in C. We shall denote by E the remaining
portion of C.1t is clear that An ED implies that IAnl :'S (1 + £)Izl + e12, hence,
D is finite, and if we denote by P the number of its elements, then
P :'S ni\2((1 + £)Izl + e12) :'S £Izl,
for Izl » 1.
Let As denote an element of D that minimizes Iz - Ani among An ED. Then
(1 + £)Izl :'S IAsl :'S (1 + 2£)lzl, so that
----=
1
II - z/Asl
IAsl
< IAsl
<
lAs - zl - IAsl - Izl - (1 + £)Izl - Izl -
(1+2£lzl
<-- 1+2£
£ .
On the other hand, I1A nED.n#s 11 - z/Anl can be estimated from below as in
Step 2 of Lemma 6.4.12. As a consequence, we obtain that there is p > 0 such
that for large Iz I

1111 - : 12: e-pv'Elzl.
An ED n
Step 4. In this part, we are going to estimate the product of all exponential
factors with frequencies Am ED. As a consequence of the estimate of P in the
previous step, we have
"'--<
~D
Am E
1
IAml - (1 +e)lzl -
P
<e,
and thus,
11 eZ/ 2: e-eiz i.
Am
Am ED
Step 5. In this part we take care of the exponentials of the terms which are
"near" the origin, that is, with frequencies An E A U B. From the definition w
we have that for Iz I » 1
1
~ ;:- - w ::: e.
An EAUB n
Therefore,
e{J)Z 11 e- Z/An 2: e-eizi.
An EAUB
Step 6. Finally, we are left with the task of estimating the infinite product
over the set E. In this case,
J:l < _1_ < 1.
IAnl - 1 + e
Hence, we can apply [Lev, Lemma 3, p. 11] to obtain
log 11 (1 -
E
~) e-
An
Z/ An 2: -12elzI 2 (Xl nE!t) dt.
JIZ I t
2:
Since, for t Izl » 1, we have nE(t) ::: et, we can estimate the integral by
elzl- 2 /2. Thus,
11 (1 - ~) eZ/ 2: e-6eelzl. An
E An
The collection of estimates we have obtained concludes the proof of Lemma
6.4.14. D
6.4.15. Proposition. Let A = {An} ~1 be a sequence of nonzero complex numbers

with the following properties:
(1) There is a constant 0 ::: () < 1'(/2 such that for every n EN, I arg An I ::: () or
I arg An - 1'( I ::: ().
(2) Anln -+ 00 as n -+ 00.

(3) There is a constant c > 0 so that for any n, k E N*, IAn - Akl :::: cln - kl.
Then, there is an entire function F E Exp({O}) vanishing at all the An, whose
zero set is denoted by {~m} ~= I' and such that "Is > 0
(i) I/IF(z)1 = O(e<lzl) whenever Iz - ~nl :::: !c, as Izl -+ 00.
(ii) I/IF'(~m)1 =
O(e<l~ml) as m -+ 00.
Proof. We introduce the pairing of Definition 6.4.11, then the tenns of the
sequence {An}~1 are divided into two sets:
Al = {An: An does not have the property P},
A2 = {An: An has the property Pl.

We apply now Lemmas 6.4.12 and 6.4.14 to obtain functions FI and F2, corre-
sponding to the two sequences. The first one vanishes also at all the points
of -AI = {-AnIAn E Ad. Let us remark that -AI is disjoint from A, so
that the function F := FI F2 has simple zeros at the points of the sequence
A* := A U (-AI). Moreover, it is easy to verify that, with the possible excep-
tions of points ~m E A * with I~m I < cI 4, the disks centered at the ~m of radius c/8
are disjoint. This is enough to conclude that F satisfies the required properties.
o
We are now ready to prove Vidras' theorem.
Proof of Theorem 6.4.10. Let us assume first that no ak is zero. Divide the
sequence Z into two subsequences as follows:
Z I : = {an: I arg an I :s ~ } U{an: I arg an I :s 1T - ~ } ;
Z2 := { an: ~ < I arg an I < 1T - ~} U{an: ~ + 1T < I arg an I < 21T - ~} •
Consider now two new subsequences of Z, A I consists of all points of Z I

together with those points of Z2 that can be paired to a point in ZI. A2 contains
the remaining points of A. We keep the indices of the points in these subse-
quences the same as in the original sequence in order to preserve property (ii).
Up to a rotation, Proposition 6.4.15 can be applied to the new sequences and we
obtain thus two functions FI and F2 whose product F = FI F2 has the required
properties. If z = 0 is a point of Z we just multiply the previous function F
by z. 0
Further generalizations of the theorem can be found in [BLV] (see also [GR]
for related results).
For the applications of infinite order differential operators to the question of
overconvergence of Dirichlet series we need first a generalization of Theorem
6.4.8 to convolution operators.
Let T be an analytic functional whose minimal compact convex carrier is K,

then, for any open convex set Q we have that
is a continuous map.
This map is surjective for arbitrary Q if and only if the entire function defined
by ~(T) = 4> is of completely regular growth. We refer the reader to Section 2.4
for the details.
6.4.16. Definition. Let Z = Z(4)) be a variety of zeros (Le., we forget their

multiplicities) of 4> and d(z) = minO, d(z, Z(4)))). We say that 4> is regularly
decreasing if:
(i) There exists an integer m ~ I such that for every e > 0 there is a constant
Ce > 0 for which
(ii) For every e > 0 there exist A e, Be > 0 such that the diameters 8n.e of the
connected components Se.n of the set
Se := (z E C: d(z) < Ae exp( -elz!)}
satisfy
Clearly any exponential-polynomial is regularly decreasing.

It is easy to see that the condition (i) implies that
T*: Jt'(Q + K) -+ Jt'(Q)
is sUIjective for every Q and therefore, any regularly decreasing function 4> has
completely regular growth. We leave it as an exercise to the reader that in fact (i)
implies that if h E Exp(Q + K) and h/4> = g is entire, then g E Exp(Q).
6.4.17. Proposition. Let T be an analytic functional with minimal compact

convex carrier K, 4> = ~(T) regularly decreasing, and Q a convex open set.
For any f E Jt'(Q + K) such that T * f = 0 there is a Fourier representation
of the form
M = ~ c.~~~" P'(Z)e"") (z E Q + K),
where V(4)) V = = {(akt md: k ~ 1}, Pk are polynomials of degree strictly less
than mk. The convergence and the estimates are similar to the previous theorems
of this kind.
Sketch of proof. As in the proof of Theorem 6.4.8 the main point is to define
correctly the groupings and the corresponding norm III . III. The principle is the
following: we choose en = 2- n and let 0 < An = Ae o ::::: 1 and Bn = Be

o > O.
We add to the definition of Rn the inequalities
Rn 2: e;;-I max(Bn -log An).
For ak such that Rn < lak I < Rn+1 we consider the component Si,eo that contains
ak and this way we can construct sets Un,j and corresponding an,j as in the
proof of Theorem 6.4.8. Since it is hard to obtain an estimate of the number
Vn,j of zeros of cI> in Un,j better than const. lan,j I, we are compelled to modify
slightly the norms III . Illn,j:
Illan,j Illn,j = m!lX I!::..i (an,j) (4~n,j)i I,
I
where ~n,j is the diameter of Un,j, which can be estimated in terms of the
quantities Bn , and i runs over the sequence i = 0, ... , Vn,j - 1.
Let (Kp)p?:1 be an exhaustion by compact convex sets of Q and define
Illalilp = sup{lila/,jlll/,j exp(-HKp+K(a/,j))}'
Using the fact that the convex sets Kp +K exhaust Q + K and
HKp+K = HKp + Hko
we can prove that
Exp(Q + K) ~A*(V)
cI> Exp(Q)
is a topological isomorphism. The rest of the proof is the same as in
Theorem 6.4.8. 0
Henceforth, we will assume that Q and K are such that
r = r ll = {z: I Argzl < () < i} C Q +K C {z: Rez > OJ.
6.4.18. Lemma. Assume further that for some 0 < ~ < () there are at most
finitely many zeros of cI> in the set
r; := {z E C*: () + i -~ : : Argz ::::: 3; - () + ~}.

