Steam

Auxiliary Boiler Operation
Auxiliary Boiler
Operation
Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 1

Contents Page
Introduction 4
1. Operating Principles 5
2. Raising Steam 5
2.1 Preparations (after maintenance) 6
2.2 Filling 7
2.3 Burner Operation 7
2.4 Raising Steam Pressure 9
2.5 Boiler Water Level During Steam Raising .... 10
2.6 Additional Checks & Actions 10
2.7 Operating the Waste Heat Unit 11
3. Auxiliary Boiler Shut Down 12
3.1 General Points on Shut Down 12
3.2 Isolating The Shut Down Boiler 13
5. Auxiliary Boiler Lay Up 13
5. Emergency Operation 15
5.1 General Principles 15
5.2 Boiler Water Emergencies 16
5.3 Combustion Side Emergencies 19
2 Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

6. Boiler Alarms & Trips 23
Progress Check 24

Introduction
In this section, you will learn basic aspects of auxiliary boiler operation, in
both normal and emergency situations.
Boiler operation is very important to the marine engineer. At best, incorrect

operation will give poor boiler efficiency and increased maintenance costs. At
worst, incorrect operation can cause boiler explosion, loss of life and the loss
of the ship.
Equipment and procedures of different ships will vary to some degree, so

general procedures and typical arrangements will be given.
When you join a vessel, it is very important that you read the manuals and
procedures for that particular ship (including Standard Operating Procedures
and Chief Engineer’s Standing Orders), and follow the instructions of your
supervisors and superiors.

1. Operating Principles
Specific operating procedures will vary from ship to ship and with the age and
complexity of the steam plant.
The modern auxiliary steam plant can be very complex, and requires the use of
automatic circuits and instrumentation. A minimum of manual intervention is
needed under normal conditions. The complexity of the plant also means that
the boiler systems and sub-systems should be understood.
Five ways to learn about your auxiliary steam plant are to:
• Read equipment and machinery manuals;
• Read the ship’s procedure manuals;
• Observe and ask questions of other engineering staff;
• Investigate and inspect the equipment and machinery personally;
• Participate in boiler operations as much as possible.
Procedures for operating a watertube boiler will be somewhat different to

that of a shell boiler. One important difference is the superheater of the
watertube boiler.
The superheater will generally have circulating/vent valves fitted after it,
which vent superheated steam to atmosphere when open.
Superheater circulating/vent valves protect the superheater. They must

be open whenever there is heat energy in the boiler and the boiler is not
supplying steam to any services.
2. Raising Steam
The starting up of a boiler is commonly known as flashing up or steam
raising.
The actual procedure for raising steam will vary from boiler to boiler so the
manufacturers’ instructions and ship's procedure manual should be followed. A
number of aspects are common and are outlined in the sub-sections below.

2.1 Preparations (after maintenance)

Before filling the boiler, a thorough examination should be made, both
internally and externally. This should include:
Internally (steam and water spaces)

• All spaces clear.
• No tools or other foreign bodies left inside boiler.
• Internal surfaces clean.
• Internal fittings, such as the feed pipe or scum pan, are secure.
Externally
• Area around boiler is clean and free of oil or other material which can
burn.
• All insulation and refractory in place and in good condition.
• Access door joints in good condition and doors properly tightened. Do
not over-tighten doors.
• All valves and cocks in good condition and able to be operated.
• Safety valve easing gear is free to move.
• Air vent open.
• Examine gas path uptakes to make sure that there is a clear path for gases
through the boiler.
• Combustion air dampers should be checked for operation and then
correctly positioned.
• Fuel system in good order eg, no leaks, filters clean, flame detector clean.
Check air registers, swirl vanes and other combustion air components.
• Check that the boiler fuel service/settling tank is full and that the
necessary valves are open to supply fuel to the boiler.
• If the boiler was stopped on heavy fuel oil, circulate and heat the oil
(using electric heaters) or drain lines and circulated diesel oil.
Other important points

• Test sample of water to be used as feed.
• Feed pump and feed control valve okay. All valves in feed line in correct
positions.
• Combustion air fan tested and air supply checked okay.
• Measuring devices, eg thermometers, pressure gauges, and float switches
are in good order.

• Alarms and trips okay. These can be simulated and/or tested at the
relevant stage of flash up.
• Check automatic systems such as combustion control and feed control for
correct operation.
• The Chief Engineer, Second Engineer, and all personnel in the engine
room should be made aware that the boiler is to be flashed up (if they
don’t already know).
2.2 Filling
Lines which should be open
Vents, alarms, level indicators, pressure gauges, feed check valve open (for
initial filling only).
Lines which should be shut

Gauge glass drains, blow down lines, scum lines, anti-syphon loop vents, steam
stops.
• Fill the boiler with (preferably) hot, deaerated water, to just below the
normal working level, eg 25 mm above the bottom of the gauge glass (or as
recommended in procedures). Ensure feed control is on manual and shut
the control valve or feed check when water is at correct level.
• The recommended amounts of water treatment chemicals should be added.
• Check that level trips and alarms reset as the level rises.
• Ensure that the water level is the same for all level indicators and that the
level is in fact the true level (serious accidents have occurred in the past).
• Check boiler fittings and mountings for leaks.
2.3 Burner Operation

Fuel flow rates of the normal burners in some boilers cannot be reduced to the
minimum firing rate needed for raising steam. Some boilers have a special
light off tip for raising steam. This is a low capacity burner/tip to give the
needed fuel flow for steam raising.
• Ensure fuel system is operating.

• Assemble burner with light off tip.
• Ensure flame detector is clean and will work properly.
• Check that no fuel has entered the furnace while oil has been circulating.
• Start combustion air fans (and engine room supply fans if necessary).

• Purge furnace. The furnace must be cleared of any fuel oil vapours
which may have collected. If purging is not performed, these vapours can
ignite and cause an explosion. Open air damper and purge for pre-set
time (the duration of purging is discussed in Section 20 Boiler
Combustion, but will typically be 3 minutes/8 air changes).
• Air should flow through all burner registers.

• Close air slides at every register except for the lighting off register.
• Adjust air damper to correct light off position (usually a minimum
setting).
• Before lighting off the boiler it should be remembered that a furnace
explosion may occur when raising steam. Extreme care must be
exercised to ensure a satisfactory purge cycle; correct oil pressures
and temperatures; operation of igniters; and be aware of the dangers
of repeated starting attempts.
• Ensure all sight hole covers are fitted; wear gloves, eye protection and
other relevant protective equipment. Unnecessary personnel to stand
clear.
• Operate igniters and open fuel to light off burner. Flame should be
established.
• Check flame detector operation.
• Set for low firing rate with good combustion.
• Regularly check flame shape and length and that the flame is not
touching or impinging on boiler metal. Ensure that only a slight haze is
present at the funnel with no black or white smoke. The flame should be
clean and bright, with no sparking.
• Continue with the recommended firing rates as boiler pressure increases.
• Change over burner to normal firing tip when boiler is at or near normal
operating pressure (or when recommended).
• When steam is available, start heating heavy fuel oil tanks and system;
prepare to change over to heavy oil firing.
• When heavy oil system is heated sufficiently, change over to heavy oil
firing. Burners may require atomising steam when running on heavy
fuel.
• Change combustion control to automatic when boiler is at normal operating
pressure. Monitor combustion flame and exhaust smoke.

2.4 Raising Steam Pressure

It is very important that the boiler is brought up to operating pressure
slowly and at the correct time rate.
If pressure (and temperature) is increased too quickly, there will not be

enough time for the boiler to warm up evenly. This will cause:
• thermal stressing;
• uneven expansion;
• cracking;
• leaking at tube ends.
The raising steam procedure may be given as a “Steam Raising Chart”, which
should be followed. This chart is simply a pressure versus time graph which
shows the recommended pressures of the boiler during the time period of steam
raising.
Alternatively, the procedure may consist of a timed burner operation. For

example:
• During the first two hours, burner on for 5 minutes, off for 10 minutes;
• During the second two hours, burner on for 7 minutes, off for 8 minutes;
• During the third two hours, burner on for 10 minutes, off for 10 minutes;
• During the fourth two hours, burner on for 10 minutes, off for 5 minutes;
• Then operate the burner on minimum firing rate until normal operating
pressure is reached;
• The pressure rise should not be greater than 0.5 bar/hour.
These procedures are designed to minimise thermal stresses and allow a

uniform heating throughout the boiler, ensuring no local overheating.
From cold, a shell boiler should reach operating pressure no quicker than 15 to
20 hours (unless auxiliary circulation facilities are available) or as specified in
the steam raising chart of the boiler.
From cold, a watertube boiler should reach operating pressure no quicker than
4 to 6 hours or as specified in the steam raising chart of the boiler.
• Shell vent valve to be shut when boiler pressure is about 2 bar (or when
there is a good steam flow coming out of the vent).

• If fitted, check that superheater circulating/vent line is venting steam.

Keep superheater circulating/vent valves open until steam is being used
in steam services.
• When boiler is at a suitable pressure, steam stops to be opened slowly
and steam lines warmed through. Manual drains on steam lines to be
shut when steam comes out.
• Once boiler is supplying steam, the superheater circulating/vent valves, if
fitted, should be shut. Drains on these circulating lines should then be
opened.
• Check operation of automatic drains.
2.5 Boiler Water Level During Steam Raising

It is very important to monitor boiler water level at all times during boiler
operation.
• The feed check and/or feed regulating valves will initially be shut and
level control system on manual.
• Put additional feed water into the boiler to maintain a minimum water
level (if necessary - eg there may be steam and thus water loss if the
superheater circulating valves are open).
• As boiler water temperature increases, the water level should rise (due to
what is known as swell - steam bubbles in the hot water raise its water
level).
• As boiler nears normal operating pressure, the gauge glasses should be
tested to ensure that they are reading the correct level.
• Once steam is being used in services, open feed check valve slowly (to
prevent water hammer) and bring water level up to normal working level.
• Once boiler water level has stabilised, change level control over to
automatic.
2.6 Additional Checks & Actions

• Check the boiler externals for leaks. Ensure that access doors are secure
and that the dogs are correctly tightened.
• Check that the boiler is expanding correctly. This will include noting
movement of sliding feet.
• Ensure that there are no water, oil, or steam leaks and that all aspects of
the boiler operation are correct.

• Check correct operation of automatic controls.

• Continue monitoring of boiler operation.
2.7 Operating the Waste Heat Unit

The waste heat unit, also known as the economiser, should always be in
operation whenever the main engine is running at high loads. This is because
the waste heat unit, as well as providing steam for use, also cools the main
engine exhaust gases.
Common parameters for starting the circulating pump to draw water from the
boiler to the waste heat unit include:
• After manoeuvring is complete and the main engine load is increasing
(after full away);
• After the main engine is over 50% load;
• If the exhaust gas uptake temperature reaches a set value.
Care should be taken when starting the circulating pumps, and the boiler
water level should be monitored closely. This helps to prevent the
possibility of the boiler water level dropping excessively during this
transient period.
Once the main engine is operating at full load, the boiler may be shut down.
Some auxiliary boilers will start up automatically if the main engine load (and
thus the economiser steam production rate) reduces. Other plants require the
boiler to be manually started.

3. Auxiliary Boiler Shut Down

3.1 General Points on Shut Down
Again, actual shut down procedures vary between machinery plants. Boiler
shut down may have to be done at the end of a voyage or at any time of
emergency. The following general points apply to a non-emergency shut
down.
• To allow adequate cooling down of the waste heat unit, the circulating
pump should be allowed to run for 10 to 12 hours after the main engine
has been stopped.
• Reduce steam load. This may include starting up a diesel alternator and
shutting down the steam turbine alternator. If the main engine is
operating on heavy fuel oil, change over to diesel fuel.
• Change boiler fuel supply to diesel oil and clear fuel lines of heavy fuel
oil, if possible.
• Carry out soot blowing, if possible.
• Gradually close steam stops and open drains.
• Have superheater circulating/vent line slightly open (if fitted).
• Change combustion control from automatic to manual.

• Change water level control from automatic to manual.
• Stop firing and shut off main fuel shut off/isolating valve.
• Purge furnace with air for 3 to 5 minutes, stop combustion air fan and
ensure burner air damper is shut off.
• Maintain normal boiler water level, if possible, until boiler pressure is
low. Do not use cold feed water to cool down the boiler. Level will drop
due to shrink (the opposite to swell) as the water temperature falls.
• If another boiler is steaming, ensure that steam lines are isolated.
• Open shell vent valve when pressure has fallen to atmospheric. This
stops a vacuum occurring in the boiler as it cools.
• Do not open access doors until furnace temperature is low, as induced
draughts will rapidly chill boiler pressure parts.
• Shut down fuel system.
• Shut down and isolate feed system.
• If the boiler is to be emptied, empty the boiler gradually so that sudden
changes of temperature are not imposed on the pressure parts.

Where possible, the specified minimum cooling down period should be

followed.
3.2 Isolating The Shut Down Boiler

There are two reasons for isolating a boiler when it is shut down. These
reasons are:
• Protection of the boiler.

• Safety of personnel.
Isolation will include the following points:

• Ensure that fuel system is shut down and isolated. Fuel leaking into the
furnace may affect personnel and also may lead to an accumulated
vapour explosion.
• Ensure combustion air system is shut down and isolated after residual
heat energy is removed.
• Ensure that there is double isolation of lines between the shut down
boiler and any running boiler. Double isolation is achieved by having
two shut isolating valves in each line. It is vital that there is no
possibility of personnel being exposed to steam.
• Ensure that feed system is shut down and isolated. Water suddenly
entering the boiler may be just as hazardous to personnel as steam.
5. Auxiliary Boiler Lay Up

A boiler that is not in use for a period of time is idle. Precautions have to be
taken to protect boiler internal surfaces from corrosion during idle periods. An
idle boiler is laid up; this means that the boiler is prepared for an idle period.
Two basic methods of preparing the boiler for lay up are used. Which method
is used depends on the length of the lay up.
Short Lay Up
For short periods up to about one month, the boiler, and economiser tubes, with
all valves and cocks shut, are completely filled with hot deaerated feed water.
This water contains chemicals such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) which ensure
that the water is alkaline.
Regular checks are made to ensure that the boiler remains full and that
alkalinity is maintained.

Long Lay Up
For lay up periods greater than about one month, the boiler furnace and gas
paths are washed with fresh water. Ashes may contain sulphur, tend to collect
moisture, acids form which can corrode the external components of the boiler.
The boiler and economiser are emptied of water, cleaned, and then completely
dried out using heating stoves and hot air blowers to pass hot air through the
tubes.
When these components are dry, all valves and cocks are shut tight, all doors
shut (with new joints) and the boiler is sealed. This prevents moisture laden air
entering the boiler and economiser. Drying agents, called desiccants, are
placed in trays are inserted in the boiler before sealing. The desiccants absorb
any moisture from the atmosphere inside the boiler.
A laid up boiler should be treated as a confined space. Confined space

entry procedures must be followed.
Simmering
Another method which may be used for boiler layup is to have heating coils in
the bottom of the shut down boiler. These coils may be steam heated (if there
is another boiler producing steam), or they may be electric. The shut down
boiler has a normal level of water, and the simmering coils are used to maintain
a small amount of heating. This enables a slight pressure to be maintained in
the idle boiler, keeping air out. Another advantage of simmering is that it
keeps the gas side of the boiler warm and dry.

5. Emergency Operation
5.1 General Principles
The essential aims in dealing with emergencies which put boilers at risk
are:
• Protect the boiler(s) from damage;
• Safeguard personnel.
The general principles in any emergency for any ship should be to ensure:
• Safety of personnel;
• Maintaining steerage and ship manoeuvrability;
• Safety of machinery and keeping damage to a minimum;
• Bridge to be informed when the safety of the ship or loss of
performance is involved;
• Engineers’ alarm to be switched on and assistance summoned as
necessary;
• An extra diesel generator to be started if power supplies are at risk or
if additional electrical load is anticipated.
• Standby auxiliary machinery should be started in good time if
performance of the running machinery is in doubt.
The Chief Engineer will take charge in any major emergency involving
machinery. The duty engineer, however, will generally be the first engineer in
the machinery spaces, and will:
• Take initial actions as necessary;
• Inform the Chief and Second Engineers of the emergency;
• Inform the Bridge;
• Follow orders after the arrival of senior engineering staff.
In a watertube boiler emergency where the boiler is tripped (and

therefore normal steam flow has stopped) the superheater
circulating/vent line must be opened to provide a flow of steam through
the superheaters.

Follow ship’s procedures when dealing with emergencies. It is very easy

to become confused and to make mistakes. Your ship’s procedures should
help you to do what is required and not miss anything.
There will be differences to every emergency. The following situations are

provided as examples of boiler emergencies that could occur. Do not forget
the broad principles already stated in this sub-section when considering these
emergencies.
5.2 Boiler Water Emergencies

Boiler tube failure
Slight leakage of a boiler tube may be difficult to notice and find, as the
escaping water is vapourised and mixes with combustion gases. Such leakage
may be suspected if make up feed water increases or boiler water test results
are not as expected (eg, chemical reserve levels dropping for apparently no
reason).
If a tube ruptures, however, there will be sufficient indications of this problem,

including:
• Noise;
• Combustion flame distortion or extinction;
• Noticeable change in funnel gases;
• Loss of water level;
• Sudden increase in make up water to the boiler.
If the furnace of a horizontal shell boiler ruptures, the loss of contents will be
almost instantaneous. The force reaction may cause the boiler to be propelled
from its mountings.
Immediate actions to be taken should include:

• Inform Bridge of the emergency;
• Operate the Engineers’ Alarm;
• Trip the boiler;
• Keep the forced draught fan running to remove escaping steam up the
funnel;
• Shut boiler steam stops;
• Maintain water level in the defective boiler, if possible, until the boiler
cools down (this may involve using the auxiliary feed line to the boiler);
• If fitted, open superheater circulating/vent line;
• If water level is not visible in the gauge glass, this will indicate that the
amount of water leakage is exceeding the make up capacity of the water
level controller, and the feed valve should be shut to stop feed supply;
• Operate easing gear to lift safety valves if steam leakage will endanger
personnel;
• Attend to services that require steam, eg, main engine fuel oil system to be
changed over to diesel fuel oil. Isolate non-essential steam services to
maximise steam to essential services.
• Shut down forced draught fan after the steam pressure has decreased;
• Allow the boiler to cool as slowly as is safe;
• Empty the boiler when cool.
Feed flow failure to boiler

• Notify Bridge and Chief and Second Engineers;
• The cause of the failure must be quickly established;
• Steam demand should be reduced to save water (eg starting a diesel
generator(s) and taking some load off the turbo alternator will reduce steam
demand). Be prepared to be able to shut off all steam to services.
• If feed pressure has dropped, ensure that the standby feed pump has started.
This may rectify the situation if the failure is due to the running feed pump
tripping. Check for and fix the problem that caused the pump failure.
• Check feed tank and hotwell levels.
• If the feed control valve has jammed or has otherwise failed, use the manual
bypass valve to restore feed to the boiler. In this case, a competent crew
member must regulate feed with the manual valve; the valve must not be
left unattended.
• Ascertain if the failure is a secondary problem to tube rupture.
• If water level cannot be maintained, trip the boiler and follow procedures
similar to tube rupture.
Unknown water level

• If the water level is not visible in the gauge glasses, the potential hazard is
so great that the situation should be treated as a tube rupture, until such
time that the true water level is known and the situation corrected.
• When the water level is low, the safety devices should trip the boiler. If this
does not happen, and the water level drops to a point where the heat
transfer is affected, steam pressure will tend to fall and the fuel burners will
automatically increase their firing rate to try to increase pressure.

• Always remember that a drop in steam pressure may be due to a lack

of water in the boiler.
• Where there is not enough water to absorb the heat energy of the furnace,
even with the fuel shut off, the heating surfaces will distort, brickwork will
be damaged, and pressure parts will leak.
• When the water level is high and the level controller fails to reduce feed,
the high alarm should occur and high high alarm and trip may occur. If
they fail to operate, large amounts of water will be entrained with the
steam. This is known as priming, and this water will damage the
superheater and turbo-alternator (if fitted).
In establishing whether a gauge glass is full or empty, it is sometimes possible

to quickly tell if the boiler is in the more dangerous low water situation by
looking for the presence of condensate trickling down the inside of the gauge
glass.
Oil contamination
Oil contamination of boiler water coats the boiler heating surfaces and
acts as an insulating layer. This will cause overheating and failure.
Slight amounts of oil, while not causing such overheating, are still a problem.
In this case, the oil will cause foaming at the water level. If there is enough
foam, it will flow out with the steam, causing carry over of water and
chemicals. This will reduce the boiler water level, cause incorrect operation of
devices such as float switches, and may also damage the superheater and turbo-
alternator (if fitted).
Ways to detect oil contamination include:

• Regular checking of water surface in hotwell and drain tank. Oil, if present,
will float on the surface and may also leave a scum around the inside edges
of the tank. Tanks may have a scumming facility which should be used.
• Grey scum, especially at the normal water level, in the gauge glasses.
• Water treatment samples, left to stand, may be found to have oil floating on
top of the water.
Once oil contamination has been detected, the source of oil must be determined
and the leak stopped.
Slight contamination of the oil may be removed by the addition of chemicals

into the boiler which will cause the oil to precipitate and drop to the bottom of
the boiler as sludge. Increased blowing down of the boiler to remove this
sludge must then be performed.

Large amounts of oil in the boiler water will require the boiler to be shut down,
the oil removed and the boiler cleaned using specialist assistance before re-use.
List at least four possible sources of oil contamination of boiler water.
5.3 Combustion Side Emergencies

Furnace explosions
Furnace explosions occur when volumes of oil vapour and air, present in
the boiler furnace in explosive proportions, are ignited.
Sudden admission of air to a fuel rich burner flame can also result in an
explosion.
Such an explosion, especially in a watertube boiler with its large furnace, can
be very serious, causing loss of life and major damage to the boiler and its
equipment. A large explosion can rupture the furnace and allow the boiler
contents to flood the engine room.
A furnace explosion could also ignite secondary fires, igniting combustible

material in other areas of the engine room.
Furnace explosions can occur when flashing up and shutting down the boiler.
At such times, boiler operation may be under manual control and incorrect or
inadequate purging can occur. This is especially so when repeated lighting off
and shutting down the burners, or if there is difficulty igniting the burner.
Always purge the furnace before any ignition attempt.
Purging the furnace removes accumulated fuel vapours. However, a normal

purging cycle will not be enough if liquid oil is present in the furnace. If oil is
present in the bottom of the furnace, it must be removed before any light off
attempt. Small amounts of oil may be removed by extended purging.
These explosions should not occur when correctly using automatic combustion
control. This is because this control system will regulate correct fuel to air
ratio as well as ensuring adequate purging before ignition.

Automatic light up failures can occur, and in this situation, when going over to
manual control (and often in a hurry), wrong actions can be taken, causing an
explosion.
If flame failure occurs, the fuel should be immediately shut off. Unburnt oil
spraying into a hot furnace may be ignited on hot boiler parts or brickwork.
A small explosion may be contained within the boiler, but the pressure
increase in the furnace may blow out the register assembly and injure
personnel at the boiler front. Thus, adequate safety practices should be
followed and personal protective equipment worn when lighting off
manually.
If a substantial furnace explosion occurs, then the boiler should be secured and
inspected for damage before further operation.
To summarise, the best method of dealing with furnace explosions is to

avoid them. This will include:
• Inspecting the furnace for oil accumulation before light off;
• Purging the boiler adequately before any ignition attempt;
• Ensure flame detection and fuel shut off equipment is working
properly;
• Follow correct light off procedures, especially when operating the
boiler manually;
• Wear correct protective equipment if lighting off the boiler manually.
Particular care should be taken when raising steam in a cold boiler using diesel
fuel. A small flame will be used so it is easy for droplets of fuel to cool before
combustion is complete (especially if large amounts of excess air are used).
These droplets of fuel can accumulate in the boiler uptakes, and can cause an
explosion in areas even if flame failure does not occur.

Waste Heat Unit Fires

Soot, rich in carbon, can accumulate in the economiser/waste heat unit. Soot
accumulation is caused by poor combustion of the main engine, which can also
occur in port or when operating at low power for long periods.
If this soot is ignited, it will burn and a sootfire created. The heat from a
sootfire can affect the waste heat unit like any fire, overheating tubes and
distorting components.
A second, much more serious hydrogen fire can be created by a sootfire. If a

sootfire occurs at an economiser tube where there is insufficient water or steam
to cool the tube, it can be severely overheated and melt. If the fire temperature
is over 700O C, the iron present in the steel will burn. This iron will be burning
in the presence of steam escaping from the ruptured tube. This is called an
iron fire. The iron fire will cause the steam to dissociate into hydrogen and
oxygen. The hydrogen will burn in the oxygen, and so a self sustaining fire
occurs (until the supply of steam stops). This is a hydrogen fire.
Such a fire generates very high temperatures and is very intense. It is also very
difficult to put out. The only way to deal with such a fire is to cool the metal
below 700O C by directing a powerful jet of water at the seat of the fire. This
is very difficult to do. On some auxiliary steam plants, the only action which
can be performed is to contain the fire within the waste heat unit and exhaust
gas uptakes and not allow it to spread and cause secondary fires in the
machinery space.
The conditions needed for the escalation of a soot fire into a hydrogen fire are:
• Tubes with some steam (or water) content, usually with poor flow rates;
• Tube metal temperatures over 700OC.
The first indications of a sootfire are:

• A rapid increase in uptake gas temperature;
• Sparks coming out of the funnel.
Provided that the sudden temperature rise is not excessive (eg less than 20O C
above normal), it can be assumed that the fire is not yet severe. Slowing the
gas flow (by reducing main engine load) and maintaining water flow through
the economiser while allowing the fire to burn itself out may be sufficient.
Using sootblowers to fight a fire is highly dangerous. Sootblowing may

dislodge deposits from other areas away from the fire, sending them into the
fire. Sootblowing may also cause the fire to grow into a hydrogen fire.
A good flow of water through the economiser elements will help to keep the
tube metal cool and may also chill the fire. Thus, it is important to maintain a

circulation of water through the waste heat unit by allowing the circulating
pumps to operate.
However, if it is suspected that there is a leak in the waste heat unit, the
circulating pumps should be stopped and the economiser drained of
water. This is due to the danger of an iron/hydrogen fire occurring.
The main engine should also then be shut down.
State at least one method by which engineering staff could determine a waste
heat unit leak.
Preparations for controlling the fire should be done. This will include starting
up diesel generators and fire pumps, and assembling fire crews and hoses.
If the temperature continues to rise, it should be assumed that the fire is severe
and it may be an iron/hydrogen fire. Red hot casings also indicate that the fire
has escalated. The main engine should be stopped, auxiliary blowers isolated
and air flow through the engine to the waste heat unit stopped (eg by fitting
blanks to turbocharger inlets). Water should not be used to fight the fire, but
should be used to give boundary cooling. This is to prevent the spread of the
fire outside the economiser.
The most effective way of fighting a waste heat unit fire is to prevent it in
the first place. This is achieved by the following:
• Maintaining circulation through the waste heat unit. One common
procedure is to shut down the circulating pump after one to two hours after
the main engine is shut down. However, there may still be enough residual
energy in the waste heat unit to start a smouldering fire which could easily
turn into a large fire. A good practice is to allow the circulating pump to
run for at least 10 to 12 hours after the main engine is shut down.
• Keeping main engine fuel injection in good condition, preventing poor
combustion;
• Regular (daily) sootblowing of the waste heat unit;
• Sootblowing before and after main engine manoeuvring;
• Regular inspection and water washing of the waste heat unit when the
main engine is shut down.
Water being used to control the spread of a waste heat unit fire can also short
out electric motors and lines.

6. Boiler Alarms & Trips

Alarms and trips (or shut downs) that are fitted to an auxiliary boiler constantly
monitor the measured parameters.
Alarms act to inform engineering staff of deviations from the desired values or
value ranges. They are especially important on ships which operate under
Unattended Machinery Space (UMS) conditions, to provide monitoring when
the engine room is unattended.
Trips also inform staff of an alarm condition, but they also trip or shut down
the boiler or system involved. Trips act when a dangerous or potentially
dangerous situation occurs. Auxiliary boiler trips will shut off fuel to the
burner.
Alarms and trips do not replace the watchkeeping or duty engineer; they
are complementary to the watchkeeper. Both automatic equipment and
trained personnel are necessary.

Progress Check
1. Summarise the steps necessary for raising steam on an auxiliary shell
boiler.
2. State two (2) reasons why isolation of a shut down boiler is important, and
list four (4) points that isolation will include.
3. What is meant by simmering in relation to idle boilers? Explain another
method which can be used to lay up an idle boiler for a short term.
4. State seven (7) general principles that should be kept in mind during any
emergency.
5. List two (2) indications of a waste heat unit fire. State the actions which
should be taken to attend to this fire. How would the actions differ if the
fire escalated into a hydrogen/iron fire?

Boiler Combustion
Boiler Combustion

Boiler Combustion
Contents Page
Boiler Combustion
Introduction 4
1. Combustion 5
1.1 Principles 5
1.2 The Flame 6
1.3 Air/fuel Ratio and Combustion 7
1.4 Other Factors Affecting Combustion 7
2. Fuel Oil Systems 8
2.1 Auxiliary Boiler Fuel Oil System 8
2.2 Main Boiler Fuel Oil System 12
3. Burner Arrangements 13
3.1 Turn Down Ratio 13
3.2 Simple Pressure Jet Burner 14
3.3 Spill Pressure Jet Burner 16
3.4 Plunger/Variable Orifice Pressure Jet Burner17
3.5 Steam/Air Assisted Pressure Jet Burner18
3.6 Rotary Cup Burner 19
3.5 Air Register 21
4. Safety 23

Boiler Combustion
4.1 Burner Isolation 23
4.2 Flame Detection 23
4.3 Ignition Failure 24
4.4 Furnace Explosions 24
4.5 Alarms & Trips 25
5. Combustion Air 26
5.1 Draft Arrangements 26
5.2 Air Heaters 31
6. Products of Combustion & Their Effects32
6.1 Typical Products of Combustion 32
6.2 Gas Side Corrosion 33
7. Automatic Combustion Control 35
7.1 Modulating Combustion Control System35
7.2 Improved Combustion Control System37
7.3 On – Off or High/Low/Off Combustion Control38
Progress Check 39

Boiler Combustion
Introduction
Combustion is the burning of fuel in air in order to release the fuel’s stored
energy. This energy is used to heat feed water, convert water into steam, and
superheat the steam. Fuel and air must be admitted in correct proportions and
rates to provide the required heat energy transfer efficiently and safely.

Boiler Combustion
1. Combustion
1.1 Principles
Fuel oil consists of molecules of hydrogen and carbon, called hydrocarbons.
Air contains oxygen, and when fuel and air combust, these atoms and
molecules react. Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water, while carbon
and oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide. If combustion is incomplete,
carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon monoxide.
Liquid fuel oil must be converted into a vapour before it can burn. The furnace
heat energy does this, but the firing equipment puts the fuel into a condition the
make the best use of this furnace heat. To do this, the firing equipment must
break the fuel up into many small particles, which exposes as much surface
area as possible. This is fuel atomisation.
We may explain atomisation as follows:
Consider a sphere of oil fuel, the addition of heat energy causes the outer layer
of oil to vapourise, which then burns. The next layer of oil fuel is then
exposed, which then vapourises and burns, and so on. The effect is like
peeling an onion, layer by layer.
Smaller oil droplets, while having the same combined volume as one large
droplet, have much more surface area exposed, which gives faster and
better burning.
Atomisation normally occurs at the oil burner. Liquid oil enters the burner and
leaves as a hollow, rotating cone of fine oil droplets.
Some boilers use low grade fuel oil for combustion. This fuel must be
preheated to lower its viscosity and put it in a state suitable for atomisation and
thus combustion. Diesel fuel oil, on the other hand, is not pre-heated before
atomisation.
It is important that the oil is supplied to the burner at correct pressure,

temperature and viscosity. If this is not the case, combustion will be
impaired leading to a loss of efficiency, soot deposits, or overheating.
Combustion air used with large auxiliary watertube may be pre-heated (to
temperatures of about 100 to 120OC). This improves combustion by reducing
the chilling effect cool air has on the flame. Pre-heating the air also reduces
the thermal stress of cold air on the hot boiler parts.

Boiler Combustion
1.2 The Flame

The process of combustion can be explained as a mixture of combustible gas or
vapour and air undergoing a rapid, but controlled, chemical reaction.
The flame produced is commonly called a suspended flame. With this flame,
the stream of oil and air enters the combustion zone at the same rate as the
products of combustion leaving it. In other words, the flame front is stationary.
This flame is stable and properly formed yet it doesn’t come into contact in any
way with the burner register components or with the refractory (insulation)
forming the throat of the burner register.
Figure 1 Suspended Flame
Even though most of released heat energy is used to generate and superheat
steam; some heat energy is needed to maintain combustion.
To start combustion (ignition), an external heat source such as an electric spark

or a naked flame is applied to the oil spray. Once started, the flame
temperature must be maintained or else combustion will cease. Cooling of the
flame can be due to:
• oil temperature dropping;
• combustion air too cold;
• air flow too great;
• incorrect setting of combustion equipment, causing an unstable flame.
Once ignited, the lighter fuel elements burn first as a primary flame, and
provide heat energy to burn the heavier elements in the secondary flame. It is

Boiler Combustion
the secondary flame which provides the major source of heat energy for steam
generation.
1.3 Air/fuel Ratio and Combustion

The theoretical proportions of air and fuel which need to be mixed for
complete combustion is known as the stoichiometric mixture or stoichiometric
air/fuel ratio. To ensure that combustion will be complete, more air than the
stoichiometric amount is used. This is called excess air. The amount of excess
used depends on various factors such as fuel properties and boiler design, but is
normally in the range of 5 to 20 %. Modern large boilers use as little excess air
as possible.
Too much excess air will give inefficient combustion, and flame instability. It
also increases the amount of acid which may be present in the exhaust gas.
Too little excess air leads to incomplete combustion and increased deposits in
exhaust gas passages.
Good combustion gives the best possible heat energy release and the minimum
amount of deposits.
Too much air gives a bright, white flame which may have white flecks
within it. Exhaust gas will be an opaque, white colour.
Insufficient air gives a dark orange flame with black smoke. The
blackness of the gases is due to the presence of unburnt carbon particles.
Correct air gives a bright orange or straw coloured flame. Exhaust gas
will be a light grey to brown haze.
1.4 Other Factors Affecting Combustion

Water in oil will affect combustion. Small amounts of water may cause
corrosion in the fuel system. Greater amounts of water can lead to flame
instability, and can lead to burner flame out. Flame out can be due to
excessive cooling of the flame or there may be so much water that there is an
absence of fuel issuing from the burner.
If the oil temperature is too low, it won’t atomise properly, so there may be
overheating, flame impingement or refractory failure. If the oil temperature is
too high, the burner tip overheats and there may be carbon deposits at the tip.
Overheated fuel causes cracking which causes carbon deposits, and it may
cause the fuel to vapourise in the lines. Vapour has a larger volume than
liquid, so the mass of oil being burnt diminishes, and the boiler output drops.

Boiler Combustion
Vapourised fuel in fuel lines also causes instability of combustion, resulting in

an unstable or fluctuating flame.
Some boilers are roof fired, where the burners and air registers are mounted in
the roof of the boiler furnace. This allows for a longer flame, which gives
more time for the fuel to burn completely so improves the boiler thermal
efficiency.
2. Fuel Oil Systems

2.1 Auxiliary Boiler Fuel Oil System
The exact arrangement of the auxiliary boiler fuel oil system varies between
ships, but a typical fuel oil system is shown in figure 2.
Figure 2 Auxiliary Boiler Fuel Oil System
Bunker tanks (not shown)

Fuel is stored initially in double bottom and other bunker tanks in the ship’s
hull. These tanks will have heating coils to heat the fuel sufficiently for
transferring to the settling tanks.
Settling tank
A positive displacement transfer pump delivers fuel to the settling tank. There
may be two settling tanks on board. Heating coils in the settling tank begin the
process of preparing fuel oil for combustion. For safety reasons, the fuel oil is
Boiler Combustion
not permitted to become very hot, but some degree of heating will help the
separation of oil and water. The water will settle out from the oil and fall to
the bottom of the tank, where it is drained regularly.
A typical arrangement of a settling tank is shown in figure 3.
Figure 3 Fuel Oil Settling Tank
Main features of the settling tank are:

• Sloping bottom, to allow collection of sludge and water for removal.
• Spring loaded drain valve. This valve is operated manually during duty
engineer’s rounds (checks), water and sludge draining to a sludge tank. It
is spring loaded so that it will only be open while the engineer is operating
it, and cannot be left open accidentally or open through vibration.
• Steam heating coils. The drains from these heating coils are led back to an
observation tank, so that if the coils are leaky the contaminating oil will be
noticed before the condensate is returned back to the auxiliary feed system.
Some ships use heating steam from a steam to steam generator to eliminate
the possibility of oil contamination of the boiler water.
• Local temperature gauge. It is important that the temperature of the
settling tank is known. Some tanks may also have remote sensing of fuel
temperature.

Boiler Combustion
• Filling valve. The tank is filled through this valve, which is connected to
the fuel transfer system.
• Quick closing valve. Oil flows to the rest of the fuel system through this
valve. It is a quick closing or remote actuating valve. In the event of a fire,
this valve can be remotely closed from a fire control station, so removing a
possible fuel supply from the fire. These valves are sometimes known as
Instanta valves, after a particular manufacturer’s product.
• Local and remote level indication. There will be means of determining
tank level, both locally (using a gauge on the side of the tank), and
remotely. A sounding connection, fitted at the top of the tank, will allow
tank level to be determined by a weighted sounding tape. This sounding
connection will have a screw-on cap and a weighted cock, to minimise the
possibility of leakage or contamination through a left open valve.
• Air vent. The vent will have a goose-neck arrangement to stop water
entering it. There will also be a gauze flame trap fitted at the end of the
vent to stop any flame from propagating, should a fire be present. All fuel
tank air vents terminate above the weather deck.
• Overflow. An overflow line to a dedicated overflow tank and a high level
float alarm minimise the possibility of oil spill occurring during fuel
transfer.
• Personal access door. A bolted door is used to provide access inside the
tank for inspection, cleaning, and repair of the tank internals.
It is dangerous practice to set automatically or remote closing valves so

that they remain open.
Cold filters
The oil from the settling tank is filtered through a coarse filter. At this stage,
the oil is still relatively cold and viscous, so the filter cannot be too fine. The
filter is present to protect the supply pump, the next component in the system,
from damage. Two filters are arranged in a duplex arrangement, which means
that there are two filters in parallel, one in use and the other on standby.
Booster or supply pumps

Two positive displacement pumps raise oil to the necessary pressure for use in
the burners. Only one pump is normally in use, the other pump providing
redundancy, ie ‘on standby’. Since they are positive displacement, these
pumps each have a spring loaded relief valve to guard against overpressure.
Pressure gauges will also be fitted to indicate discharge and suction pressures.
It is possible to stop these pumps remotely from a fire control station in the
event of an emergency such as fire.

Boiler Combustion
Steam/Electric Heaters
These raise the fuel oil temperature, making the oil easier to filter and also
lowering its viscosity to provide good flow and atomisation in the burners.
The temperature to which the fuel is heated is normally between 90OC and
130OC, depending on the oil used and steaming conditions (fuel oil should not
be heated above 20° C below the fuel flash point). A temperature gauge will
be fitted for local temperature monitoring, but control will normally be
automatic. It is essential that the oil is not heated more than is necessary to
provide the correct viscosity for correct atomisation. If oil temperature is
raised too high, there is the danger of the oil cracking and leaving deposits in
the heater tubes.
Condensate drains from steam oil heaters will lead to an observation tank.
Hot filters
Since the oil is now hot and much less viscous, it is possible to use a fine
degree of filtration. This minimises wear and blockage of the fuel oil burners.
These filters will contain hot fuel oil, and so must be treated with care,
especially when cleaning. Some filters can be cleaned by turning an external
handle, so avoiding the danger of hot oil escaping when removing dirty
cartridges.
Pressure control
Varying oil pressure controls the throughput of many fuel oil burners. There
will therefore be a pressure control valve in the fuel oil system close to the
burners.
Burners
We will investigate fuel oil burners further in the next sub-section. For the
present it is only important to mention that the fuel oil line to each individual
burner has a manual quick shut off valve.
Recirculation
A circulating valve is used when starting the system, to enable initial heating of
the oil. When the system and oil is heated sufficiently, the circulation valve is
shut.
Diesel oil
A supply of diesel oil may be available to the burners for initial firing of the
boiler.
Another fuel oil system for an auxiliary boiler is shown in figure 4.

Boiler Combustion
Figure 4 Another Auxiliary Boiler Fuel Oil System
2.2 Main Boiler Fuel Oil System

Many main boilers use low grade fuel oil for combustion. The exact
arrangement of the fuel oil system of a steam ship will vary, but a typical fuel
oil system is shown in figure 5.
Such a system is similar in some ways to an auxiliary boiler fuel system,

however, there are differences.
One such difference is the settling tanks. Typically a main boiler fuel system
has two settling tanks. Each tank will generally be large enough to provide
enough fuel for at least the UMS period of steaming. The tanks are used
alternately, so one tank is in use while the other is kept full.
Identify two reasons why the main fuel settling tanks are used alternately.

Boiler Combustion
Figure 5 Main Boiler Fuel Oil System
3. Burner Arrangements
There are various types fuel oil burners used for auxiliary boilers, a boiler may
have anywhere from one to three or four burners and air registers.
All burners attempt to fulfil the following basic purposes.
Purposes of a fuel oil burner include:

• Present the oil as a hollow rotating cone of fine oil droplets for good
combustion;
• Provide an acceptable range of fuel oil flow rates for normal
operation;
• Provide good combustion through the normal operating range.
3.1 Turn Down Ratio

The degree to which the flow of oil through the burner (throughput) can be
altered is known as the turn down ratio (TDR). This is the difference between
the maximum and minimum mass flow rates of the fuel through the burner.
This gives a value for the difference between the maximum and minimum heat
energy release rates of the boiler.

Boiler Combustion
maximum throughput
TDR =
minimum throughput
A high turn down ratio is good, since this means that there is a wide range of
steam production rates for the boiler. A low turn down ratio is undesirable,
since this means that the range of steam production rates is limited.
Some boilers use burners with low turn down ratios. How can the turn down
ratio for the whole boiler be improved?
3.2 Simple Pressure Jet Burner
Figure 6 Simple Pressure Jet Burner Body
Figure 7 Simple Pressure Jet Burner Tip

Boiler Combustion
The basic assembly is a steel tube or barrel to which is attached swirl and/or
nozzle/orifice plates. A cap secures these components at the burner tip. Oil
pressure forces the oil through fine holes. This, combined with the swirling
action of the oil as it passes through chambers in the burner tip, provides the
necessary atomisation.
Therefore, energy for atomisation comes from the pressure energy of the oil
itself. For a simple pressure jet burner the turn down ratio can be modified to
be:
maximum burner pressure

TDR =
minimum burner pressure
With a simple pressure jet burner then, varying the supply oil pressure controls
the burner throughput.
For efficient atomisation, there is a minimum oil pressure which can be used.
Below this, atomisation will not be complete and so combustion will be
adversely affected.
A typical turn down ratio for a pressure jet burner is 3:1. To increase the turn
down ratio of boilers fitted with pressure jet burners, the number of burners is
increased. The turn down ratio for the boiler is then the turn down ratio of
each burner times the number of burners.
The advantages of the simple pressure jet burner are:

• Simple;
• Inexpensive;
• Robust.
• No moving parts;
• No major alteration in air register arrangement for all outputs (due to the
low TDR).
The disadvantages of the simple pressure jet burner are:

• Poor turn down ratio (approximately 3:1);
• The pressure change (which gives throughput change) also gives a change
in the effectiveness of atomisation and combustion.
When changing between diesel and residual fuel oils, the burner tip must be
changed. Also, when lighting off, a special low throughput burner tip must be
fitted. Once steam has been raised, this flash off tip, as it is called, needs to be

Boiler Combustion
changed. This means that there can be a lot of manual fitting and removal of
burners as the boiler operation changes.
Fixed swirl vanes may be mounted in a ring around the burner tip. These
vanes guide combustion air into the oil spray, provide mixing of the air and
fuel, and improve flame stability.
3.3 Spill Pressure Jet Burner
Figure 8 Spill pressure jet burner
This burner is a development of the simple pressure jet burner. Its basic
operation is similar to that of the simple pressure jet, but the oil throughput
through this burner is altered by adjusting the amount of spill. Oil is supplied
to the burner at a constant pressure. If the spill valve on the return side of the
burner is fully open, no oil is delivered. As the spill valve is closed in, oil
begins to be delivered through the burner. Maximum oil throughput occurs
when the spill valve is fully closed.
The advantages of the spill pressure jet burner compared to the simple pressure
jet burner are:
• Turn down ratio 20:1
• Constant cone angle and constant atomisation rate over the range of oil
throughput.

Boiler Combustion
The disadvantages of the spill pressure jet burner are:

• More complex;
• A large quantity of hot oil under pressure is returned at all burner
throughputs except for maximum flow rate.
3.4 Plunger/Variable Orifice Pressure Jet

Burner
Figure 9 Plunger pressure jet burner
This is another development of the simple pressure jet burner. This burner
does not have a greatly increased turn down ratio, but it does improve
atomisation over the range of burner throughputs.
As oil supply pressure increases, the spring loaded plunger moves to uncover
extra tangential oil entry holes. The pressure drop and hence the rotational oil
velocity remains nearly constant over the burner throughput range.
The advantages of the plunger pressure jet burner compared to the simple
pressure jet burner are:
• Slightly improved turn down ratio 3 1/2:1
• Good atomisation over the complete burner throughput range.
The disadvantages of the plunger pressure jet burner are:

• More complex;
• Moving parts within the burner.

Boiler Combustion
3.5 Steam/Air Assisted Pressure Jet Burner

These types of burner use steam or compressed air to improve atomisation of
the fuel. We will investigate the steam assisted pressure jet burner to
understand the basic principles of both types.
Figure 10 Steam Assisted Pressure Jet Burner Tip
Oil is atomised by spraying it into the path of a high velocity jet of steam. The
burner shown in figure 10 has steam flowing through a central passage. The
steam then flows through a skewed convergent/divergent nozzle. This gives a
high velocity jet of steam. Oil is delivered to the nozzle throat, is entrained
into the steam jet, is torn to shreds and so atomised.
Maximum oil pressure may be around 22 bar, with desuperheated steam

supplied at 10 to 12 bar. A steam control valve may be fitted to reduce the
steam pressure at low loads.
Thus energy of steam is used to aid the oil pressure energy in atomising the
fuel. Hence the term steam assisted pressure jet burner. It is also known as a
steam blast jet burner.
Sufficient combustion air is entrained by the high velocity steam, so there is

less need for swirl vanes as used with simple pressure jet burners; some
designs do not have these guide vanes fitted.
The advantages of the steam assisted pressure jet burner are:

• Turn down ratio improved to about 20:1;
• Atomisation throughout the throughput range is excellent. At low
throughputs of a simple pressure jet burner, atomisation is poor, giving
larger oil droplets. This does not occur with a steam assisted pressure jet
burner.
Boiler Combustion
• A smaller amount of excess air is required, thereby improving boiler

efficiency.
• Combustion side deposits are reduced. Soot-blowing and water washing of
combustion side surfaces need not be carried out as frequently.
• With improved combustion and turn down ratio, refractory problems are
reduced.
The disadvantages of the steam assisted pressure jet burner are:

• Steam is consumed. This means that water and fuel are lost in providing
this steam. In later types of this burner, steam consumption is small, being
less than 1% of oil consumption at peak loads. However, this steam loss
may be unacceptable in small steam plants;
• Alternatively, the air assisted pressure jet burner does not need steam but
requires a supply of compressed air;
• More complex burner;
• Generally only suitable for larger boilers.
Steam for atomisation is only used when burning heavy fuel oil. When
diesel fuel is used (such as during initial flash up) steam is not used.
At high burner throughputs, some combustion systems using steam assisted

pressure jet burners may shut off steam atomising, making the burner act as a
simple pressure jet burner.
3.6 Rotary Cup Burner

Oil fuel is delivered through a tube to the back end of a cup spinning at
constant high speed (2000 to 7000 rpm, depending on design). The oil film is
spread evenly over the inside surface of the cup by centrifugal force. When the
oil reaches the rim of the cup, it peels off the rim and the oil film is atomised.
Combustion air, rotating in the opposite direction to the cup, flows over the
outside of the cup and assists in the atomisation of the oil. The combustion air
fan is typically mounted on the cup shaft.

Boiler Combustion
electric
motor
fan
belt
drive
rotary cup
bearing
damper
Figure 11 Rotary cup burner
The advantages of the rotary cup burner compared to the simple pressure jet
burner are:
• Turn down ratio 20:1
• A high oil supply pressure is not required;
• Oil viscosity need only be reduced to 400 seconds Redwood #1 - sludge
and other poor quality fuels can be burnt;
• Atomisation at low throughputs is improved (due to reduced oil film
thickness).
The disadvantages of the rotary cup burner are:

• Much more complex;
• Many moving parts;
• Difficult to design for large throughputs;
• There can be leakage difficulties in roof fired boilers.

Boiler Combustion
3.5 Air Register

All burners, no matter what type, are fitted in an air register. This is a
collection of flaps, vanes, refractory, cocks, igniters, and other components
which surround the burner.
Figure 12 Burner and Air Register for a Water Tube Boiler
The register provides an entry section through which combustion air is

admitted. Air shut off is achieved by means of a sliding sleeve so that air is
only admitted to each register when necessary. Some registers are arranged
such that the burner assembly and sliding sleeve are in the one unit. When not
in use, the complete burner assembly is withdrawn from the furnace, shutting
off air and protecting the burner from radiant heat of the furnace.
Another purpose of the air register is to create air flow patterns to ensure good
mixing of the air and fuel.
The air registers will all be closed when the boiler is shut down. This stops
thermal stress of boiler metal and refractory due to a natural draft of relatively
cold air through the boiler.
The windbox is a chamber surrounding the registers. Air for combustion is

delivered to the windbox, ready for use in the registers.

Boiler Combustion
Figure 13 Register for a Shell Boiler

Boiler Combustion
4. Safety
Combustion is a controlled process. If safety precautions and fittings are not
used, fire and explosion may occur with disastrous results.
Typical safety fittings and precautions which should be used are identified in
this sub-section.
4.1 Burner Isolation

For safety, all burners should be arranged so that it is impossible to
remove a burner from the firing assembly without isolating fuel supply to
the burner or tripping the combustion system.
This can be achieved in a number of ways. One method is to arrange a fuel cut
off cock so that its handle covers the disconnection fittings of the burner. The
cock handle must be placed in the shut position to give access to the release
mechanism.
4.2 Flame Detection

Boilers fitted with automated combustion control systems will have flame
detection devices for each individual burner. These continuously detect the
presence of a flame whenever the burner is meant to be firing.
Flame out is when combustion ceases during firing of the burner. Flame out
may be due to various factors, already mentioned in sub-section 1.
It is vital to detect flame out if it occurs, since:

• Without a flame, heat energy transfer will stop, and steam production will
cease.
• If flame out occurs, yet oil flow continues, there will be a flow of unburnt
fuel into the furnace. This fuel may be ignited by flame from other burners
but won’t burn properly or in the correct zone of the furnace.
Alternatively, unburnt fuel may build up in the furnace. Vapours will
accumulate and an explosion may occur at ignition.
A device known as a flame eye generally performs flame detection. This is a

photoelectric cell which generates a small electric current when exposed to the
light of a flame. This current ceases if flame failure occurs, setting off an
alarm and a trip to stop further fuel admission.

Boiler Combustion
An observation lens at the burner provides local evaluation of burner

performance, including flame failure.
4.3 Ignition Failure

One of the most likely situations when flame failure can occur is at initial
burner light off. An automatic ignition control system can be arranged to allow
for two or three restart attempts. If ignition does not occur at the first start
attempt, the ignition sequence repeats (this will include a purge cycle). After
the set number of failed ignition attempts, the control system trips, locks out,
and initiates an alarm.
4.4 Furnace Explosions

These are the result of the ignition of accumulated combustible vapours in the
confined spaces of the furnace or boiler uptakes.
Such explosions vary in degree from a small puff which will be absorbed by
the boiler structure (indicated by sudden boiler vibration and puffs of smoke
from the funnel) or blowback (a violent explosion which can damage the boiler
and kill people).
Events which lead to a furnace explosion:

• Temporary flame loss, allowing unburnt fuel to enter the boiler (in the
period before fuel is automatically shut off by the flame failure
detection system). This fuel will vapourise and may form an explosive
mixture which can be ignited by hot brickwork or by inexperienced
personnel attempting to re-establish combustion.
• Fuel leaking into an idle furnace which may form an explosive
mixture which can be ignited by a spark or when a burner is lit.
• Attempting to light-off burners from hot brickwork if automatic
igniters are not available, or failure of igniters. This may allow unburnt
fuel to accumulate and their vapours may be ignited by hot brickwork, but
explosively.
• Repeated unsuccessful ignition attempts without proper purging
between each attempt.
Purging
Purging is the venting of the furnace and boiler uptakes with combustion air
long enough to ensure that no pockets of flammable vapour exist.

Boiler Combustion
Particular care should be taken when raising steam in a cold boiler, since
a small flame will be used and it is easy for droplets of fuel to become
cooled before combustion is complete.
These cooled droplets can accumulate in the uptakes as vapour.
This accumulation can cause an explosion even if flame failure hasn’t
occurred.
The following points should be noted in regard to purging:
Purging notes:
• Purge should last for at least 3 minutes or 8 volumetric air changes.
Small boilers with small furnaces may (with Classification Society
approval) have a shorter purge period if adequate purging occurs;
• All registers should be open during purging;
• Purging should create sufficient air velocity to ensure all areas of the
furnace and uptakes are cleared;
• Purging should take place at about 75% or more of the full load air
flow (ie., fan load 75% or more);
• Purging must be performed prior to every attempt to ignite the first
burner;
• After purging, there should be a set period (say 5-6 minutes) of safety
during which an ignition attempt can be made;
• Purging will not remove liquid fuel which may have accumulated at
the bottom of the furnace. Thus the furnace must be inspected before
light off to check for oil pools.
4.5 Alarms & Trips

Alarms and trips stopping combustion include:
• Low low boiler water level;
• Flame failure;
• Low combustion air pressure;
• High high boiler pressure;
• Lock out after power failure;
• Low fuel oil pressure;
• Low atomising steam pressure (if used);
• Manual trip.

Boiler Combustion
5. Combustion Air
Air for combustion is divided into two supplies at the burner, primary air and
secondary air. This division is achieved by guiding plates and vanes. Primary
and secondary air supplies their respective flames.
Primary air must be in the correct proportion and of the right velocity. For air
registers with high velocity ‘air streams’, a tip plate at the end of the burner
causes the primary air to spill over into a series of vortices. This gives good
mixing and lowered forward flame speeds. Secondary air is directed through
swirl vanes to give the required flow pattern.
5.1 Draft Arrangements

Combustion air supply systems for auxiliary boilers are typically forced draft,
while for main boilers they may be forced, induced, or balanced draft.
Whatever draft arrangements are used depends on the particular requirements
of the boiler design and the type of fuel used.
Forced draft is where combustion air is pushed or forced into the boiler
combustion chamber by means of an externally powered fan/blower. This
assists density variations and natural convective currents. It causes a positive
pressure in the boiler; hence any casing leaks can cause combustion gases to
enter the machinery space. Typically, one fan is capable of providing all the
air required.
Induced draft, where the fan is situated either at the base of the uptakes or at
the exit point of the uptakes. This fan sucks or induces airflow from the
atmosphere through the combustion space and then up and out from the boiler.
If the fan is at the base of the uptakes, it both sucks and pushes. In this case a
negative pressure exists inside the boiler.
Balanced draft, where there are both forced draft and induced draft fans. The
fans are arranged so that a small negative pressure exists inside the boiler.
Smaller boiler installations favour forced draft systems, while larger boiler
plants may have balanced draft systems. A balanced draft system uses both a
forced draft and an induced draft fan (the induced draft fan is fitted on the
exhaust uptake of the boiler and induces or sucks a flow through the furnace.
Forced Draft Fan

Features of a modern forced draft fan include:
• double inlet;
Boiler Combustion
• centrifugal;
• backward sloping;
• aerofoil bladed.
Figure 14 Forced Draft Fan
Figure 15 Photograph of FD fan

Boiler Combustion
Typical fan arrangements are:

• One fan capable of providing all the air required;
• Two fans each capable of providing all the air required;
• Three fans each capable of providing half the air required.
Induced Draft Fan

In earlier installations, these fans suffered from overheated bearings, distortion,
corrosion, and imbalance due to soot deposits, since they operate with hot
exhaust gas. Locations of these fans was effectively restricted to areas where
gas temperatures are less than 2000C.
Modern induced draft fans use water cooled bearings, and are usually of the
radially bladed paddle wheel type. The blade tips are easily replaceable when
necessary due to erosion/corrosion.
Figure 16 Induced Draft Fan

Boiler Combustion
Figure 17 Photograph of ID fan
Air Flow Control

Control of air flow is typically achieved by varying damper position. Large
boilers may instead use varying prime mover speed.
Electric motors are the main form of fan drive. They are most energy efficient
when running at constant speed, having been matched to the fan load.
However, speed control of such motors (using alternating current) is complex.
Dampers, or adjustable vanes restricting air flow to or from the fan are
common means of air flow control. These provide throttling of air and is a
waste of energy. However, in comparison to the cost and complexity of
variable speed motors, these energy losses are acceptable.
A damper control arrangement is shown in figure 18. Pneumatic actuators

move the guide plate. This plate causes the linkages to move, which rotates the
blades. This opens up or closes in the inlet passage to the fan, controlling air
flow.

Boiler Combustion
Figure 18 Damper Air Flow Control
Figure 19 FD fan damper control

Boiler Combustion
Figure 20 ID fan damper control
5.2 Air Heaters

Preheated combustion air accelerates the rate of combustion in the furnace and
thereby improves boiler efficiency. Additionally, the effect of cold air
impinging on the boiler surfaces is avoided.
Heating of the combustion air can be achieved by:

• Using double casing construction, allowing air for combustion to flow
around boiler between the two casings;
• Bled steam air heating;
• Exhaust gas heating.
Bled steam air heating

These are simply finned tube steam/air heat exchangers, with steam inside the
tubes and air flowing over them. The tubes are normally cupro-nickel with
copper fins, expanded into steel headers, and encased in a steel housing.

Boiler Combustion
6. Products of Combustion &

Their Effects
6.1 Typical Products of Combustion
The phrase products of combustion is another way to classify the constituents
of exhaust gas.
These products will include:
• Water vapour (if exhaust gas is white in colour, this may indicate water
contamination of the fuel);
• Carbon dioxide, CO2;
• Carbon monoxide, CO (if CO is present, there is poor combustion);
• Nitrogen, N2 (from the air)
• Oxygen, O2 (due to excess air being used)
• Oxides of nitrogen, NOx (the nitrogen and oxygen combining due to the
high temperatures present during combustion);
• Oxides of sulphur, SOx (the sulphur being present in the fuel);
• Vanadium pentoxide, V2O5 (the vanadium being present in the fuel);
• Sodium Chloride, NaCl, (salt from sea water contamination of air);
• Particulate matter (ash and unburnt carbon).
Use of excess air means additional amounts of nitrogen and unburnt oxygen
will be present during combustion. These additional gases absorb heat energy
from the combustion flame, meaning that there is less energy available to
generate steam. Thus, large values of excess air reduce boiler efficiency.
Particulate matter will deposit on boiler surfaces. These deposits:

• Restrict gas flow;
• Act as an insulating layer, reducing heat transfer;
• Can be the fuel source of uptake fires if they ignite (this will be the unburnt
carbon).
The possibility of deposit formation always exists, especially when burning

residual fuel. However, good maintenance of combustion equipment and good
combustion help to reduce the amount of deposits formed. Regular use of
sootblowers, which use jets of steam to remove deposits, avoids build up of
deposits. Regular water washing of the gas side of the boiler when shut down
removes any deposits which have been missed during sootblowing. Thus

Boiler Combustion
sootblowing and water washing are complementary methods of removing gas

side deposits of a boiler, its uptakes and the waste heat unit.
6.2 Gas Side Corrosion

There are two types of corrosion which may occur on the external gas passages
of the boiler:
• high temperature corrosion;
• low temperature corrosion.
High temperature corrosion

If the superheater or waste heat unit tube external surfaces are covered with
deposits containing sodium and vanadium compounds (contaminants in the
fuel), corrosion can occur. This high temperature corrosion takes place when
the deposit is molten.
Chromium improves resistance to this form of corrosion; hence high

chromium/nickel alloys are used as superheater support materials (the nickel is
used to resist the high temperatures experienced).
These compounds, when molten, capture soot and ash and result in severe
deposit formation of tubes in the exhaust gas path, especially superheater
tubes. This is known as slagging.
Combustion products may react chemically with refractory at high

temperatures. This can cause the refractory in the furnace to decompose and
deform, causing slagging of the refractory. Vanadium causes cracking of this
slag (slag cracking).
Low temperature corrosion

This is due to the formation of acids in the dewpoint region of the gases.
Dewpoint is the temperature at which condensation of acids occurs.
While gaseous, acids in the exhaust gas do not harm the boiler uptakes. It
is only when they condense that these acids cause corrosion.
Some of the sulphur in the fuel, after the combustion process, combines with
water to form sulphuric acid, H2SO4, vapour, which will condense on any
surface which lies below the dewpoint of the vapour.
The dewpoint range is typically around 121o C to 177o C, but the actual values
depend on the air properties and the nature of the fuel, and may thus be
different.
Boiler Combustion
Coping with these problems

Choice of fuel used in the boiler and main engine, and setting maximum
acceptable levels of contaminants is one major way of dealing with high and
low temperature corrosion.
Using special materials which resist these problems is another method that is
used.
Regular cleaning and inspection should be carried out to regularly check the
occurrence and amount of high/low temperature corrosion and deposit
formation.

Boiler Combustion
7. Automatic Combustion Control

The fundamental purpose of an automatic combustion control system is to
regulate combustion to maintain steam production demand.
The essential requirement for an automatic combustion control system is

to correctly proportion the flow rates of fuel and air.
Correctly proportioning fuel and air flow rates will ensure:

• Complete combustion;
• A minimum of excess air;
• Acceptable exhaust gases.
A very basic combustion control arrangement is to use simple on/off control.

If boiler pressure gets too low, the combustion system automatically starts up,
performs a purge cycle, ignites and then allows the fuel to burn at one (or
perhaps a high or low) fuel and air flow rate. When boiler pressure reaches a
set maximum value, the combustion system shuts down.
7.1 Modulating Combustion Control System
Figure 21 Modulating Combustion Control System

Boiler Combustion
Figure 21 shows a modulating combustion control system for a watertube

boiler. For the sake of simplicity, this system does not show the
automatic/manual change over switches and manual controls necessary for
manual operation.
Modulating refers to the fact that the fuel and air flows are varied to achieve
control.
There are three sensors in this system:

• Steam pressure;
• Fuel flow;
• Air flow.
The steam pressure sensor may be mounted at the steam drum or at the outlet
of the superheater.
Flow sensors used in combustion control actually measure a pressure drop

across a device. In the case of fuel flow, this device is an orifice plate. It can
be shown that the flow rate is proportional to the square root of the differential
pressure so measured. Thus, this pressure drop signal is sent to a square root
extractor and the resultant signal will indicate flow rate.
The operation of this system is as follows:
Drop in steam pressure Ö increased firing required

• The steam pressure signal is sent to a master controller. This is compared
to the set value. Since steam pressure is lower than set point, the controller
will send a signal to the slave controller actuating the fuel control valve.
• Fuel flow rate is increased.
• Fuel flow sensor sends the new fuel flow rate to the air/fuel ratio
comparator (marked A/F RATIO). This value is then sent to the air/fuel
ratio controller.
• Since the fuel flow rate has increased but the air flow has not, the air/fuel
ratio controller sends a signal to the FD fan damper actuator.
• Air flow rate is increased, restoring correct air/fuel ratio at the new fuel
flow rate.

Boiler Combustion
Limitations of the simple combustion control system

Unfortunately, the simple combustion control system of figure 21 has
limitations. These limitations are:
• Increased response time. The control system cannot act until the change
in steam demand has sufficiently changed boiler pressure.
• Poor combustion during transient periods. When fuel flow rate is
increased before air flow rate, there will be insufficient combustion air and
poor combustion, giving black smoke, will result.
State the response of the combustion control system of figure 21 to an increase

in steam pressure.
7.2 Improved Combustion Control System

Modern main boiler combustion control systems overcome the deficiencies of
the simple combustion control system of figure 21. We will not look at these
systems in detail at this level of your training, but will learn about the basic
differences.
Steam pressure is no longer the major value which controls firing rate. A
steam flow transmitter is used to give a much faster response. Steam pressure
measurement still occurs, but acts as a trimming value to the control system,
adjusting firing rate to overcome any long term deviation in steam pressure and
also to cater for inaccuracy of the steam flow transmitter at low steam flow
rates.
The other major additions to this system are high and low signal selectors.
These high and low selectors make sure that combustion air flow is always
greater than air/fuel ratio requirements when load changes occurs.
This ensures that there will always be sufficient air for combustion.
Boiler Combustion
If firing rate needs to be increased, air flow rate will increase first, and
then fuel flow rate will increase.
If firing rate needs to be decreased, fuel flow rate will decrease first, and
then air flow rate will decrease.
7.3 On – Off or High/Low/Off Combustion

Control
These types of control are often used with shell boiler where the burner is
either on or off (two step control). For slightly better control, three step
control is sometimes used. Here, the burner is off, or on high flame, or on low
flame.
In each case the damper will be at a set position (adjustable) to give the correct
amount of combustion air. If accurate pressure control is required then
modulating control will be used.

Boiler Combustion
Progress Check
1. Make a simple sketch of a fuel oil settling tank, and indicate nine (9)
features that will be present.
2. Define turn down ratio and explain its significance for burner operation,
and state typical turn down ratios for a simple pressure jet burner and a
rotary cup burner.
3. Identify the flame appearance and exhaust gas colour for correct
combustion and when there is too much air.
4. Identify the purpose of purging a boiler, and state how long should purging
last.
5. Explain what is meant by forced and induced draft.
6. Make a labelled sketch of a modulating combustion control system. State
the response of this system to an increase in steam pressure.

Waterboxes may be made of cast iron or mild steel, neoprene or bonded-rubber coated.
Tubes are generally made from some form of copper alloy, such as:
• 70% copper, 30% nickel
• 70% copper, 30% zinc (with arsenic to minimise seawater corrosion of the zinc)
• 76% copper, 28% zinc, 2% aluminium with small amounts of arsenic, antimony,
and/or tin (this is called aluminium brass).
Tubes may also be made from titanium.
The tubes are rolled and bell mouthed at the inlet end and packed at the discharge end to
allow for expansion. Bell mouthing is used to give a smooth flow as the water enters and
leaves the tubes.
Figure 1 Condenser Tube Expanded & Packed
Alternatively, the tubes can be expanded and bell mouthed at both ends. If so, expansion
of the tubes may be allowed for by having expansion joints in the shell.
Plastic inserts or ferrules are often used in the tube ends. These inserts protect the tube
ends from erosion, which leads to seawater leakage into the condensate.
Baffles and support plates inside the condenser are typically made from mild steel plate.
3. Air Ejectors
3.1 Purpose & Operating Principles
Air ejectors remove ‘air’ (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases) from the condenser.
The pipeline between the ejector and the condenser is connected in such a way that as
little steam as possible is drawn off with the air.
Figure 2 Air Ejector
Two stages of convergent/divergent nozzles and condensers are often used. Steam
passes through a nozzle and enters a venturi. The high velocity of the steam creates a
suction which draws air and some steam vapour from the condenser. The mixture then
passes into a condensing unit through which feedwater is passing. The mixture is cooled
and most of the steam is condensed. This condensed vapour is returned to the main
condenser via a loop seal. The remaining gases and vapours are then drawn into the next
stage where the process is repeated. Any remaining gases are released to the atmosphere
through a vacuum retaining valve (ie, a non-return valve).
The feedwater, which typically passes through U-tubes (or else expansion allowances
must be made), is itself heated which improves the thermal efficiency of the steam plant.
On start-up, the last stage ejector is open first. This creates the initial vacuum and
prevents vapour/air lockup in the unit.
A pair of ejectors may be fitted to each stage. Only one ejector per stage is needed to
create the necessary vacuum, the other ejectors are spare.
Relief valves are fitted on each stage to relieve any overpressure which could occur.
3.2 Air Ejector Materials

The nozzles of the air ejector may be monel or stainless steel. The condensing tubes may
be aluminium brass, while the remainder of the air ejector is typically constructed from
mild steel.
4. Extraction Pumps
4.1 Purposes & Operating Principles
The condensate extraction pump is used to draw water from the hotwell of the
condenser.
The pump provides sufficient pressure to deliver the feed water to the deaerator.
The extraction pump is usually a two stage, vertical centrifugal pump.
The first stage impeller draws in water which is under a high vacuum and is very close to
boiling point. It is very difficult to pump this water, so the purpose of the first stage is to
give a slight positive pressure to the condensate so that it can be pumped effectively by
the second stage. Any vapour formed in the eye of the first stage impeller is vented back
to the condenser. This helps to stop vacuum locking of the pump.
Vacuum locking is where the water flow through the pump stops.
Figure 3 Extraction Pump

The second stage impeller provides the necessary pressure to pump the water to the
deaerator.
Some extraction pumps have small diameter piping, called balance lines, between the
pump discharge and the condenser (or the pump inlet). These balance lines also help to
prevent vacuum locking of the pump.
A level control system is used to maintain a minimum level of water in the hotwell, again
to stop the pump from suffering a vacuum lock. If the hotwell level becomes too low,
the pump discharge is returned to the hotwell.
Other extraction pumps are constructed so that they are self-regulating. These pumps
are used with dry bottomed condensers (ie, where the hotwell is below the main chamber
of the condenser). As the head of water above the pump suction reduces, the pump starts
to cavitate (vapour bubbles form and the pump loses suction, ie it vacuum locks). The
condensate level in the hotwell increases. As the hotwell water level increases, the pump
picks up suction and the level falls to establish a balanced flow rate.
4.2 Extraction Pump Materials

The pump casing may be constructed from cast iron or cast steel, the impellers and pump
shaft are typically made from stainless steel. Internal bearings and casing/wear rings are
constructed out of leaded bronze.
5. Feed Heaters
5.1 Purposes & Operating Principles
The glands steam condenser, drains cooler, and low pressure feed heater are shell and
tube heat exchangers. They provide cooling for drains, condense gland steam and also
heat the feedwater.
Heating the feedwater before it enters the boiler has the following advantages:
• Improves thermal efficiency of the steam plant;
• Keeping the feed hot minimises the amount of dissolved gases present;
• Minimises the thermal shock of cold water entering the hot boiler.
The glands steam condenser collects steam and air from the turbine glands steam system.
These returns are cooled by the feedwater, and the steam is condensed. This condensate
is then drained to the atmospheric through a loop seal or steam trap, while the air is
vented to atmosphere.
The drains cooler receives exhaust steam from various auxiliary steam services and
condenses them. The condensate again drains to the atmospheric drains tank through a
sealing arrangement as above.
The low pressure feed heater uses either steam bled from the turbine casing or from the
auxiliary steam range to heat the feedwater. Feed temperature may rise by up to 50OC.
Typical proportions of feedwater to steam are 10:1. The steam condensed in the low
pressure feed heater drains, through a control valve, to the atmospheric drains tank or
condenser.
5.2 Feed Heater Materials

Feed heaters are typically constructed like other shell and tube heat exchangers. The
shell and endcovers are fabricated from steel, while the tubes and tube plates are made
from copper or brass alloys.
6. The Deaerator
6.1 Purposes of the Deaerator
The deaerator is a direct contact feed heater where steam mixes with the feedwater as it
provides heating. Basically, it is a tank of water high in the engine room which is
directly heated by steam.
The purposes of the deaerator are:

• Remove gases from the feedwater (deaeration);
• Feed heating;
• Stop main feed pump gassing up;
• Acts as a surge tank.
Deaeration and feed heating