Then every solution f in Jt"(Q + K) of the equation T * f = 0 is an entire
function.
Proof. We can use the same groupings and the same definition of the norms
III'III/,j to define a norm in A(V) by
Nda) = sup{llla/,jlll/,j exp(-HL(a/,j))},
where L is an arbitrary compact convex subset of C. The space
A**(V) = {a E A(V): 3L, Nda) < +oo}
is isomorphic to Exp(C)/cI> Exp(C) by Theorem 6.2.7.
Therefore, to see that any f E Jt"(Q + K) for which T * f = 0, is entire, it is
enough to see that the two spaces A*(V) (given by the proof of Theorem 6.4.11)
f
f
f
f
f
Figure 6.1
and A**(V) are isomorphic. In fact, this means the dual spaces coincide, and so
the coefficients of the Fourier expansion of f in Q + K are also the coefficients
of the Fourier expansion of some entire function f, T * f = O. It is clear, that
f is the analytic continuation of f to the whole plane.
In order to prove this isomorphism all we need to show is that, for every
compact convex set L in C, we can find L J, a compact convex subset of Q + K
such that
The reader can convince himself that it is enough to take a convenient closed
vertical segment in r ll (sufficiently far to the right). (See Figure 6.1.) 0
If we do not have the extra assumption of Lemma 6.4.18 we can still conclude
the following:
6.4.19. Lemma. Let ro = {z E C*: 77:/2 + e < Arg z < 377:/2 - e}. Assume
*
Z(<1» 5; ro u (r;)C for some 0 < 8 < e. Let f E Jf"(Q + K), T f = 0, be
such that for some 8 > 0 the polynomial coefficients Pa of f in the Fourier
expansion vanish for all a in rD. Then f is an entire function.
Proof. This time we only have that every entire solution of the convolution
equation is a solution in Q + K but the converse does not necessarily hold. For
the f of the statement what we have to show is that the sequence b E A*(V)'
o'
that corresponds to f belongs to A**(V). For al.} E r we have bl ,} = O. For
the other indices (l, j) the construction of the compact L! in the previous lemma
still works, that is,
Hdal,j) S H L , (a/,j)
if al,j ~ r;. Remarking that the groupings can be made in such a way that no
points in ro and (r;y are in the same group, the last inequality shows that b
is a linear continuous linear functional on A**(V). 0
6.4.20. Lemma. Let

P(z) = II
ak
k2:!
(1 _z: )mk
be afunction of exponential type zero such that the variety V(P) is an interpola-
tion variety for the class Exp({O}). Assume further that there is an angle ({J such
that
ak .
lim - = e'tp.
k-+oo lakl
Let S = {z E C*: a < argz < ,B}, ,B - a < n, and s > O. Let f be a holomor-
phic function in So = SUB (0, s) satisfying the equation
P (:J f=O.
Then f is holomorphic in the region S obtained by translating So in the direction

perpendicular to e- itp
Stp = U(So + i;e- itp ).
~EIR
In particular, if neither ±i e- itp E S, then f is holomorphic in a half-plane S

containing So'
S u B(D,e)
Figure 6.2
Proof. Since P(d/dz)(f) = 0 and V(P) is an interpolation variety we have that
f(z) = Lqk(z)e akZ + Lqk(z)e-akZ ,

k~l
where both series are convergent in S.

Let 1/I(d/dz) be another infinite order differential operator then
is also holomorphic in Se. Now, for any a E C and any given polynomial q(z) =
EO~j~d CjZ j we have
y, (!) (q(,)e"') = (,Ed C; O~i (i) y,"'(a)'i-') eO',

while, if 'l' E C, then
q(' + ,)e"'H<' = (oE- C; £i ({) ,',i-'eo.) e"'.

Therefore, if
(0 ~k ~d)
we have
q(z + 'l')ea(zH) = 1/1 (:z) (q(z)e az ).
Fix g E IR and define the sequence

(' -irpg)/ .
ak,/ = Ie I! exp(iakge-Irp)
Since akllakl --+ ±eirp when k --+ ±oo, respectively, then, for any 8> 0 we can
find D8 such that
so that
As V(P) is an interpolation variety for Exp({O}), there is an entire function

1/1 of exponential type zero such that
1/1(1) (ak)
=ak,/'
I!
Let
u~ = {z E S: z + i~e-irp E S},
which is a nonempty open set. Then, for z E U~ we have
g(z) = 1/1 (:z) f(z) = f(z + i~e-irp);

hence f(z + i~e-irp) has an analytic continuation from U~ to the whole set Se.
Letting ~ vary in lR we obtain the lemma. D
6.4.21. Theorem. Let T satisfy the hypotheses of Proposition 6.4.17 and Lemma
6.4.19, r/l c Q + K C {z E C: Rez > OJ. Assume further that the zeros of 
wtisfy a gap condition in rij, that is there are finitely many unit vectors e irpj ,
1 ::.: j ::.: r, pointing into rij such that the zeros in rij form sequences (aj,kh:::l
so that
lim -)'- = e,rpj
a'k .
(1 ::.: j ::.: r)
k-+oo laj,kl
and
. laj,kl
11m - - =00.
k-+oo k
Moreover, assume that the functions
are entire functions of exponential type zero whose varieties V(Pj ) are inter-
°
polation varieties for the space Exp({O}). Under these conditions, any function
f E Jt'(Q + K) that satisfies the equation T * f = and has an analytic contin-
uation to a disk B(O, e) for some e > 0, has also an analytic continuation to the
open set
where S = r /I. In particular, f has an analytic continuation to the cone r /I - i e.

Proof. We can write f = f+ + f-,
f+ = L: qa(z)e°/Z,
aE(r;l'
f- = L: qa(z)eaZ ,
aEro
where both series are convergent in Q + K. From Lemma 6.4.19 we know

that f + is an entire function and therefore, the function f _ has an analytic
continuation to B(O, e).
The function f _ satisfies the infinite order differential equation
Let
which is holomorphic in
So = ro U B(O, e)
and satisfies the equation
Therefore, by Lemma 6.4.20, gl is holomorphic at least in the half-plane

S'PI. Due to the surjectivity of an infinite order differential operator, there is a
function hiE .It'(S'Pl) such that
Then
The function f- - hi is still holomorphic in So. Let now
Thus,
so there is h2 holomorphic in S1{!2 satisfying
P3 (:z)··· (:z)
Pr h2 = g2·
In other words,
Continuing in this fashion we get functions (hj)l:Sj:sr-1 holomorphic in S'Pr such

that
Applying Lemma 6.4.20 once more we obtain that

h l := f- -hi -h2 - ... -h r - I
is holomorphic in Scp,. Hence, f- = hi + ... + hr is holomorphic in