The gas which is of greatest concern for the boiler is oxygen. Oxygen in high pressure
boilers can cause rapid corrosion. The oxygen level of the feedwater is reduced from 0.2
millilitres of oxygen per litre of water (0.2ml/l) to o.005 ml/l. The deaerator achieves
this reduction of oxygen by intimately mixing the feedwater with steam, which raises the
feedwater to boiling point, releasing any dissolved gases.
These gases are then cooled to reclaim any steam carried over with the gases and then
vented to atmosphere.
Gassing Up Prevention
The deaerator supplies feedwater to the main feed pump. Feedwater in the deaerator is at
or very close to boiling point, and will vapourise (or flash off) into steam if the pressure
drops. This effect can cause gassing up, where the feed pump creates a sufficient
pressure drop to vapourise the water at the pump inlet.
The deaerator is placed as high as possible above the main feed pump. This arrangement
means that there is a head of water between the deaerator outlet and the main feed pump
suction. Water pressure at the pump inlet is thus increased and the possibility of gassing
up is reduced.
The deaerator in some steam plants is placed low in the engine room. With this layout, a
booster pump after the deaerator is fitted to stop the feed pump gassing up.
Surge Tank
Since the deaerator contains a mass of water, it acts as a surge tank for the main feed
pump. Consider when the steam plant is running at steady state and the steam demand
suddenly increases. The feed regulator increases the feed flow rate into the boiler,
however, the extra steam that is used has not had time to be used in the turbine,
condensed and returned to the feed system. Without the deaerator, the feed pump may
run out of its water supply as the feed flow rate increases. The reserve of water in the
deaerator allows for the sudden increase in feed flow rate (the level of water in the
deaerator falls) and the feed pump is not starved of water. As the steam plant returns to
steady state conditions, the deaerator level returns to normal.
Alternatively, if there is a sudden decrease in steam demand, the feed regulator closes in
and the main feed pump output reduces. The feed flow rate of the system is now too
great; in this case, the extra water will be stored in the deaerator.
If the deaerator level falls too much (indicating a loss of water or steam), a control valve
automatically opens and make up feed from the feed tank drains into the condenser,
restoring the volume of water in the feed system.
If the deaerator level rises too much (which could cause the deaerator to malfunction), a
control valve opens and overflow from the deaerator drains to the make up feed tank.
6.2 Operation of a Deaerator

A typical deaerator is shown in figure 12.
Feedwater enters a chamber in the top of the deaerator. The supply pressure forces this
water through spring loaded spray valves, causing the water to atomise or break into a
large number of very small water droplets. This water spray gives a large contact area
between the feedwater and the steam.
Most of the feedwater falls onto the upper surface of the inner cone which is heated by
the incoming steam. This feedwater then enters the central passage and leaves through a
narrow opening in a venturi. The feedwater at this venturi draws steam through with it,
and intimate mixing of the feedwater and steam occurs.
Figure 4 Deaerator
The feedwater and condensed steam collects in the bottom chamber which acts as the
storage tank.
Heating steam enters the deaerator, initially heating the cone assembly before mixing
with the feedwater.
This heating of the feedwater releases any gases dissolved in the feedwater. These
released gases leave through vent connection and pass through a vent condenser. Water
vapour which has carried over with the gases is condensed and returned.
6.3 Deaerator Materials

The deaerator shell is fabricated from steel plate. Insulation in the form of layers of
calcium silicate, glass wool and galvanised steel cladding covers the shell. Internal
components are fabricated from steel, while stainless steel is used for the atomiser
nozzles.
7. Main Feed Pump

7.1 Purpose of Main Feed Pump
The main feed pump forces the feedwater, at high pressure and the necessary flow rate,
into the boiler.
For low pressure boilers, the feed pump is a multi-stage electric driven pump.
The main feed pump of a steam ship, however, is driven by a steam turbine.
Four reasons for using a steam turbine are:

• The pump requires a large amount of power to supply the water at the high pressure
and flow rate needed;
• The pump must be capable of supplying very quickly changing flow rates;
• Surges in pump power needs do not affect the ship’s electrical system;
• Electrical power black out will not starve the boiler of feedwater.
Two main feed pumps are fitted, one in operation and the other on standby. Auxiliary
electric feed pumps are sometimes fitted to provide feedwater to the boiler when there is
no steam available (eg on initial flash up).
7.2 Main Feed Pump Operation &

Construction
A typical main feed pump for a steam ship is shown in figure 13.
Figure 5 Main Feed Pump General Arrangement
A simple sketch of this pump is given in figure 14:
Figure 6 Main Feed Pump Simplified Sketch
The pump shown in figures 13 and 14 is a horizontal, two stage centrifugal, steam
turbine driven pump. The driving turbine is mounted on the same shaft as the pump
impellers and is contained in an integrally cast steel casing. The bearings for this pump
are bronze impregnated with PTFE (poly-tetra-fluoro-ethylene or teflon) and are
lubricated by filtered pressure reduced water tapped from the first stage impeller
discharge. Other main feed pumps use more traditional bearing materials such as white
metal and are oil lubricated.
The pump is controlled by a differential pressure governor; it has a venturi fitted in the
discharge connection which gives a pressure drop proportional to flow rate. This
pressure drop is used to control the steam flow to the turbine.
Feed pump components are normally made from creep resistant steel.
Turbine End
Turbine principles and operation are discussed in other Sections.
Steam at main boiler pressure passes to the nozzle box through an isolating valve, a
strainer and a throttle valve.
The turbine itself operates on the impulse principle, and has one pressure stage and two
velocity stages. Blades are fixed (by fir tree root connections) to a turbine wheel
connected to the pump shaft by a saw tooth coupling known as a Hirth coupling. The
exhaust steam is not sent to a condenser but is delivered to an auxiliary steam range for
further use (such as feed heating).
The stainless steel pump shaft is hollow at the turbine end. This creates a heat shield
between the turbine wheel and the bearing, to stop the bearing overheating.
Overspeed protection is achieved by using a spring loaded weight mounted in the shaft.
If the turbine speed becomes too great (eg if the pump gasses up), this weight moves
radially outwards and strikes a lever which shuts the steam stop.
Pump End
Two stainless steel impellers and a stainless steel balance piston are keyed onto the pump
shaft.
Two impellers are needed to give a two stage pressure increase to the feedwater. This is
necessary since the pump suction pressure is relatively low (eg 3 to 5 bar) while the
discharge is very high (boiler pressure, eg 60 bar).
One important feature of the pump is the balance piston, which is used to counteract the
thrust due to the pressure difference acting on the impellers. The inlet pressure acting on
the inlet side of the impellers creates an axial force. However, the very high discharge
pressure acting on the outlet side of the impeller creates a far greater axial force acting in
the opposite direction. The resultant force tends to push the impellers and shaft towards
the pump suction end.
The thrust bearing of the pump, while suitable for loads encountered at start up and shut
down, is not able to bear these high axial forces. The balance piston in its chamber uses
hydraulic forces to resist the axial thrust forces, and keeps the rotating components of
the pump in correct position.
Figure 7 Feed Pump Hydraulic Balance
8. Defects
Many different defects can occur in the feed system. Some defects will have dramatic
effects; others are minor and may not have immediate or noticeable effects.
The actions taken when a defect is noticed depends to a large degree on the defect.
Defects which affect the safety of the steam plant (such as main feed pump failure
causing loss of feed water to the boiler) must be acted upon immediately according to
ship’s procedures and the Chief Engineer’s Standing Orders. Other defects, or suspicion
of defects, should be reported to the Second Engineer; the watchkeeper should then
follow the Second Engineer’s instructions.
Efficient and regular watchkeeping/monitoring of the feed system is the best method of
detecting defects. This will include:
• Monitoring of system flows, pressures and temperatures;
• Noticing any sudden changes in these values;
• Noticing any small but increasing differences in these values (this is called trend
analysis);
• Regular inspection and maintenance of components;
• Performing tests on the boiler and feed water to detect contaminants and/or
determine the amount of chemical additives present (this is called the chemical
reserve).
Be aware that some symptoms may indicate a secondary defect. A secondary defect is
caused by another defect of the system. Thus, even if the secondary defect is repaired,
the original problem has still not been fixed or even noticed.
Some defects which may occur are:

• Loss of vacuum in condenser;
• Feed contamination;
• Deaerator malfunction;
• Main feed pump failure.
Loss of vacuum in condenser
Loss of condenser vacuum may be due to:
• Poor cooling water flow (blockages, dirty filters, shut valves, defective circulating
pump);
• Rising condenser level (extraction pump failure, condenser level control system
failure);
• Air leakage into the turbine or condenser;
• Poor heat transfer (sea temperature high, dirty tubes);
• Defective air ejector.
All these causes will reduce condenser vacuum, thus to identify which defect is causing
the problem, all possible information may be to be evaluated. For example, if the
condenser tubes are dirty, the loss of vacuum will be associated with a rise in condensate
temperature, while air leaks will cause a loss of vacuum but the condensate temperature
will remain normal.
Feed contamination
Contamination of the feed water may be initially detected by:
• Salinity detector readings increasing;
• Boiler water test results (eg results indicating a rise in chloride levels).
The source of contamination must be determined and repairs made as soon as possible.
Two likely sources are:
• Make up feed water contamination;
• Condenser tube leak.
If, for example, the fresh water generator is malfunctioning or is operated incorrectly, the
make up feed will be contaminated and this means that the reserve supply of feed water
is unsatisfactory. One way to minimise the amount of contamination (when there are two
make up feed tanks), is to have one tank in use while the other is being filled (ie, stop the
chance of both feed tanks being contaminated).
Condenser tubes can be eroded or corroded, allowing cooling water to leak into the
condensate. Some condensers are so arranged that, once a leak is suspected, the
condenser load is reduced and one half of the condenser can be shut down and leak tested
at a time. Some condenser leaks can be detected by isolating and draining the seawater
side of the condenser, filling the steam side with water and checking the tube ends for
leakages. The addition of a fluorescent dye and use of an ultraviolet lamp aids in
detection of smaller leaks. Another way to detect leaks is to isolate the cooling water
side of the condenser, but maintaining vacuum on the steam/condensate side. An
ultrasonic probe is then placed in each tube. A leaking tube will generate noise as air
enters the condenser through the leak. Once the leaking tube is identified, the tube is
plugged either end. The condenser may still be operated with a number of tubes plugged
(the allowable maximum number should be stated in ship’s procedures and/or maker’s
manuals).
To remove or reduce the contamination, the boiler is blown down at decreased intervals
(to dilute it with clean make up water); extra amounts of water treatment chemicals may
also be added.
Deaerator malfunction
A malfunctioning deaerator may cause two problems:
• Failure of feed pump;
• Deaeration inadequate.
If the level control system for the deaerator malfunctions and the water level in the
deaerator falls, the feed pump may be starved of water. Alternatively, too high a
deaerator level may cause chilling of the water, which can inhibit the deaeration process.
If the spray nozzles are worn (causing poor atomisation of the feed) or if temperatures
drop, deaeration may again be impair. This will allow gases to remain in the feedwater.
Careful monitoring of deaerator parameters such as pressure and temperature, as well as

regular inspection and maintenance of the deaerator and its systems, will help in
preventing or at least detecting problems early.
The watchkeeper should report any suspicions of malfunction to the Second Engineer.
Main feed pump failure

If the main feed pump fails, the first action (performed automatically or by the
watchkeeper) is to start the standby pump. The failure can be due to a number of causes,
such as lubrication failure, pump gassing up, and/or pump overspeed and trip.
If the main feed pump fails and boiler feed cannot be immediately restored, steam
demand should be reduced and the boiler shut down as soon as possible.
Once feed to the boiler has been restored, the cause of the failure can be investigated and
rectification begun.
Condensate/Feed Systems
Condensate/Feed
Systems

Contents Page
Introduction 4
1. Open and Closed Feed Systems 5
1.1 Functions of a Feed System 5
1.2 Open Feed System 6
1.3 Closed Feed System 8
1.4 Other Typical Components 9
2 Condensers 11
2.1 Purposes of a Condenser 11
2.2 Types of Condensers 12
2.3 Condenser Materials 17
3. Air Ejectors Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.1 Purpose & Operating Principles Error!

Bookmark not defined.
3.2 Air Ejector Materials Error! Bookmark not

defined.
4. Extraction PumpsError! Bookmark not defined.
4.1 Purposes & Operating Principles Error!

4.2 Extraction Pump MaterialsError! Bookmark not

defined.

5. Feed Heaters Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.1 Purposes & Operating Principles Error!

5.2 Feed Heater MaterialsError! Bookmark not

defined.
6. The Deaerator Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.1 Purposes of the DeaeratorError! Bookmark not

defined.
6.2 Operation of a DeaeratorError! Bookmark not

defined.
6.3 Deaerator MaterialsError! Bookmark not defined.
7. Main Feed PumpError! Bookmark not defined.
7.1 Purpose of Main Feed PumpError! Bookmark

not defined.
7.2 Main Feed Pump Operation & ConstructionError! Bookmark n
8. Defects Error! Bookmark not defined.

Introduction
Feed systems are an important part of the steam plant.
The feed system may be defined as that part of the steam cycle which lies
between the exhaust steam leaving the turbine and entry of feed water into the
boiler.
Since these systems operate with condensed steam, they are also known as
condensate/feed systems.
The arrangement and components of a feed system for different ships will
differ, but there will be some similarities for all systems.
This Section will describe a typical high pressure boiler feed system and its
components.

1. Open and Closed Feed

Systems
1.1 Functions of a Feed System
The four functions of a feed system are:
• Change waste steam to condensate;
• Transfer condensate, as feed water, to the boiler;
• Pre-heat the feed water;
• Remove gases from the feed water.
Change waste steam to condensate

Steam must be changed back into water (called condensate) before being
returned to the boiler.
Transfer condensate, as feed water, to the boiler

The condensate is raised to boiler pressure and delivered, as feed water, back
to the boiler.
Pre-heat the feed water

The thermodynamic efficiency of the steam plant is greatly improved if the
water entering the boiler is as close as possible to boiling temperature at boiler
pressure. In other words, less fuel is used if the feed water is heated before it
enters the boiler.
Remove gases from the feed water

Gases dissolved in water, especially oxygen, are undesirable in the steam plant,
especially the boiler.
The systems described in Sub-sections 1.2 and 1.3 represent typical feed
systems. Actual feed systems will vary between steam plants, so some
differences between these systems and equivalent systems on your ship may be
expected.

1.2 Open Feed System
Figure 1 Open Feed System
At some stage(s) in the open feed system, the feed is exposed to the
atmosphere.
The feed water will therefore absorb gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.
The open feed system is now only used for low pressure auxiliary steam plants,
where dissolved gases in the feed water are relatively unimportant.
Condensate returns from fuel heating systems, tank heaters and other such
services collect in a observation tank (this tank may also be called an drains
tank), constructed from mild steel and ribbed or otherwise framed to support
the mass of water it contains. It allows for the detection of oil contamination.
There may be a heat exchanger and filters in the drains tank to cool and clean
the collected returns.
A flash chamber may be fitted prior to the observation tank. This allows any
steam which may be present in the returns (or steam which may flash off as it
enters the chamber) to be drawn off into the condenser.
The condensate from the condenser and drains tank drains, due to gravity, to a
hotwell. The hotwell has internal steel baffles which are designed to trap oil to
stop it passing on into the boiler.
A feed pump draws water from the hotwell and raises it to boiler pressure. A
feed heater can be used to preheat the feed before it enters the boiler. The feed
then enters the boiler through the feed regulator (in the main feed line) or
through a manual valve (in the auxiliary feed line).
If the water level in the hotwell falls, a float valve opens and additional water
(known as make up feed or just make up) from a reserve tank is added to the
hotwell. Excess water in the hotwell may be arranged to overflow to an
overflow tank, where there may be a high level alarm fitted.
The drains tank and hotwell are open to the atmosphere. Removal of oxygen in
the water is done by keeping the hotwell as hot as possible and making sure the
lids of these tanks are only open when necessary (when the tanks are being
inspected by the duty engineer).
Exhaust steam from various services (such as a turbo-generator, or cargo

pumps on an oil tanker) is changed to condensate in the condenser. An
atmospheric condenser operates at atmospheric pressure, while a vacuum
condenser operates under a vacuum created by a vacuum pump or a steam
venturi arrangement. A vacuum condenser allows more energy to be obtained
from the turbine.

1.3 Closed Feed System
Figure 2 Closed Feed System
A closed feed system is sealed off from the atmosphere.
By minimising contact with the atmosphere, oxygen is prevented from entering

the water. As boiler pressure increases, the effects of oxygen and other gases
dissolved in the feed water (such as corrosion) increase and must be avoided.
Thus, even though it is more expensive, the closed feed system must be used
for main steam plants.
Steam from the main turbine is condensed in the main condenser, which will
operate under a high vacuum. This condensate collects in a hotwell which is
part of the condenser.
An extraction pump removes the condensate from the hotwell in the bottom of
the condenser and supplies it to the rest of the feed system.
The condensate then passes through the air ejector condenser, gland steam
condenser, and drains cooler. The air ejector uses steam to remove air from
the condenser; excess gland steam from the turbine is condensed in the gland
steam condenser; while the drains from these condensers (and other such
components) are cooled in the drains cooler. The condensate provides cooling
to these components and will therefore be heated.

A recirculating line, where fitted, is used during starting up, manoeuvring, or

shutting down to ensure circulation of condensate through the air ejector and
glands condenser.
Steam is used to heat the condensate in the low pressure heater. Heating the
water up in stages as it passes through the system (rather than heating it up
only in the boiler) improves the thermal efficiency of the steam plant.
Drains collect in the atmospheric drains tank, which is at atmospheric

pressure. This tank is like the observation tank in the open feed system. This
tank, in fact, will be open to the atmosphere, but the water in this tank is only a
small proportion of the total amount of water in the feed system. The drains
pump (operated on intermittent or on/off control) provides simple level control
of the atmospheric drains tank.
The condensate is then delivered to the deaerator. The deaerator removes

gases from the water as well as acting as a feed heater. The water may now be
called feed rather than condensate.
Feedwater from the deaerator is then raised to boiler pressure by the feed
pump. The feedwater may then be again heated in a high pressure heater. This
pressurised feed then enters the boiler through the feed regulator (in the main
feed line) or through the auxiliary feed line).
Excess water at the deaerator flows, through an automatic valve, to the make
up or feed tank. If the level in the deaerator becomes too low, make up water
is fed to the condenser hotwell from the feed tank (again through a control
valve).
1.4 Other Typical Components

Other components of the feed system which will be present are:
• Valves;
• Contaminated Drains Tank;
• Salinity Detector;
• Other Monitoring devices;
• Chemical Dosing.
Valves
Valves will be present in the system. Some are used for isolation of shut down
or malfunctioning equipment and are manually operated globe or gate valves.
Other valves are used for control purposes, and are automatically operated,
typically using compressed air as the operating medium.
Contaminated Drains Tank

If steam is used in circumstances where there is a possibility of contamination

by oil (such as fuel oil heating for viscosity control), the drains from these
services may be led to a contaminated drains tank before collecting in the
atmospheric drains tank. This tank, regularly monitored by ship’s staff for oil
contamination, helps to reduce the possibility of oil contamination of the main
feed system. Alternatively, a steam to steam generator may be used.
Salinity Detector
Seawater or fresh water contamination of the condensate is very undesirable
since they contain salts and gases which can cause corrosion and scale
formation of the steam plant, especially in the boiler. A salinity detector is
located after the extraction pump discharge to detect seawater or fresh water
contamination.
The detector measures the conductivity of the condensate. Salt or fresh water
contamination increases the electrical conductivity of the water, due to the
presence of the salts and other contaminants. Temperature compensation (in
other words, an allowance made for water temperature), is needed, since
conductivity changes as the water temperature changes. If the conductivity of
the water, measured in mho’s, increases, the detector will trip an alarm.
Other Monitoring devices

As well as the salinity detector, other monitoring devices such as pressure
gauges and temperature sensors will be present at points in the feed system.
These devices may be local (ie, they are read or recorded locally by the
watchkeeper); others may be remote, connected to the engine room monitoring
system for control and/or alarm actuation.
Chemical Dosing
Chemicals are used to protect the steam system from corrosion and scale
formation. These chemicals must be added, or dosed, into the feed system.
Most chemicals are added using a dosing pot, one typical location for this
dosing is in the high pressure supply section of the feed system, just before the
feed regulating valve. The chemicals are mixed with water and poured into a
chamber. The lid of the chamber is secured and the chamber is vented of air.
The line is pressurised with feedwater, which forces the chemicals into the feed
system.
Some chemicals, such as hydrazine, must be added continuously. Hydrazine

removes oxygen from water, and is called an oxygen scavenger. The
necessary amount of hydrazine is mixed with water in a tank. This tank
supplies a metering pump, which injects a small but continuous amount of
chemical into the feed system between the deaerator and the main feed pump.

Hydrazine, or its derivatives, is dangerous. It is known to cause cancer,

and is also explosive.
Correct storage and handling procedures and precautions must always be
followed.
Always use correct personal protective equipment when working with
hydrazine.
2 Condensers
2.1 Purposes of a Condenser
A condenser removes energy from waste steam, causing it to condense.
The purposes of the main condenser are to:

• Fully condense waste steam from the main turbine;
• Remove gases from the steam;
• Create a vacuum to maximise turbine work;
• Supply water to the rest of the feed system.
Fully condense waste steam from the main turbine

Waste steam must be changed back to water before it can be re-used in the rest
of the steam plant.
Remove gases from the steam

Gases are undesirable in the condenser and steam plant because:
• They increase condenser pressure (ie reduce the vacuum);
• They lower the heat transfer between the steam and cooling water in the
condenser;
• Oxygen must be removed from the feedwater before the feed water enters
the boiler. Removal of the oxygen at later stages in the steam plant is much
more costly.
Create a vacuum to maximise turbine work

By increasing the pressure difference between turbine inlet and exhaust, a
maximum of output work is possible. Reducing the exhaust steam pressure
(creating a vacuum in the condenser) will increase this pressure difference and
produce more work.

Typically, a main condenser will maintain 95% vacuum with the cooling
seawater temperature at 24oC.
Maintaining a vacuum depends on:

• Cooling seawater temperature and flow;
• Heat transfer surface condition (if the tubes are dirty, the steam will not
condense and the vacuum will reduce);
• The effectiveness of sealing pumps, turbine glands, joints and other such
places where air can leak in.
Supply water to the rest of the feed system

As steam is taken away from the boiler, its water level is reduced. Feed water
replenishes the water in the boiler and keeps the boiler safe from overheating.
The condenser recycles the water for re-use in the boiler.
2.2 Types of Condensers

Main and auxiliary condensers used in steam plants are surface condensers.
This is where cooling water is passed through tubes, around which the steam
condenses. The condensed steam then falls to the bottom of the condenser
shell and is drained off by the condensate extraction pump.
Auxiliary condenser
Surface condensers used for auxiliary purposes such as condensing steam from
a steam turbo-alternator can be called simple or non-regenerative condensers.

Figure 3 Auxiliary Condenser
This condenser has a circular shell which contains a large number of cooling
tubes arranged in a group or groups called tube nests. The steam enters the
condenser shell at the top and flows over the cooling tubes, so condensing.
The condensate collects in the hotwell at the bottom of the condenser.
The end covers of the condenser are sometimes called the waterboxes. This is
where the cooling seawater enters and leaves the condenser, and is directed
through the tubes. If the cooling seawater passes only once through the
condenser, it is called a single-pass condenser, while other condensers are two-
pass.
The condenser shown in figure 3 is a two pass condenser. The cooling

seawater enters the condenser at the left hand waterbox and flows (through
tubes) to the right hand water box. This water then is diverted back through
another set of tubes to the left hand water box. An internal division or baffle
plate in the left hand water box stops the incoming seawater from going
straight out with the exiting seawater.
Sacrificial anodes bolted in the waterboxes are used to minimise corrosion due
to the seawater. The inside surfaces of the waterboxes may also be covered
with neoprene which also minimises corrosion.
This condenser has a connection to an air pump. This is a positive

displacement pump which creates a vacuum in the steam space.
Support plates stop long tubes sagging or vibrating.

Some auxiliary condensers are back pressure condensers, where the condenser
is not at a vacuum but is at atmospheric pressure (or slightly higher).
Main condenser
The problem with the simple surface condenser is that undercooling of the
condensate will occur.
Undercooling is where the condensate is cooled so much that its temperature is

5 to 10oC below the saturation temperature of the water at that pressure. This
is unwanted, since this extra energy that has been removed from the water will
have to be replaced, which means that fuel consumption will increase.
Ideally, a condenser should only remove just enough energy from the
steam to cause it to condense.
Also, water at boiling temperature (saturation temperature) will release

dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. If the condensate is
undercooled, the feed water entering the boiler will contain gases dissolved in
it.
Modern high pressure condensers minimise undercooling to no more that 0.5 to

1oC by using regeneration.
Figure 4 Regenerative Main Condenser
A regenerative condenser has steam and air flow patterns which stop the
condensate being excessively cooled.
Consider the regenerative condenser shown in figure 4. The left hand side of
the picture is an external view of the condenser, showing cooling seawater
flowing into and out of the waterboxes. The right hand side of the picture
shows the internal workings of the condenser. The main difference of this
condenser is that there is a central steam path from the steam inlet to the
hotwell.
Most of the steam passes over the tubes and is condensed, but the steam in the
central path flows straight down and makes contact with the condensate at the
hotwell. This steam keeps the condensate in the hotwell at (or very close to)
boiling point.
A vacuum connection at the coolest point in the condenser removes air and
some steam vapour. A baffle plate stops steam just entering the condenser
from being drawn into this vacuum connection.
Support plates stop bending and vibration of long tubes, as in auxiliary

condensers.
Cooling seawater
Why is seawater, rather than fresh water, used to provide cooling in steam
condensers?
The cooling seawater is pumped through the condenser by a circulating pump.

This pump must provide a large volume of water at a low pressure. Large
pumps are needed to supply this high volume, low pressure cooling seawater.
This water is not generally used for any other purpose but to provide cooling
water for the condenser.
Some steam ships have used a scoop to supply water to the main condenser.
When the ship is under way, a scoop is extended out from the hull. The motion
of the ship through the sea scoops the water into condenser seawater pipeline
and pushes this water through the condenser. In port or at low speeds, an
auxiliary circulating pump cuts in automatically to provide the necessary
seawater circulation.
What will cause the auxiliary circulating pump to automatically cut in when
the ship’s speed is low?

Condenser support
The condenser must be supported. Allowances must also be made for
expansion and contraction of the condenser and turbine as they warm up and
cool down.
There are a number of methods of supporting the condenser, three examples

are given:
• Condenser flange bolted directly to the turbine flange, turbine and
condenser supported on flexible supports such as springs and panting
beams. Condenser hangs from the support and is free to expand down.
Figure 5 Hanging Condenser
• Condenser supported from underneath by flexible support springs.
Figure 6 Flexibly Supported Condenser
• Condenser rigidly secured at the coolest end and allowed to expand at the
steam inlet. This method can be used to support a condenser where the
steam flows axially in from the turbine.

Figure 7 Axial Flow Condenser Support
An expansion joint between the turbine and the condenser can be used to allow
for the relative expansion between these two items.
Extra support, using chocks and jacks, must be provided to support the
condenser when filling the steam side of the condenser with distilled water
when leak testing.
2.3 Condenser Materials

Most condenser shells are constructed from mild steel plate, ribbed to
withstand negative pressures (vacuum) on the large surfaces.
Brass tube plates are bolted to the shell with collar bolts to make it easy to
remove the waterboxes.
Figure 8 Waterbox Connection Of Condenser

High Pressure Boiler External Mountings
High Pressure Boiler

External Mountings

Section Contents Page

Introduction 3
1. List of Mountings 4
2. Gauge Glasses 5
2.1 Construction 5
2.2 Factors changing water level in gauge glasses11
2.3 Testing a Gauge Glass 13
2.4 Overhaul & Clearing Blockages 14
2.5 Warming through a Gauge Glass 15
3. Remote Indication of Boiler Water Level17
4. Safety Valves 19
4.1 Functions of a safety valve 19
4.2 Definitions 20
4.3 Main boiler safety valves 21
4.4 Safety valve overhaul 26
4.5 Setting (or floating) safety valves 27
5. Other Boiler Mountings 30
Progress Check 33

Introduction
There must be a variety of external fittings or mountings to ensure that fuel oil,
air, and feedwater supplies are matched to the demand for steam. There must
also be a number of fittings or mountings which ensure safe operation of the
boiler. Some mountings are alarms which give an indication when a value is
out of its normal range; others are trips which shut the boiler down (by
stopping combustion) as well as giving an alarm.

1. List of Mountings
A main watertube boiler will have the following basic mountings:
• 2 safety valves;
• 1 steam stop valve;
• 2 independent feed check valves;
• 1 pressure gauge;
• 1 salinometer cock/valve;
• 2 blow down valves in series;
• 2 independent water level indicators (at least one local);
• 1 low water level alarm;
• 1 extra low low water level alarm and trip;
• 1 high water level alarm;
• 1 air vent.
Regulations state that all valves are right-handed (this means that hand wheels
of these valves are rotated in an anti-clockwise manner to open them and
clockwise to shut them when looking down at the handwheel), and it should be
easily seen if they are shut or open.
Other fittings, alarms and trips may also be present, such as:
• additional safety valves on the superheater outlet;
• drain valves on headers;
• superheater circulating valves (for boiler flash up and shut down);
• superheater drain valves;
• high and low pressure alarms;
• steam temperature indicators and alarms;
• combustion failure alarm and trip;
• chemical dosing valve.

2. Gauge Glasses
2.1 Construction
Gauge glasses are local boiler water level indicators. They will therefore be
located at the steam drum of a watertube boiler. Regulations state that there
must be at least one gauge glass, most boilers however have two gauge glasses.
It is vital to ensure that the water level in a boiler is at least at a minimum

safe value at all times.
The water present in a boiler cools the boiler metal and prevents it from
overheated and failing due to pressure.
Main boilers on UMS vessels will have remote level indication and automatic
level control. However, remote devices and automatic equipment can and have
failed, so local, direct means of determining boiler water level must be
provided.
The position of the gauge glass is generally such that the level at normal
operating conditions will be at around the middle of the glass. The glass
should be long enough such that:
• all levels which could be encountered during boiler operations will be
visible;
• the lowest visible level in the gauge glass will be such that there will be
sufficient water available for the downcomers.
Depending on boiler design, there may be a gauge glass at each end of the
steam drum, or they may be placed side by side at the one end of the drum.
Each gauge glass should be kept clean, well lit and in good order, in order to
make the water level as visible as possible. There should be good access to
each glass. It is pointless having a gauge glass that is difficult to see.
The boiler should have a permanent mark indicating the minimum safe water
level.
Tubular Gauge Glass

Auxiliary boilers, below 20 bar pressure, are often fitted with tubular gauge
glasses as shown in figure 1.
These gauge glasses should be tested regularly, once a watch or daily gear turn.

Figure 1 Tubular Gauge Glass
Cock handles used on gauge glasses all point down in their normal
operating positions. Thus, the steam and water cock handles point down
when they are open, and the drain cock handle points down when it is
closed.
The handles are arranged like this because:

• These handles can tend to move downwards due to the combined effects of
gravity and vibration.
If the steam and water cocks had their handles arranged so that they are
horizontal when they are open, they could shut, isolating the gauge glass
and make it show a false reading. Similarly, the drain valve could open
inadvertently, wasting water and also giving a false boiler water level.
• Arranging the handles in this fashion provides for a quick visual check that
the gauge glass cocks are in their correct position.
The duty engineer is able to glance at the gauge glass and quickly see that
the cocks are in their normal operating positions " all pointing down.
This type of level indicator is not suitable for the severe mechanical stresses
and temperatures that are encountered in higher pressure boilers. Also, hot,
high pressure water has a solvent effect on glass, and can dissolve it in a very
short period of time.
Plate gauge glass

This broad type of water level indicator is suitable for pressures up to 79 bar.
In effect, the plate type of gauge glass is a built up rectangular section box
having a thick glass front and back.
Figure 2 Plate Gauge Glass
The gauge consists of a hollow steel centre piece with machined flats on each
side. Thick toughened glass plates are fitted at these flats, (with jointing to
provide sealing) and are held firmly in place by means of tightened backing or
clamp plates.

Figure 3 Cross Section of Plate Gauge Glass
The steam and water from the boiler connections are contained in the centre
piece between the two glass plates.
Up to a pressure of about 34 bar, the glasses of this type of gauge are made of
borosilicate glass, which makes them strong enough to resist the mechanical
forces imposed as well as the solvent effect of the water.
For pressures above 34 bar, the glasses must be protected from the dissolving
effect of the high pressure, high temperature water, thus they are made from
toughened soda lime glass and have a thin layer of mica sealing them from the
water.
Mica is a semi-transparent mineral which resists the dissolving effect of the

boiler water.
Some plate gauge glass designs use mica for boiler pressures less than 34 bar.
A light source, in the form of one or two light bulbs located directly behind the
back of the gauge glass, shines through the glass and helps to make the water
level visible. Louvres can be used to deflect the light upwards. The light will
then be deflected down by the surface of the water in the glass. This makes the
water surface appear like a brilliantly lit spot, again helping to clearly show the
water level position.
There will usually be a ball valve arrangement at the lower end of the gauge.
Normally, this ball will sit at the bottom of its chamber and not interfere with
the functioning of the glass. If the plates shatter, the initial velocity of the
escaping water will cause the ball to move up and shut off the water connection
from the glass.

Figure 4 Check Ball
Some makes of high pressure gauge glass do in fact have a ball arrangement at
the steam end of the glass.
There will be steam, water, and drain valves or cocks, as with the tubular
gauge glass. There will generally be two valves at each position, to provide
double isolation.
Double isolation is a safety feature used on high pressure boilers. This is

where there are two valves placed in series.
To understand double isolation, consider the situation when maintenance

requires the gauge glass being removed from its position, and so the steam and
water valves are shut. If there was only one valve on the water connection, and
this valve was damaged so that it cannot seal properly, it would not be possible
to isolate the water connection to the glass. This means that water, at high
pressure and temperature, will be escaping out through the water connection,
being a nuisance and dangerous to personnel.

Bi-colour plate gauge glass

Since boiler water is clear, it can be difficult to quickly determine the water
level in a simple plate gauge glass. The bi-colour plate gauge glass gives an
easy determination of water level. This type of gauge glass uses the principle
that the bending of a ray of light differs as the ray passes obliquely through
steam or water.
The central chamber of this gauge is such that the two glass plates are at
different angles to each other (looking vertically down). Two coloured glass
screens are situated between the light source and the gauge glass. Normally
one screen is red (for steam) while the other is green (for water). One screen
(red) is directly behind the glass while the other (green) is offset.
Figure 5 Steam in chamber of bi-colour gauge glass
Light from the red screen will pass through the steam filled portion of the
chamber and be visible to the operator, while the green light is bent out of
view. When there is water in the chamber, the red light is bent out of view
while the green coloured light is bent into view.

Figure 6 Water in chamber of bi-colour gauge glass
Thus, when red light is visible, there is steam, and when green light is visible,
there is water. This gives easy determination of water level.
2.2 Factors changing water level in gauge

glasses
Various factors will affect the water level in the gauge glass, making this level
differ from the actual water level in the boiler itself. Some of these factors
affect gauge glass level slightly, while others will cause the glass to give a
completely false water level indication and are dangerous.
Cooling of water
Since the gauge glass is outside the boiler and is relatively cool, the water in
the glass will become cooler than the water in the boiler. The gauge glass
water will then have a greater density and its volume will reduce. This will
cause the gauge glass to show a slightly lower water level than actually present
in the boiler.

Leaking drain cock

If the drain cock is leaking, the level in the gauge glass will be lower than the
boiler level. Unless the leak is excessive, the level will only be slightly
different.
Choked/blocked/shut off STEAM connection

If the steam connection to the gauge glass is blocked or the steam valve is
shut, steam will condense in the upper part of the glass. This will cause a
lower pressure in the glass and will give a higher water level. Over time,
the level in the glass will increase and can give a completely false water
level. This is dangerous.
This can occur even if the connection is only partially restricted (choked).
Choked/blocked/shut off WATER connection

If the water connection to the gauge glass is blocked or the water valve is
shut, steam will condense in the upper part of the glass. The glass will fill
with additional water, but this extra water will not drain back into the
boiler, being prevented by the blockage/restriction. This will give a
higher water level in the gauge glass. Over time, the level in the glass will
increase and can give a completely false water level. This is dangerous.
Blockages and restrictions are generally due to deposits of chemicals from the
boiler water. These deposits tend to form first in the cocks/valves.
Blocked drain line

A blocked drain line will not affect the normal working of a gauge glass.
However, if the drain line is blocked, it will be impossible to test the gauge
glass (as described in sub-section 2.3). Also, when maintenance is being
performed on the gauge glass, a blocked drain:
• Will make it difficult to prove that the gauge glass is correctly isolated and
depressurised before maintenance commences.
• Will make it difficult to empty the gauge glass of the relatively hot,
pressurised water and steam.