D
Theorem 6.4.15 appears for the first time in [BStl]. The classical Fabry Gap
Theorem (see [Levs], [DieD is a particular case of Theorem 6.4.15. It states that
if 0 < Al < A2 < ... is a sequence which satisfies the conditions:
(i) limn~oo(Anjn) = 00.
(ii) For some constant C > 0 one has An+1 - An ::: C, then, every Dirichlet
series
fez) = Lane- Anz ,
n;::1
which has abscissa of convergence aa, -00 < aa < +00, has no regular
point on the line Re z = a a .
In fact, one recognizes that f is a solution in Re z > aa of the infinite order
differential equation P(djdz)f = 0 with
By Theorem 6.4.9, V (P) is an interpolation variety, hence if f has a regular

point zo, Re Zo = aa, f will be holomorphic in Re z > aa - e for some e > O.
It will satisfy the same infinite order differential equation in this bigger domain.
By the representation theorem and uniqueness of the Fourier representation,
the Dirichlet series will converge absolutely in Rez > aa - e, contradicting the
definition of aa.
Lemma 6.4.19 is the crucial ingredient in the proof of the Fabry Gap Theorem.
One can find some particular cases of this lemma in the work of P6lya, Bern-
stein, and Levinson [Levs], [Berns], [Die], and more recently, using microlocal
analysis in [Kaw1], [Kaw2]. If the set S of the lemma is an arbitrary open
convex set our proof provides some sort of enlargement to a set Se' A very
precise description of this set and a proof of this lemma without any condi-
tions on the infinite order differential operator appears in the work of [Se],
[Ao]. We show now that the ideas exposed in this section can also be used to
provide an elementary proof of the general version of Lemma 6.4.19, namely,
Theorem 6.4.24.
6.4.22. Lemma. Let <l> be a nonzero entire function of exponential type zero and
K, L two convex compact sets such that K £ Land
(~ E Z(<l>)).
Then,/or every entire/unction / E Exp(L) and every e > 0 one can find entire
functions g and h, such that g E Exp(Ke ), h E Exp(L e ), and
/ = cl>h + g,
where K e, Le are the open e-neighborhoods 0/ K and L, respectively.
Proof. One can certainly assume that K =F L and that cl> is not a polynomial.
(In the latter case it is enough to take g a polynomial that interpolates the values
of / on V(cl».)
In the general case, when Z ( cl» is infinite, we use the construction of the sets
UI,j from the proof of Theorem 6.4.8 and corresponding standard functions Ol,j'
Introduce now the function
o := "'I)OI,d).
I,j
For ~ E UI,j we have that
IHd~) - Hdal,j)1 ::::: M L81,j ::::: ML2- / la l,jl,

where ML = max{Hdu): lui::::: I}. With a similar definition for MK we also
have
IHK(~) - HK(al,j)1 ::::: M K 81,j ::::: MKr/lal,jl.
On the other hand, given 71 > 0, for I ::: 10(71) » 1, we have
Hdal,j) ::::: HK(al,j) + T/lal,jl
by hypothesis.
We also have that for 71 > 0 there is a constant F~ ::: 0 so that
log I/(~)I ::::: Hd~) + T/I~I + F~ (~ Eq.
Hence, for I ::: 10(71) and ~ E UI,j we have
log I/(~)I ::::: HK(al,j) + lal,jl {2T/ + ;1 (ML + MK + T/)} + FYI

::::: HK(~) + I~I {4T/ + ;1 (2ML + 4MK + 2T/)} + F~.
Moreover, we have that for some constant Co ::: 0
I 1_1_
og cl>(~) a~ (~)
aOl,j 1-< 48 I~ I + C
21 0
(~ Eq.
Given e > 0 we can choose 71 = e/16 and 11 (e) ::: 10(e/16) so that if I ::: It (e),
then
1 e
21 (2ML + 4ML + 271 + 48) ::::: 4'
Hence. there is a constant C 1 ::: 0 for which
e
log IO(~)1 ::::: HK(~) + 21~1 + Cl
and
1
10g<1>(S)
\
ae \
a~ (l;) ::: HK(l;) + "2e 1l;1 + C 1•
We can conclude that there is a Coo function 1/1 such that the function
g= e + 1/1<1>
is an entire function satisfying the inequality
e
log Ig(l;) I ::: HK (l;) + "2 1l; I + 410g(1 + Il; 12) + C2
for some C2 ::: O. Namely, if
p(z) := 2Hdz) + elzl + 210g(1 + Iz12)
there is a solution 1/1 of the equation
a1/1 1 ae
=
az <1> az
satisfying
r 11/I(z)1 2 e-Pdm <!

ire (1 + Iz12)2 - 2 ire
r\_I_aeaz
<1>(z)
(Z)\2 e-Pdm < +00.
We obtain the desired inequality for log Igl in the same way as it was done
in the proof of Theorem 6.4.6.
Define the function h by
h = f-g
<1>
and apply Lemma 6.4.5 to show that h E Exp(Ls). o
We shall now consider some constructions of [Ki] that will help us to describe
the largest domain Q into which all solutions in Q of an infinite order differential
operator will have an analytic continuation.
Let A be a nonempty set of complex numbers and let U be a convex open
set in C. For every convex compact K in U we set
YA(K) := n{z E C: Re(zS) ::: HK(l;)}
sEA
and
r A(U):=
KccU
n YA(K),
where the union takes place over all compact convex subsets of U. Let us note
that r A(U) is a convex open set. In fact, each YA (K) is clearly a closed convex
set, and by taking an exhaustion (Knk::l of U by compact convex sets we
see that r A (U) is an increasing union of convex sets and hence convex itself.
°
Moreover, if e > is sufficiently small so that Ks = K + B(O, e) £; U, then
YA(Ks) 2 YA(K) + B(O, e) = (YA(K))s,
which is a neighborhood of YA (K).
Let us assume now that A is an unbounded set, and let, for r ~ 0,

8 A ,r(K) = n{z E C: Re(z~) S HKC~) +r},
~EA
8 A(K) = U8 A,r(K),
r"::O
8 A (U) = U8 A (K).
KccU
These three sets are convex and 8 A (U) is open. In fact, for K CC U let
B =BK > °
such that Ks CC U. Then, for every r ~ 0,
8 A,r(Ks) :2 8 A,r(K) + B(O, B).
Hence,
therefore,
o ..£...
(where X denotes the interior of X, while X is the interior of the closure) and
8 A(U):2 U 8A(K sk t:2 U 8 A(K) = 8 A(U).

KCCU KCCU
Note that we have shown that
(t)
where K runs over the family of convex compact subsets of U.

Given a sequence of complex numbers A = (~j)j"::l such that
lim I~j I = +00,
J ..... OO
we denote by f3(A) the subset of the unit circle '][' of points ~ for which there
is a subsequence (~jkh"::l with
.,r = I'I m~jk- .

k ..... oo I~jk I
We denote by a(A) the closed cone with vertex at the origin generated by the
directions in f3(A).
6.4.23. Lemma. Let A = (~j)j"::l' limj ..... oo I~jl = +00, and let U be an open
convex set in C. Then
Proof. It is easy to see that

r A(U) ~ 8 A(U) ~ ra(A)(U),
If we translate the set U keeping the set of directions f3 (A) fixed, then B A (U)
and C.(A)(U) are translated by the same amount. Therefore, ~e can assume that
o E U. Let K be a compact convex subset of U with 0 E K, then there is a
constant Ak such that for 1 < A < AK, the set AK is a neighborhood of K still
contained in U. We fix such a A.
Observe that there is an e > 0 such that the assumptions
«( E q
because 0 E k. From this inequality, it is easy to see that there exists 8 > 0
such that the assumptions
z E K, ( E a(A), and
imply that
Hence, if
( E a(A), Re(z() .::: HKC(), and
then,
(*) Re(z7]) .::: H K (7]) + H K «( - 7]) + Re(z(7] - () .::: Ha(7]).
Denote
a(A,8) := {7] E C: 3( E a(A) with I( - 7]1.::: 817]1}.
The inequality (*) implies that
Ya(A)(K) ~ Ya(A,8)(K).
It is also clear from the definition of f3(A) that there exists r > 0 such that
Ar := A n (B(O, r»C ~ a(A, 8).
It is then immediate that
n
Hence,
Ya(A)(K) ~ ABA(K) = BA(K)
A>1
and
o
We finally have here the theorem about analytic continuation of solutions of a
differential operator of infinite order due to Sebbar and Aoki (see also [BOV]).
6.4.24. Theorem. Let be a transcendental entire function of exponential type

zero and let Q be an open convex set in C. Every solution f E )f(Q) of the
equation
has an analytic continuation F to the open convex set

Q = r a (Z(4>))(Q),
which is still a solution in Q of the same equation.
Proof. Let us denote by M(Q)(M(Q), resp.), the kernel of cf>(d/dz) operating
in Je"(Q), (Je"(Q), resp.). Let Ro: Je"(Q) ~ Je"(Q) be the restriction operator,
which is clearly injective, and we denote R = RoIM(Q). Then
R: M(Q) ~ M(Q)
is an injective continuous map between two FS spaces. We want to prove it is
surjective. The spectral synthesis property tells us that the image of R is dense
in M(Q). (In fact, we know the exponential polynomials in M(Q) are dense in
M(Q).) It follows that tR: M'(Q) ~ M'(Q) is injective, thus we only need
to prove Im(t R) is closed, and under all the above conditions, it is exactly the
same as proving that t R is surjective.
Let T E M'(Q). By the Hahn-Banach theorem we can assume T E Je"'(Q),
and therefore it has a minimal convex compact carrier L cc Q. From the defi-
nition of Q and Lemma 6.4.23 we have
Lee e Z (4))(Q) = Ue Z (4))(Kt
KccU
by the identity (t) preceding Lemma 6.4.23. Taking an increasing exhaus-
tion of Q, (Kj)F~.[, by convex compact sets, we will have L contained in an
increasing union of open sets, so there is K convex compact subset of Q such
that e Z (4))(Kt is not empty and
L ~ e Z (4))(Kt = U e Z (4))(Kn ).
nell!
We claim that there is no E N such that

(**).
Namely, the sets
An := e Z (4)) (Kn)
form an increasing sequence of convex sets so that
We leave the elementary proof of this last assertion to the reader.

Let us translate what does the inclusion (**) mean. By definition,
Hdi;) ::5 HK(i;) + no
for every i; E Z(cf». We can also assume that K ~ L, if not we replace L by
cv(K U L), which is a still compact convex subset of Q and
(i; E C);
hence,
(~ E Z(<I»).
We are thus in the situation of Lemma 6.4.22 so that for a convenient e > 0
we have
~(T) = <l>g + h
with h E Exp(Ke) and g E Exp(L e ), where Ke CC n and Le Cc O.

Let Tl E Je'(n) and T2 E Je'(O) be defined by
and
=
We want to show that tR(TdM(n» /L:= TIM(O). From the above decOm-
position of ~(T) we have
T = S T2 + Tlo *
where S = Ln:::o(-l)nanc5(n) if (~) = Ln:::oan~n.
Accordingly, for F E Je(O), we have
(T, F) = \ T2, (:z) F) + (Tlo (Fin)).

De~ote by v E M'(n) the restriction of Tl to M(n). For every F E M(O)
we have
(tR(v), F} = (v, R(F)} = (Tl, (Fin)) = (T, F) = (/L, F).
Thus, tR(v) = /L and tR is surjective.
As we said before, this proves that every function in M(n) extends to O. In
fact, it provides a sort of formula to compute F(zo), for Zo E 0, from Fin. We
let T = c5zo ' then F(zo) = (c5zo ' F) = (Tlo Fin), always assuming F E M(O).
6.4.25. Corollary. Let n, 0, and be as in Theorem 6.4.24. Assume that the
functions h E Je(O) and g E Je(n) are such that
 (:z) g= hln.
Then g has an analytic continuation G to 0 satisfying the equation
(:Z)G=h.
Proof. The operator (djdz) is surjective in Je(O), hence there is Go E Je(O)

such that
so that
 (:z) (g - (Goln» =0 in n.
456 6. Hrumonic Analysis
By the previous theorem, g - (GoIQ) has an analytic continuation G 1 to Q,

then we let G = G 1 + Go. 0
The set Q admits slightly different characterization [Ki], namely
Q= ra(A)(Q) = (
sE,8(A)
n (z E C: Re(z~) :::: Hn(~)}) .
In comparison with the Fabry Gap Theorem 6.4.15, one can see that if the
sequence Ao = (adk2:1' where the ak are nonzero complex numbers such that
lim lakl = 00
k~oo k
(but not necessarily distinct), and
f3(Ao) f: { e"P:
. 31f}
e + "21f :::: qJ :::: 2" -e
for some ° < e < 1f /2, then any function
f E Jt'(re U B(O, e)) = Jt'(re,E)
which satisfies the equation
with
has an analytic continuation to the cone r e - e.

In fact,
f3(Z(<l>)) = f3(Ao) U (-f3(Ao))
e"P: - -2 + e -"1'-2
. 1f
< m < - -
1f
e or e + -1f2-"1'- 31f}
< m < -2 - e .
-C {
Observe that the set -f3(Ao) does not really intervene in the construction of the
domain Qe,E since
r -,8(Ao) (re) = C.
The domain Qe,E' where all the solutions f extend, can be found as follows:
Qe,E = Ura(Z(,p))(Q) = Ur,8(Ao)(Q),

n n
where the family of n runs over all open convex sets Q such that
Q f: re U B(O, e).
/
/
/
Figure 6.3
For instance if, re n aB(O, e) is the arc

{eeiq>: - e' < ({J < e')
where 0 < e' = e'(e, e) < e, and we take n = r e, - e then
Qe,6 ;2 rll(Ao) ;2 re - e.
EXERCISES 6.4.
*1. Use the Minimum Modulus Theorem to prove the density result used in the proof
of Lemma 6.4.7. Namely, let '# 0 be an entire function of exponential type zero and
denote m(r) := min{log I(~)I: I~ I = r}. Then
-m(r) = o(r),
except on a set of linear density zero. That is, given 8 > 0, if £8 := (r ~ 0: m(r) < -'-8r},
=
for any" > 0, there is ro ro(8,,,) such that ml (£8 n [0, r)) ::: "r for any r ~ O. (Here
ml denotes the Lebesgue measure on R)
*2. From the construction of the components Vt,i in the text preceding Theorem 6.4.8,
conclude the following result holds for any entire function '# 0 of exponential type
zero: Let Z = (z: (z) = O}, then for any e > 0 there is a value Re > 0 such that
dist(z, Z) ~ elzl implies 1(z)1 ~ e-e1z l •
(Hint: For R~ »1 any connected component of the set S(, e) = (z E C: I (z) I <
exp(-elzl)} that contains any point with Izl ~ R;
must have diameter not exceeding
elzl/2. Assume dist(z, Z) ~ elzl, Izl ~ R., z E S(cI>, e), to conclude that log IcI>(~)1 is
hannonic in the component that contains z. Use the minimum principle for hannonic
functions to conclude the proof.) Note that this result can be used to give a slightly
simpler proof of Lemma 6.4.16.
3. Let cI>(z) = cos 0, Z = {z E c: cI>(z) = OJ. Find the asymptotic cone a(z) and f2
from Theorem 6.4.24, in the case
0=06 = {z E C: Re(e i6 z) > O} (0::: (} < 2rr) and 0 = B(O, I).
6.5. Deconvolution
The problem of solving an equation of the form
f.L * f = g,
where f.L is a measure with compact support in JR, appears often in engineering
and other applications of mathematics. As we know, this equation does not have
a unique solution in the spaces E(JR), 'D'(JR), not even if we assume f E LOO(JR).
For instance, the Fourier transform :Ff.L could have a real zero a and then
*
f.L eiax = O. For that reason, it is customary to restrict the domain of the f
considered, to a space like L2(JR) or LI(JR), so that there is at least uniqueness
of the solution.
In fact, if f ELI (JR) then the Fourier transform :Ff is a continuous function
*
which tends to zero at infinity, thus f.L f = 0 implies
(~ E JR).
Since :Ff.L = 0 is a discrete set, it follows that :Ff (~) is identically zero. There-
fore, f = 0 a.e. Nevertheless, the operator
f E LI(JR) ~ f.L *f E LI(JR)
fails to have a continuous inverse in general. This is essentially due to the