2.3 Testing a Gauge Glass

The procedure of testing a gauge glass is often called blowing through the
gauge glass. Testing a gauge glass ensures that the lines are clear and that the
gauge glass gives a correct indication of boiler water level.
The test procedure is:

1. Shut steam cock.
2. Shut water cock.
3. Open drain cock.
4. Slightly open water cock and wait for emission of water though the
drain - water line is clear. There will be steam coming out of the drain
due to the water flashing off as it encounters atmospheric pressure
and temperature. Shut water cock.
5. Slightly open steam cock and wait for emission of steam through the
drain - steam line is clear. Shut steam cock.
6. Shut drain.
7. Open water cock fully. Water should rise to the top of the gauge glass.
8. Open steam cock fully. Water should drop smartly down to the
correct level. Slowness of water level movement indicates a restriction
in either the steam or water lines.
If, at step 7 above, no water enters the gauge glass, this may indicate a
lack of water in the boiler and loss of water procedure should be followed
(loss of water procedure will be described in Section 5)
If, at step 7 above, water enters that gauge glass normally but drains out
of the glass at step 8 (opening the steam cock), the water level is between
the bottom of the gauge glass and the top of the water connection at the
boiler. This indicates less water in the boiler than is desirable but the
boiler downcomers are still below the water surface. The reason for the
lack of water should be quickly found and rectified.
Low pressure boilers, due to their relatively poorer water treatment and smaller
diameter water and steam lines, have an increased likelihood of blockages and
restrictions occurring. Therefore with these boilers, the gauge glasses should
be tested regularly.
High pressure watertube boilers, on the other hand, have a decreased likelihood
of blockages and restrictions occurring.

Also, the high velocity of the steam and water escaping through the drain
causes erosion of the mica strip. Once the mica is cut through, the glass
plate will be exposed to the water and will dissolve, causing the glass to
fail soon after the gauge glass is tested. This is undesirable.
A high pressure gauge glass will also experience a higher degree of

thermal shock when it is tested, which is again undesirable. The drain
valve body is relatively cold, and if it is not first warmed (by slightly
opening or cracking the valve), the valve may fracture when blowing
through occurs).
Thus, on high pressure boilers, do not routinely test gauge glasses by

blowing through.
Bobbing
Bobbing may be used to check that the lines of a high pressure gauge glass are
clear. This is where the steam valve is shut and the drain valve is quickly
opened and closed. This will cause movement of water in the gauge and the
level will be seen to bob up and down before settling. The steam valve is the
re-opened. Bobbing is a relatively fast method of testing the gauge glass and is
useful in an emergency when you need to quickly test the glass.
2.4 Overhaul & Clearing Blockages

Clearing a blockage
If a blockage of the gauge glass has been detected, the procedure for testing
should be followed. The variations in pressure in the gauge glass may cause
the blockage to clear. This also checks that the valves have not been
inadvertently shut, giving an indication of blockage.
If the blockage is still present, the gauge glass should be isolated from the
boiler, removed and then inspected for blockage.
If the blockage is between the valves and the boiler, danger to personnel is
so high that engineers should not try to clear this blockage.
Instead, the boiler should be shut down at the earliest opportunity and
then the blockage should be cleared.
Overhaul
Once good practice is to have a spare gauge glass standing by the boiler.
When a gauge glass on the boiler requires overhaul, the gauge glass is isolated
and depressurised (and it should be proved that the glass is isolated from the
boiler and depressurised), and then removed from the boiler. The spare gauge
glass is then fitted and placed into service. The old gauge glass is then taken to
the workshop and overhauled.
The overhaul procedure should then be followed:

• Strip the gauge glass, noting any obvious defects.
• Discard the used glass plates (they are commonly damaged and so are
unsuitable for further use), mica sheets and joints.
• Make sure all joint faces are scrupulously clean.
• Check frame and cover plates for flatness - any warping can cause the glass
to shatter.
• Build up the gauge, inserting the new joints, together with the mica sheets,
in their correct sequence.
• Clamping nuts and bolts should be pulled up finger tight.
• Starting from the centre, the clamping nuts should be tightened in order
(such as indicated in figure 7).
• Tighten each nut 1/4 turn, and repeat the sequence until all the nuts are
tight.
• Do not overtighten, and pull up evenly, preferably using a torque spanner
(to the torque specified by the manufacturer).
• Cover the open ends of the gauge glass (to prevent foreign matter entering
it) and store in place next to the boiler as the spare gauge glass.
Manufacturer's instructions and procedures should be followed at all times.
Figure 7 Nut tightening sequence
2.5 Warming through a Gauge Glass

A new installed gauge glass must be allowed to warm up to boiler operating
temperature. If the gauge glass is not allowed to warm through sufficiently, the
relatively cold glass plates may shatter when the steam and water cocks are
opened.
Two methods of warming though are given, and are indicative of the various
procedures that may be found on different ships.
Method 1

• Ensure water valve shut, drain open.

• Slightly open steam valve.
• Allow the steam flow to warm through the gauge glass (15 minutes).
• Shut steam valve and re-tighten any securing nuts in the correct order
(heating up may have caused loosening).
• Slightly open steam valve again to replace heat energy lost while tightening
(5 to 10 minutes).
• Shut steam valve.
• Shut drain valve.
• Open water and steam valves carefully.
Method 2
• Ensure water and steam valves shut, drain open.
• Leave 24 hours to warm through (by conduction from the boiler).
• Shut drain.
Do not stand directly in front of the gauge glass during these operations in
case the glass shatters.

3. Remote Indication of Boiler

Water Level
Remote indication of boiler water level is common on boilers. On UMS ships,
where many processes (including water level control) are automated, remote
indication is a requirement.
Differential Pressure
This method of remotely determining main boiler water level uses a differential
pressure transmitter connected to two columns attached to the boiler, as shown
in figure 8.
Figure 8 Remote water level indication
Column 1 shown is the reference leg. It is connected to the steam space of the
steam drum. There is a condensing reservoir at the top of the leg. This
reservoir is uninsulated, so steam will condense. A weir allows excess
condensed water to drain off into the measuring leg. Thus the water in the
reference leg is kept at a constant height at all times.
Column 2 is the measuring leg. It is connected to the water space of the steam
drum and also to the condensing reservoir (to allow excess condensed steam to
drain back into the boiler). The height of water in this leg is equivalent to the
height of the boiler water level from the differential pressure transmitter.
Remote indication of boiler level involves using a differential pressure gauge.

Referring to figure 8, why does a change in boiler pressure not affect remote

indication of water level?
From hydrostatics, it can be shown that the pressure in a column is given by:
p = ρ •g•h
Where:
p is pressure,
ρ is density,
g is acceleration due to gravity, and
h is the height of the liquid column.
Using the above formula, it can be seen that the pressure at the bottom of the
reference leg (neglecting boiler pressure) will be due to the height of water in
that leg. This pressure will be constant.
Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of the measuring leg will be due to the
height of water in that leg. This pressure will be relative to the boiler water
level and so will change as boiler water level changes.
The difference in pressure between the two legs will therefore indicate boiler
water level, and will be sent as a signal to the automatic level control system
where this signal will be converted to provide a value for the water level.
Other methods
Other methods of remotely indicating boiler water level are:
• Using a closed circuit television (or fibre optics) to transmit a real-time
view of the local gauge glasses.
• Using mirrors to show the local gauge glass level at the remote monitoring
station.
• Using transducers to measure the mass of the boiler and its contents. As
the level (and therefore the amount)of water in the boiler changes, the mass
will change.
• Using a capacitance probe placed vertically in the steam drum. The
capacitance of the probe changes as the amount of water covering it alters.
These methods are not common on marine boilers and will therefore not be
discussed further.

4. Safety Valves
4.1 Functions of a safety valve
A safety valve fitted on a boiler has two functions:
• Prevents steam pressure exceeding a pre-determined maximum by
automatically discharging steam as soon as this maximum value is
reached (this value is called the set pressure).
• Relieving steam pressure in the event of an emergency by discharging
steam. In this case, the valve is operated manually.
If the maximum safe pressure of the boiler is exceeded, the boiler may not
be able to withstand the force due to this pressure, and there is a danger
of an explosion occurring.
The basic requirement is that at least two safety valves must be fitted. It is
common practice however to have three safety valves and one relief valve:
• Two safety valves fitted at the steam drum, venting to atmosphere through
the funnel,
• One safety valve fitted at the discharge of the superheater, venting to
atmosphere through the funnel,
• One relief valve fitted at the discharge of the economiser, venting to a
designated safe place in the engine room bilges.
The economiser relief valve is set higher than all the other safety valves fitted
to the boiler.
The superheater safety valve is set to a level lower than the set point of the
safety valves on the steam drum. This ensures that if overpressure
occurs, the superheater safety valve will open first, allowing steam to flow
through the superheater before escaping to the atmosphere.
Should the safety valves not be adjusted in this manner the lack of steam
flow through the superheater (caused by the steam drum safety valves
lifting while the superheater valve remain closed) will result in
overheating and serious damage to the superheater elements.

4.2 Definitions
Normal Operating & Design Pressure
A boiler operates at what is known as its normal operating or working
pressure. The design pressure of the boiler is higher than the normal
operating pressure, and is the maximum pressure for which the boiler was
designed to safely operate with. Normal operating pressure can be up to 10%
less than the design pressure; this gives a factor of safety for the boiler.
Set Pressure
Set or lifting pressure of the safety valve is the pressure at which the valve
opens. It will be between the normal operating pressure and the design
pressure (and is not allowed to be greater than the design pressure).
Blowdown pressure
This is the pressure at which the valve shuts after it has opened. This pressure
is normally limited to be slightly less than set pressure (3 to 5% less for
example). Excessive blowdown leads to a waste of steam (and unnecessary
loss of water) and so in most high capacity valves, blowdown can be adjusted.
Discharge capacity
This is the mass flow rate at which steam (at set pressure) will escape from the
safety valve. The safety valve must have sufficient discharge capacity for the
boiler it is fitted to. Each boiler has an evaporating rate at which the water is
converted to steam. A safety valve with an insufficient discharge capacity may
open at the correct pressure, but it will not allow a sufficient amount of steam
to escape and the pressure will rise.
Accumulation of pressure
Even with a correctly sized safety valve, the pressure of the boiler will increase
as the safety valve is operating. This is called accumulation of pressure, and
is due to the spring force of the valve increasing as the valve opens, so
requiring boiler pressure to increase as well.
The accumulation of pressure test ensures that the safety valves are of the
correct discharge capacity for the boiler. To conduct this test, the boiler is set
to the maximum firing rate with the feed inlet and steam outlets shut. Only
enough feed is allowed in to keep a safe working water level. A minimum
steam flow may be allowed to protect superheater lines and to provide essential
steam, eg. to the turbine feed pump. The boiler is run with the safety valve
lifting for 7 minutes (for a water tube boiler). The boiler pressure is not to
exceed 110% of the set pressure. If superheaters could be damaged, the
accumulation tests may be waived, as long as sufficient documentation from
the safety valve manufacturer and boiler manufacturer is presented.

Waste steam pipe

This is the pipeline in which the escaping steam from the safety valve passes to
the atmosphere; its outlet is situated in the funnel. The waste steam pipe must
be large enough to ensure that steam pressure does not build up enough to
cause excessive accumulation of pressure.
Feathering
Feathering is when the valve is not quite closed, causing steam leakage which
leads to water loss and erosion of the valve and valve seat.
4.3 Main boiler safety valves

The advent of higher steam pressures and temperatures in watertube boilers has
made it increasingly important that high capacity safety valves, which open
and shut smartly and do not feather, have been developed.
A good safety valve lifts rapidly at its set pressure, relieves the excess pressure,
and shuts positively, after the least amount of blowdown.
Two safety valves suitable for main boilers are described in this sub-section,
and are typical examples of the many different types of safety valve available
for main boilers.
Full Bore Safety Valve
Figure 9 Full bore safety valve

Materials of main valve

Body Cast steel
Valve disc and spindle (one Chromium-molybdenum-nickel alloy steel
piece)
Valve seat Chromium-molybdenum-nickel alloy steel
Piston Stainless steel
Piston ring Nickel alloy
Spring Stainless steel
This type of safety valve has four times the discharge capacity of an ordinary
spring loaded safety valve. The valve consists of a pilot or control valve and a
main valve.
The pilot valve is a spring loaded safety valve adjusted to operate at set
pressure. As the valve lifts, it blanks off ports leading to the atmosphere. This
allows steam pressure to build up in the control line and act on the operating
piston attached to the spindle in the main valve.
The main valve is kept closed by boiler pressure acting on the valve disc or lid.
The operating piston area is about twice that of the valve disc area. When
steam acts on the operating piston therefore, the main valve will be quickly
forced fully open. Steam pressure is relieved.
When the boiler pressure falls to the blowdown pressure, the pilot valve will
close. The steam in the control line is vented to atmosphere and the pressure
on the operating piston is relieved. The main valve will then close; being
pushed closed by the boiler pressure acting on the valve disc.
The important features of this type of valve are:

• Two valves, main and pilot.
• Steam pressure keeps the valve shut. This means that the higher the boiler
pressure the greater the closing force on the valve.
• Steam pressure opens the valve. Since there is no heavy spring to force,
opening of the valve is prompt and direct.
• When used on the superheater discharge, the pilot valve can be mounted on
the steam drum so that it operates with saturated steam. This means that
the pilot valve and the operating piston do not endure superheated steam,
while still protecting the superheater.
• The pilot valve is small and so is less prone to distortion, minimising
leakage.
• A light return spring is fitted on the main valve. This is only present to
keep the main valve shut when there is no pressure in the boiler.

Full Lift Safety Valve
Figure 10 Full lift safety valve
Materials
Body Cast steel
Valve disc Platnam*
Valve spindle Stainless steel
Valve guide Platnam*
Seat Platnam*
Platnam is an alloy and consists of:

• 54% Nickel
• 33% Copper
• 13% Tin
• 0.5% Iron
• 0.3% Aluminium
The main feature of this valve is that valve itself operates in a guide, and
together they act as a piston in a cylinder, as shown in figure 11.

Figure 11 Valve arrangement of full lift safety valve
When the steam pressure in the boiler reaches the set pressure, the valve begins
to open against the resistance of the spring. This opening is small at first, but
once the released steam is able to exert its pressure over the full area of the
valve face, the valve opens further. As it does so, the face of the valve enters
the valve guide, which deflects the steam downwards, so setting up a reaction
effect which fully opens the valve.
When the steam pressure has been relieved, the valve begins to close. As soon
as the valve face emerges from the guide, the reaction effect ceases and the
valve shuts promptly.
The important features of this type of valve are:

• Valve and valve guide acting as a piston and cylinder, giving a reaction
effect on opening.
• Spring is isolated from the main body of the valve, thus it is protected from
the escaping steam and is less likely to overheat and distort.
• Blowdown pressure is adjusted by raising or lowering the valve guide.
Lowering the valve guide lowers the blowdown pressure, raising it
increases the blowdown pressure.

The Thermodisc
This safety valve disc design, featured on some valve types, prevents the
problem of safety valve leakage at high pressures. The valve disc is recessed
to form a thin wall at the point of seat contact. The valve disc is then flexible,
which enables it to conform closely to the valve seat as well as compensating
for temperature variations with minimal thermal stresses. In other words, the
thermodisc provides tight valve closure.
Figure 12 Thermodisc
Drain line
A drain line is present in all safety valves. This is a very important line,
as it prevents water build up in the valve. Water build up can directly or
indirectly (due to deposits forming from the water) stop the safety valve
operating properly. In some cases the valve may not open at all. It is so
important to keep this line open that no valve may be placed anywhere in
the line.
Easing gear
All safety valves are fitted with easing gear. The easing gear is a lever which
acts to open the valve manually.
Easing gear may be used to:

• Test the movement of the safety valve.
• Quickly reduce steam pressure in the event of a shipboard emergency
such as flooding. Cold sea water coming into contact with a hot
pressurised boiler may cause an explosion by imposing excessive thermal
stress on the boiler, and so weakening the boiler’s resistance against
pressure.
• Quickly reduce steam pressure in the event of a boiler emergency. If
the boiler has lost water and overheated, it is important to reduce pressure
in order to avoid rupture of boiler components. Since overpressure has not

occurred, the valve will not open automatically. Boiler rupture will fill the
machinery spaces with noise and steam, which can be disorienting and
uncomfortable at the very least.
Easing gear must be actuated remotely from the safety valve. This is achieved
by using pulleys and wire ropes led away to a relatively safe position.
The connection of the easing gear to the safety valve is arranged so that the
easing gear does not interfere with the automatic operation of the valve.
Safety valves are also fitted with anti-tampering devices. This commonly is in
the form of a padlocked cap fitted over the valve which must be removed
before the valve can be adjusted.
4.4 Safety valve overhaul

Overhaul of a safety valve depends on the type of valve used and the
manufacturer's recommendations. However, the following general guidelines
should be followed:
• Safety - isolate lines and boiler, ensure safe access for personnel, wear
personal protective equipment.
• Check past records from previous overhauls and review manufacturer’s
instructions.
• Remove insulation from around the safety valve.
• Remove anti tampering devices and easing gear.
• Remove valve from boiler.
• Fit blank flange to boiler to prevent ingress of foreign matter.
• Take valve to workshop (which should be clean).
• Strip valve in correct order, noting condition of parts.
• Use manufacturer’s figures acceptable tolerances and other measurements
(this will provide information such as lip clearances, seating widths, wing
clearances, and spring heights).
• All working parts must be in alignment and free in operation, so check for
bent valve spindles and other defects.
• Hang parts by a cord and tap with a ball peen hammer. If the part is sound,
it will ring clear, but if there are cracks, it will not.
• Examine components for corrosion, wear, wire drawing, creep, distortion,
and other defects. Repair and/or replace as necessary.
• Check spring length and for any deformation. The spring metal may have
experienced creep and be shorter than its original length.

• Measure thickness of casing using callipers.

• Check condition of flanges, joints, and fastenings for damage,
corrosion/erosion, and dirt.
• Reassemble parts in the correct order.
• Check easing gear components for defects.
• Check drain lines are clear.
• Use new joints.
• Fit overhauled valve.
• Fit easing gear.
• Set and test valve lifting pressure.
• Fit anti-tampering devices and insulation.
• Keep accurate work records.
Safety valves are sometimes overhauled ashore and set ashore. The valve will
still be tested for operation after it has been returned to the ship and fitted on
the boiler.
4.5 Setting (or floating) safety valves

Refer to manufacturer’s instructions and ship’s procedures.
Adjustment of set pressure is normally achieved by adjusting spring tension

using a compression nut at the top of the spring. After setting, the compression
nut is locked in place with either a lock nut arrangement or by using spacers
called compression rings.
Gags may used to stop some safety valves, other than the one being set, from
lifting.
Figure 13 Gag for safety valve

Gags should never be placed on valves when the boiler is cold, as this may
cause the gag to jam or the spindle to bend as boiler temperature rises.
It is very important to ensure that all gags are removed from the boiler
once setting is complete, as a gagged valve will not lift.
A general procedure for setting a safety valve is as follows:

• Ensure pressure gauge is reading correctly - use dedicated, calibrated
gauge.
• Remove compression rings/ slacken lock nut.
• Raise boiler pressure to the required blow off pressure.
• Screw compression screws down on any valves that are lifting.
• If setting more than one valve, put gags on safety valves not being set. Put
these gags on only when the boiler is hot and then only finger tight.
• Slacken back compression nut until the valve lifts.
• Screw down compression nut carefully, tapping down on the spindle lightly
with a soft hammer, until valve shuts and remains closed.
• Adjust blowdown ring as per maker’s instructions.
• Remove all gags and stow in a safe place. Ensure that all gags are off.
• Test 2 -3 times until satisfied operation okay.
• Measure the clearance where the compression rings go, cut compression
rings to size, split them and lock them in place. Record sizes of these rings.
• Alternatively, note position of compression screw, record in work book and
tighten lock nut.
• Assemble easing gear and valve caps, and test that they operate okay.
• Secure anti tampering device onto the valve, eg., cap and padlock.
• The superheater safety valves are set lower than drum safeties, while
economiser safeties are set higher to ensure that the economiser is full of
water.
• Record work in logbook, workbook, boiler book, and/or survey book.
When using a hammer to tap a safety valve shut, there is a danger of damaging
the valve and valve seat, especially if the valve has lifted in operation and not
shut. Some manufacturers therefore recommend that tapping should not be
done, while other recommend light tapping only.
To avoid losses of make up water during adjustment of safety valves (this may
be as much as 20 tonnes in highly rated boilers) some shipping companies
arrange for the safety valves to be set in a workshop ashore, using compressed
air. The valves are then fitted on to the boiler and are ‘popped’ to ensure that
they will operate under at normal operating temperature.

5. Other Boiler Mountings

Many valves mounted on a boiler are fitted in pairs to provide double isolation.
Other external boiler mountings include:
Main steam stop valve

This valve, of globe valve design, is fitted at the superheater outlet. It isolates
the boiler from the main steam line. Generally, this valve is fitted with a
gearing arrangement which assists the operator when opening and shutting the
valve, as well as ensuring that it can only be opened and shut slowly.
Many main steam stop valves are fitted with a balance valve. This is a small
valve, in parallel with the main steam stop, which is opened first to equalise
pressures before opening the valve and can also be when warming through the
steam line.
In multiple boiler installations, the main steam stop is also a non-return valve.
If two boilers are supplying steam at significantly different pressures to the
steam system, steam could flow into the lower pressure boiler instead of
flowing out of it.
Auxiliary steam stop valve

This is smaller than the main steam stop but of the same type. It is again fitted
at the superheater outlet, and supplies steam to the auxiliary superheated
services.
Feed check valve

This valve is fitted at the feed inlet to the steam drum after the economiser. It
is a non-return valve. This is an important feature, since if feed pressure drops
(due to feed pipe rupture), it is important that the direction of flow does not
reverse. Other feed valves may be fitted to the feed supply of the boiler to
allow flexibility of operation. For example, an auxiliary feed line may bypass
the economiser and lead directly to the steam drum. This auxiliary feed line
may be used if it is not possible to use the economiser (due to economiser tube
failure for example).
A screw lift feed valve may be fitted in series with the feed check to ensure
complete isolation.

Air vents
These are fitted to headers and the steam drum, and are small to medium size
valves which release air when filling the boiler or initially raising steam.
These vents are also used to prevent a vacuum as the boiler cools after it is shut
down.
Bottom blow down valve

This valve enables water to be blown down from the boiler. It drains the boiler
from the water drum, and is used to remove accumulated sludge as well as
emptying the boiler. It is not recommended to blow down from the water drum
when the boiler is steaming at medium and high loads, as water circulation
may be disrupted and tube overheat may occur.
Top blow down valve

This blow down valve is fitted to the steam drum. A blow down from this
boiler can be used to reduce the amount of impurities (known as total dissolved
solids) in the boiler water.
Header drain valves

These small valves are only used when emptying the boiler (for waterwall
headers) or when raising steam (for steam headers - they drain accumulated
water out of the steam line).
Pressure gauges
Pressure gauges are normally fitted at points such as the steam drum and the
superheater outlet. These gauges operate on the Bourdon tube principle.
Steam pressure gauges should be connected to the boiler through a length of
coiled pipe or syphon to avoid steam coming into contact with the Bourdon
tube element. Gauges should never be too hot to handle. Unless specifically
stated, pressure gauges should be mounted in an upright position.
Superheater circulating valves

These are very important valves, as they are used to maintain steam flow
through the superheater during steam raising and shut down, when steam
is otherwise not flowing. This steam flow cools the superheater elements
during these critical procedures.
Superheater circulating valves are fitted at the superheater outlet header, and
are vents to atmosphere.

Personal access doors

Manhole and handhole doors provide either full or limited access to the
internal components of the boiler.
Figure 14 Manhole Door
Figure 15 Handhole door
These doors are located by a spigot to ensure positive location.
A stud and strongback (also known as a dog) holds the door in place when the
boiler is shut down and at very low pressures.
The doors are placed inside the boiler so that boiler pressure forces the door
against its seat, rather than boiler pressure forcing the door off its seat (which
would be the case if the door was mounted outside the boiler).
Large doors may have two studs and dogs to hold them in place. The access
hole for large doors will be strengthened to compensate for the metal removed.
Doors are generally oval. This is to enable them to be put inside the boiler and
also to be removed after the boiler has been built.

Progress Check
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.
1. State ten (10) mountings that will be found on a boiler.

2. Sketch a manhole door, indicating its components.
3. Explain the procedure for testing a gauge glass, noting what occurs at each
stage of the procedure.
4. What is the purpose of the mica strip in a gauge glass?
5. State two (2) reasons for having a safety valve.
6. What are superheater circulating valves, where are they located, what is
their purpose, and when are they used?

Low Pressure Boiler External Mountings
Low Pressure Boiler

External Mountings


Introduction 3
1. List of Mountings 4
2. Gauge Glasses 6
2.1 Construction 6
2.2 Factors changing water level in gauge glasses9
2.3 Testing a Gauge Glass 10
2.4 Overhaul & Clearing Blockages 12
2.5 Warming through a Gauge Glass 13
3. Remote Indication of Boiler Water Level14
4. Safety Valves 15
4.1 Functions of a safety valve 15
4.2 Definitions 16
4.3 Auxiliary boiler safety valves 18
4.4 Safety valve overhaul 21
4.5 Setting (or floating) safety valves 22
5. Other Boiler Mountings 24
Progress Check 28

Introduction
External boiler fittings or mountings must ensure that fuel, air, and feedwater
supplies are matched to the demand for steam. Additional fittings or
mountings are required to ensure safe operation of the boiler. Some mountings
are alarms which give an indication when a value is out of its normal range;
others are trips which shut the boiler down (by stopping combustion) as well as
giving an alarm.

1. List of Mountings
An automatic auxiliary boiler will have the following basic mountings:
• 2 safety valves;
• 1 steam stop valve;
• 2 independent feed check valves;
• 1 pressure gauge;
• 1 salinometer (sampling) cock/valve;
• 2 blow down valves in series;
• 2 independent water level indicators (at least one local);
• 1 low water level alarm;
• 1 extra low low water level alarm and trip;
• 1 high water level alarm;
• 1 air vent.
Regulations state that all valves are right-handed (this means that hand wheels
of these valves are rotated in an anti-clockwise manner to open them and
clockwise to shut them when looking down at the handwheel); it should also be
easily seen if they are shut or open.
Other fittings, alarms and trips may also be present, such as:
• additional safety valves on the superheater outlet;
• drain valves on headers (watertube boiler);
• superheater circulating valves for boiler flash up and shut down (watertube
boiler with superheater);
• superheater drain valves;
• high and low pressure alarms;
• steam temperature indicators and alarms;
• combustion failure alarm and trip;
• chemical dosing valve.
These notes will concentrate on the basic mountings found on all auxiliary
boilers.

Figure 1 Vertical Shell Boiler - External Fittings

2. Gauge Glasses
2.1 Construction
Gauge glasses are local boiler water level indicators. They will therefore be
located on the shell of a shell boiler at the working water level or at the steam
drum of a watertube boiler. Regulations state that there must be at least one
gauge glass, most boilers however have two gauge glasses.
It is vital to ensure that the water level in a boiler is at least at a minimum

safe value at all times.
The gauge glass should be fitted so that the lowest visible level in the glass
indicates at least 7.6 mm (3 inches) of water above the highest heating
surface in the boiler.
The water present in a boiler cools the boiler metal and prevents it from
overheated and failing due to pressure.
Auxiliary boilers on UMS vessels will have remote level indication and
automatic level control. However, remote devices and automatic equipment
can and have failed, so local, direct means of determining boiler water level
must always be fitted and be in correct working order.
The position of the gauge glass is generally such that the level at normal
operating conditions will be at around the middle of the glass. The glass
should be long enough such that:
• all levels which could be encountered during boiler operations will be
visible;
• the lowest visible level in the gauge glass will be such that there will be a
safe amount of water in the boiler at this level.
Each gauge glass should be kept clean, well lit and in good order, in order to
make the water level as visible as possible. There should be good access to
each glass. It is pointless having a gauge glass that is difficult to see.
It can be difficult to see the water level in tubular gauge glasses, especially if
the engineer is trying to determine if the glass is completely full or completely
empty. It is good practice, therefore, to mount a board painted with black and
white diagonal stripes behind the gauge glass. Refraction through water will
cause the stripes to appear bent to the opposite angle. Another simple method
is to hold a pencil or similar object behind the glass, refraction through water
again giving the appearance of bending.

The boiler shell should have a permanent mark indicating the minimum safe
water level.
Tubular Gauge Glass

Auxiliary boilers, below 20 bar pressure, are often fitted with tubular gauge
glasses as shown in figure 2.
These gauge glasses should be tested regularly, once a watch or daily gear turn.
Figure 2 Tubular Gauge Glass

Figure 3 Exploded View of Gauge Glass
Cock handles used on gauge glasses all point down in their normal
operating positions. Thus, the steam and water cock handles point down
when they are open, and the drain cock handle points down when it is
closed.
The handles are arranged like this because:

• These handles can tend to move downwards due to the combined effects of
gravity and vibration.
If the steam and water cocks had their handles arranged so that they are
horizontal when they are open, they could shut, isolating the gauge glass
and make it show a false reading. Similarly, the drain valve could open
inadvertently, wasting water and also giving a false boiler water level.
• Arranging the handles in this way allows for a quick visual check that the
gauge glass cocks are in their correct position Ð all handles pointing down.
There must be a permanent mark on the cock in line with the internal passage
to show when the valve is open or shut.
There will usually be a ball valve arrangement at the lower end of the gauge.
Normally, this ball will sit at the bottom of its chamber and not interfere with
the functioning of the glass. If the tube shatters, the initial velocity of the
escaping water will cause the ball to move up and shut off the water connection
from the glass.
Another safety feature of tubular gauge glasses is a safety shield. This consists
of three toughened glass plates fitted around the glass. If the tubular glass
shatters, personnel standing next to the glass (who may be in the process of
testing the gauge glass) will be protected from injury.

The drain line from the gauge glass should flow as direct as possible to an open
funnel (ie the draining contents must be visible when testing or checking the
glass), and there must be no shut offs in the line.
Some gauge glass arrangements may have double isolation between the gauge
glass and the boiler.
Double isolation is a safety feature used on higher pressure boilers. This

is where there are two valves placed in series.
To understand double isolation, consider the situation when maintenance

requires the gauge glass being removed from its position, and so the steam and
water valves are shut. If there was only one valve on the water connection, and
this valve was damaged so that it cannot seal properly, it would not be possible
to isolate the water connection to the glass. This means that water, at high
pressure and temperature, will be escaping out through the water connection,
being a nuisance and dangerous to personnel.
2.2 Factors changing water level in gauge

glasses
A number of factors will affect the water level in the gauge glass, making this
level differ from the actual water level in the boiler itself. Some of these
factors affect gauge glass level slightly, while others will cause the glass to
give a completely false water level indication and are dangerous.
Cooling of water
Since the gauge glass is outside the boiler and is relatively cool, the water in
the glass will become cooler than the water in the boiler. The gauge glass
water will then have a greater density and its volume will reduce. This will
cause the gauge glass to show a slightly lower water level than actually present
in the boiler.
Leaking drain cock

If the drain cock is leaking, the level in the gauge glass will be lower than the
boiler level. Unless the leak is excessive, the level will only be slightly
different. The duty engineer should always check the drain line to bilge for
evidence of leakages.

Choked/blocked/shut off STEAM connection

If the steam connection to the gauge glass is blocked or the steam valve is
shut, steam will condense in the upper part of the glass. This will cause a
lower pressure in the glass and will give a higher water level. Over time,
the level in the glass will increase and can give a completely false water
level. This is dangerous.
Choked/blocked/shut off WATER connection

If the water connection to the gauge glass is blocked or the water valve is
shut, steam will condense in the upper part of the glass. The glass will fill
with additional water, but this extra water will not drain back into the
boiler, being prevented by the blockage/restriction. This will give a
higher water level in the gauge glass. Over time, the level in the glass will
increase and can give a completely false water level. This is dangerous.
Blockages and restrictions are generally due to deposits of chemicals from the
boiler water. These deposits tend to form first in the cocks/valves.
Blocked drain line

A blocked drain line will not affect the normal working of a gauge glass.
However, if the drain line is blocked, it will be impossible to test the gauge
glass (as described in sub-section 2.3). Also, when maintenance is being
performed on the gauge glass, a blocked drain:
• Will make it difficult to prove that the gauge glass is correctly isolated and
depressurised before maintenance commences.
• Will make it difficult to empty the gauge glass of the relatively hot,
pressurised water and steam.
2.3 Testing a Gauge Glass

The procedure of testing a gauge glass is often called blowing through the
gauge glass. Testing a gauge glass ensures that the lines are clear and that the
gauge glass gives a correct indication of boiler water level.
The test procedure is:

1. Shut steam cock.

2. Shut water cock.

3. Open drain cock.
4. Open water cock and wait for emission of water though the drain -
water line is clear. There will be steam coming out of the drain due to
the water flashing off as it encounters atmospheric pressure and
temperature. Shut water cock.
5. Open steam cock and wait for emission of steam through the drain -
steam line is clear. Shut steam cock.
6. Shut drain.
7. Open water cock fully. Water should rise to the top of the gauge glass.
8. Open steam cock fully. Water should drop smartly down to the
correct level. Slowness of water level movement indicates a restriction
in either the steam or water lines.
If, at step 7 above, no water enters the gauge glass, this may indicate a
lack of water in the boiler and loss of water procedure should be followed
(loss of water procedure will be described in Section 5)
If, at step 7 above, water enters that gauge glass normally but drains out
of the glass at step 8 (opening the steam cock), the water level is between
the bottom of the gauge glass and the top of the water connection at the
boiler. This indicates less water in the boiler than is desirable but the
boiler downcomers are still below the water surface. The reason for the
lack of water should be quickly found and rectified.
Lower pressure shell boilers, due to their relatively poorer water treatment and
smaller diameter water and steam lines, have an increased likelihood of
blockages and restrictions occurring. Therefore with these boilers, the gauge
glasses should be tested regularly - at least daily.
Higher pressure watertube boilers, on the other hand, have a decreased

likelihood of blockages and restrictions occurring. It is also undesirable to test
a high pressure gauge glass excessively since the high velocity of steam and
water occurring during testing can damage the gauge glass.

2.4 Overhaul & Clearing Blockages

Clearing a blockage
If a blockage of the gauge glass has been detected, the procedure for testing
should be followed. The variations of pressure in the gauge glass may cause
the blockage to clear. This also checks that the valves have not been
inadvertently shut, giving an indication of blockage.
If the blockage is still present, the blockage should be cleared. It is possible to

clear steam and water cocks of blockages when the boiler is still steaming.
However, escaping steam and water is hazardous to personnel.
Inform the Second Engineer before you attempt to clear the blockage.
Follow safety procedures at all times and wear appropriate personal

protective equipment (such as long gloves, face shields and chest
protectors).
To clear a blockage, shut the steam and water cocks and open the drain.
Remove the clearing plug opposite the obstructed cock. It may be possible to
clear the blockage at this stage.
If the blockage is still present, screw in a plug which has a small drilled hole
(around 5mm) in its centre. Insert a rod into this hole. The rod diameter
should be such that the rod can be moved easily without slackness. Open the
chocked cock and push the rod through to clear the blockage. Once the
blockage has cleared, the open drain will prevent an excessive build up of
pressure and only a small amount of steam should blow past the rod.
Withdraw the rod and shut the cleared cock as soon as possible. Replace the
normal clearing plug. Test the gauge glass, and if satisfactory, the gauge glass
can be returned to service.
Gauge Glass Overhaul

The gauge glass overhaul may be part of routine maintenance, it could be
necessary when replacing a shattered glass or if there is excessive steam
leakage. A dirty or salted glass can prevent the water level being seen easily
and should also be replaced if it cannot be cleaned through the top access plug.
Manufacturer's instructions and procedures should be followed at all times.

The following general points should, however, be remembered when
overhauling a gauge glass:
• If the boiler is steaming, ensure that it is safe to operate the boiler with the
glass out of service (when performing routine overhaul). If it is not a
routine overhaul, inform the Second Engineer before commencing
overhaul.

• Ensure that the gauge glass is isolated if the boiler is operating.