presence of zeros of :Ff.L. Recall that :Ff.L has no zeros only if f.L = c8a, for
some c ¥= 0, a E lR. The same kind of reasoning applies to other function spaces
like L2(JR). Given that this problem is very important, there is a large literature
about how to find approximate inverses. They are usually called regularization
methods [Mor].
*
The interpretation of the equation f.L f = g is that f represents an unknown
signal, f.L a measuring device, and g the output signal, i.e., the data. In some
situations, it is possible to multiplex the signal, in other words, to use several
measuring devices f.LI, .. " f.Ln. We have therefore a system of convolution
equations.
f.LI * f = gl,"" f.Ln * f = gn'
If we could find measures or even distributions of compact support VI, ••• , Vn
such that
VI * f.LI + ... + Vn * f.Ln = 8.
Then we can solve the system (*) very simply,

f = VI * gl + ... + Vn * gn.
This inverse formula will be continuous in £ (IR) and also in some Sobolev
spaces [Ad].
The problem, of course, is to find out whether (**) has a solution and, more-
over, to find the deconvolvers VI, •.• ,Vn explicitly. Let us consider only the
case n = 2 for simplicity. From now on, we use indistinctly il or FIL to denote
the Fourier transform of a distribution or measure.
The equation (**) is equivalent, via the Fourier transform, to the Bezout
equation
and we are looking for a solution pair (ill, il2) E F(£'(IR)) = Ap(C) for the
weight p(z) = I Imzl + log(2 + Izl).
From Hormander's Theorem 2.8.15 (see also Theorem 2.8.16) we know that
the necessary and sufficient condition or the solvability of (* * *) is that there
are constants £ > 0, C > 0, such that:
(~E C).
In the engineering literature this condition is sometimes called "strong coprime-
ness." Generally speaking, this is simply a condition of how separated are the
zeros of ill from those of il2.
We would now like to construct explicitly deconvolvers VI, V2 for distributions
ILl, IL2, which satisfy a number of conditions that are often found in concrete
examples. We point out that most of the limitations that we are going to impose
in Proposition 6.5.1 can be eliminated by paying the penalty of more complicated
formulas for the deconvolvers.
6.5.1. Proposition. Let ILl. IL2 E £' (IR) be such that

(i) ill (0), il2(0) =1= 0 and there exists a constant T > 0 so that all zeros of illil2
lie in the logarithmic strip
I Im~1 S Tlog(2 + I~I).
(ii) All the zeros of ilj are simple and they are constants £ > 0, L > 0, such
that
ilj(O = 0 implies lilj(~)1 > £ L (j = 1,2).
- (1 + I~I)
(iii) There are constants 8 > 0, M > 0, such that
ill(s)=O implies lil2(S)I::: (1+~sI)M

and
(iv) There is an increasing sequence of piecewise C 1 Jordan curves (Yn)n?;l

(i.e., Int(Yn) ~ Int(Yn+l»), and a sequence (rn)n?;l of positive real numbers,
converging to infinity, such that
(a) l(Yn) =
length ofYn = O(rn).
(b) There exist two strictly positive constants C 1 > C2, so that
(c) There exist two positive constants A and N, so that
(~ E Yn, n 2: 1).
belong to F(£I(IR» and
~q ftl (~)gl (~) + ~q ft2(~)g2(~) + ftl (~)ft2(~)P(~) = 1,
where P is a polynomial of degree at most q - 1,
( ~q-l + u~q-2 + ... + u

q- 1 )
pen = Res A
u q J.,tl (U)J.,t2(U)
A ,U = 0 .
Proof. Let
For Z E Int(Yn) we can rewrite the Cauchy formula as follows:
1 = _1_1_1_ = _1_
27Ti y. ~ - z 27Ti
r O(~)
Jy• O(~)(~ -
- O(z) d~
z)
+ O(z)
27Ti
r
Jy• O(~)(~ -
d~
z)
.
We observe that for any z fixed, this formula is valid as long as n is sufficiently
large (i.e., n 2: n z ). Let us now compute by the residue theorem the first integral:
27Ti
1 1 y.
O(~) - O(z) d
O(~)(~ _ z) ~ = J.,tl
A ( ) A
Z J.,t2 Z
( )P( )
Z
q 1 ft2(Z)
+z
A ' "
J.,tl(Z) ~ f3 qA (f3)AI(f3)Z_f3
#2 (fJ)=O J.,t 1 J.,t2
,BeInt(y.)
Let A > 0 be such that
liLj(z)1 ~ A(1 + Izl)AeAllrnzl (j = 1,2,z E C).
Then, if Iz - ,81 ~ 1 we have
I~~z~ I ~ liL2(Z)1 ~ A(1 + Izl)AeAllrnzl

and, if Iz - ,81 < 1, then
IziL2(Z) I ~ max liL2(,8 + w)1 ~ Ae A (2 + 1,8I)AeAllrntll

-,8 Iwl=!
~ A 2e A (3 + Izl)AeAllrnzl (z E C).
Therefore, there is a constant B > 0 such that
(z E C)
and
(z E C).
On the other hand,
and, similarly,
for a convenient positive constant C.

As q was chosen so that q ~ L + M + 2, the series defining gj converge
uniformly and absolutely in the whole plane, since
1
A L
I-L\(a)=O
(1 + lal)2 < +00,
and
1
L
il2(tl)=O
(1
+
1,8
I)
2 < +00,
because the functions iLj are entire functions of order 1.

Therefore the functions gj are entire and they satisfy the inequality
(z E C).
To finish the proof we have to show the other integral goes to zero as the
integer n -+ +00. For n sufficiently large so that Clrn > Izl, we can use hypoth-
esis (iv) to obtain
O(Z) ( d~ I IO(z)ll(Yn) 1 IO(z) IEr;q+N+I
I
21ri Jr. O(~)(~ - z) ~ A21r(clrn -Izl) (clrn)q-N ~ 21rA(clrn -Izl)'
which tends to zero thanks to the choice q ~ N + 1. 0
Condition (i) is the condition that both ILl and IL2 are hyperbolic distributions.
In this case the inequalities (ii) are exactly the condition that their zero sets are
interpolation varieties for .r(E'(lR.». Moreover, condition (iii) is exactly the
requirement that strong coprimeness holds on the set Z(ili/12). In particular,
the proposition says that if the distributions are hyperbolic, the zeros of ill and
il2 are simple, and the varieties V(ill) and V(il2) are interpolation varieties,
then the strong coprimeness on the zero set Z(illil2) implies strong coprimeness
everywhere.
We also note that if we define distributions VI, V2 by
VI (~) = ~q gl (~) + ~ P(~)il2(~)'
~(~) = ~qg2(~) + ~P(~)ill(~)'
then
VI * ILl + V2 * IL2 = B.
Moreover, due to the explicit formulas from Lemma 6.1.14 the distributions
VI and V2 are very explicit. It is enough to recall that
(~-I (:~~~) ,,; ) = i (ILI)X, e-iax 1 00

eias,;(s) dS)
and that multiplication by ~ corresponds to differentiation.
Observe also that the proposition sltows that when SUPP(ILj) ~ [-A, A] then
supp( Vj) ~ [ - A, A] for the Vj just described. Clearly this condition is not true
for arbitrary deconvolvers since for an arbitrary distribution (1,
VI + * IL2(1 and V2 - (1 * ILl