• Use the correct length, diameter, and type of glass. If the replacement glass
is too short, the soft packing may be squeezed over the ends of the glass (so
causing blockage) or the glass may be too short to give a satisfactory seal.
If the replacement glass is too long, it may project up into the steam cock
body and again obstruct the passage.
• After removing the old gauge glass and soft cone packings, check that the
sealing faces are clean and smooth.
• It is generally recommended to fit new cone packings. The old packings
may have deteriorated or be otherwise damaged and thus unfit for further
use.
• Assemble the gland nuts, packing rings, and cone packing onto each end of
the replacement glass in their correct order.
• Insert the glass into the top body first and push it down as far as possible
into the bottom body.
• Screw the gland nuts onto the threads, starting with the bottom nut.
Tighten gently. It is important that no undue strain is put on the cone
packing by excessive tightening.
• Replace the protective glass plates and allow the glass to warm up (see sub-
section 2.5 regarding warming through a gauge glass).
• Test the glass and adjust the gland nuts as necessary.
2.5 Warming through a Gauge Glass

A new installed gauge glass must be allowed to warm up to boiler operating
temperature. If the gauge glass is not allowed to warm through sufficiently, the
relatively cold glass may shatter when the steam and water cocks are opened.
Two methods of warming though are given, and are indicative of the various
procedures that may be found on different ships.
Method 1
• Ensure water valve shut, drain open.
• Slightly open steam valve.
• Allow the steam flow to warm through the gauge glass (15 minutes).
• Slightly open steam valve again to replace heat energy lost while tightening
(5 to 10 minutes).
• Shut steam valve.
• Shut drain valve.
Method 2
• Ensure water and steam valves shut, drain open.
• Leave 24 hours to warm through (by conduction from the boiler).
• Shut drain.
Do not stand directly in front of the gauge glass during these operations in
case the glass shatters.
3. Remote Indication of Boiler

Water Level
Remote indication of boiler water level is common on boilers. On UMS ships,
where many processes (including water level control) are automated, remote
indication is a requirement.
Differential Pressure
This method of remotely determining auxiliary boiler water level uses a
differential pressure transmitter connected to two columns attached to the
boiler, as shown in figure 4.
Figure 4 Remote Water Level Indication

Column 1 shown is the reference leg. It is connected to the steam space of the
steam drum. There is a condensing reservoir at the top of the leg. This
reservoir is uninsulated, so steam will condense. A weir allows excess
condensed water to drain off into the measuring leg. Thus the water in the
reference leg is kept at a constant height at all times.
Column 2 is the measuring leg. It is connected to the water space of the steam
drum and also to the condensing reservoir (to allow excess condensed steam to
drain back into the boiler). The height of water in this leg is equivalent to the
height of the boiler water level from the differential pressure transmitter.
From hydrostatics, it can be shown that the pressure in a column is given by:
p = ρ •g•h
Where:
p is pressure,
ρ is density,
g is acceleration due to gravity, and
h is the height of the liquid column.
Using the above formula, it can be seen that the pressure at the bottom of the
reference leg (neglecting boiler pressure) will be due to the height of water in
that leg. This pressure will be constant.
Similarly, the pressure at the bottom of the measuring leg will be due to the
height of water in that leg. This pressure will be relative to the boiler water
level and so will change as boiler water level changes.
The difference in pressure between the two legs will therefore indicate boiler
water level, and will be sent as a signal to the automatic level control system
where this signal will be converted to provide a value for the water level.
4. Safety Valves
4.1 Functions of a safety valve
A safety valve fitted on a boiler has two functions:
• Prevents steam pressure exceeding a pre-determined maximum by
automatically discharging steam as soon as this maximum value is
reached (this value is called the set pressure).
• Relieving steam pressure in the event of an emergency by discharging
steam. In this case, the valve is operated manually.

If the maximum safe pressure of the boiler is exceeded, the boiler may not
be able to withstand the force due to this pressure, and there is a danger
of an explosion occurring.
The mandatory requirement is that at least two safety valves must be fitted.
Some steam plant installations may have more than two safety valves to
provide adequate protection in the event of over-pressure.
The superheater safety valve on a watertube boiler is set to a level lower

than the set point of the safety valves on the steam drum. This ensures
that if overpressure occurs, the superheater safety valve will open first,
allowing steam to flow through the superheater before escaping to the
atmosphere.
Should the safety valves not be adjusted in this manner the lack of steam
flow through the superheater (caused by the steam drum safety valves
lifting while the superheater valve remain closed) will result in
overheating and serious damage to the superheater elements.
4.2 Definitions
Normal Operating & Design Pressure
A boiler operates at what is known as its normal operating or working
pressure. The design pressure of the boiler is higher than the normal
operating pressure, and is the maximum pressure for which the boiler was
designed to safely operate with. Normal operating pressure can be up to 10%
less than the design pressure; this gives a factor of safety for the boiler.
Set Pressure
Set or lifting pressure of the safety valve is the pressure at which the valve
opens. It will be between the normal operating pressure and the design
pressure (and is not allowed to be greater than the design pressure).
Blowdown pressure
This is the pressure at which the valve shuts after it has opened. This pressure
is normally limited to be slightly less than set pressure (3 to 5% less for
example).
Discharge capacity
This is the mass flow rate at which steam (at set pressure) will escape from the
safety valve. The safety valve must have sufficient discharge capacity for the
boiler it is fitted to. Each boiler has an evaporating rate at which the water is

converted to steam. A safety valve with an insufficient discharge capacity may

open at the correct pressure, but it will not allow a sufficient amount of steam
to escape and the pressure will rise.
Accumulation of pressure
Even with a correctly sized safety valve, the pressure of the boiler will increase
as the safety valve is operating. This is called accumulation of pressure, and
is due to the spring force of the valve increasing as the valve opens, so
requiring boiler pressure to increase in order to enable the valve to lift futher.
The accumulation of pressure test ensures that the safety valves are of the
correct discharge capacity for the boiler. To conduct this test, the boiler is set
to the maximum firing rate with the feed inlet and steam outlets shut. Only
enough feed is allowed in to keep a safe working water level. A minimum
steam flow may be allowed to protect superheater lines and to provide essential
steam, eg. to the turbine feed pump. The boiler is run with the safety valve
lifting for 7 minutes (for a water tube boiler). The boiler pressure is not to
exceed 110% of the set pressure. If superheaters could be damaged, the
accumulation tests may be waived, as long as sufficient documentation from
the safety valve manufacturer and boiler manufacturer is presented.
Waste steam pipe

This is the pipeline in which the escaping steam from the safety valve passes to
the atmosphere; its outlet is situated in the funnel. The waste steam pipe must
be large enough to ensure that steam pressure does not build up enough to
cause excessive accumulation of pressure.

Feathering
Feathering is when the valve is not quite closed, causing steam leakage which
leads to water loss and erosion of the valve and valve seat.
4.3 Auxiliary boiler safety valves

A good safety valve lifts rapidly at its set pressure, relieves the excess pressure,
and shuts positively, after the least amount of blowdown.
A number of features common to all safety valves are described, and then we
will investigate two safety valves suitable for auxiliary boilers; these valves are
typical examples of the many different types of safety valve available for
auxiliary boilers.
Drain line
A large bore drain line is present in all safety valves. This is a very
important line, as it prevents water build up in the valve. Water build up
can directly (due to water head pressure) or indirectly (due to deposits
forming from the water) stop the safety valve operating properly. In
some cases the valve may not open at all. It is so important to keep this
line open that no valve may be placed anywhere in the line.
The drain line should have a minimum number of bends and be led to a
safe place where escaping steam cannot harm personnel.
Easing gear
All safety valves are fitted with easing gear. The easing gear is a lever which
is used to manually open the valve.
Easing gear may be used to:

• Test the movement of the safety valve (usually when there is no pressure
in the boiler).
• Quickly reduce steam pressure in the event of a shipboard emergency
such as flooding. Cold sea water coming into contact with a hot
pressurised boiler may cause an explosion by imposing excessive thermal
stress on the boiler, and so weakening the boiler’s resistance against
pressure.
• Quickly reduce steam pressure in the event of a boiler emergency. If
the boiler has lost water and overheated, it is important to reduce pressure
in order to avoid rupture of boiler components. Since overpressure has not
occurred, the valve will not open automatically. Boiler rupture will fill the
machinery spaces with noise and steam, which can be disorienting and
dangerous.

Easing gear must be actuated remotely from the safety valve. This is achieved
by using pulleys and wire ropes led to a relatively safe position.
The connection of the easing gear to the safety valve is arranged so that the
easing gear does not interfere with the automatic operation of the valve.
Safety valves are also fitted with anti-tampering devices. This commonly is in
the form of a padlocked cap fitted over the valve which must be removed by an
authorised person before the valve can be adjusted.
Ordinary Lift Safety Valve
Figure 5 Ordinary Lift Safety Valve

The valve is held against its seat by the heavy coil spring. When overpressure
occurs, the upward force acting on the valve overcomes the downward spring
force and the valve lifts. As the valve lifts, the outer lip of the valve becomes
exposed to the steam pressure and the valve disk area is now increased. The
resultant extra force suddenly lifts the valve against spring pressure and causes
it to open very quickly with a popping noise. Once overpressure is relieved,
the spring forces the valve down against the reduced upwards force. Steam

pressure between the valve lip and the specially shaped valve seat momentarily
increases just before the valve shuts. This causes the valve to “bounce” and to
close promptly without feathering.
Drain lines are not shown in figure 5, but will be present at the lowest point in
the discharge side of the valve chest.
The valve is connected to the spindle by a pin, while the spindle is partially
guided by the guide bush. The valve itself is guided by the valve wings,
stopping any sideways movement which could stop the valve from properly
seating when it shuts.
An adjusting screw can be used to increase or decrease spring tension, so

adjusting the set pressure. The spring is positively located in the spring
carriers by a spigot arrangement.
A key is located between the valve cap and the spindle. Operation of the
easing gear lifts the cap upwards which pulls the spindle via this key. The
keyway of the spindle is longer than the depth of the key. This allows the
spindle to move up even though the easing gear has is in its normal position.
Improved High Lift Safety Valve
Figure 6 Improved High Lift Safety Valve

Materials
Body Cast steel
Valve disc Platnam*
Valve spindle Stainless steel
Valve guide Platnam*
Seat Platnam*
Platnam is an alloy and consists of:

• 54% Nickel
• 33% Copper
• 13% Tin
• 0.5% Iron
• 0.3% Aluminium
This valve is similar to the ordinary lift valve, but there are some additional
design features which we will investigate:
• The valve has no wings, but is guided purely by the spring. This improves
waste steam flow (since there is less obstructing metal in the steam
passage) and reduces the risk of seizure.
• The bottom spring carrier is designed to act as a waste steam piston. As the
valve lifts, steam passes to the underside of the spring carrier, which acts as
a piston so increasing the speed at which the valve opens. Thus the lift
effect of the waste steam is improved.
• The cylinder of the waste steam piston is a loose L shaped ring in the upper
valve body. In normal operation, the bottom lip of this ring is enough to
keep the ring in place to allow the piston effect to occur. However, if
corrosion or deposits cause seizure between the loose ring and the bottom
spring carrier, the ring is able to move. The piston effect is lost, but the
valve will be able to move and not stick.
4.4 Safety valve overhaul

Overhaul of a safety valve depends on the type of valve used and the
manufacturer's recommendations. However, the following general guidelines
should be followed:
• Safety - isolate lines and boiler, ensure safe access for personnel, wear
personal protective equipment.
• Check past records from previous overhauls and review manufacturer’s
instructions.
• Remove insulation from around the safety valve.
• Remove anti tampering devices and easing gear.

• Remove valve from boiler.

• Fit blank flange to boiler to prevent ingress of foreign matter.
• Take valve to workshop (which should be clean).
• Strip valve in correct order, noting condition of parts.
• Use manufacturer’s figures acceptable tolerances and other measurements
(this will provide information such as lip clearances, seating widths, wing
clearances, and spring heights).
• All working parts must be in alignment and free in operation, so check for
bent valve spindles and other defects.
• Hang parts by a cord and tap with a ball peen hammer. If the part is sound,
it will ring clear, but if there are cracks, it will not.
• Examine components for corrosion, wear, wire drawing, creep, distortion,
and other defects. Repair and/or replace as necessary.
• Check spring length and for any deformation. The spring metal may have
experienced creep and be shorter than its original length.
• Measure thickness of casing using callipers.
• Check condition of flanges, joints, and fastenings for damage,
corrosion/erosion, and dirt.
• Reassemble parts in the correct order.
• Check easing gear components for defects.
• Check drain lines are clear.
• Use new joints.
• Fit overhauled valve.
• Fit easing gear.
• Set and test valve lifting pressure.
• Fit anti-tampering devices and insulation.
• Keep accurate work records.
Safety valves are sometimes overhauled ashore and set ashore. The valve will
still be tested for operation after it has been returned to the ship and fitted on
the boiler.
4.5 Setting (or floating) safety valves

Refer to manufacturer’s instructions and ship’s procedures.
Adjustment of set pressure is normally achieved by adjusting spring tension

using a compression nut at the top of the spring. After setting, the compression

nut is locked in place with either a lock nut arrangement or by using spacers
called compression rings.
Gags may used to stop some safety valves, other than the one being set, from
lifting. However, gags are not normally used with high lift and improved high
lift safety valves.
Figure 7 Safety Valve Gag
Gags should never be placed on valves when the boiler is cold, as this may
cause the gag to jam or the spindle to bend as boiler temperature rises.
It is very important to ensure that all gags are removed from the boiler
once setting is complete, as a gagged valve will not lift.
A general procedure for setting a safety valve is as follows:

• Ensure pressure gauge is reading correctly - use dedicated, calibrated
gauge.
• Remove compression rings/ slacken lock nut.
• Raise boiler pressure to the required blow off pressure.
• Screw compression screws down on any valves that are lifting.
• If setting more than one valve, put gags (if available) on safety valves not
being set. Put these gags on only when the boiler is hot and then only finger
tight. If gags are not available, screw down compression nut on valve not
being set.
• Slacken back compression nut until the valve lifts.
• Screw down compression nut carefully, tapping down on the spindle lightly
with a soft hammer, until valve shuts and remains closed.
• Remove all gags, if used, and stow in a safe place. Ensure that all gags are
off.
• Test 2 -3 times until satisfied operation okay.
• Measure the clearance where the compression rings go, cut compression
rings to size, split them and lock them in place. Record sizes of these rings.
• Alternatively, note position of compression screw, record in work book and
tighten lock nut.
• Assemble easing gear and valve caps, and test that they operate okay.
• Secure anti tampering device onto the valve, eg., cap and padlock.
• Superheater safety valves on watertube boilers are set lower than the drum
safety valves.
• Record work in logbook, workbook, boiler book, and/or survey book.
When using a hammer to tap a safety valve shut, there is a danger of damaging
the valve and valve seat, especially if the valve has lifted in operation and not
shut. Some manufacturers therefore recommend that tapping should not be
done, while other recommend light tapping only.
To avoid losses of make up water during adjustment of safety valves (this may
be as much as 20 tonnes in highly rated boilers) some shipping companies
arrange for the safety valves to be set in a workshop ashore, using compressed
air or water. A certificate must then be signed by the workshop, which should
be checked by the Chief Engineer and a copy should be placed in ship’s files.
The valves are then fitted on to the boiler and are ‘popped’ to ensure that they
will operate under at normal operating temperature.
5. Other Boiler Mountings

Many valves mounted on a boiler are fitted in pairs to provide double isolation.
Other external boiler mountings include:
Main steam stop valve

This valve, of globe valve design, is fitted at the outlet from the boiler. It
isolates the boiler from the steam lines.
In multiple boiler installations, the main steam stop is also a non-return valve.
Feed check valve

This valve is fitted at the feed inlet to boiler after the waste heat economiser. It
is a non-return valve. This is an important feature, since if feed pressure drops
(due to feed pipe rupture), it is important that the direction of flow does not

reverse. If a reversal of flow occurred, the boiler contents would empty rapidly
through the ruptured pipe, causing damage and injury.
Other auxiliary feed valves may be fitted to the feed supply of the boiler to
allow flexibility of operation (such as a bypass arrangement for the waste heat
economiser for in-port boiler operation where there is little or no waste heat
energy available in the unit).
A screw lift feed valve may be fitted in series with the feed check to ensure
complete isolation.
Air vents
These are small size valves which release air when filling the boiler or initially
raising steam. These vents are used to prevent a vacuum as the boiler cools
after it is shut down.
It should always be checked that the air vent is open before opening any
personal access doors into the boiler.
Blow down valve

This valve enables water to be blown down from the boiler. It is used to
remove accumulated sludge as well as emptying the boiler (when under
pressure, the boiler contents can be discharged overboard even if the boiler is
partly below sea level; otherwise the boiler contents, if not dangerously hot,
can be drained to bilge).
Scum valve
This valve, if fitted, is arranged so that there is a funnel just below the normal
working water level. It is designed to remove scum from the water surface. A
gooseneck arrangement provides a safety measure in case the internal scum
pipe becomes disconnected from the boiler shell.
Pressure gauges
These gauges operate on the Bourdon tube principle. Steam pressure gauges
should be connected to the boiler through a length of coiled pipe or syphon to
avoid steam coming into contact with the Bourdon tube element. Gauges
should never be too hot to handle. Unless specifically stated, pressure gauges
should be mounted in an upright position.
Superheater circulating valves

Superheater circulating valves are fitted at the superheater outlet header of
watertube boilers, and are vents to atmosphere.

These are very important valves, as they are used to maintain steam flow
through the boiler superheater during steam raising and shut down, when
steam is otherwise not flowing. This steam flow cools the superheater
elements during these critical procedures.
Personal access doors

Manhole and handhole doors provide either full or limited access to the
internal components of the boiler.
Figure 8 Manhole Door
Figure 9 Handhole Door
These doors are located by a spigot to ensure positive location.
A stud and strongback (also known as a dog) holds the door in place when the
boiler is shut down.
The doors are placed inside the boiler so that boiler pressure forces the door
against its seat, rather than boiler pressure forcing the door off its seat (which
would be the case if the door was mounted outside the boiler).

Large doors may have two studs and dogs to hold them in place. The access
hole for large doors will be strengthened to compensate for the metal removed.
This compensation, as it is known, is provided by a stiffening ring welded to
the shell around the hole. This compensating ring can be seen in figure 21-8,
and in this example the compensating ring also provides the sealing face for the
door joint.
Doors are generally oval. This is to enable them to be put inside the boiler and
also to be removed after the boiler has been built.
There are standard sizes of access doors, in both imperial and metric units.
Differences exist between the imperial and metric door sizes (and their joints).
It is very important to check that the correctly sized door and joint is used
when refitting an access door. Differences between a metric door and its
equivalent imperial size may not be easily noticed.
Mismatched access door components are extremely dangerous.

Progress Check
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at
the back of this learner’s guide.
1. State ten (10) mountings that will be found on an auxiliary boiler.

2. Sketch a manhole door, indicating its components.
3. Explain the procedure for testing a gauge glass, noting what occurs at each
stage of the procedure.
4. State two (2) reasons for having a safety valve.
5. Explain how a gooseneck arrangement for the internal pipework of a scum
line provides a measure of safety if the pipework becomes detached from
the boiler shell.

Main Boiler Operation

Contents Page
Introduction 4
1. Boiler Water Level Control 5
1.1 Shrink 5
1.2 Swell 6
1.3 Two Element Water Level Control 8
1.4 Three Element Water Level Control 9
2. Operating Principles 10
3. Raising Steam 10
3.1 Preparations (after maintenance) 10
3.2 Filling 12
3.3 Electrical Supply 12
3.4 Burner Operation 13
3.5 Raising Steam Pressure 14
3.6 Boiler Water Level During Steam Raising .... 16
3.7 Additional Checks & Actions 17
4. Main Boiler Shut Down 18
4.1 General Points on Shut Down 18
4.2 Isolating The Shut Down Boiler 19

5. Main Boiler Lay Up 19
6. Emergency Operation 21
6.1 General Principles 21
6.2 Boiler Water Emergencies 23
6.3 Combustion Side Emergencies 25
7. Boiler Alarms & Trips 30
Progress Check 31

Introduction
Boiler operation is very important to the marine engineer. At best, incorrect
operation will give poor boiler efficiency and increased maintenance costs. At
worst, incorrect operation can cause boiler explosion, loss of life and the loss
of the ship.
This Section investigates basic aspects of main boiler operation. Equipment

and procedures of different ships will vary to some degree, so general
procedures and typical arrangements will be given.
When you join a vessel, it is very important that you read the manuals and
procedures for that particular ship (including Standard Operating Procedures
and Chief’s Standing Orders), and follow the instructions of your supervisors
and superiors.

1. Boiler Water Level Control

Boiler water level control on merchant ships is normally achieved
automatically by ship’s equipment.
The simplest form of level control for low pressure auxiliary (shell type)
boilers is on/off control. If water level drops below a certain value, the feed
pump starts or the feed control valve opens, putting water into the boiler. As
water level rises, another signal stops the pump or shuts the feed valve.
A more complex control method is modulating or continuous control. In this

method, the difference between the actual and desired water level (known as
the error) is worked out, and the feed control valve is opened more or less to
bring the water level back to the set value.
These forms of level control are not good enough for main watertube boilers.
One major reason for this is that the steam drum of a watertube boiler is much
smaller than the shell of an equivalent shell boiler. This improves boiler
efficiency, but it means that:
• There is less steam contained in the steam space - less reserve of steam.
• There is less water in the water space - less reserve of water.
Due to this:
Factors, which change the water level of a shell boiler a small amount, will
change water level of a watertube boiler significantly.
Two major factors affecting boiler water level are shrink and swell.
Both shrink and swell occur because there are steam bubbles in the boiler
water. These steam bubbles in the water raise the height of the water level.
1.1 Shrink
Shrink causes water level to momentarily drop when steam flow reduces.

To understand shrink, consider the following situation:
• A boiler is operating with a steady steam flow. The feed control valve is
open to a value that maintains normal water level. The flow rates are such
that feed flow rate going in to the boiler equals the steam flow rate out of
the boiler.
• The steam flow suddenly reduces (eg the main turbine has gone from full
ahead to dead slow ahead).
• The pressure in the boiler rises very quickly, the combustion control system
reacts to reduce firing rate.
• This reduction in firing rate reduces the heat energy into the boiler, and the
steam bubbles collapse (think of a pan of boiling water on a stove, as soon
as the heat is turned off, the bubbles stop).
• The water level will drop.
• The water level control system senses this drop in water level and opens
the feed control valve to put more water into the boiler.
• However, steam flow rate has reduced. This means that, for the original
feed control valve position, more water is going into the boiler than steam
flowing out. Thus, the feed control valve should be shut or else water level
will rise.
• Thus, at the exact moment that the feed control valve should shut in,
the shrink of the water level will cause the control system to open the
valve even more.
• This could cause the high level alarm and high high level alarm and trip to
be activated when the steam demand is increased again.
• Also, the higher water level may allow more water to flow out with the
steam. This is called carry over (small amounts of water in the steam) or
priming (large amounts of water in the steam).
1.2 Swell
Swell causes water level to momentarily rise when steam flow increases.
Swell is also known as surge.
Swell is due to steam bubbles expanding (or getting bigger) as firing rate
increases or steam pressure reduces. This will occur if steam flow suddenly
increases.

Using the example of how shrink in water level occurs, explain how swell
occurs when steam flow increases.
If water level reduces too much, the low alarm and low low trip should
actuate; the boiler is in a dangerous low water situation.

1.3 Two Element Water Level Control

To overcome the problems of shrink and swell, and to keep a more or less
constant boiler water level, a watertube boiler may use two element or three
element water level control.
Figure 1 Two Element Boiler Water Level Control
Two element control, as the name suggests, measures two elements:

• Steam flow out of the boiler.
• Actual boiler water level.
The control system measures steam flow so that it can predict changes in water
level. This is because, for a constant amount of feed water flowing into the
boiler (and ignoring the momentary effects of shrink and swell):
• An increase in steam flow will cause a drop in water level.
• A decrease in steam flow will cause an increase in water level.
The effects of shrink and swell are reduced by the control system using
steam flow to help maintain boiler water level.
Measurement of actual water level acts as a final check on water level and is
also used when there is little steam flow.
1.4 Three Element Water Level Control

Three element control gives an even better degree of water level control.
Figure 2 Three Element Boiler Water Level Control
The three elements measured are:

• Steam flow out of the boiler.
• Water flow into the boiler.
• Actual boiler water level.
By measuring feed water flow into the boiler, the control system takes into
account any variations in feed water pressure and flow.

2. Operating Principles
Specific operating procedures will vary from ship to ship and with the age and
complexity of the steam plant.
The modern steam plant is complex, and requires the use of automatic circuits
and instrumentation. A minimum of manual intervention is needed under
normal conditions. The complexity of the plant also means that the boiler
systems and sub-systems should be understood.
Five ways to learn about your steam plant are:
• Read equipment and machinery manuals;
• Read the ship’s procedure manuals;
• Observe and ask questions of other engineering staff;
• Investigate and inspect the equipment and machinery personally;
• Participate in boiler operations as much as possible.
3. Raising Steam
The starting up of a boiler is commonly known as flashing up or steam
raising.
The actual procedure for raising steam will vary from boiler to boiler so the
manufacturers’ instructions and ship's procedure manual should be followed. A
number of aspects are common and are outlined in the sub-sections below.
3.1 Preparations (after maintenance)

Before filling the boiler, a thorough examination should be made, both
internally and externally. This should include:
Internally (steam and water spaces)

• All tubes clear.
• No tools or other foreign bodies left inside boiler.
• Internal surfaces clean.
• Internal fittings, such as the feed pipe or baffle plates, are secure.

Externally
• Area around boiler is clean and free of oil or other material which can burn.
• All insulation and refractory in place and in good condition.
• Access door joints in good condition and doors properly tightened. Do not
over-tighten doors.
• All valves and cocks in good condition and able to be operated.
• Safety valve easing gear is free to move.
• Air vent open.
• Examine gas path uptakes to make sure that there is a clear path for gases
through the boiler. If the boiler has been laid up for some time, check that
funnel covers have been removed.
• Air and gas dampers should be checked for operation and then correctly
positioned.
• Fuel system in good order eg, no leaks, filters cleans, flame detector clean.
Check air registers, swirl vanes and other combustion air components.
• Check that the fuel service tank is full and that the necessary valves are
open to supply fuel to the boiler.
• If the boiler was stopped on heavy fuel oil, circulate and heat the oil (using
electric heaters) or drain lines and circulated diesel oil.
Other important points

• Test sample of water to be used as feed.
• Feed pump and feed control valve okay. All valves in feed line in correct
positions.
• Combustion air fan(s) tested and air supply checked okay.
• Measuring devices, eg thermometers, pressure gauges, and float switches
are in good order.
• Alarms and trips okay. These can be simulated and/or tested at the relevant
stage of flash up.
• Check automatic systems such as combustion control and feed control for
correct operation.
• Bypass exhaust gas air heaters if fitted.
• The Chief Engineer, Second Engineer, and all personnel in the engine room
should be made aware that the boiler is to be flashed up (if they don’t
already know).

3.2 Filling
Lines which should be open
Vents, alarms, level indicators, pressure gauges, superheater circulating/vent
line and drains, feed check valve open (for initial filling only).
Superheater circulating/vent valves protect the superheater. They must

be open whenever there is heat energy in the boiler and the boiler is not
supplying steam to any services.
There will be two isolating valves in series for the superheater circulating/vent
line. The valve closest to the superheater will be fully open; the second valve
controls steam flow through this line.
Lines which should be shut

Gauge glass drains, waterwall and economiser drains, blow down lines, scum
lines, anti-syphon loop vents, steam stops.
• Fill the boiler with (preferably) hot, deaerated water, to just below the
normal working level, eg 25 mm above the bottom of the gauge glass (or as
recommended in procedures). Ensure feed control is on manual and shut
the control valve or feed check when water is at correct level.
• The recommended amounts of water treatment chemicals should be added.
• Header vents should be shut once water comes out of them.
• Economiser filled with water and vented of air.
• Check that level trips and alarms reset as the level rises.
• Ensure that the water level is the same for all level indicators and that the
level is in fact the true level (serious accidents have occurred in the past).
• Check boiler fittings and mountings for leaks.
3.3 Electrical Supply

When no steam is available, the diesel alternator(s) will be running. In this
situation, the steam turbine alternator will be started when there is sufficient
auxiliary steam pressure available.
There will be additional electrical loads at stages in the boiler flash up, so
ensure that the electrical generating system always has sufficient capacity to
cope with these additional loads. This may require starting and running
another alternator and/or shutting down unnecessary electrical systems.
When steam raising is complete and the electrical power demand has
stabilised, the diesel alternator(s) may be shut down.

3.4 Burner Operation

Fuel flow rates of the normal burners in some boilers cannot be reduced to the
minimum firing rate needed for raising steam. Some boilers have a special
light off tip for raising steam. This is a low capacity burner/tip to give the
needed fuel flow for steam raising.
• Ensure fuel system is operating.

• Assemble burner(s) with light off tips.
• Ensure flame detector is clean and will work properly.
• Check that no fuel has entered the furnace while oil has been circulating.
• Start combustion air fans (and engine room supply fans if necessary).
• Purge furnace. The furnace must be cleared of any fuel oil vapours
which may have collected. If purging is not performed, these vapours can
ignite and cause an explosion. Open air damper and purge for pre-set
time .
• Air should flow through all burner registers.

• Close air slides at every register except for the lighting off register.
• Adjust air damper to correct light off position (usually a minimum setting).
• Before lighting off the boiler it should be remembered that a furnace
explosion may occur when raising steam. Extreme care must be
exercised to ensure a satisfactory purge cycle; correct oil pressures
and temperatures, operation of igniters, and be aware of the dangers
of repeated starting attempts.
• Ensure all sight hole covers are fitted; wear gloves, eye protection and
other relevant protective equipment. Unnecessary personnel to stand clear.
• Operate igniters and open fuel to light off burner. Flame should be
established.
• Check flame detector operation.
• Set for low firing rate with good combustion.
• Regularly check flame shape and length and that the flame is not touching
or impinging on boiler metal. Ensure that only a slight haze is present at
the funnel with no black or white smoke. The flame should be clean and
bright, with no sparking.
• Continue with the recommended firing rates as boiler pressure increases.
• Change over burner to normal firing tip when boiler is at or near normal
operating pressure (or when recommended).
• When steam is available, start heating heavy fuel oil tanks and system;
prepare to change over to heavy oil firing.
• When heavy oil system is heated sufficiently, change over to heavy oil
firing. Burners may require atomising steam when running on heavy fuel.
• Change combustion control to automatic when boiler is at normal operating
pressure. Monitor combustion flame and exhaust smoke.
• Exhaust gas air heaters or steam air heaters to be put in operation when
appropriate (eg, when the ship is full away after manoeuvring has finished).
3.5 Raising Steam Pressure

It is very important that the boiler is brought up to operating pressure
slowly.
If pressure (and temperature) is increased too quickly, there will not be

enough time for the boiler to warm up evenly. This will cause:
• thermal stressing;
• uneven expansion;
• cracking;
• leaking at tube ends.
The raising steam procedure may be given as a “Steam Raising Chart”, which
should be followed. This procedure is designed to minimise thermal stresses
and allow a uniform heating throughout the boiler, ensuring no local
overheating.

Figure 3 Steam Raising Chart

From cold, a watertube boiler should reach operating pressure no quicker than
4 to 6 hours or as specified in the steam raising chart of the boiler.
• Drum vent valve to be shut when boiler pressure is about 2 bar (or when
there is a good steam flow coming out of the vent).
• Superheater header vents to be shut when steam comes out.
• Drains on superheater circulating/vent line to be shut when steam comes
out.
• Check that superheater circulating/vent line is venting steam. Keep
superheater circulating/vent valves open until steam is being used from the
boiler.
• As boiler pressure rises, the second superheater circulating/vent valve will
be closed in gradually. The actual amounts the valve is adjusted will
depend on the individual boiler.
• Monitor superheated steam temperature. If the temperature rises above the
maximum recommended value, reduce burner firing rate.
• When boiler is at a suitable pressure, desuperheated and auxiliary steam
stops to be opened slowly and steam lines warmed through. Manual drains
on steam lines to be shut when steam comes out.
• Steam turbine alternator and steam driven feed pump may now be started.
• Once boiler is supplying steam to the auxiliary steam range, the superheater
circulating/vent valves should be shut. Drains on these circulating lines
should then be opened.
• When boiler is at normal operating pressure, main steam stops to be opened
slowly and steam lines warmed through. Manual drains on steam lines to
be shut when steam comes out.
• Check operation of automatic drains.
3.6 Boiler Water Level During Steam Raising

It is very important to monitor boiler water level at all times during boiler
operation.
• The feed check and/or feed regulating valves will initially be shut.
• There will be water loss since there is steam escaping through the
superheater circulating/vent valves.
• Put additional feed water into the boiler to maintain a minimum water level
(if necessary).
• As boiler water temperature increases, the water level should rise (due to
swell).
• As boiler nears normal operating pressure, the gauge glasses should be

tested to ensure that they are reading the correct level.
• Once steam is being used in services, open feed check valve slowly (to
prevent a sudden emptying of the economiser into the steam drum) and
bring water level up to normal working level.
• Once boiler water level has stabilised, change level control over to
automatic.
3.7 Additional Checks & Actions

• Check the boiler externals for leaks. Ensure that access doors are secure
and that the dogs are correctly tightened.
• Check that the boiler is expanding correctly. This will include noting
movement of sliding feed.
• Ensure that there are no water, oil, or steam leaks and that all aspects of the
boiler operation are correct. This will include superheated steam
temperature control.
• Check correct operation of automatic controls.
• Continue monitoring of boiler operation.

4. Main Boiler Shut Down

4.1 General Points on Shut Down
Again, actual shut down procedures vary between steam plants. Boiler shut
down may have to be done at the end of a voyage or at any time of emergency.
The following general points apply to a non-emergency shut down.
• Reduce steam load after obtaining approval from the Bridge. This may
include starting up a diesel alternator and shutting down the steam turbine
alternator. Additionally, steam turbine feed pump may need to be shut
down and auxiliary electric feed pump started.
• Carry out soot blowing, if possible.
• If only one boiler is steaming, change fuel supply to diesel oil and clear
fuel lines of heavy fuel oil, is possible.
• Gradually close main steam stop and open drains.
• Gradually close auxiliary and desuperheated steam lines and open drains.
• Have superheater circulating/vent line slightly open. When steam
issues out of the drain in this line, shut the drain. As pressure drops, the
second circulating/vent valve should be progressively opened - at the same
rate as during steam raising.
• Change combustion control from automatic to manual.

• Change water level control from automatic to manual.
• Stop firing and shut off main fuel shut off/isolating valve.
• Purge furnace with air for 3 to 5 minutes, stop combustion air fans and
ensure burner air registers are shut off (the slide valves should be shut).
• Remove burners and immerse atomiser tips in cleaning fluid.
• Maintain normal boiler water level, if possible, until boiler pressure is low.
Do not use cold feed water to cool down the boiler. Level will drop due to
steam loss through superheater circulating/vent line and also due to shrink
as the water temperature falls.
• If another boiler is steaming, ensure that steam lines are isolated.
• Open superheater circulating/vent line fully when boiler pressure is 10 to
15 bar.
• Open steam drum vent valve when pressure has fallen to atmospheric. This
stops a vacuum occurring in the boiler as it cools.
• Exhaust gas air heaters should be bypassed when uptake temperature is
sufficiently reduced.

• Do not open access doors until furnace temperature is low, as induced

draughts will rapidly chill boiler pressure parts.
• Open superheater header drains.
• Shut down fuel system.
• Shut down and isolate feed system.
• If the boiler is to be emptied, empty the boiler gradually so that sudden
changes of temperature are not imposed on the pressure parts.
Where possible, a minimum of 5 hours cooling down period is desirable.
4.2 Isolating The Shut Down Boiler

There are two reasons for isolating a boiler when it is shut down. These
reasons are:
• Protection of the boiler.

• Safety of personnel.
Isolation will include the following points:

• Ensure that fuel system is shut down and isolated. Fuel leaking into the
furnace may affect personnel and also may lead to an accumulated vapour
explosion.
• Ensure combustion air system is shut down and isolated after residual heat
energy is removed.
• If possible, ensure that there is double isolation of steam lines between the
shut down boiler and any running boiler. It is vital that there is no
possibility of personnel being exposed to steam.
• Ensure that feed system is shut down and isolated. Water suddenly
entering the boiler may be just as hazardous to personnel as steam.
5. Main Boiler Lay Up

A boiler that is not in use for a period of time is idle. Precautions have to be
taken to protect boiler internal surfaces from corrosion during idle periods. An
idle boiler is laid up; this means that the boiler is prepared for an idle period.
Two basic methods of preparing the boiler for lay up are used. Which method
is used depends on the length of the lay up.