are also deconvolvers.
Assuming hyperbolicity, the zeros are simple, and assuming that V(ill) and
V (il2) are interpolation varieties, then there is a simple condition which implies
(iv). Namely, assume that ill and il2 satisfy a Lojasiewicz-type inequality
+ I~I)-NI,
{ lill(~)1 ~ Cla(~, Z(ill»m l (1
lil2(~)1 ~ C2d(~, Z(il2»m 2 (1 + 1~I)-N2,
for some positive constants Clo C2, mlo m2, Nlo N2. In this case, for every ~
outside a convenient logarithmic strip, one has
C
+ 1{1)NI+N2
A A
IILI(~)· IL2(~)1 ~ (1
and the Jordan curves Yn can be constructed as follows. The distribution ILl * 1L2
is invertible, since each of them is surjective in C(lR), therefore, the function
P-IP-2 is slowly decreasing. For r e R fixed, Irllarge, we apply the Minimum
Modulus Theorem to construct an arc of a circle centered at r of radius between
2Tlog(2 + Irl) and 4Tlog(2 + Ir\) on which the function 11/P-I(~)P-2(~)1 is at
most C1lrlQ for some a > O. The intersection of this circle with the logarithmic
strip of hypothesis (i) will have two connected components, we choose the
outermost. We do the same for the point -r, and we complete a Jordan curve
by adding two semicircles lying outside the logarithmic strip.
Let us now see that under the assumption (Co), the crucial condition (iii) is just
a separation condition between the sets Z(P-l) and Z(P-2). It is the condition
they are well separated (see Section 3.1), that is, there, are constants e > 0,
N > 0, such that for every a e Z(P-l) and fJ e Z(P-2)
1
la - fJ I 2: e -(I-+-I-a-1+-lfJ-I)"=N .
In fact, if P-l (a) = 0, then

- , e
d(a, Z(P-2» 2: (2 + 21al)N
and, by (.co),
C3
+ la1)N+N2
A
11L2(a) I 2: (1
for a convenient constant C3 > O. Conversely, if the zero sets are not well
separated there must be sequences an ~ 00, fJn ~ 00, of zeros of P-l, P-2,
respectively, such that
1
Ian - fJn I :5 (1 + Ian I + IfJn \)n
Since P-2 is also in F(C'(R», it follows that
B(2 + Ian I)A
11L2(an)l:5 (1 + Ian \)n
A
for some A > 0, B > 0, fixed. Hence condition (iii) cannot be satisfied.
In fact, in general, the condition (.co) cannot be expected to be true for P-,
even for exponential polynomials, unless the origin belongs to the interior of
cv(supp IL). For instance, for IL = al - a3 we have
P-(~) = e-i~ - e-3i~ = e-2i~ (i~ _ e-i~)
= 2ie-2i~ sin~.
We have
(~ e IC),
=
while le-2i~ I e21m ~, so that (.co) cannot hold for 1m ~ < o. Multiplying P- by
exp(2i~) solves the problem.
The Lojasiewicz condition that one could expect to be true would be
If (£1) holds, then the function (sin A{)/l({) will satisfy conditions (£0)' In
this case, we could apply the proposition to the products (sinA{) . /lj({).
Let us now consider some typical examples for which Proposition 6.5.1
applies.
6.5.2. Examples.
(1) Let ILj = X[-aj.aj] (aj > 0, j = 1,2), then
sinaj{
A
ILj {)
(
=- {
- ({ E q,
Z ILj)
(
A
= ajrr 'lI*
-ILJ •
These functions satisfy (Co) and the only condition we need to verify is
whether the zeros are well separated. That means there must exist constants
8>OandN>Osuchthat
1:7 -' ~: 12: (1 + Iprr /al ~+ Iqrr /a21)N

for all p, q E Z*. Equivalently,
I:~ - ~12: (IPI: IqI)N'
This is exactly the arithmetical condition that the quotient at!a2 is badly approx-
imated by rational numbers. In particular
al ¢Q.
a2
We remind the reader that the theorem of Roth [Ba] implies that if al / a2 E Q\ Q
(that is, an irrational algebraic number) then, for every TJ > 0, there is I) > 0 such
I:: -~12:
that
(Ipl +~qI)2+~'
For a quadratic irrational we can take TJ = O. In any case, we can take N =3
in the earlier inequality whenever at!a2 E Q\ Q.
(2) Let us we consider a distribution IL of the form
IL = X[-a,a] + CI,
where CI is a C 2 function in R with SUpp(CI) £ [-a, a]. One can see that /l
satisfies the Lojasiewicz condition (£0) because
lu(r)1 < C ealIm~1

., - (1 + 1{1)2 .
In fact, for some K > 0,

liL(OI ~ Kd(~, Z(iL»(1 + I~I)-I
for RI sufficiently large, since zeros of iL are asymptotic to (rr / a )7L,* and they
are simple for I~ I » 1. The multiple zeros will only complicate the formulas
but their existence does not affect Proposition 6.5.1.
When we have two distributions of this kind we only need, to worry about
their zero sets being disjoint and the separation condition holds outside some
big disk (and therefore everywhere). Let
/-tl = XI-aJ,ail + ai,
/-t2 = XI-a2,a2] + a2,
where al > 0, a2 > 0, and there exist constants 8 > 0, N > °(not necessarily
integers) such that
I:~ -~I ~ (IPI: Iql)N

for every p, q E 7L,*, and assume that
eajllmsl
laj(~)1 :::: K (1 + 1~I)Mj' j = 1,2.
If we impose the differentiability condition

+1
Mj > N
then, it follows that the zeros of iL I and iL2 are well separated outside some big
disk. It is hard to give an analytic condition that implies the remaining zeros
are distinct. In practice, one has to explicitly verify this numerically.
(3) The last simple example occurs when /-tl and /-t2 are difference-differential
operators. In this case, all the conditions of the proposition reduce to verify that
the zeros of the exponential polynomials ill and iL2 are well separated. This
problem is related to the Ehrenpreis conjecture, which was already discussed in
Section 3.1.
There is another convolution problem of some importance, the situation in

which the function f in the system of convolution equations (*) is defined in
a fixed finite interval. In this case, even the uniqueness of the solution f may
fail for strongly coprime convolvers /-tl, /-t2.
To be more specific let us assume that we consider the system
/-tl*f=gl,
/-t2 * f = g2,
f E e(] - R, RD, R > 0, cv(supp(/-tj» = [-aj, aj], 0< aj < R. The functions
gj are Coo in ] - R + aj, R - aj [, and not defined anywhere else.
We shall now see that the main condition for the uniqueness of a possible
solution f is the very simple requirement
al +a2 < R.
This is just the one-dimensional version of a theorem in [BGl]. We impose a

number of simplifying hypotheses to make the proof simple.
6.5.3. Proposition. Let ILl be a hyperbolic distribution, assume that

cv(supp(ILd) = [-aI, ad, IL2 is a distribution with cV(SUPP(IL2» = [-a2, a2],
o < aJ, 0 < a2, /1,1 and /1,2 without any common zeros, and
Let I E e(] - R, R[) satisfy the pair 01 equations
ILj * 1= 0
then I == 0 in ] - R, R[.
We remark that when R < 00, which we can assume, this proposition is not a
consequence of Proposition 6.5.1 (even assuming the extra conditions required
there). The reason is that the deconvolvers VI, V2, in general, will not have
support at a point, hence one cannot obtain information about I in the whole
interval] - R, R[.
Proof of Proposition 6.5.3. Let V(/1,I) = {(ak,md, k::: I}; from Lemma 6.1.24
we conclude that
I(x) =L Pk(x)e iakX
k;::1
in e(] - R, RD. Let us denote by rk the distributions given by (ILlh,o of