Short Lay Up
For short periods up to about one month, the boiler, superheater, desuperheater,
and economiser, with all valves and cocks shut, are completely filled with hot
deaerated feed water. This water contains chemicals such as sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) which ensure that the water is alkaline.
Regular checks are made to ensure that the boiler remains full and that
alkalinity is maintained.
Long Lay Up
For lay up periods greater than about one month, the boiler furnace and gas
paths are washed with fresh water. Ashes may contain sulphur, tend to collect
moisture, acids form which can corrode the external components of the boiler.
The boiler, superheater, desuperheater, and economiser are emptied of water,

cleaned, and then completely dried out using heating stoves in the drums and
hot air blowers to pass hot air through the tubes.
When these components are dry, all valves and cocks are shut tight, all doors
shut (with new joints) and the boiler is sealed. This prevents moisture laden air
entering the boiler. Drying agents, called desiccants, are placed in trays are
inserted in the boiler before sealing. The desiccants absorb any moisture from
the atmosphere inside the boiler.
A laid up boiler should be treated as a confined space. Confined space

entry procedures must be followed.
Simmering
Another method which may be used, if steam from another boiler is available,
is to have heating coils in the water drum of the shut down boiler. The shut
down boiler has a normal level of water, and the simmering coils are used to
maintain a small amount of heating. This enables a slight pressure to be
maintained in the off duty boiler, keeping air out. Another advantage of
simmering is that it keeps the gas side of the boiler warm and dry.

6. Emergency Operation
6.1 General Principles
The essential aims in dealing with emergencies which put boilers at risk
are:
• Protect the boiler(s) from damage;
• Safeguard personnel.
The general principles in any emergency for any ship should be to ensure:
• Safety of personnel;
• Maintaining steerage and ship manoeuvrability;
• Safety of machinery and keeping damage to a minimum;
• Bridge to be informed when the safety of the ship or loss of
performance is involved;
• Engineers’ alarm to be switched on and assistance summoned as
necessary;
And for a steam ship:

• Steam offtake from boiler(s) to be reduced if steam pressure is being
lost;
• Boiler(s) to be shut down before steam pressures drop to 50% below
normal, and while pressure is still adequate for steam driven feed
pump operation;
• Main engine to be stopped if boiler shut down will occur;
• Standby auxiliary machinery should be started in good time if
performance of the running machinery is in doubt;
• Diesel generator to be started if power supplies are at risk;
• Main engine not to be left standing for more than 3 minutes when hot
or when gland steam on. Turning gear should be put in and run.
• Soot blowers should be used after any emergency involving
combustion services.

The Chief Engineer will take charge in any major emergency involving
machinery. The duty engineer, however, will generally be the first engineer in
the machinery spaces, and will:
• Take initial actions as necessary;
• Inform the Chief and Second Engineers of the emergency;
• Inform the Bridge;
• Follow orders after the arrival of senior engineering staff.
In any boiler emergency where the boiler is tripped (and therefore

normal steam flow has stopped) the superheater circulating/vent line
must be opened to provide a flow of steam through the superheaters.
Follow ship’s procedures when dealing with emergencies. It is very easy

to become confused and to make mistakes. Your ship’s procedures should
help you to do what is required and not miss anything.
Steaming on one boiler

If one boiler of a twin boiler steam plant has to be shut down at sea, the Bridge
must be advised that a reduction of speed is necessary. Control of the main
engine should then be transferred to the Control Room and revolutions
decreased to the allowable single boiler speed (50 rpm/half ahead for example).
The boiler should be shut down and isolated according to procedures. If
necessary, four hours after the burners have been shut off, the forced draught
fan may be used to assist in final cooling of the boiler. With the ship operating
on one boiler and auxiliary steam consumption kept to a minimum, the main
engine speed may be increased until the running boiler is operating at its
normal full load.
There will be differences to every emergency. The following situations are

provided as examples of boiler emergencies that could occur. Do not forget
the broad principles already stated in this sub-section when considering these
emergencies.

6.2 Boiler Water Emergencies

Boiler tube failure
Slight leakage of a boiler tube may be difficult to notice and find, as the
escaping water is vapourised and mixes with combustion gases. Such leakage
may be suspected if make up feed water increases or boiler water test results
are not as expected (eg, chemical reserve levels dropping for apparently no
reason).
If a tube ruptures, however, there will be sufficient indications of this problem,

including:
• Noise;
• Combustion flame distortion or extinction;
• Noticeable change in funnel gases;
• Loss of water level;
• Sudden increase in make up water to the boiler.
Immediate actions to be taken should include:

• Inform Bridge of the emergency;
• Operate the Engineers’ Alarm;
• Trip the boiler;
• Keep the forced draught fan running to remove escaping steam up the
funnel;
• Shut boiler steam stops;
• Reduce steam demand on the remaining boiler (on a two boiler ship) by
slowing down the main engine;
• Maintain water level in the defective boiler, if possible, until the boiler
cools down (this may involve using the auxiliary feed line to the boiler);
• Monitor water level of remaining boiler;
• Open superheater circulating/vent line;
• If water level is not visible in the gauge glass, this will indicate that the
amount of water leakage is exceeding the make up capacity of the water
level controller, and the feed valve should be shut to stop feed supply;
• Operate easing gear to lift safety valves if steam leakage will endanger
personnel;
• Shut down forced draught fan after the steam pressure has decreased;
• Allow the boiler to cool as slowly as is safe;
• Empty the boiler when cool.

Feed flow failure to boiler(s)

• Notify Bridge and Chief and Second Engineers;
• The cause of the failure must be quickly established;
• When the feed failure is to only one boiler, ensure that supplies to the other
boiler are maintained while trying to fix the problem.
• Steam to the main engines should be reduced to save water. Starting a
diesel generator(s) and taking some load off the turbo alternator will also
reduce steam demand.
• If feed pressure has dropped, ensure that the standby feed pump has started.
This may rectify the situation if the failure is due to the running feed pump
tripping. Check for and fix the problem that caused the pump failure.
• Check feed tank and deaerator levels.
• If the feed control valve has jammed or has otherwise failed, use the
manual bypass valve to restore feed to the boiler. In this case, a competent
crew member must regulate feed with the manual valve; the valve must not
be left unattended.
• Ascertain if the failure is a secondary problem to tube rupture.
• If water level cannot be maintained, trip the boiler(s) and follow procedures
similar to tube rupture.
Unknown water level

• If the water level is not visible in the gauge glasses, the potential hazard is
so great that the situation should be treated as a tube rupture, until such
time that the true water level is known and the situation corrected.
• When the water level is low, the safety devices should trip the boiler. If
this does not happen, and the water level drops to a point where the heat
transfer is affected, steam pressure will tend to fall and the fuel burners will
automatically increase their firing rate to try to increase pressure.
• Always remember that a drop in steam pressure may be due to a lack

of water in the boiler.
• Where there is not enough water to absorb the heat energy of the furnace,
even with the fuel shut off, the heating surfaces will distort, brickwork will
be damaged, casings will warp and pressure parts will leak.
• When the water level is high and the level controller fails to reduce feed,
the high alarm and high high alarm and trip should occur. If they fail to
operate, large amounts of water will be entrained with the steam. This is
known as priming, and this water will damage the superheater and
turbines.

In establishing whether a gauge glass is full or empty, it is sometimes possible

to quickly tell if the boiler is in the more dangerous low water situation by
looking for the presence of condensate trickling down the inside of the gauge
glass.
Oil contamination
Oil contamination of boiler water coats the boiler heating surfaces and
acts as an insulating layer. This will cause overheating and failure.
Slight amounts of oil, while not causing such overheating, are still a problem.
In this case, the oil will cause foaming at the water level. If there is enough
foam, it will flow out with the steam, causing carry over of water and
chemicals. This will reduce the boiler water level as well as damaging the
superheater and turbines.
Ways to detect oil contamination include:

• Regular checking of water surface in drains tanks. Oil, if present, will float
on the surface and may also leave a scum around the inside edges of the
tank.
• Grey scum, especially at the normal water level, in the gauge glasses.
• Water treatment samples, left to stand, may be found to have oil floating on
top of the water.
Once oil contamination has been detected, the source of oil must be determined
and the leak stopped.
Slight contamination of the oil may be removed by the addition of chemicals

into the boiler which will cause the oil to precipitate and drop to the bottom of
the boiler as sludge. Regular blowing down of the boiler to remove this sludge
must then be performed.
Large amounts of oil in the boiler water will require the boiler to be shut down,
the oil removed and the boiler cleaned using specialist assistance before re-use.
6.3 Combustion Side Emergencies

Furnace explosions
Furnace explosions occur when volumes of oil vapour and air, present in
the boiler furnace in explosive proportions, are ignited.
Sudden admission of air to a fuel rich burner flame can also result in an
explosion.

Such an explosion in a watertube boiler, with its large furnace, can be very
serious, causing loss of life and major damage to the boiler and its equipment.
A large explosion, especially in monowall boilers, can pull tubes out of drums
or rupture monowall wall panels, allowing the boiler contents to flood the
engine room. It could also ignite secondary fires, igniting combustible
material in other areas of the engine room.
Furnace explosions can occur when flashing up and shutting down the boiler.
At such times, boiler operation may be under manual control and incorrect or
inadequate purging can occur. This is especially so when repeated lighting off
and shutting down the burners, or if there is difficulty igniting the burner.
Always purge the furnace before any ignition attempt.
Purging the furnace removes accumulated fuel vapours. However, a normal

purging cycle will not be enough if liquid oil is present in the furnace. If oil is
present in the bottom of the furnace, it must be removed before any light off
attempt. Small amounts of oil may be removed by extended purging.
These explosions should not occur when correctly using automatic combustion
control. This is because this control system will regulate correct fuel to air
ratio as well as ensuring adequate purging before ignition.
Automatic light up failures can occur, and in this situation, when going over to
manual control (and often in a hurry), wrong actions can be taken, causing an
explosion.
If flame failure occurs, the fuel should be immediately shut off. Unburnt oil
spraying into a hot furnace may be ignited on hot boiler parts or brickwork.
A small explosion may be contained within the boiler, but the pressure
increase in the furnace may blow out the register assembly and injure
personnel at the boiler front. Thus, adequate safety practices should be
followed and personal protective equipment worn.
If a substantial furnace explosion occurs, then the boiler should be secured and
inspected for damage before further operation.

To summarise, the best method of dealing with furnace explosions is to

avoid them. This will include:
• Inspecting the furnace for oil accumulation before light off;
• Purging the boiler adequately before any ignition attempt;
• Ensure flame detection and fuel shut off equipment is working
properly;
• Follow correct light off procedures, especially when operating the
boiler manually;
• Wear correct protective equipment if lighting off the boiler manually.
Particular care should be taken when raising steam in a cold boiler using diesel
fuel. A small flame will be used so it is easy for droplets of fuel to cool before
combustion is complete (especially if large amounts of excess air are used).
These droplets of fuel can accumulate in the boiler uptakes, and can cause an
explosion in this part of the boiler even if flame failure does not occur.
Sootfires
Soot, rich in carbon, can accumulate in superheaters, economisers and other
boiler components in the exhaust gas path of the boiler. Soot accumulation is
caused by poor combustion, which can occur in port or when operating at low
power for long periods.
If this soot is ignited, it will burn and a sootfire created. The heat from a
sootfire can affect the boiler like any fire, overheating tubes, melting gas air
heaters, and distorting components.
A second, much more serious hydrogen fire can be created by a sootfire. If a

sootfire occurs at a superheater or economiser tube where there is insufficient
water or steam to cool the tube, it can be severely overheated and melt. If the
fire temperature is over 700O C, the iron present in the steel will burn. This
iron will be burning in the presence of steam escaping from the ruptured tube.
This is called an iron fire. The iron fire will cause the steam to dissociate into
hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen will burn in the oxygen, and so a self
sustaining fire occurs (until the supply of steam stops). This is a hydrogen fire.
Such a fire generates very high temperatures and is very intense. It is also very
difficult to put out. The only way to deal with such a fire is to cool the metal
below 700O C by directing a powerful jet of water at the seat of the fire. This
is very difficult to do. The only action which can be performed is to contain
the fire within the boiler and its uptakes and not allow it to spread and cause
secondary fires in the machinery space.

The conditions needed for the escalation of a soot fire into a hydrogen fire are:
• Tubes with some steam (or water) content, usually with poor flow rates;
• Tube metal temperatures over 700OC.
The first indications of a sootfire are:

• A rapid increase in uptake gas temperature;
• Sparks coming out of the funnel.
Provided that the sudden temperature rise is not excessive (eg less than 20O C
above normal), it can be assumed that the fire is not yet severe. Slowing the
gas flow (by reducing boiler combustion rate) and maintaining water/steam
flow through the economiser/superheater while allowing the fire to burn itself
out may be sufficient.
Using sootblowers to fight a fire is highly dangerous. Sootblowing may

dislodge deposits from other areas away from the fire, sending them into the
fire. Sootblowing may also cause the fire to grow into a hydrogen fire.
If the fire is in the economiser, a good flow of water through the elements will
help to keep the tube metal cool and may also chill the fire. If the economiser
has been ruptured, the economiser should be drained of water. In this case, the
auxiliary feed line direct to the steam drum should be used to maintain boiler
water level.
Preparations for controlling the fire should be done. This will include starting
up diesel generators and fire pumps, and assembling fire crews and hoses.
If the temperature continues to rise, it should be assumed that the fire is severe
and it may be an iron/hydrogen fire. Red hot boiler casings also indicate that
the fire has escalated. The boiler should be tripped. Water should not be used
to fight the fire, but should be used to give boundary cooling. This is to
prevent the spread of the fire outside the boiler.
Water being used to control the spread of an uptake fire can also short out
electric motors and lines.

The most effective way of fighting an uptake fire is to prevent it in the

first place. This is achieved by the following:
• Keeping combustion equipment in good condition, preventing poor
combustion;
• Keeping air/fuel ratios correct;
• Regular sootblowing of the boiler and uptakes;
• Regular inspection and water washing of the boiler gas path when it is
shut down.

7. Boiler Alarms & Trips

Alarms and trips (or shut downs) that are fitted to a main boiler constantly
monitor the measured parameters.
Alarms act to inform engineering staff of deviations from the desired values or
value ranges. They are especially important on ships which operate under
Unattended Machinery Space (UMS) conditions, to provide monitoring when
the engine room is unattended.
Trips also inform staff of an alarm condition, but they also trip or shut down
the boiler or system involved. Trips act when a dangerous or potentially
dangerous situation occurs. Main boiler trips will either shut off fuel to the
burner (boiler trip), or shut off steam to the main turbine (turbine trip).
Alarms and trips do not replace the watchkeeping or duty engineer;
they are complementary to the watchkeeper. Both automatic
equipment and trained personnel are necessary.
Major alarms and trips which will be fitted to main boilers include the
following:
ITEM ALARM NOTE
Water level Low
Water level 2nd stage low or Low low Boiler trip
Water level High
Water level 2nd stage high or High high Turbine trip
Feed water pressure Low Boiler trip
Steam drum/superheater High and low
outlet pressure
Superheated steam High
temperature
Desuperheated steam High
temperature
Combustion air pressure Low Boiler trip
Oil fuel pressure Low
Oil fuel temperature or High and low Heavy oil only
viscosity
Oil fuel atomising steam/air Low
pressure
Burner flame and ignition Failure Boiler trip
failure
Uptake temperature High

Progress Check
1. Explain the effect of shrink of the boiler water level, and identify why it
causes feed control problems.
2. Make a simple labelled sketch of a three element water level control
system, and briefly explain how it controls water level.
3. Identify what is meant by purging, stating when and how long a boiler
should be purged, and briefly explain why it is important.
4. If a main watertube boiler is tripped or shut down in an emergency, state
one vital action that must be done by the engineering staff.
5. List 10 main boiler alarms and trips that will be found on a main boiler.

Main Steam Distribution
Main Steam
Distribution

Contents Page
Steam Distribution
Introduction 3
1. General Piping Concepts 4
2. Steam Piping 5
2.1 High Pressure Range 5
2.2 Desuperheated Steam Range 7
2.3 Exhaust/Bled Steam Range 10
3. Steam Traps and Pressure Reducing Valves . 13
3.1 Purposes of Steam Traps 13
4. Symbols Used in Pipeline Diagrams 14
Progress Check 15

Introduction
Now that we have learnt how steam is made, we will see how this steam is
delivered to the turbines, heaters, and other devices that use this steam.

1. General Piping Concepts

Steam pipework, or piping, should be arranged in a neat, orderly manner.
Sufficient allowances should be made for thermal expansion of pipes and
movement due to hull deflection. This is achieved by using expansion bends,
offsets in the piping, expansion joints, or spring loaded supports.
Arrangements should also be made to support the mass of the pipework and the
mass of fluid within it. Flange bolts are generally not intended to support the
pipework by themselves. Hangers or other types of supports also restrict axial
movement. Fixed supports should be located so that bends in the pipework
between them give sufficient flexibility to allow expansion.
Where high and low points in piping or equipment are unavoidable, vents and
drains should be used to ensure proper operation of the system. Lines should
be arranged with a definite slope to allow for drainage.
Steam and liquid piping should not be located where sprays or drips from leaks
or condensation could damage electrical equipment.
Pressure gauges, thermometers, and other measuring devices should be located

so that they are easily visible to the watchkeeper.
Steam plant pipework should be insulated, or lagged. This insulation has two
purposes:
• To minimise heat energy loss;
• To protect personnel from injury.
Colour coding
Pipelines should be marked to indicate to personnel the fluid that is inside each
pipeline. Some ships, however, may not have the piping systems colour coded,
or there may be different standards used on particular ships.
One standard that may be used is an international pipeline colour coding

standard ISO/R 508, Identification Colours for Pipes Conveying Fluids in
Liquid or Gaseous Condition in Land Installations and On Board Ship.
Arrows may indicate direction of flow, and pressure and temperature can also
be marked on the pipe.
Identification colours can be painted on, using standardised colours.

Alternatively, the coding can be applied in the form of special coloured
adhesive tape.

Figure 1 Pipework Colour Coding
2. Steam Piping
Steam use can be put into two broad systems:
• Main (propulsion) steam;
• Auxiliary steam.
Auxiliary steam use can be further divided into secondary systems, such as
those supplying heat exchangers, deck machinery, and heating systems.
Section 4 contains a table showing pipeline symbols, placed for easy

reference.
2.1 High Pressure Range

The high pressure range supplies the following services:
• Main propulsion turbines (main steam range);
• Turbo-alternators (auxiliary high pressure steam range);
• Turbo-feed pumps(auxiliary high pressure steam range);
• Desuperheater.
A typical high pressure steam system is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2 Main & Auxiliary Superheated Steam Range
Pipes are seamless, and are made from chromium molybdenum alloy steel.
Valves are made of similar material, and are generally of globe design. Joints
are spiral edge wound gaskets with internal and external steel guide rings,
commonly known as a metaflex joint.

Figure 3 Metaflex Joint (small fitting)
Figure 4 Metaflex Joint (pipe joint)
A main steam pipe has a large diameter, since the equipment that uses this
steam requires relatively large mass flow rates. The lagging around the
pipework also makes the pipes appear larger.
2.2 Desuperheated Steam Range

The purpose of the desuperheated steam range is to supply steam directly or by
way of pressure reducing valves to all the steam driven auxiliary equipment
and ship services not served by the main steam system.
The desuperheated steam range supplies the following services:

• Sootblowers (at boiler pressure);
• Atomising steam for fuel oil system;
• Air ejectors;

• Make up to exhaust/bled steam system (for conditions when

exhaust/bled steam is not available, eg when in port or at low main engine
loads);
• Steam to the contaminated steam system (or primary steam to steam
to steam generator);
• Steam to the ship’s whistle.

Figure 5 Desuperheated Steam Range

Other services that may be supplied from the desuperheated steam range
(including contaminated steam services) are:
• Oil tank heating;
• Oily water separator;
• Sea chests (used in very cold/icy sea conditions);
• Lubricating oil heating
• Fuel oil heating (for viscosity control);
• Tracing steam (heating coils wrapped along fuel lines to maintain
temperature);
• Domestic uses (hot water and accommodation heating).
Since auxiliary steam lines are smaller in size and in most cases subject to
lower pressures than the main steam lines the materials used in this range,
materials requirements for pipes and components are less stringent.
Some of the auxiliaries systems operate at full boiler pressure, others operate at
reduced pressures. Where reduced pressure is required, a reducing valve is
fitted and is set to deliver steam at the desired pressure. A stop valve is
installed on each side of the reducing valve and a manual bypass is provided so
that steam can be supplied if the reducing valve is malfunctioning.
A relief valve must be fitted in low pressure lines to protect both piping
and machinery which are not designed for higher pressures if the
reducing valve malfunctions. A pressure gauge will also be in the line to
show the reduced steam pressure.
2.3 Exhaust/Bled Steam Range

The exhaust steam range collects the steam exhausted by various auxiliary
machinery components and delivers the steam to a number of services.
The thermal efficiency of the steam plant is also increased by extracting, or

bleeding, steam from stages of the main turbine.

Figure 6 Exhaust Steam Range
Make up steam from the desuperheated steam range is used to supply steam to
the exhaust/bled steam range when the amount of exhaust steam is low and/or
when bled steam is unavailable.

The exhaust/bled steam range supplies the following services:

• Combustion air heaters;
• Low pressure feed heaters;
• Deaerator;
• Evaporators.
If the amount of exhaust and bled steam generated is greater than the demand,
excess steam from this range may be directed to the main condenser or
returned to the main engine at the inlet to the low pressure turbine.

3. Steam Traps and Pressure

Reducing Valves
3.1 Purposes of Steam Traps
Steam traps allow only condensed water (condensate) to pass through
them, while stopping the passage of steam.
In many situations in ships, steam is used for heating other substances (such as
fresh water, seawater, air, or lubricating and fuel oils. The heating coils used
are supplied with steam at reduced pressure. A steam trap is fitted to the outlet
or exhaust end of the heating coil. This ensures that only water returns to the
drains tank and improves the thermal efficiency of the heating system.
Steam traps are also used to keep steam lines free of condensate. Moisture in
steam pipes can cause damage (such as erosion, or impact damage due to water
hammer) to turbines, pipes and valves.
Water hammer
Water hammer may occur when a water slug is pushed along a pipe by the
steam (instead of being drained away at low points) and is suddenly stopped by
impacting an obstruction such as a valve or pipe bend.
The speeds of such plugs of water can be very high, especially when the line is
being put in service. When these plugs are stopped, their kinetic energy is
converted into pressure energy and a pressure shock occurs on the obstruction.
A banging noise will be heard and the components may vibrate. In severe
cases, the fitting may fracture explosively, with loss of steam and injury to
personnel and equipment.
Water hammer may be avoided completely if the steam lines are kept free of
water (by using manual drains and steam traps).

4. Symbols Used in Pipeline

Diagrams
The following symbols, used in the steam ranges illustrated in this Section, is
based on Australian pipeline standard symbols for ships.
Symbol Explanation
Direction of flow
Connected piping
Unconnected piping
Manually controlled valve
Motor controlled valve
Pneumatically controlled valve

Non-return valve (arrow shows direction of
flow)
Pressure gauge
Relief valve
Device, such as controller
Steam strainer
Steam trap
Drain line
note:
1 in low pressure steam lines there may be
only one valve
2 a steam trap may also be present in the line)
Pressure controller/reducer
Steam/water mixing for temperature control
Table 1 Steam Piping Symbols

Progress Check
1. Make a simple labelled sketch of the high pressure range of a main steam
plant, and identify the services which this range supplies.
2. Briefly describe the type of joint used in high pressure steam piping.
3. List the services supplied by the desuperheated steam range.
4. State two reasons why steam traps are fitted in steam lines, and, using
sketches, explain how a thermodynamic steam trap works.
5. Using a simple sketch to aid your answer, explain the operation of a simple
pressure reducing valve.

Lubrication of Steam Turbines-Lecture Notes
Lubrication of Steam
Turbines

Contents Page
Lubrication of Steam Turbines
Introduction 3
1. Lubrication Requirements 4
1.1 Lubrication Purposes 4
1.2 Oil as the Lubricant 4
2. Lubricating Oil Systems 5
2.1 Components to be Lubricated 5
2.2 Types of Lubricating System 6
2.3 Typical Components of a Lubricating Oil

System 11
3. Lubrication Faults 12
Progress Check 16

Introduction
Lubrication of a steam turbine and its gearing is vital for long life and safety of
operation. You will learn about the needs for lubricating these components,
how lubrication is achieved, and finally you will learn about common
lubrication faults and how to rectify them.

1. Lubrication Requirements
1.1 Lubrication Purposes
The purposes of a lubricant for steam turbines and gearing are to:
• Lubricate;
• Cool;
• Clean;
• Prevent corrosion;
• Provide hydraulic power.
Friction consumes energy. Reducing friction between the moving parts will
reduce this energy loss. Friction also produces wear which is unacceptable
damage. Since a turbine rotates at thousands of revolutions per minute, this
friction must be reduced to a minimum.
Friction increases part temperature. Also, there will be heat energy transfer
from the steam to the turbine which will be conducted along the metal to the
bearings. The flow of large quantities of lubricant provides cooling.
Any wear products, sludge, and other foreign matter must not be allowed to
accumulate at the bearings and gears. The flow of lubricant which cools these
parts also washes away contaminants.
Lubricating oil has additives which help to prevent corrosion, mainly due to
water.
Pressurised lubricating oil can be used for hydraulic power transmission.

Steam turbine plants can use this function of oil for remote control of the
turbine, emergency control, and emergency shut down.
1.2 Oil as the Lubricant

The lubricant most commonly used in steam turbine bearings and gearing is
oil. In performing the functions required of it, the oil must resist:
• Mixing with any water present (emulsifying).
• Becoming excessively thin under the action of the high temperatures
present.
• Carbonising under the action of the high temperatures present.
• Oxidising and become excessively acidic on exposure to air and other
oxidising processes.

Additives to the oil:

• Improve the viscosity of the oil at high temperatures.
• Act as rust inhibitors to help keep the lubricated surfaces free of corrosion.
• Help the oil to resist oxidation.
• Act as wetting agents, which means that the oil adheres to the surfaces
being lubricated.
• Provide protection for gears operating with very high pressures between the
teeth.
2. Lubricating Oil Systems

2.1 Components to be Lubricated
A common lubricating oil system is used to supply oil to the:
• turbine bearings;
• gearbox bearings;
• thrust bearings;
• meshing gear teeth;
• flexible couplings between the turbine and the gearbox.
Turbine and gearbox bearings

These bearings are typically steel lined with tin based white metal, and may be
supported in adjustable housings to allow alignment changes if required. Oil
enters a bearing through a port on either side.
The entry point is chamfered to help with oil distribution along the bearing.
No oil grooves are provided in these bearings.
These bearings also have a greater clearance between bearing and shaft
compared with a diesel engine, due to the greater rotational speeds of the
turbines (which requires large cooling oil flows).
The oil leaves the bearing at the top and returns to the drain tank. Oil from the
gearbox bearings may drain out of the bearing side and drain to the bottom of
the gearbox.
Flow and temperature sensors may be fitted in the oil discharge outlet from
each bearing for monitoring purposes. Alternatively, some bearings may have
temperature sensors fitted in the bearing itself.

Thrust bearings
Hp and lp thrust bearings, along with the main shaft thrust bearing, work on the
Michel or tilting pad principle (operating principles of this bearing type are
discussed in General Engineering Knowledge). These bearings use hydraulic
pressure of the oil to resist the forces involved while maintaining axial
alignment.
Gear teeth sprayers

Gear teeth experience both sliding and rolling action as they perform. This
action of the teeth means that they are difficult to lubricate compared to shaft
bearings. Oil used to lubricate gear teeth must:
• Provide what is known as boundary or film lubrication;
• Stick on to the teeth as they work;
• Resist the high local forces that are generated.
•
Extreme pressure or EP additives may be mixed with the oil to improve its
lubrication properties under the high local loads that are encountered between
gear teeth. The oil must be chemically stable as it is often in the form of a mist
or spray and thus exposed to extensive oxidation through intimate contact with
air.
Sprayers direct oil on to the engaging side of the teeth (when running ahead).
Astern sprayers were used in older gearbox designs, but modern oils give
improved protection and these astern sprayers are now not common.
Couplings
Claw or gear type flexible couplings must be lubricated. The lubrication needs
of these couplings are similar to those of transmission gear teeth, and the oil is
supplied to the couplings using oil sprayers.
2.2 Types of Lubricating System

There are three main types of lubricating oil system used for main
propulsion turbines:
• Gravity;
• Pressure;
• Combined gravity and pressure.

Gravity
Figure 1 Gravity Lubricating Oil System
Oil is pumped to a gravity tank (or tanks) located high above the turbine (at
least 9 to 10 metres). This tank feeds the system. Each pump has over
capacity - there is an overflow back to the sump through a sight glass. This
ensures that the gravity tank is always full. The pump speed is regulated to
give a steady overflow through a sight glass. The pumps can be either gear
wheel/screw or reciprocating piston types - the latter being acceptable because
the gravity tanks eliminate pulsations in oil pressure. The gravity tank has a
capacity so that if the pumps fail, the system will be lubricated for 3-5 minutes
and/or time enough to allow the turbine to run down and come to rest.
Optimum oil inlet temperature is normally around 46.5o C. The sump tank
should be capable of accommodating all oil in the system. This is because all
the oil will drain into the sump when the system is shut down.
This is an old fashioned lubrication system.

Pressure
Figure 2 Pressure Lubricating Oil System
Compared to the gravity system:

• the amount of piping is reduced (there is no gravity tank and so less
pipework needed);
• oil quantity is minimised; and
• there is space saving (less headroom needed).
The lubricating oil pump feeds all bearings and the gear teeth sprayers through
a pressure control valve set at 2 bar. A return line from this valve returns oil to
the sump (since the pump should produce pressures greater than 2 bar). Two
pumps are fitted in series. One pump will be running, the other pump acts as a
back up (this is known as having the pump on standby). Should the running
pump fail, the standby pump should cut in automatically.
This lubrication system is primarily used on warships.
If the standby pump does not start, oil flow will cease and damage due to
lack of lubrication and cooling will occur.

State a situation where the running oil pump would stop and the standby pump
would not start.
Combined gravity and pressure
Combining the two systems of gravity and pressure lubrication overcomes

shortcomings of each of the individual systems, and has the advantages of each
system. This combination can be arranged in a number of ways (one method is
shown in figure 3) and is the common lubrication system used on modern
merchant ships.
A pump is driven mechanically from the gearbox, so that oil is being pumped
whenever the turbine and gearing is rotating. When the turbine and gearing is
not rotating, or is rotating at low speeds (during manoeuvring for example),
auxiliary electric pumps supply oil.
Oil is delivered to the system from the pump. At the same time, the gravity
tank is kept full by a delivery/overflow arrangement. If pump delivery fails,
the turbine will be automatically tripped; the steam supply to the turbine will
be shut off. The gravity tank supplies enough oil to the turbine and gearbox to
allow time for the rotation of the turbine to stop. This is known as the run
down time.
A non-return valve stops oil flowing back through stopped pumps. Orifice
plates to and from the gravity tank regulate oil flows.

Figure 3 Combined Lubricating Oil System
The pump delivery is adjusted so that there is a continuous overflow return

from the gravity tank to the sump. A sight glass is placed in this overflow line.
1. Why should there be a continuous overflow from the gravity tank?
2. Why is there a sight glass in the overflow line back to the sump tank?

2.3 Typical Components of a Lubricating Oil

System
The major components of a lubricating oil system are:
• Pumps;
• Coolers;
• Gravity tank;
• Filters;
• Oil cleaning system.
Pumps
Pumps are generally gear or screw type since they:
• Are compact;
• Are reliable;
• Are self priming; and
• Give a non-fluctuating oil supply.
Coolers
Typically the coolers are of the shell and tube type. Cooling seawater passes
through the tubes while the oil to be cooled flows around them. Oil pressure is
higher than water pressure to avoid seawater leaking in to the oil. A bypass
arrangement is used to maintain a set oil temperature.
Some systems use feedwater to cool the oil, to minimise possible salt-water
contamination and to improve the plant’s thermal efficiency. These systems
are arranged so that water pressure is higher than oil pressure. There is a
possibility, however, that oil could leak into the cooling water system and
contaminate it.
Gravity tank (also known as header tank)

This tank not only provides a reserve supply of oil if pump failure occurs but
also gives a high venting point for air to be released.
Filters
Filters keep oil clean. They:
• Minimise wear of pumps;
• Prevent pump damage by large particles;
• Remove water from the system (special coalescing filters are required for
this function);
• Protect bearings and gear teeth from damage.
Thus, filters have a very important role in the satisfactory performance of a

lubrication system.
Cleaning System
The oil must be cleaned. Using filters alone could mean excessive changing
over and cleaning. Also, contaminating water may be difficult to remove.
Therefore it is common for lubricating oil systems to have a centrifugal
separator (a purifier) running constantly, continuously cleaning the oil of
sludge and water.
3. Lubrication Faults
Common lubrication faults which may occur are:
• Pump failure;
• Pump wear;
• Blocked/dirty filters;
• Incorrectly shut valves;
• Incorrectly open valves;
• Loss of cooling water;
• Cooling control failure;
• Loss of oil;
• Contamination of oil.
Some of these faults will have the same or similar effects on the system. Some
faults can occur suddenly, others may gradually become evident over time.
Whatever the fault, the turbine and gearing must be kept lubricated
whenever they are rotating.
If lubrication fails, the turbine must be stopped as soon as possible.

The fault must be rectified and the lubrication system restored to normal as
soon as possible.
The response of the automatic monitoring system and/or the watchkeeping

engineer depends on the actual fault which occurs. The monitoring/alarm
system will trip the turbine to minimise damage if certain faults occur.
Pump failure
If the running pump stops, the standby pump should automatically start and
supply oil.
The engineer should confirm that the standby pump is running and oil
pressure/flow is correct. The cause of the stopped pump must then be
identified and fixed.
If the standby pump has not started, the turbine must be tripped.
If the pumps of a pressure lubricating system fail, there is no gravity tank to

allow for run-down of the turbine. In this case, the ahead steam to the turbine
should be shut and astern steam admitted to the turbine. This steam will act as
a brake, and will stop the turbine in a minimal time. Monitor the rotation of
the turbine and shut/throttle the astern steam as the turbine slows down and
comes to a complete stop.
Pump wear
Pump wear will occur over time, especially if there are no suction filters (or if
the suction filters have been removed and not replaced). A badly worn pump
may cause intermittent pressure drops as the vessel moves in the water or as
manoeuvring occurs. Monitoring pump suction and discharge pressures, oil
flow rates, and the overflow from the gravity tank helps to identify this fault.
Repair/replacement of the pump or its components will restore the pump.
Excessive pump wear should not occur, so the reasons for this wear must be
identified and rectified.
Blocked/dirty filters
Blocked or dirty filters will cause a reduction in oil pressure and flow. The
effects will be similar to pump failure or excessive wear. The filters should
have suction and discharge pressure gauges; the pressure difference between
these gauges indicates the cleanliness of the filter. Typically, a clean filter will
have about 0.5 bar pressure difference. Some filters use a differential pressure
device connected to an alarm system and/or to operate an automatic filter
cleaning process.
Filters are generally arranged so that there are two filters in parallel with each
other. One filter will be in use; the other should be clean and ready for use.
This is called a duplex arrangement.
When operating with a duplex filter, be careful when changing over from
the dirty filter to the clean one. Be aware that:
• The clean filter may not have been purged of air correctly;
• The cover plate of the clean filter may not have been secured
properly;
• The standby filter may not have been cleaned after the last time in
service;
• A momentary pressure drop may occur which could trip the turbine.
In all cases, follow ship’s procedures when changing over filters.
Always check pressures after changing over filters and ensure that the
system is operating correctly.
A filter that continually requires cleaning may indicate a serious problem such
as bearing or gear damage.
Incorrectly shut valves

If maintenance has been done on the shut down lubrication system, it is
possible that a valve has been inadvertently shut and overpressure may occur in
part of the system while other parts of the system may not have any oil
pressure.
Always check that all valves are in their correct positions and ensure
correct operation of the system after any maintenance has been done.
Incorrectly open valves

Accidentally open valves, such as the drain valve of the system shown in figure
3, may cause loss of system pressure. Incorrectly set or malfunctioning relief
valves on pumps may also cause a loss of pressure.