Lemma 6.1.14, then cv(supp(rk» = [-al,ad and
(rk * f)(x) = Pk(x)eiakX
On the other hand, since /1,2(ad =1= 0,

IL2 * (Pk(x)e iakX ) = Qk(x)eiakX ,
where Qk is a polynomial with deg(Qk) = deg(Pk). Since al + a2 < R, for
Ixl < R - al - a2 we have
Qk(x)e iakX = (IL2 * rk * f)(x) = Ok * (IL2 * f)(x) = 0;
therefore, Qk == 0, and so Pk == O. This shows that I is identically zero in
]-R,R[. D
It is clear that the proof we have just given cannot work if al + a2 > R, the
reason being that the convolution IL2 * Ok has too large a support. In fact, the
result could be false as the following example shows:
Let
and let R be such that

../21f < R < 1f(1 +../2).
Let b = R - ../21f < 1f and let ({J i= 0 be a Coo function with compact support
in the open interval ]b, 1f[. We can extend it to IR as a periodic function <l> of
period 21f. Therefore we can expand <l> in a Fourier series
<l>(x) =L cne inx ,
nEZ
<l>1] - 1f, 1f[ = ({J.
From Example 6.5.2 we know that
_1_ < C(l + n2) (n E Z).

1P-2(n)1 -
Accordingly, the sequence
has the decrease
for every kEN and the function
I(x) = Lbneinx
nEZ
is now a nonzero Coo periodic function of period 21f.

We consider I restricted to the interval] - R, R[. It satisfies
ILl * 1= 0,
(JL2 * f)(x) = L bnP-2(n)e inx
nEZ
= <l>(x) = ({J(x) (Ixl < R - ../21f).
But R - ../21f = b and ({J == 0 in the interval] - b, b[. In other words,
JL2 * I(x) = 0 for Ixl < R - ../21f.

This shows Proposition 6.5.3 cannot be true, in general, if al + a2 > R.
When al + a2 < R one can also reconstruct explicitly the function I in
*
] - R, R[ from the data JLI I in ] - R + aj, R - aj[, j = 1,2. The main
elements of such a reconstruction procedure have in fact been presented in
this chapter and we refer the interested reader to [BGY], where this is done in
the case of n variables.
We would like to conclude this section with the statement of some theo-
rems about holomorphic and harmonic functions in the plane whose proofs are
analog to the theorems about Fourier representation of mean-periodic functions,
Theorem 6.1.11 and Proposition 6.5.1. The extra ingredients are the elements of
hannonic analysis of functions of several variables and of holomorphic functions

of several variables. For the proof, we refer to [BST], [BZ], [BG 1], [BG2], and
we also recommend the very lively reports on this subject by Zalcman [Za2]
and [Za3].
6.5.4. Examples.
(1) Generalization 01 Morera's Theorem.
Let 1 be a continuous function in the disk B(O, R) and let To be a closed
triangle (or a square, or a simple polygon, etc.) such that
To 5; B(O, R/2).
Assume that
r I(z)dz = 0
JaT
for every T 5; B(O, R) which is congruent to To (i.e., T is obtained from To by
a transfonnation of the fonn z ~ ei () z + a).
The conclusion is that 1 is holomorphic in B(O, R).
(2) Generalization 01 the Mean-Value Characterization 01 Harmonic Func-

tions.
Let us recall that if 1 is a continuous function in B(O, R), then 1 is harmonic
in B(O, R) if and only if for every B(z, r) 5; B(O, R)
!(z)=A(f,z,r)=_1
2rr
r
Jo
2
:rr !(z+rei(})dO.
For ro > 0 fixed, it is possible to find a continuous function 1 in C such that

I(z) = A(f, z, ro) (z E C)
and 1 is not harmonic anywhere. Surprisingly, it is possible to choose two radii

rl > 0 and r2 > 0 so that the mean value property with respect to them implies
harmonicity.
More precisely, consider the set of positive numbers E given by
E = {~l: .jiiJO(~j) - 1 = 0 (j
~2
= 1,2) and ~l
~2
> o} .
(Here Jo is the Bessel function.)
We observe that 1 E E, just take ~l = ~2; in general, the numbers ~j are
complex and we only consider those whose quotients are real and positive.
Delsarte has shown that this set is finite [De2].
Now let rl > 0, r2 > 0, be such that
rl rf. E
r2
and
Under these two conditions, if f E C(B(O, R» satisfies the mean value prop-
erties
f(z) =
AU, z, rl) for Izl < R - rl,
and
we can conclude that f is harmonic in B(O, R).
These two examples were included to give the reader an inkling of an area of
current research in integral geometry in which the reader will find a profitable
use of the subjects covered in this volume and the preceding one.
EXERCISES 6.5.
1. Let a > 0 and consider the lattice Za generated by a. Show that Za is dense in JR
if and only if a is irrational.
2. Use the previous exercise to give a direct proof that if at. a2 > 0, a./a2 ¢ Q, then
the only continuous function in JR, such that J~~. f (x + t) dt = 0 for all x E JR, j = I, 2,
J
is the zero function. How does this relate to the deconvolution problem?
3. Let ILl = X[-a,a), a > 0, 1L2(X) = eilJx X[-a,a) (x), 0 < (J < If. Are there solutions of
the Bezout equation ILl * VI + 1L2 * ~ = Ii, with Vt. V2 E t:"(JR)?
4. Let a./a2 be badly approximated by rationals, ILj =X[-aj,aj) *

X[-aj,aj)' j =
1,2.
Find explicitly Vt. V2 E t:"(JR) solving the Bezout equation. (Hint: Although the zeros of
Aj are multiple, the proof of Proposition 6.5.1 can be applied anyway.)
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Notation
We follow the standard notation from [BG]. Here the reader will find the extra
symbols introduced and the first page where they appear.
A(Q) 39 E 330
A(V), Ap(V) 119 Exp({O}) 419
Ap(Q), Ap,B(Q) 109
A2(C) 74 Ir 2
Ap,oo(V) 120 f* 13
Ap(Q) 151 :FI 51
Ap(C) 170 3'(T) 58
Ap,o(C) 178 3'p(T) 326
AEP 219
G(T) 354
B(Q) 36
b(f) 36 ~P, HP 2
B 63 Jt'o(Q C ) 58
B(f) = B1(f) 300
HK 64
Bp(f) 310 65
hI, hj
Bn 408
hl,p 316
C(T) 58 Hp;K 326
cn(T) 99 H(C, k') 336
cVp(K) 327
C(S) 338 Iloc(fJ, ... ,1m) 122
Li 102 K(T) 54
dO 203 K(T) 58
D(f) 299 Kz 299
Dp 309 KPz 308
<SIR 237 K*P
z 326
E, Eo, E*, Eo 199 C(f) 60

Ep 303 Lp 306
479
480 Notation
M(/L) 5 S(f, s, C) 115

VJt 266 6g 408
M(f), M1(f) 299
Mp(f) 310 T(f) 5
III an Ilin 396 t 54
1:(f) 356
10 37
Q(K) 354
U(T) 54
P(/L) 3
p(z,r) 120 V(f) 119
P(f) 219 V(qJ, /L, H) 217
Pr 119
R(L, r, s, k', s'),
Wp(Q) 3
R(Lr, k', s') 334
R(C\L; k', s'), Z(f) 263
R(C; k', s') 335 Z(f) 278
Index
Analytic functional 51 Exhaustive ideal 160

carried by L of type ~ k' 334 exponential polynomial 198
analytic Radon measure 18 coefficients 198
asymptotically exponential polynomial, degree, do 208
AEP 219 frequencies 198
irreducible 201
normalized 201
Bernoulli polynomials, Bn 408
P6lya polygon, P(f) 219
Bezoutequation 459
(real) diameter, 81R 237
Blaschke condition, Blaschke product 14
Borel polygon, B(f), B1 (f) 301 ring of exponential polynomial, E 199
Borel summation method 303 simple 201
Borel transform, 8(f), 8 p (f) 63, 300 exponential sums 199
boundary values of a hyperfunction, b(f) ring of exponential sums, Eo 199
46 exponential type zero, Exp({O}) 419
C-transform, C(T) 63 Fantappie decomposition 101

carrier 52 transform 96, 99
Cartwright's theorem 274 Fock space A2(C) 74
Cauchy problem for convolution equations Fourier coefficients, en (T) 99
373 Fourier transform, ~ 82
Cauchy transform, t 55 Fourier-Borel transform, ~ 58
completely regular growth 88 of order p, 'J p 326
conductor ideal 166
conjugate set, E 330
convex carrier, K(T) 58 G-transform, G(T) 260
corona 26 Gelfand transform 23
Corona Theorem 26
Hankel determinants 281
Deconvolution 458 Hardy spaces, ~P, HP 3
degree of exponential polynomial, do holomorphic hyperfunctions, A(Q) 38
208 holomorphically convex carrier, K (T)
difference of a meromorphic function 54
408 hull, Ko. 53
differential operator of infinite order 419 Hormander algebras, Ap(Q) 109
discrete Laplace transform 263 hyperbolic distribution 374
divided differences 393 hyperbolic variety 374
doubling condition (for a weight) 129 hyperfunctions, 8(Q) 36
481
482 Index
Indicator function, hf 65 Poisson transform, P (jJ-) 3

of order p, hf,p 316 P6lya polygon, P(f) 219
regularized,hi 65 P6lya representation 63
infraexponential type 71
inner function 19
integral valued entire functions 278 Real diameter of an exponential
interpolation variety 120 polynomial, ilK 237
invariant subspace 354 regularly decreasing function of
invertible functions in Ap(Q) 122 exponential type 442
irreducible functions in the ring Eo 201 relative zero-measure set 87
F. and M. Riesz Theorem 18
p-convex 326
jointly invertible functions in Ap(Q) 122 p-convex hull, cVp(K) 327
p-polar set, K*P 326
Laplace transform, £(f) 60 p-support function of K, Hp,K 326
Laplace-Beltrami operator, X 102
Lindelof indicator function, hf 65
Lindelof theorem 17 Semilocal Interpolation Theorem 115
local ideal Iloc 122 slow (tempered) growth 102
localizable ideal 167 slowly decreasing function 129
logarithmic half strip, V(~, jJ-, H) 217 spectral analysis and synthesis problems
Lojasiewicz inequality 210 356
spectrum of an invariant subspace 357
star of holomorphy, D(f) 299
Maximal function, M (f) 5 Stolz region 8
mean periodic function 354 strongly coprime 401
Mellin transform, M 260 sum of a function Sg 408
Minimum Modulus Theorem 125
Mittag-Leffler function of index p, Ep
303 Variety 119
star, Mp 310
transform of order p, Bp 310
monodromic differential equations 417
multiplicity variety V, V (f) 119 Weak interpolation variety 120
restriction map, p 119 weight 110
space of holomorphic functions in V, weighted spaces, Ap(Q), Wp(Q) 110
A(V), Ap(V) 119
Wigert - Leau - P6lya -Carlson Theorem
263
Newton polynomial 393

series 271 Z transform 263
Nullstellensatz 153 Z transform 278

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Complex Analysis and

Special Topics in Harmonic Analysis

Complex Analysis and

Mathematics Subject Classification (1991): 02.30.15, 02.30.25

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

1. Functions of complex variables. 2. Harmonic analysis.

Printed on acid-free paper.

Production coordinated by Brian Howe and managed by Francine McNeill; manufacturing

En la desierta sala el silencioso

The present volume is a companion to our Complex Analysis: An Introduc-

equation with constant coefficients is basically a linear combination of

Boundary Values of Holomorphic

The Schwarz Reflection Principle leads naturally to the consideration of boundary

Moreover, it is clear that if the limit

lim I I/(x + is) - I(x + iO)1 dx = O.

1.1. The Hardy Spaces in the Disk

r ~ III, lip = (1 II, (e i9 W da) lip

~P(D) := {I E ~(D): II/lI p := sup II/rllp <

l(rei9) = P(fI1')(rei9) = (P,(qJ) * l(ei'P»(O) = (27r P,(O _ qJ)/(ei'P) dqJ.

This defines a function harmonic in D, in fact, harmonic in C\ supp IL. When

I(z) .lim I(rjz) = _1 r P(z, ei8 )/*(ei8 )d().

"C~}) "" C~/"" (~j,)) " If,;: (I". (~j,) )

We are ready now to define the Hardy - Littlewood maximal function of a

1.1.6. Remarks. It is clear that

a({ei(J: M(J.L)(ei(J) > t}) < 3 1i J.L1i,

finite family !j = !OJ' 1 ~ j ~ M, which covers K. By the previous lemma we

In other words, tts is concentrated on the set {e iO : M(tt)(e iO ) = +oo}.

Proof. Let E t := {e iO : M(tt)(e iO ) < t}, so that E = Ut>o E t • It is enough to

Ittl(K) ~ L Ittl(Ij) ~ t L a(Ij) ~ 3t L a (Ijk)

= 3ta ( U !jk) ~ 3ta(Q) ~ 3Bt.

Hence Ittl(K) = 0 and, correspondingly, Ittsl(E) = O. o

a({e iO E '][': M(f)(e iO ) > t}) < 311flll .

Proof. Let 18 = 18(eill ) and define

(i) T(f) s T(g) + T(h);

Therefore T(f) S Ihl + M(h) and hence

Et := {e ill : Ih(eill)1 > i} u {e Ui : M(h)(e ill ) > i} .

1.1.11. Definition. A value eillo E 1[' such that, for 18 = 10 (e illo ),

lim _I_jl/(e ill ) - I (e illo ) I de = 0

exists u a.e. and it is zero u a.e.

exists u a.e. and

To simplify the notation in this section we shall write for ~ E 1r

On the other hand,

~P(z, eiqJ) = 1 ~ IzI2 < 4a 2(1 - r2) < 4a 2(1 - r) = 100.

1.1.17. Proposition. If JL is a positive measure on T and 'DJL(e i9 ) = 0 at some

f..L(h(e i9 )) < 8(1(I~(ei9)).

Moreover, M(f..Lo)(ei9 ) ::: 8. Since

1.1.lS. Proposition. II I ELI Cll') then

IP(f)(z) - l(e i9 )1 ::: P(f..L)(z).

1.1.19. Corollary. If f..L is a Radon measure on 1I', then

1.1.20. Corollary. II I E ~P(D)lor some p, I ::: p ::: 00, we have

Proof. The function f* defined by Lemma 3.1.2 belongs to U CIl') and we

1.1.21. Proposition. The map

Ilhrlh = 1o21f -2n1 (1 2rr Pr(cp -

lim - 1 121f f(e''P)

Ar(f) := 121f h(rei'P)f(ei'P)dcp,

It follows that we can find a sequence rn / 1 such that Arn -+ JL E C'(1I')

h(rnz) 1121f P(z, e''P)h(rne''P)dcp

h(z) = lim h(rn z ) = _1

We can now define the spaces HP(D) for 1 ::: p ::: 00 by

IIhrllo := exp (2~ fo 21f log+ Ih(reilp ) IdO) ,

HP(D) := {I E )f(D): II/lI p := sup IIlrllp < oo},

N(D) := {I E JIf(D): 11/110 = sup

exp (_1 [21r I dO) ::: _1 [21f exp(f) dO