Loss of cooling water

Cooling water loss will cause oil temperature to rise. As the oil increases in
temperature, its viscosity will drop, and so both cooling effect and lubrication
effect will diminish.
If loss of cooling water is detected or oil temperature increases significantly,

turbine load can be reduced (which will lower heat energy input into oil).
Follow ship’s procedures when reducing turbine load. Contact the bridge
beforehand to ensure that you are not compromising the safety of the
ship.
The turbine will be automatically tripped if oil temperature exceeds a set value.
Cooling control failure

Temperature control system failure will give the same symptoms as loss of
cooling water. If oil temperature rises and cooling water supply is correct,
manual operation of the temperature control valve may be possible.
Loss of oil
Severe loss of oil will affect system pressure and may cause loss of suction,
causing total pressure loss. Sump oil level should be checked regularly and
any fall in level should be investigated.
A common cause of oil loss is leakage at the cooler. Any evidence of oil in the
cooling water system must be investigated and the leak sealed.
Another cause of oil loss is a malfunctioning purifier, causing oil to be drained

to the purifier sludge tank.
Contamination of oil
Water in the oil will affect its performance. The purifier will remove a certain
amount of water, but excessive amounts of water will require rectification.
Other contaminants such as dirt, metal particles, acids and salts will also affect
the oil. Regular oil sampling and testing monitors oil condition. This will also
detect degradation of the oil.
If contamination occurs, the source must be identified and fixed. Badly

contaminated or degraded oil may require replacement of the oil.

Progress Check
1. State five purposes of lubricating oil in steam turbine systems.
2. Identify the components of a turbine and gearing system that require
lubricating oil.
3. Sketch and describe a lubricating oil system suitable for a main turbine
propulsion system, identifying all major components.
4. Explain why oil must be supplied to the turbine during run down time.
5. State two faults that can occur in a turbine lubricating oil system, giving
symptoms, causes, and actions to be followed when the fault is detected.

Steam Turbine Operation-Lecture Notes
Steam Turbine
Operation-Lecture
Notes

Contents Page
Introduction 3
1. General Principles 4
1.1 Objectives of Warming Through and Cooling

Down 4
1.2 Preparation for Warming Through 6
1.3 Warming Through 7
1.4 Standby & Manoeuvring 9
1.5 Full Away 11
1.6 Excessive Turbine Vibration 12
1.7 Shut Down 12
1.8 Prolonged Operation at Reduced Load13
2 Emergency Operation 14
2.1 Turbine Damage 14
2.2 Manual Operation 16
Progress Check 17

Introduction
This Section investigates basic aspects of steam turbine operation. Equipment
and procedures of different ships will vary to some degree, so general
procedures and typical arrangements will be given.
A well organised and properly operated steam plant should have an operating
plan that includes instructions for the steam turbine and its supporting systems
(of which turbine operation is an important part).
Before starting the turbine, the operator should become familiar with the
general piping layout, the operating characteristics of the unit, and the
manufacturer’s operating instructions. When you join a vessel, it is very
important that you read the manuals and procedures for that particular ship
(including Standard Operating Procedures and Chief’s Standing Orders), and
follow the instructions of your supervisors and superiors.

1. General Principles
Successful turbine operation depends, to a great extent, on the manner of the
warming through, loading up, stopping and shut down of the turbine. Different
turbine designs may require slightly different treatment, but the general
principles are the same.
General principles of turbine operation:

• Lubrication must be provided;
• The turbine must be warmed through correctly;
• Turbine drains must be open during warming through;
• Supply steam must be at the correct pressure and temperature and
free from water carry over;
• The propeller must be free to turn;
• The condenser must be circulated with water and at correct vacuum.
Incorrect operation may not show its consequences immediately in the

form of turbine damage, but it will have an adverse effect on the turbine
and cause undesirable internal stresses, permanent distortion and other
defects which will eventually reduce the service life of the turbine.
The operating goals of the steam plant are to produce power at the lowest
possible cost with the highest degree of reliability and safety.
Safety in this case means safety to the machinery and to personnel.
1.1 Objectives of Warming Through and

Cooling Down
A cold turbine must have its temperature increased gradually before operation.
This is called warming through.
After operation of the turbine, it must be gradually cooled down.
Both the warming through and cooling down periods are important processes,
and must be performed correctly.

The objectives of warming through and cooling down include:

• Keep rotors straight;
• Avoid casing distortion as much as possible;
• Minimise stresses caused by temperature variations.
Keep rotors straight

Small amounts of steam admitted to the turbine will warm it gradually.
However, the rotor must be warmed and cooled evenly, eg, the top of the rotor
shaft must not have a higher temperature than the bottom of the shaft,
otherwise the rotor will hog or bend upwards.
This hogging would be the result of allowing hot steam into a stationary
turbine.
Whenever a steam turbine is warming up or cooling down, the rotor must

be regularly turned to avoid distortion.
Avoid Casing Distortion

Again, uneven heating/cooling of the casing can cause differential heating
consequent distortion. Rotation of the rotor helps to keep the steam adequately
mixed and therefore evenly distributes the heat energy of the steam to the
casing.
It is difficult to avoid a temperature difference from top to bottom in a low

pressure turbine with an underslung condenser. In this case, it is only possible
to minimise this temperature difference (by correct warming and cooling
practices).
Minimise Stresses
If a thick section of metal, such as a thick turbine casing, is warmed or cooled
too quickly, there will be temperature differences within it. It is difficult to
allow for free expansion in such metal objects. Thus, instead bending or other
distortion, thick metal sections can experience internal stresses which can
cause cracking.
Allowing the turbine and steam piping to warm or cool slowly reduces the
internal stresses of thick sections of metal.
One reason for putting insulation around a turbine is avoid chilling of the
turbine casing external surfaces; this minimises internal stresses of the
casing.

1.2 Preparation for Warming Through

Boiler(s) are operating and steam is available up to the main turbine steam stop
valve.
Lubricating oil system

• Check sump tank/drain tank level. Top up if necessary.
• Remove any water that may have collected in sump/drain tank (if
possible).
• Ensure lubricating oil purifier is operating. The purifier keeps the oil
clean, removes water from the oil, and also helps to warm the oil.
• Start lubricating oil pump. Check pressures in the lubricating oil system
are correct (eg, main system pressure no less than 3 bar or as specified by
manufacturer). An excessive pressure drop indicates dirty filters (eg a
pressure drop greater than 0.5 bar across the filter).
• Once pressure is correct, ensure that the standby lubricating oil pump is set
to automatic start.
• Once oil is circulating, check that lubricating oil is flowing freely to all
bearings and sprayers by checking sight glasses on supply and return lines.
Vent air from top of filters.
• If a gravity tank is provided, ensure that the overflow is returning to the
sump/drain tank by checking the overflow sight glass.
• If provision is made for preheating lubricating oil, raise the temperature to
about 40oC. If preheating is performed manually, do not forget to shut
heating off once the turbine is operational.
• Check that cooling water system for lubricating oil temperature control is
operating correctly.
• Check lubricating oil system for leaks.
• Ensure that all lubricating oil alarms are clear and are operational (eg high
oil temperature, low oil pressure).
• Gearbox lubrication is normally provided by the turbine lubrication
system.
• Check that stern tube, propeller shaft and thrust bearings lubrication is
correct (eg by checking oil flows at sight glasses, oil pressures, oil
temperatures).
Turbine
Always contact the Bridge and check that the propeller is clear to turn
before any rotation of the turbine is performed.

• Note sliding feet and rotor shaft positions. Check that sliding feet are
lubricated and free to move.
• Check that all turbine casing drains are open. These should already be
open but it is essential to check this.
• Check that all other relevant drains, such as manoeuvring valve and main
steam line drains, are open.
• Check that turbine steam isolating valve is shut.
• Obtain propeller clearance, engage and run turbine turning gear. Check
that all parts can rotate freely in both directions then turn engine ahead.
Turning gear motor should be drawing correct current (eg 3 to 4 Amps).
Any variations in turning gear motor ammeter reading should be
investigated, as this may be due to incorrect contact or rubbing between
parts. Any unusual noise should also be investigated. Check that turning
gear interlock has actuated.
• Check that manoeuvring valves are free to operate by opening and closing
them.
It is essential that there should be no steam in the line between the main
stop valve and the manoeuvring valves when this step is taken.
1.3 Warming Through

Ensure that the ahead steam isolating valve, ahead nozzle valves, astern
manoeuvring valve, and astern guardian valve are closed.
During the warming through and operation of the turbine, regular

attention should be paid to:
• Sliding feet position;
• Abnormal noise coming from turbine and gearing (indicating friction
between the stationary and rotating parts;
• Condenser condition;
• Lubricating oil system;
• Cooling water system;
• Other relevant auxiliary machinery and equipment (eg electrical
generation and supply system);
• Boiler operation.

Ensure that the condenser is operating correctly. This will include:

• Vacuum pumps/air ejectors operating.
• Condenser cooling water pump running and cooling water is being
circulated.
• Condensate pump(s) running, with adequate condensate level and
recirculating control for condensate level is operating correctly.
• Turbine gland steam system operating and that gland steam pressure is
correct (eg at least 0.1 bar).
Without the gland steam system operating, it will be very difficult to bring the
condenser down to its correct vacuum.
If gland steam system is operating, the turbine must be rotated to avoid

distortion.
Do not allow the turbine rotors to remain stationary for more than 2
minutes whenever gland steam system is operating.
If the turbine has a hydraulic control oil system, it must be started up and
checked for operation. Control oil pressure should be correct (eg 15 bar).
Ensure that standby control oil pump will automatically start up if pressure
drops.
Ensure that main engine telegraph is in the stop position and that turbine
remote controls are in the shut down or finished with engine positions.
Do not start tags may be placed on/over remote controls.
Also check that turbine remote control is in the Control room, not the
Bridge, position.
• The turbine should be rotated on turning gear for at least 30 minutes.

• During this period, warm through and then open main steam line to turbine
valves.
• Condenser vacuum should be at required level (eg 722 mmHg/-95 kPa).
• Check that astern guardian valve (if operated with compressed air) is
enabled.
• Inform Bridge that turbine is to be tested.
• Stop and disengage turning gear. Check that turning gear interlock has cut
out.

• Check ahead nozzle valves, guardian valve, and astern manoeuvring valve
are all shut.
• Open ahead isolating valve to warm through position or open dedicated
warming valve.
• Allow just enough ahead steam to the turbine to start the turbine rotating.
• Shut ahead steam as soon as the turbine begins to rotate.
• Check that turbine stops.
• Allow just enough astern steam to the turbine to start the turbine rotating (if
fitted, the cooling water spray in the astern steam line should operate).
• Shut astern steam as soon as the turbine begins to rotate.
• Check that turbine stops.
• Once satisfied that ahead and astern steam operation is correct, modern
turbines have an automatic steam gusting or auto-spin arrangement which
is enabled. This admits ahead and then astern steam to the turbine at
regular intervals, not enough to move the ship but enough to warm up and
then keep the turbine warm.
• When on auto-spinning,
• If auto-spin is not present, gusting must be done manually. Admit a gust
(small amount) of ahead steam to turn the rotors slowly. Then admit a gust
of astern steam. Do this at intervals of 2 to 3 minutes. Do not allow
propeller rotation to exceed about 7 revolutions per minute.
• After the turbine has warmed sufficiently, it is ready for operation.
Complete warming through of the high pressure turbine will not be complete
until the turbine is operating at load. Also, the low pressure turbine has an
operating temperature which is relatively cool. Thus, for modern turbines, a
long warming through period is not necessary. One recommended warming
through rate is that the temperature at the low pressure turbine inlet belt is
raised to about 80OC in 25 to 30 minutes.
1.4 Standby & Manoeuvring

• The Chief Engineer will be present during standby and manoeuvring.
• Raise condenser vacuum to the recommended value (if not already
reached).
• Close main steam line and manoeuvring valve drains (if they are not
already shut).
• Ensure lubricating oil heater, if fitted, is shut off.
• Open ahead isolating valve fully and shut warming valve (if fitted).
• Prepare main boiler(s) for manoeuvring.

• Answer Standby request from Bridge by acknowledging the sub-telegraph.

• Give turbine control to Bridge.
• Turbine will remain in auto-spin whilst telegraph is at STOP.
• Monitor turbine and boiler systems.
• Turbine speed should be increased gradually (eg full speed should be
reached no quicker than 80 minutes).
• Check that ahead and astern steam to the turbine are never open at the same
time.
• Monitor lubricating oil temperature and pressure.
• Monitor condenser vacuum, temperature and level.
• Ensure gland steam pressure remains constant. No steam, visible or
invisible, should be allowed to blow from the turbine glands.
• Report any unusual vibration, noise or expansion to the Chief Engineer.
• Monitor boiler operation.
Increase or decrease of propeller revolutions ahead or astern should be

carried out in such a way that high thermal stresses or overloads are
avoided.
Large/sudden turbine load changes are undesirable, but if they are

unavoidable, the boiler water level should be closely watched for
excessively high or low level.
Astern Operation
Since a fewer number of stages are used in the astern turbine, the exhaust
steam temperature is high. The turbine also directly exhausts into the cool
condenser, which also cools the astern turbine casing. There will be
differential expansion between the rotor and casing.
Thus, there are some precautions required when operating astern.
• Ensure water spray (if fitted) operates when astern steam is being admitted
to the turbine.
• The astern turbine must not be operated at full astern for longer than (for
example) 40 minutes.
• Some steam turbine plants are fitted with an exhaust steam temperature
sensor which gives an alarm if the temperature increases.
• Maximum astern propeller shaft torque is around 75% of the maximum
ahead torque.
• Maximum astern propeller shaft speed is around 70% of the maximum

continuous ahead revolutions per minute.
• After prolonged astern turbine operation, a rapid increase in ahead load
should be avoided. The ahead speed should be increased gradually by
using the normal time schedule (eg 80 minutes). In no case, except in an
extreme emergency, should full ahead power be reached in less than (for
example) 20 minutes.
• Monitor exhaust steam and condenser temperature and pressure. If these
values rise above normal, inform the Chief Engineer.
1.5 Full Away

After manoeuvring is complete and the vessel is in open sea, the operating
situation of the engine will be changed from Standby to Full Away.
• Accept Full Away by acknowledging the sub-telegraph.

• Turbine drains should be shut (if this is not done automatically).
• Ensure astern guardian valve is shut.
• Control system will gradually increase turbine load from Manoeuvring
Ahead (or Harbour Full) to the open sea power set by the Bridge using the
telegraph. This should be no quicker than (for example) 80 minutes.
• Check for unusual vibration, noise, and/or axial displacement of turbines.
• Bled steam from turbine stages (if fitted) may be opened up as required.
• Check sliding feet position.
• Do an all round check of instrumentation for correct operation and values.
• Check boiler and feed system for correct operation.
• Monitor lubricating oil pressure and temperature regularly. Check oil
supply from bearings by observing flow at sight glasses.

1.6 Excessive Turbine Vibration

Abnormal turbine vibration, which may be encountered when starting the
turbine or when increasing turbine speed, should be dealt with in the following
manner:
• Regularly listen and feel for turbine vibration.
• If excessive/abnormal vibration occurs, contact Chief Engineer (or Second
Engineer, depending on ship’s procedures) and follow instructions.
• Contact and inform Bridge of the situation.
• Reduce speed until vibration reduces.
• Maintain this reduced speed for 15 minutes.
• Increase speed slowly, check for vibration.
• If vibration occurs again, reduce speed for a further period of time.
• Slowly increase speed again.
• If vibration persists, follow Chief Engineer’s instructions.
1.7 Shut Down

Whatever shut down procedure is used should allow for the gradual cooling
down of the turbine. The turbine will have experience some cooling down
simply by being operated at low loads during vessel manoeuvring.
• Accept finished with engines at the sub-telegraph.

• Turbine control transferred from Bridge to Engine Control Room.
• Shut all steam valves to the turbine.
• Ensure all automatically operated control valves are shut, including astern
guardian valve.
• Open pipeline, valve and turbine drains.
• Shut down control oil system.
• Ensure that the propeller shaft is stopped, engage turning gear and rotate
turbine.
• Follow ship’s procedures if further systems are to be shut down.
• If water motion around the ship causes the propeller and hence the turbine
to rotate, you may have to wait to engage the turning gear.

1.8 Prolonged Operation at Reduced Load

If, due to navigational requirements, the turbine is to be run at reduced load for
a long period of time (eg 1 to 2 hours), turbine exhaust temperature may be
seen to rise due to the low efficiency in this condition. This may cause
unacceptable differential expansion between the rotor and the casing.
General principles for this situation include:

• Follow the Chief Engineer’s instructions for prolonged low power
operation.
• Monitor condenser vacuum and temperature.
• Monitor differential expansion indicators.
• Reduce superheated steam temperature to a minimum.
• Reduce gland steam pressure to a minimum.
• Reduce condenser vacuum as instructed.
• Automatic drains, if fitted, may open. It may be necessary to manually
shut these drains.
• It may also be necessary to shut the air operated astern guardian valve.
• When power is to be increased, operate the turbine at an intermediate load
(eg half ahead speed) before increasing condenser vacuum. This allows the
low pressure rotor to cool and reduced differential expansion. Increase
load to maximum following normal procedure.
If automatic turbine drains and astern guardian valve are manually shut
for prolonged low power operation, make sure that they are put back into
normal operation for manoeuvring.

2 Emergency Operation
Emergency situations can be stressful, it is easy to make mistakes. Operate
equipment with care and deliberation.
The following points should always be considered in emergency

situations:
• The object is to get the ship safely to port or a safe anchorage without
further damage or danger;
• Follow the Chief and Second Engineers’ Instructions;
• Keep the Bridge informed;
• Follow ship’s procedures and maker’s instructions;
• Safety of personnel is very important;
• Try to keep calm.
2.1 Turbine Damage

If either the high pressure or low pressure turbine becomes damaged and is
thus inoperative, the other turbine can be run.
Emergency pipe connections are provided which can be installed to provide the
necessary emergency steam pathways.
Turbine control will be from either Engine Control Room or from the local
engine side control station. This will mean that a vessel with UMS (unattended
machinery space operation) will revert to watchkeeping.
High pressure turbine damaged

Follow maker’s instructions for isolating and connecting up piping. General
points will include:
• Disconnecting the coupling between the turbine and the first gearbox
pinion wheel will isolate the high pressure turbine.
• Gland steam to the high pressure turbine will be isolated by using pipeline
blanks.
• Steam to the high pressure turbine will be isolated by using pipeline blanks.
• Emergency piping will be fitted between the ahead steam isolating valve
and the low pressure turbine inlet.
• Measures to avoid overheating the low pressure turbine and condenser
must be taken.

• There will be limitations to the available ahead power. One reason for this
is to protect the low pressure turbine gearing from overload and consequent
damage.
Measures to avoid overheating the low pressure turbine and condenser include:
• Use reduced superheated steam temperature/use saturated steam.
• Use reduced inlet steam pressure.
• Orifice plate may be fitted in emergency piping to limit steam flow.
• A desuperheating water spray may be situated in the emergency piping.
Low pressure turbine damaged

Follow maker’s instructions for isolating and connecting up piping. General
points will include:
• The low pressure turbine will be isolated by disconnecting the coupling
between the turbine and the first gearbox pinion wheel.
• Steam to the low pressure turbine will be isolated by using pipeline blanks.
• The astern turbine will be unavailable, (since it is on the low pressure
turbine rotor shaft), so astern steam must be isolated.
• Emergency piping will be fitted between the high pressure turbine exhaust
and the condenser.
• Turn the low pressure turbine rotor 180o once every six hours using the
flexible coupling flange to minimise distortion of the rotor.
• Measures to avoid overheating the condenser must be taken.
• There will be limitations to the available ahead power. One reason for this
is to protect the high pressure turbine gearing from overload and
consequent damage.
Measures to avoid overheating the condenser include:

• Use reduced superheated steam temperature/use saturated steam.
• Use reduced inlet steam pressure.
• Limit the ahead steam admitted to keep the high pressure turbine exhaust
pressure below normal.
• Orifice plate may be fitted in emergency piping to limit steam flow.
• A desuperheating water spray may be situated in the emergency piping, or
the desuperheating water spray for the astern turbine may be used.

2.2 Manual Operation

If the remote control system is not operational, the turbine may be operated
from the local engine side control station.
Maker’s instructions and ship’ s procedures must be followed.
Change over from remote to local control should be done with all valves shut
(to prevent accidental admission of steam to the turbine). Hydraulic control
system should be shut down.
The Bridge must be made aware of any limitations of turbine operation. Also,
the reaction time of operating personnel will be slower than with the automatic
control system.
Be aware that normal turbine trips may be inactive when operating in

emergency conditions (especially in local control).

Progress Check
1. Identify the six general principles of turbine operation.
2. State and briefly explain the three objectives of warming through a turbine.
3. Your vessel is preparing to leave port. A mooring line aft has become
entangled around the propeller, and the propeller shaft cannot be rotated.
What, if anything, should be done to the turbine plant and briefly explain
why this is done.
4. Explain how steam gusting may be used to warm through the turbine.
5. The low pressure turbine of your ship is damaged. Explain how propulsion
may be achieved, and state any limitations on engine performance.

Steam Turbines Principles & Construction
Steam Turbines
Principles &
Construction

Contents Page
Section Introduction 4
1. Steam Turbine Fundamentals 5
1.1 Nozzles 6
1.2 Principles of Operation 7
2. Compounding 12
2.1 Impulse Turbine Pressure Compounding..... 13
2.2 Impulse Turbine Velocity Compounding15
2.3 Combined Impulse & Reaction Turbine17
3. Steam Turbine Construction 18
3.1 High Pressure Turbines 18
3.2 Low Pressure Turbines 19
3.3 Casings Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4 Turbine BladesError! Bookmark not defined.
4. Expansion ArrangementsError! Bookmark not

defined.
5. Gland Sealing Error! Bookmark not defined.
6. Turbine ControlError! Bookmark not defined.
6.1 Control MethodsError! Bookmark not defined.

6.2 Astern Guardian ValveError! Bookmark not

defined.
6.3 Turbine ProtectionError! Bookmark not defined.
Progress Check Error! Bookmark not defined.

Section Introduction
The steam turbine is a device for obtaining mechanical work from the energy
stored in steam. Steam, superheated or dry saturated, enters the turbine with a
high energy content and leaves after giving up most of this energy.
Steam turbines are used to provide main propulsion, supply electrical power, or
to provide power to pumps.

1. Steam Turbine Fundamentals

The advantages and disadvantages of steam turbines compared to diesel
engines for main propulsion are as follows.
Advantages of steam turbines:

• pure rotary motion - no reciprocating parts;
• no rubbing or friction of parts apart from bearings;
• high power/ weight/space ratio;
• low centre of gravity in ship;
• low maintenance costs;
• can give any power range required at sea.
Disadvantages of steam turbines:

• less efficient than a diesel engine;
• requires a steam boiler and other steam plant components;
• needs a separate astern turbine;
• requires a reduction gearbox;
• low starting power;
• manoeuvring can be slightly sluggish.
The turbine consists essentially of two parts:

• Nozzles in which the thermal energy of the steam is converted to kinetic
energy, so that the steam leaves the nozzle at high velocity.
• Blades which are moved by the steam. The steam undergoes a change
in direction and velocity, which means that energy is imparted to the
blades.
The nozzles are located in the stationary casing of the turbine (the stator) while
the blades are attached to the rotating shaft (the rotor). Blades are normally
secured to discs or wheels on the rotor shaft.
One set of nozzles and blades is called a stage. Main propulsion turbines,
alternator turbines, and other such larger turbines will have a number of stages
to maximise steam use and increase efficiency.
Turbines operate at very high rotational speeds, up to about 12 500 rpm, while
the best propeller speed for efficient operation is around 70 to 80 rpm.
Therefore, the output from the turbine is reduced to the propeller speed by
gearing. Double helical gearing has been used for many years in steam turbine
systems. Epicyclic gearing, with its compact and lightweight construction, is
also common in marine transmission systems.
1.1 Nozzles
Nozzles are devices fixed in the turbine casing which convert the steam
enthalpy (pressure and thermal energy) into kinetic energy (velocity).
A nozzle is a short flow passage which has a converging or

converging/diverging flow area.
Figure 1 Convergent Nozzle
Steam velocity after passing through a convergent nozzle will be sub-sonic

(slower than the speed of sound).
Figure 2 Convergent/Divergent Nozzle
Steam velocity after passing through a convergent/divergent nozzle will be

supersonic (faster than the speed of sound).
The convergent/divergent nozzle is also known as a De Laval nozzle.

The angle α of the divergent nozzle will generally be no greater than 12

degrees. If the angle is increased, the steam flow will become turbulent as it
moves from the divergent to the parallel section of the nozzle.
A secondary purpose of nozzles is to guide the steam flow into the rotating
blades at the correct angle.
1.2 Principles of Operation

There are two main types of turbine:
• Impulse;
• Reaction (also known as Parson’s reaction).
The name refers to the type of force which acts on the blades to turn the
turbine wheel.
Impulse Turbines
Figure 3 Simple Impulse Turbine
The impulse turbine is made up of a ring (or ring section) of nozzles by a ring
of blades. High pressure, high energy steam is expanded in the nozzle to a
lower pressure, high velocity jet of steam.
The simple impulse turbine of figure 3 has the steam leaving the nozzle and
entering the turbine blades at right angles. This causes the steam to lose its
momentum, which has been converted to mechanical rotational energy of the
turbine rotor. However, this simple style of impulse turbine is very inefficient
and provides no real practical application for industrial use. A practical
impulse turbine has blading and steam flow arranged as in figure 4.

Figure 4 Impulse Blading
The jet of steam from the nozzle is directed into the impulse blades and leaves
in a different direction. The angle of entry of the steam to the blades is such
that there is minimum shock to the blades or their supports (150 to 300,
depending on blade speed).
This change of direction results in a force on the blades. Blade passages are
parallel giving no pressure drop across the moving blades, but steam velocity
decreases. There is only a very small amount of axial end thrust on the shaft
and there is little or no steam leakage around the blade tips hence fine
clearances are not required. Fixed nozzles in the casing redirect the steam flow
after the blade.
An impulse turbine consisting of a single stage of nozzle and blading is

called a De Laval turbine.
Reaction Turbines
Figure 5 Reaction Turbine
This type of turbine is commonly called the Parson’s or Parson’s Reaction

turbine.

The basic reaction principle is shown in figure 5. Steam issues out of moving
nozzles. As the steam passes through the nozzles, the action of throttling
causes reactions which rotates the turbine rotor.
The reaction turbine of figure 5 is also of limited industrial use. A practical

reaction turbine blading arrangement is shown in figure 6.
Figure 6 Reaction Blading
Here, a ring of fixed blades is attached to the casing, and a row of similar
blades are attached to the rotor, the fixed blades act as fixed nozzles while the
rotor blades act as moving nozzles. The blades have an aerofoil shape and are
arranged to provide a narrowing passage (a nozzle) which increase the steam’s
velocity.
This increase in steam velocity over the moving blade produces a reaction
effect. An impulse force is also created since the steam changes direction as it
flows through the moving blades. Thus, a more correct term for this type of
turbine would actually be impulse-reaction.
As steam pressure decreases through the turbine, each stage should increase in
height to accommodate the increase in volume. This is impractical, so a
compromise is made where two, three, or four blade rows have equal blade
lengths.
Steam pressure at the inlet side of blades will be greater than at the discharge
side. Therefore the clearance at the blade tips must be minimal in order to stop
steam leaking around the blades instead of passing through them. This is
particularly important at the earlier stages of the turbine, where steam pressures
are greater. To limit these losses, the high pressure reaction turbine may be
preceded by a short impulse stage known as a Curtis wheel.
When manoeuvring, there should be larger clearances at the blade tips to avoid
rotor/casing contact. This is necessary to allow for distortions in the casing,
blading and rotor due to changing steam temperatures. Considerable blade tip
clearances in the order of 0.6 to 0.8 mm are needed. With reaction turbines
this can give considerable steam leakage. End tightening blading may be used
to accommodate these two conflicting requirements.
Figure 7 End Tightening
End tightening is where the blades have a shroud ring to minimise steam
leakage at the blade tips. Axial clearance between the shroud and next blade
root section then governs steam leakage. Radial clearance can now be up to 4
mm. The shrouding is fixed to the blades with tenons which are riveted or
welded over; it is knife-edged to minimise damage in case contact occurs.
When manoeuvring, the rotor can be jacked aft to give an axial clearance of
about 1.25 mm. For steady running, the rotor is jacked forward to give an axial
clearance of typically 0.25 mm.
The reaction effect of the Parson’s turbine imparts a heavy axial thrust on the
rotor shaft. This can be in the order of 400 to 500 tonnes. This load is too
great for the relatively small thrust bearing of the rotor. Also, the closeness of
moving parts in a turbine allows for only minimal axial movement. One
solution to both these problems is to use a dummy piston.

Figure 8 Dummy Piston
Steam bled from a stage of the turbine acts on the dummy piston which is
mounted on the turbine rotor. The turbine casing around the dummy piston
acts as a cylinder. The force acting on the piston counteracts the reaction force
from the blades.

2. Compounding
Compounding is achieved by two methods:
• the splitting up, into two or more stages, of the steam pressure or
velocity change through a turbine;
• using two separate turbines.
Using only a single stage in a large turbine results in extremely high steam
velocities. This gives poor efficiency. The energy from the steam is therefore
absorbed in a number of stages.
The first method of compounding is to use many rows of blades. Reaction

turbines, due to their operating principle, are compounding without any further
refinements.
Compounding within impulse turbines can be arranged in two ways, pressure

compounding and velocity compounding. These are described in sub-sections
2.1 and 2.2.
The second method of compounding uses two turbines, a high pressure, or hp,
turbine and a low pressure, or lp, turbine. Steam is supplied to the high
pressure turbine, exits through a cross over pipe, enters the low pressure
turbine, and finally exhausts into the condenser. This is known as cross
compounding.
The two turbines rotate at different speeds, but are connected through gearing
to the same output shaft.
Cross compounding is only used in main propulsion turbines.
A separate turbine with its own, separate, steam supply is required to provide
astern power. This astern turbine is commonly mounted on the low pressure
turbine shaft.

Figure 9 Cross Compounding
The blading arrangement will usually be:

• large diameter turbine wheel and lower rotational speeds (low pressure
turbine); and
• small diameter wheels and higher rotational speeds (high pressure turbine).
2.1 Impulse Turbine Pressure Compounding

A pressure compounded impulse turbine is also known as a Rateau
turbine.

Figure 10 Pressure Compounded Impulse Turbine (Rateau)
This uses a number of stages of nozzle and blade to progressively reduce the
steam pressure. This gives acceptable steam flow speeds and better turbine
efficiency. It is like mounting several single stage impulse turbines on one
shaft.
Each stage consists of a set of nozzles fitted to a diaphragm (a stationary disc

between each row of rotor blades) followed by a row of moving blades. The
diaphragm also stops steam leakage, ensuring that the steam passes through the
nozzles. Diaphragms are sealed at the rotor hub by spring backed labyrinths.
The rims are held tight against circumferential grooves in the casing by
pressure differentials. There must be allowance for radial expansion of the
diaphragm as the turbine increases from cold to operating temperature.

Figure 11 Diaphragm
High pressure turbines may rotate at speeds from 6000 to 12 500 rpm.
In practice, there is a small pressure drop across the blades to compensate for
friction between the steam and blades. At each stage, the blade speed is half
that of the inlet steam flow speed. Each stage generates about the same power
and to give this, the pressure of nozzle outlet is half the pressure of the nozzle
inlet (eg. 60 to 30 bar, 30 to 15 bar, 15 to 7.5 bar etc.).
2.2 Impulse Turbine Velocity Compounding

A velocity compounded impulse turbine is also known as a Curtis wheel.
This type of impulse has a single nozzle with several rows of moving blades.
In between each stage of moving blade, there are fixed guide blades which
redirect the steam. This gives a short, lightweight turbine, with only the nozzle
at the turbine inlet experiencing high pressure and temperature.
There is no pressure drop across either fixed or moving blades, so the pressure
in the casing is steam pressure leaving the nozzle. The efficiency drops as the
number of rows increase.

Figure 12 Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine (Curtis)
As steam passes through the blades, it slows down, so blade length must
increase to keep the mass flow rate up. Also, as steam passes over the fixed
nozzles, it slows down and volume increases due to friction reheating.
Although this type of turbine has a poorer efficiency than pressure

compounding, it is used for astern turbines, feed pumps, and the initial stage of
high pressure turbines, where efficiency is less important than other parameters
such as power output.

2.3 Combined Impulse & Reaction Turbine
Figure 13 Reaction Turbine With Initial Impulse Stage
Figure 13 shows the arrangement and pressure/velocity curves of a Reaction

turbine preceded by an impulse stage.

3. Steam Turbine Construction

3.1 High Pressure Turbines
Most high pressure rotors are of Rateau or pressure compounded impulse type
(with a Curtis wheel for the first stage). This arrangement needs only a few
stages, say 8 to 10, to achieve the necessary heat energy drop. This makes for
a short shaft hence a saving in weight and length.
The rotors are usually solid forged. This gives:

• Even expansion;
• Minimal high temperature distortion;
• Strength.
After initial forging of the rotor the necessary discs/wheels which will carry the
blades must be formed. High pressure rotors are gashed, where the discs are
hammer forged from the basic rotor forging (low pressure rotors may have
separate discs built on, ie. the discs are keyed then shrunk pressed on).
The wheels are normally the same thickness as the blades, but some wheels
may be thicker at the base for improved strength.
Holes are machined in the discs to ensure no build up in pressure on one side,
since this is unnecessary with pressure compounded impulse turbines. This
means that there is no pressure differential across the discs and hence little end
thrust.
A thrust bearing at the forward end of the turbine is used to axially locate the
rotor, while the after end of the turbine is connected to the gearbox through a
coupling. The thrust bearing is used to axially locate the rotor within the
casing, and to withstand the axial force exerted by the steam on the blades and
rotor.
Bearing journals are situated at the ends of the shaft, and there are raised rings
between these journals and the blading. These rings form part of the gland
sealing system.
The rotor can be a chrome molybdenum or 0.5% molybdenum steel.

Approximate material compositions are given in table 1.

Element Composition %
Carbon 0.27/0.37
Silicon 0.15/0.35
Chromium 0.85/1.25
Nickel 0.50 maximum
Molybdenum 1.0/1.5
Vanadium 0.2/0.3
Manganese 0.7/1.0
Phosphorous 0.04 maximum
Sulphur 0.04 maximum
(phosphorous and sulphur are
contaminants)
3.2 Low Pressure Turbines

Low pressure turbines are longer and have a greater diameter than their high
pressure counterparts, and they operate at slower rotational speeds. The low
pressure turbine rotor also carries the astern turbine.
Low pressure turbines typically have between seven and nine ahead stages and
two or three separate astern stages.
The first four or five ahead rows may be Rateau; the remainder may be
reaction. The astern turbine may be a single wheel two stage Curtis wheel
followed by a single Rateau stage. The actual arrangements depend on the
astern turbine power requirements.
Exhaust steam may exit from the turbine down into a condenser located below
the turbine. Exhaust steam may exit from the turbine axially into a condenser
placed forward of the turbine. There will be arrangements such a deflection
plates to stop exhaust steam from the ahead blading passing into the astern
blading, and vice versa.
The rotor may be gashed or the wheels may be separate pieces keyed and
shrunk on to the shaft.
Thrust bearing, gland sealing and journal bearing arrangements will be similar
to that of the high pressure turbine.
The low pressure turbine does not experience the same steam conditions as the
high pressure turbine, so the material composition will be different:


Element Composition
%
Carbon 0.45
Silicon 0.15
Phosphorous 0.050 maximum
Sulphur 0.050 maximum
3.3 Casings
The casing is that part of the turbine which is fixed to the ship structure. It must be thick
and strong enough to resist steam pressure and also to support the rotor. Insulation is
placed around the casing to reduce heat energy losses to the engine room.
Casings are horizontally split, with the bearing housings in the bottom half casing.
Steam inlet and exhaust flanged openings are made integral with either the top or bottom
half casing. When hot, the casing expands axially; expansion arrangements will be
discussed later in this Section.
High pressure turbine casings are usually made from alloy steel, either:
• 3% molybdenum cast steel, or
• 0,5% Molybdenum 0.3% Vanadium cast steel.
Low pressure turbine casings may be made from cast steel or fabricated mild steel.
Since the low pressure turbine exhausts into the condenser, it follows that the cold
condenser is very close to the turbine. This can create thermal stressing and difficulties
with relative expansion, especially with the astern turbine. One arrangement for the
astern turbine which addresses these problems is to use a double casing.
Figure 1 Double Casing
An inner casing surrounds the astern turbine; it is subject to the pressures and
temperatures that the turbine experiences and is free to expand. The outer casing
supports the inner casing, and is subject only to exhaust pressure and temperature. The
steam between the casings acts as an insulating layer to reduce heat energy losses from
the turbine.
Some steam plant installations use bled steam for purposes such as feed heating. This is
when piping is arranged to discharge some steam at one or two stages within the turbine.
3.4 Turbine Blades

Blades are located on the circumference of each disc on the rotor shaft. Blades generally
are made from low carbon stainless steel; however alloy steel blades may be used for
high temperature applications (such as in the high pressure turbine) and where water
droplets may be present (in the last stages of the low pressure turbine).
Two examples of blade composition are:
Element Composition A Composition B

% %
Carbon 0.24 0.45

Chromium 12 -
Nickel - 36
Phosphorous 0.04 maximum 0.04 maximum
Sulphur 0.04 maximum 0.04 maximum
The steam volume increases as it flows through the turbine. This increased volume is
catered for by having longer blades (and hence a larger casing size).
Blades must withstand:

• Steam velocity
• Steam temperature
• Centrifugal force caused by the high rotational speed of the turbine.
Blade Fixing
One important aspect of turbine blades is how they are secured to the disc. There are a
number of different methods of securing the blades to the discs, the actual method used
depends on manufacturer, operating principle, and rotational speed.
Blades may appear loose on the rotor at room temperature, but they will expand and become
tight at operating temperature.
One method for securing blades is to use segments of blading (10 to 50 blades are brazed
or spot welded together). Shrouding and/or lacing wire is then fitted to each segment.
Metal caulking strips (clearance 0.762 mm) are fitted between each segment and the
bottom of the root. Serrations at the root are needed to withstand centrifugal stresses.
Figure 2 Reaction Blade Fixing
Shrouding is the use of a ring placed at the blade tips. This helps to minimise steam
leakage around the tips and may also aid in reducing vibration. Tenons (projections
from the blade tips) fit in holes in the shroud ring. These tenons are then riveted
(caulked) over.
Figure 3 Shroud & Tenon
Lacing wire, run through holes in the blades and fastened to each blade, helps to prevent
certain types of vibration. Damping wire is similar to lacing wire, but is not secured to
the blades, apart from at its ends. If vibration occurs, the friction between the wire and
the rim of the hole help to reduce the degree of vibration.
At higher speeds, where centrifugal stresses will be greater, the segment method is not
suitable. Individual blades will then be fitted. Each blade will have its own root piece
and (in some cases) shroud.
Individual blade root fixing arrangements include the following:

• t-root;
• bulb;
• fir tree.
The arrangement can be straddle or inverted, and examples are shown in figure 17.
Figure 4 Impulse Blade Root Sections
The t-root and bulb arrangements are simple and may be used for high pressure and the
initial stages of the low pressure turbine. Root fixing for the last stages of the low
pressure turbine can be inverted fir tree. This gives a tight fit, does not depend on
centrifugal forces for tightness, has the high strength needed for the longer blading of
these stages.
One method of blade fixing uses a gateway in the disc. Each blade is inserted through
this gateway and moved around the periphery, until the disc is packed full of blades. A
closing blade is fitted into the gateway and is riveted into position by an axial pin
through blade and disc. Rolling the disc flanks adjacent to the blades (if recommended
by the manufacturer) will tighten the blades.
The last few stages of the low pressure turbine will be subject to water damage. Water
striking the back of the blades can cause impact damage and also erode the blade over
time. Two common methods of avoiding or minimising water damage are to:
• Use drains in the casing to collect and drain any water;
• Welding a strip of stellite (a special impact and erosion resistant alloy) to the back of
the leading edge of the blade.
Figure 5 Stellite Strip
Drains are fitted to both the high pressure and low pressure turbines.
Drains are fitted to areas where, at operating temperature, water will not normally be
present. These drains, automatic and/or manually operated, removed water collected
during warming up and shut down situations.
Drains in the low pressure turbine, where there is the possibility of water always being
present, will always be open.
Allowing the relatively cool condensed water to drain out of the turbine can also prevent
distortion due to uneven heating or localised cooling.
Why will there be moisture present with the steam in the final few stages of the turbine?
4. Expansion Arrangements
The rotor and casing must be allowed to expand and contract when fluctuations in steam
temperature and turbine load occur.
Expansion must be allowed for between the:

• Rotor and casing.
• Casing and ship structure.
Rotor & casing

The rotor is usually fixed at its free end by the thrust collar. Any axial movement
between the rotor and the casing is taken up at the gearbox end. The method use to allow
this is to allow the rotor to expand axially at its gearbox coupling, the flexible coupling
(this coupling also allows for small misalignment). One typical coupling is the gear type,
which must have lubrication.
Figure 6 Gear Type Flexible Coupling
Another type of flexible coupling is the membrane type, which does not require
lubrication.
Figure 7 Membrane Type Flexible Coupling
Casing & ship’s structure

The casing, on the other hand, is fixed at the gearbox end and allowed to expand axially,
relative to the ship structure, at the turbine’s free end.
The casing at the free end of the turbine uses sliding feet or panting beams (like those
used for boilers and condensers) which allow for casing expansion at this end.
Figure 8 Turbine Sliding Foot
A panting beam is a relatively long beam which is flexible in one direction but not the
other.
Figure 9 Turbine Panting Beams
Figure 23 High Pressure Turbine Panting Beams Photograph
The support at the gearbox end may use sliding feet or panting beams which allow for
some sideways movement while holding the casing securely against fore and aft
movement.
Figure 24 Low Pressure Turbine Panting Beams Photgraph
Vertical keys and slots on the supports and casing ensure that the casing is kept central
and in alignment while allowing for expansion.
It is important that all sliding arrangements are kept well lubricated (eg by using
molybdenum grease) and free of dirt and debris.
Pipes connected to the casing should have large bends or are fitted with bellows pieces to
enable the casing to move freely without interference from the pipework. Also, the
pipework is flexibly supported to allow movement of pipework due to expansion and
contraction, without putting loads on the casing.
Indicators are fitted to casings, and show any movement between the rotor and the
casing. When the turbine is stopped, expansion can be checked by a finger plate and
feeler gauges. A spring-loaded spindle or poker gauge can be used to check expansion
when the turbine is running.
Figure 25 Casing Expansion Indication
Figure 26 Rotor Expansion Indication
It is important to ensure that the expected expansion is taking place freely when
warming through the turbine.
5. Gland Sealing
Gland sealing has two purposes:
• To stop high pressure steam leaking out of the turbine.
• To stop air leaking into the low pressure regions of the turbine.
Glands, or seals, are located where the turbine rotor shafts protrude out of the casings and
seal off the steam filled turbine spaces from the engine room. A combination of
labyrinth glands and a gland steam system is used.
Figure 27 Gland Sealing
The labyrinth gland provides a tortuous path to the escaping steam, and so minimises
leakage. A series of rings projecting from the rotor and casing combine to form a
labyrinth, or maze of winding passages. These arrangements may also be called steam
packing or frictionless seals.
Steam escaping out of the turbine must pass through this labyrinth, which reduces the
steam pressure down to atmospheric pressure, so reducing steam leakage.
Figure 28 Labyrinth Seal
Spring backed glands are often used. A spring arrangement is used to maintain the
gland ring at a position close to, but not quite touching, the rotor shaft. If contact
between the rotor and gland occurs, the gland moves against the spring. This reduces the
amount of rubbing that will occur. Rubbing is a source of wear and friction related
overheating which is highly undesirable.
Figure 29 Spring Backed Labyrinth Seal
The gland segments should provide minimal damage to the rotor if contact occurs, and
thus they may be made from:
• Brass;
• Copper/lead alloy;
• Lead/copper/nickel alloy (for higher temperature regions).
The gland steam system reduces the amount of labyrinth glands needed.
Figure 30 Gland Steam System
Steam leaking from the higher pressure regions of the turbine leaks along the gland until
it reaches a pocket where the excess steam flows to a gland steam manifold.
An air pump or air ejector to the gland steam condenser will extract any steam which
leaks further along the shaft to the outer pockets.
Steam from the gland steam manifold will flow to pockets where pressure is low. Thus,
instead of air being drawn in to the low pressure regions, steam from the gland steam
manifold will flow instead.
Any air which leaks in to the labyrinth gland from the engine room will also be drawn off
to the gland steam condenser.
A gland steam controller maintains the pressure of steam in the gland steam manifold.
For example, the pressure may be maintained in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 bar. If the
pressure in the manifold becomes less, a supply valve opens and admits steam to the
manifold. At high turbine load, the pressure in the manifold will increase; in this
situation a spill valve will open, and steam pressure will drop.
6. Turbine Control
The valves which admit steam to the ahead or astern turbines are known as the
manoeuvring valves. These valves are hydraulically or electro-hydraulically actuated by
an independent system employing a main and standby set of pumps. Local hand
operation is also possible in the event of remote control system failure.
Opening the ahead or astern manoeuvring valve admits steam to the main ahead or astern
nozzle box, through which the steam enters the turbine.
The arc of nozzles through which steam enters the turbine is called the nozzle belt.
Many plants will have a system which sprays water into the astern steam as it flows into
the turbine. This cools the superheated steam so that the condenser will not become
overheated. Even with this water spray, astern power is normally limited to 1 hour in
duration, in order to avoid overheating the condenser with subsequent damage.
A temperature probe may also be used to indicate overheating.
6.1 Control Methods

A number of means are used to control steam flow through the turbine and hence the
output power. These methods include:
• Throttle admission control;
• Throttle admission plus hand control;
• Bar lift/sequential control.
Throttle admission control

The manoeuvring valve acts as a throttle valve. It is fully open at full load but shut in for
partial loads. This is a very simple method of control but creates throttling losses when
operating at part loads. Due to this, throttle admission control will be used for small
turbine units and the astern turbine control, where control simplicity is quite desirable
and throttling losses are more acceptable.
Throttle admission plus hand control

The nozzle area is divided into groups in order to minimise nozzle throttling losses. The
throttle valve admits steam directly to one nozzle belt, generally having about half the
total nozzle area. The remaining groups have an intervening manual isolating valve
between the nozzles and the throttle valve.
The concept by which this form of control operates can be explained as follows. With
only throttle control, to provide a certain turbine power the throttle must be partially
open. This gives throttling losses. With hand control, other belts are manually shut, so
steam is only flowing through the main nozzle belt. Since there are fewer nozzles now
available, the throttle valve must open further than before. This means that throttling
losses are reduced even though steam flow is diminished.
Figure 31 Throttle Admission Plus Hand Control
Bar lift/Sequential Control

Throttle valve plus hand control reduces losses, but requires manual intervention. Bar
lift or sequential control achieves the same outcome of reducing throttling losses, but is
very easy to make fully automatic.
This method of control essentially consists of a bar which lifts valves in the nozzle box in
a pre-determined order. The ahead manoeuvring valve is then purely an isolating valve
and is not used for throttle control.
Figure 32 Bar Lift Control
Figure 33 Turbine Bar Lift Control Photograph
As the bar is raised by the control system, valve 1 will open and throttling will control
steam flow. As power demand increases, valve 1 will become fully open. Valve 2 will
then begin to open, so steam will flow with no throttling losses to the first nozzle belt and
will be throttled through to the second nozzle belt. As power demand increases further,
valve 2 will also become fully open and valve 3 will control by throttling, and so on. At
full load, all valves will be fully open.
6.2 Astern Guardian Valve

When operating under normal ahead conditions, steam to the astern turbine should not be
admitted. If steam does leak past the astern manoeuvring valve, it will enter the astern
turbine and, due to friction and windage, will cause power loss, overheating and possible
damage.
A double shut off arrangement is often used as a precaution. This consists of an astern
guardian valve located between the astern manoeuvring valve and turbine.
One arrangement of this valve is shown in figure 34. If the ahead manoeuvring is open
steam will be admitted to the piston. This piston will actuate and the guardian valve will
be shut. Even if the astern valve leaks or is opened, steam will not be admitted to the
astern turbine.
Figure 34 Astern Guardian Valve
Another astern guardian valve arrangement uses compressed air. Spring force holds the
valve shut. The turbine control system admits compressed air to the guardian valve in
order to open it and allow steam to the astern turbine.
6.3 Turbine Protection

The turbine must be protected from damage resulting from an internal turbine fault or the
malfunction of some associated equipment. Arrangements are made in the system to
shut the turbine down using an emergency stop and solenoid valve. Operation of this
device cuts off the hydraulic oil supply to the manoeuvring valve and thus shuts off
steam to the turbine.
Main turbine governors generally operate similar to a centrifugal pump and act more like
an emergency governor or emergency trip. If the speed of the turbine becomes
excessive, the governor will produce a higher discharge pressure, which will act to trip or
shut down the turbine.
Other main fault conditions which will trip the turbine include:
• Low lubricating oil pressure
• Low condenser vacuum
• Emergency (manual stop)
• High condensate level in condenser
• High high or low low boiler water level.
• Hp and lp rotor eccentricity or vibration.
• Hp and lp turbine differential expansion (expansion between rotor and casing)
• Hp and lp thrust bearing weardown
• Main thrust bearing weardown
• Turning gear engaged (this prevents starting of the turbine).
Auxiliary turbines will be fitted with an overspeed trip. In these types of turbines
however, the overspeed protection consists of a spring loaded weight which is rotated by
the rotor.
Figure 35 Overspeed Trip Arrangement
Figure 36 Overspeed Trip Bolt

As the turbine’s speed becomes excessive, the centrifugal force acting on the weight
causes it to move radially outwards against spring force. Eventually the weight will
strike a spring loaded lever which will trip the turbine. Before the turbine can be started
again, this trip lever must be re-set.
Progress Check
Answer the questions carefully and check your answers with those provided at the back of this
learner’s guide.
1. State two (2) advantages and two (2) disadvantages of steam turbines compared to diesel
engines for main propulsion purposes.
2. Briefly explain with the aid of sketches, the operating principle of an impulse steam
turbine.
3. Briefly explain what pressure compounding of an impulse steam turbine means.
4. Identify the purpose of fixing stellite strips to a turbine blade.
5. What is the purpose of the astern guardian valve of a steam turbine?
6. Make a simple, labelled sketch of a steam turbine gland steam system.
Thermodynamics of Steam Lecture Notes
Thermodynamics of
Steam


Thermodynamics of Steam
Introduction 2
1. Steam Generation Basic Concepts 3
2. Uses of Steam on Ships 4
3. Basic Steam Thermodynamic Cycle 6
4. Losses in a Main Steam Plant 14
5. Improvements to the Steam System 16
6. Heating the Feed Water 19
7. The Waste Heat Unit 20
Progress Check 22
Introduction
In this section, you will learn to state the uses of steam on ships; identify the
basic theoretical steam cycle for a steam plant; compare this cycle with the
basic practical cycle; and explain how the steam cycle is improved, from a
thermodynamic viewpoint.

1. Steam Generation Basic

Concepts
Heating water to its boiling temperature generates steam. As water is heated,
its temperature rises until boiling temperature is reached. This boiling
temperature is dependent on the density and pressure of the water. When
generated in a container open to the atmosphere, the steam has the same
temperature as the boiling temperature of the water, and its pressure is the
same as that of the surrounding atmosphere.
If the steam is generated in a closed container, like a boiler, its temperature and
pressure are relative to the amount of heat applied to the container. Thus we
can generate steam that has a much higher pressure than that of the
atmosphere; and the corresponding boiling temperature can be much higher
than the boiling temperature at atmospheric pressure.
When water has a temperature lower than the relevant boiling temperature, it is
defined as being sub-cooled or undercooled.
If there is water present with the steam, this mixture is called wet steam. The
temperature of this wet steam is related to the pressure of the water/steam
mixture, and so stays constant as long as the pressure remains constant.
Dry saturated steam is where all the water has changed phase and is present as
steam vapour. This steam has the same temperature as the boiling temperature
of the water from which it came. This boiling temperature is called saturation
temperature, and is again related to the pressure of the water and steam.
When all the water has evaporated into steam, and additional heat energy
transfer occurs, the steam becomes superheated. Steam can only be
superheated once all the water has evaporated. Superheated steam has a
greater temperature than the corresponding saturation temperature of water at
that pressure. For superheated steam, pressure and temperature are
independent of each other.
Dry saturated and superheated steam is invisible to the human eye. It is

actually minute water droplets which makes saturated steam visible. This
means that if there is a superheated steam, it will not be seen until is has
cooled and some of the steam has condensed (in other words, it has
become wet steam). This can cause a dangerous situation where a crew
member observes the wet steam from a leak and could walk through the
superheated portion of the leak. This is potentially lethal.

If any change is made in the steam temperature or pressure there will be a

corresponding change of the steam condition:
• If its pressure is increased or its temperature is decreased, some of the
steam will condense. The amount of steam condensed is proportional to
the change of pressure or temperature.
• If the temperature is increased or the pressure decreased, some of the water
present in wet steam will evaporate to steam. Again, the amount of steam
created is proportional to the change of pressure or temperature.
2. Uses of Steam on Ships

A boiler is used to heat water in order to generate steam. The energy released
by the burning fuel in the boiler furnace is stored (as pressure and temperature)
in the steam.
Thus, steam contains energy; this energy can be used for various purposes.
The simplest use of steam in engineering systems is to provide heating. When
steam flows through pipes or nozzles into areas of greater volume or lower
pressure, it expands. In doing so it increases in volume and velocity.
Engineers use this characteristic to obtain mechanical work.
Steam use on board a ship can be placed into three different categories:
1. Main steam;
2. Auxiliary steam;
3. Domestic steam.
Main steam is used for propulsion in a main propulsion engine such as a

turbine or expansion engine.
Auxiliary steam is not directly used for main propulsion purposes, but is used
in auxiliary services essential to the ship when at sea. These services include:
• Fuel oil heating;
• Steam pumps;
• Steam winches;
• Lubricating oil heating;
• Steering gear;
• Ship’s whistle; and
• Electrical generation (using a steam turbo-generator).
Domestic steam is used for non-propulsion and non-essential services. These

include steam used in air conditioning systems and steam used to heat water for
crew and passenger needs.

Steam system components are also placed in these categories. Thus a main
turbine uses main steam for propulsion, while a domestic boiler is used to
generate steam for domestic services. A main boiler can be used to generate
auxiliary and domestic steam, but an auxiliary turbine can not be used for
propulsion.
The different uses of steam require different grades of steam. For example,
steam used in a main propulsion turbine is high energy, high pressure,
superheated steam, while steam used for fuel tank heating is relatively low
energy, low pressure saturated steam.
To summarise this sub-section, we can state the following.
Steam use on board a ship can be placed into three different categories:
1. Main steam Ö for propulsion purposes;
2. Auxiliary steam Ö for essential purposes;
3. Domestic steam Öfor non-propulsion and non-essential purposes.

3. Basic Steam Thermodynamic

Cycle
The cycle drawn on any thermodynamic diagram is only a representation of the
actual process. It is an idealised interpretation of what is actually occurring
and so is an approximation. Therefore there are differences between the actual
steam cycle and its ideal representation. This does not mean that the
approximation has no value. It helps us to understand what happens in the
process, at least on a simple basis. Also, the differences between the ideal
steam cycle and the actual steam cycle can be estimated so that the
interpretations and calculations made can be quite accurate.
3.1 The Steam Pressure-Volume Diagram

We will use a pressure-volume diagram to investigate the thermodynamic
cycles of main steam plants. Before we begin, however, we will review the
steam pressure-volume diagram.
Figure 1 Steam Pressure-Volume Diagram
The three regions to this diagram are:

• A liquid region, where no steam is present;
• A mixed liquid/vapour region, where steam and water are both present;
and
• A vapour region, where no liquid is present. The steam, which is present
in this region, is superheated.

Isotherms are lines of constant temperature. Examples of isotherms are shown

in the diagram. Notice that isotherms are horizontal in the mixed liquid/vapour
region.
The boundary between the liquid and mixed regions is called the saturated
liquid line. If the properties of a water sample are such that it is plotted on this
line, any addition of heat energy will generate some steam.
The boundary between the mixed and vapour regions is called the saturated
vapour line. If the properties of a steam sample are such that it is plotted on
the saturated vapour line, the steam is dry saturated. Any removal of heat
energy will cause some of the steam to condense into liquid water. Any
addition of heat energy to this dry saturated steam will cause it to move into
the vapour region and the steam will be superheated.
3.2 Basic Steam Plant Components

The four basic components of a steam plant are:
• Boiler steam is generated from water by the

heat energy from combustion of fuel.
• Turbine steam is used in an application to

provide heating; electrical generation;
main propulsion.
• Condenser/Hotwell waste steam is condensed back into

water in a condenser, while a hotwell
collects returned condensate from
heating services.
• Feed Pump Water is returned to the boiler.
A schematic diagram of an auxiliary steam plant is shown in figure 2:

Figure 2 Auxiliary Steam Plant
A schematic diagram of a main steam plant is shown in figure 3:
Figure 3 Main Steam Plant

3.3 The Rankine Cycle

The theoretical thermodynamic cycle which represents the steam plant cycle is
called the Rankine Cycle. When plotted on a pressure-volume diagram, the
Rankine Cycle appears as shown in figure 4.
Figure 4 Rankine Cycle
The processes with this cycle are:
1 Ö 2 Boiler Generation of steam, energy

input.
2 Ö 3 Turbine Mechanical work output,
expansion and pressure
reduction of steam.
3 Ö 4 Condenser Condensation of steam,
energy removed from
vapour.
4 Ö 1 Pump Mechanical work input,
water pressure is raised to
that of boiler pressure.
The thermal efficiency of the theoretical Rankine cycle depends upon the
actual pressures and temperatures involved but a typical range of efficiency for
the system is between 35 and 42%.

3.4 The Rankine Cycle with Superheat

If the steam is superheated at the boiler, the energy value of the steam at the
turbine inlet is much higher. This is achieved without increasing boiler
pressure and so the pressure resisting strength of the system does not need to
be increased.
Superheating the steam has the following advantages:

1. The thermal efficiency of the system is increased, in the order of 3 to
5%.
2. The steam has a higher initial energy value. This means that for a
given power output, the superheated steam plant uses less steam
compared to a dry saturated plant. Alternatively, a superheated
steam plant provides more power than a similar dry saturated plant.
3. Since less mass of steam is needed, the condenser heat load will be less.
4. The onset of condensation is delayed.
Expanding point 4 above (the onset of condensation is delayed), consider the

expansion of the steam in the Rankine cycle of figure 4. As soon as steam is
admitted to the turbine and it releases energy, condensation begins. Thus the
steam passing through the turbine will be wet.
Wet steam reduces the efficiency of the turbine, as well as increasing the
occurrence of high velocity water damage to the turbine. To avoid
condensation, the steam must be superheated.
The Rankine cycle with superheat is shown in figure 5.

Figure 5 Rankine Cycle with Superheat
The processes within this cycle are:
1 Ö 2 Boiler Generation of steam, energy

input.
2 Ö 3 Superheater Further energy input by
superheating.
3 Ö 4 Turbine Mechanical work output,
expansion and pressure
reduction of steam.
4 Ö 5 Condenser Condensation of steam,
energy removed from
vapour.
5 Ö 1 Pump Mechanical work input,
water pressure is raised to
that of boiler pressure.
To superheat the steam, the dry saturated steam is allowed to flow out of the
steam/water space of the boiler and passed through a heat exchanger (naturally
called a superheater). The superheater is placed within the boiler such that hot
gases from the furnace provide this additional heat energy transfer.
Not all steam applications require the use of superheated steam. Generally,
superheated steam is only used in a turbo-alternator. Other steam services do
not require or make effective use of superheated steam, and so use saturated
steam. For example, a lubricating oil heater for use in cold climates does not
need superheated steam to adequately warm the lubricating oil. Additionally,
the use of superheated steam in such an application would call for the use of

special high temperature materials, as well as increasing the likelihood of

overheating the oil.
However, for use in turbines for power applications such as electrical

generation, superheated steam produces a major improvement in the steam
cycle.
3.5 Steam for Heating Services

Steam for heating purposes is normally used at a low pressure (eg, 3 to 4 bar).
If the boiler operates at a higher pressure than this, the steam passes through a
pressure reducing valve.
A thermodynamic representation of heating steam is shown in figure 6.
Steam is throttled from boiler pressure to the desired pressure. The heating is
performed in the part of the process from point 3 to point 4. As the steam heats
up the colder fluid, its energy level reduces and so it condenses. After the
steam has fully condensed, it is returned to the feed system (point 5).
Some heating systems, such as used with oil tank heating, have a steam trap
placed on the return side of the heating coil. This trap ensures that only
condensate returns to the feed system.
This has two advantages:
1. It stops overheating of the feed system by ensuring that only condensate
returns;
2. It ensures maximum heating through the heat exchanger.
Figure 6 Steam for heating
3.6 Adjusting pressure and temperature

The state of the fluid can be changed by changing its pressure and/or
temperature. Consider figure 7 below:
Figure 7 Changing Pressure & Temperature
The liquid is heated, at constant pressure from point a to point b, where steam
begins to be generated. Further heat energy transfer causes the mixture to
become fully steam at point c. Further heating from point c causes the steam to
become superheated, point d.
If, however, the dry saturated steam at point c is increased in pressure to point
e, we would find that we have superheated steam at this pressure. Conversely,
if the dry saturated steam at point c is decreased in pressure to point f, some of
the steam condenses. Thus at point f we have wet steam at this low pressure.
Thus by altering the pressure of the fluid, we can change its state. Also, we
can change the state of the fluid by heating or cooling it.

4. Losses in a Steam Plant

We will now investigate the thermodynamic energy losses of a real steam
plant, and identify how the real cycle differs from the theoretical cycle.
Energy losses mean that the system is:

• less efficient, requiring more fuel and so increasing costs;
• less powerful, so less work is able to be obtained from the steam plant.
4.1 Losses Common to both Real and

Theoretical Cycles
The major energy loss common to both real and theoretical steam cycles is the
use of the condenser. It is a device which removes energy from the system.
Unfortunately, in order to make the system work, the condenser must be
present.
Another energy loss is the need to have a feed pump to raise the pressure of the
condensed water back to boiler pressure. This means that there must be energy
input to the system, which is a loss to the cycle.
4.2 Losses of a Real Cycle

The thermodynamic losses of a real steam cycle make the cycle differ from the
theoretical Rankine cycle.
The losses of a real steam cycle can be summarised as:

• Expansion of steam/heat energy transfer.
• Undercooling of condensed water.
• Pressure drops in the system.
• Efficiency of components.
• Additional complexity and energy demands of the real system.
• Sensible heating of boiler water.

Expansion of steam/heat energy transfer

Ideally, the steam should expand isentropically, that is, without any heat
energy transfer. Since the steam is at a higher temperature than its
surroundings, however, heating its surroundings will lose some of the energy
in the steam.
Thus, there is less energy available for mechanical expansion work.
Wherever the system is at a higher temperature than its surroundings (which is

most of the system - from point 5 in figure 5 to point 4), heat energy transfer
will occur. This is a major energy loss and to some degree will be
unavoidable.
Undercooling of condensed water

If the condenser continues to cool the condensed water so that its temperature
falls below the boiling temperature, energy is taken away from the system
unnecessarily. The condenser should provide water which is just at boiling
point. This is difficult to achieve, but if undercooling does occur, the lost
energy must be replaced by burning more fuel.
Pressure drops in the system

As steam and water flow in pipelines and though pumps, turbines and other
such devices, pressure drops will occur. This is due to friction between the
flowing fluid and the internal surfaces of these components. These pressure
drops occur in real situations, and they cause a loss in the energy of the fluid.
Efficiency of components
Each of the components of the steam system has its own internal efficiency
losses, which add to the overall efficiency loss of the plant as a whole.
Additional complexity and energy demands of the real system

There are many more components of a real steam system, which include:
• Valves
• Other pumps
• Other steam services
• Fuel systems
• Lubricating oil systems
• Feed water systems (to replenish any water lost through leaks)
• Cooling water systems (for the condenser).
This increased complexity changes steam requirements and steam flows,

increases piping and requires additional energy demands. All of this reduces
the effective power output of the turbine and/or reduces the steam system
thermal efficiency.

Also, for operational and safety reasons, the boiler always contains a reserve of
water. This means that at best, the steam leaving the boiler (before the
superheater) is dry saturated. This reserve of water in the boiler must be kept
at boiling point, which requires additional energy.
Water and steam loss requires the addition of make-up water to the system.
These losses can be due to leaks in the system, but there are also operational
requirements which call for the loss of steam from the system. If make-up
water is produced on board ship by a fresh water generation system, then there
will be an additional energy demand to produce this water. Also, the water and
steam lost from the system contain energy. This energy is lost with the fluid.
Some of the losses stated can be eliminated or reduced with correct design and
operation, but some losses will always be present. Thus a real steam system
will always be less efficient and produce less power than the ideal theoretical
cycle.
5. Improvements to the Steam

System
There are a number of improvements which can be made to the steam system
and its components.
The improvements of a real main steam cycle can be summarised as:

• Use superheated steam for power applications.
• Raise the boiler pressure.
• Lower the condenser pressure.
• Use a regenerative condenser.
• Heating the feed water.
• Improve the efficiency of steam system components.
• Correct operation and maintenance.

Using superheated steam for power applications
This improvement has already been mentioned in sub-section 3.4.
Not all steam applications require the use of superheated steam. For example,
a lubricating oil heater for use in cold climates does not need superheated
steam to adequately warm the lubricating oil. Additionally, the use of
superheated steam in such an application would call for the use of special high
temperature materials, as well as increasing the likelihood of overheating the
oil.
However, for use in turbines for power applications such as main propulsion
and electrical generation, the use of superheated steam is a major improvement
to the steam cycle.
An improvement to the Rankine cycle with Superheat is to provide reheating.
Reheating is where steam is drawn out of the turbine at some intermediate

stage, returned to the main boiler, and is then superheated again in a
superheating device called a reheater. This arrangement is known as the
Rankine cycle with Superheat & Reheat. This system has been used on steam
ships, but this system has increased complexity and cost; as well as operational
problems during manoeuvring (when steam flows can dramatically change).
Raising boiler pressure and lowering condenser pressure

Increasing the pressure and therefore the energy difference between the boiler
and the condenser provides two improvements:
1. The turbine will produce more power.
2. It can be shown that as the difference between inlet and exhaust steam
energy levels increases, the thermal efficiency of the plant also increases.
Typical main boiler pressures are in the range of 50 to 65 bar (gauge), while
main condensers are designed to operate with a high vacuum (that is, the
condenser pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure).
Using a regenerative condenser

A regenerative condenser is specially designed to ensure that no or minimal
undercooling of the condensed water occurs.
Heating the feed water

This is covered in section 6.

Improving the efficiency of steam system components

Much research has been put into improving the design of individual
components of the steam system. Some solutions directly improve the thermal
efficiency of the component and thus the system. Other solutions improve
certain aspects of components which provide an indirect improvement in cycle
efficiency.
An example of this indirect improvement is the preheating of air for

combustion in the boiler. Combustion is improved if the air to be burnt in the
boiler furnace is raised in temperature. The furnace flame does not need to
warm the air up itself, and the combustion process itself becomes more
efficient.
Correct operation and maintenance
Careful monitoring and adjustment of the steam plant and its components
maximises the thermal efficiency of the system. The plant is designed to
be operated within specified parameters. If operation is allowed to fall
outside these parameters, efficiency will be impaired.
Maintenance of the steam plant and its components is also very important in
maintaining cycle efficiency. Poorly functioning fuel burners, incorrect air
fuel ratios, malfunctioning steam traps, unattended steam leaks, among other
faults, all impair the performance of the steam plant.

6. Heating the Feed Water

6.1 Sensible heating of boiler water
Consider figure 8:
Figure 8 Steam generation in boiler
The boiler is represented by the points a to d.
At point a, the water is at the boiler pressure but its temperature is less than the
boiling temperature at that pressure. Before steam generation can begin, the
water temperature must be increased. This is called sensible heating.
At point b, the water is at boiling temperature. Further heating generates steam

until point c is reached. At point c, the steam is drawn away from the boiler
and is superheated, until point d is reached. The steam is now in its desired
state and flows to the turbine.
For thermodynamic reasons, sensible heating of the boiler water between

points a and b in figure 8 gives a loss of efficiency. To maximise thermal
efficiency, we would prefer to have steam generation as soon as the water
enters the boiler, but this is not practically possible.
Sensible heating of the water in the boiler reduces the thermal efficiency
of the boiler and the system as a whole.

6.2 Feed Heating

To provide the heating of the feed water while maximising the efficiency of the
boiler, feed heating is used.
This is where, at certain points in the cycle between the condenser and the
boiler, the feed water is heated in feed heaters by steam bled from the turbine
or taken from auxiliary steam services. Even though energy is still being used
to heat the water, feed heating gives an improvement to the thermal efficiency
of the system. In larger steam plants, feed heating is achieved in stages, since
carefully designed increments in the feed temperature provides greater
efficiency that one large temperature rise.
Using an economiser
An economiser is a special application of feed heating. This is a device,
situated in the system just before the feed inlet to the boiler, which heats the
boiler feed water using heat energy from the boiler and/or diesel engine
exhaust gas. This improves the thermal efficiency of the system, and is
achieved by using energy which would otherwise have been lost to the
atmosphere. Thus, the use of an economiser gives a twofold improvement to
the system.
7. The Waste Heat Unit

The waste heat unit (WHU), sometimes called the exhaust gas boiler or heat
exchanger, uses diesel engine exhaust gas to generate steam, is a development
of the economiser idea.
There is sufficient energy present in a large diesel engine’s exhaust gas to

generate the steam necessary for the vessels ancillary and auxiliary systems.
This energy would have been otherwise wasted, and so the waste heat unit is
an energy recovery device which improves the engine room plant efficiency.
A waste heat unit arrangement is shown in figure 9.
This arrangement has three sections, each section consists of rows or banks of
tubes:
• pre-heating or economiser section;
• steam generation section;
• superheating section.

Figure 9 Waste Heat Unit
The steam generation section uses a circulating pump to take boiler water
from the boiler and circulate this water through the steam generation section.
The hot steam and water then returns to the boiler where the steam separates
out and is ready for use. In many engine plants, the boiler can actually be shut
down at sea (when the main engine(s) is at a high enough load). The boiler
then acts as a steam receiver for the waste heat unit. In port, or at low engine
loads, the boiler is oil fired in the normal manner.

Progress Check
1. State the difference between wet steam, dry saturated steam, and
superheated steam.
2. State the three categories of steam use aboard ship, giving an example of
each.
3. Make a simple schematic sketch of a main turbine plant or an auxiliary

steam plant, and:
a) identify its major components,
b) show the direction of steam and water flow,
c) indicate where dry saturated steam, wet steam,
superheated steam (if used), and liquid water are present
in the system.
4. Sketch the Rankine cycle with Superheat on a pressure-volume diagram,
and explain the processes which occur within the cycle.
5. List and explain three energy losses and four improvements of a real
steam plant.
6. Identify what is meant by feed heating and briefly explain why it is done.
7. Explain the effects of using a waste heat unit on the energy balance of an
auxiliary steam plant.

Watertube Boilers Lecture Notes
Main Boilers

Watertube Boilers

Watertube Boilers
Introduction 3
1. Why use Watertube Boilers? 4
2. What is a Watertube Boiler? 7
3. Steam & Water Circulation 9
4. Superheated Steam 11
5. Basic Boiler Construction 15
6. Boiler Types 31
6.2 Babcock & Wilcox selectable superheat32
7. Internal Fittings 38
8. Steam to Steam Generation 40
9. Common Boiler Defects & their Repair 42
Progress Check 48

Introduction
Now that we have learnt about shell boilers, we will investigate the watertube
boiler. The watertube boiler is a major component of the steam system. It is in
fact a system in itself.
This Section investigates the design, construction, and workings of watertube

boilers.
The function of a boiler is to generate steam. In the case of main propulsion

turbines units, turbine driven electrical generators, boiler feed pumps, and
cargo pumps associated with certain vessel types, the steam is at what is
considered to be a high pressure and high temperature.

Watertube Boilers
1. Why use Watertube Boilers?

1.1 Brief definition of a watertube boiler
The watertube boiler consists essentially of many small diameter tubes, with
the water and steam contained within these tubes. A drum, or drums,
distributes the feed water to the tubes and also acts as a collection space for the
generated steam. The furnace, much larger than Scotch boiler furnaces, is
surrounded by the watertubes.
1.2 Watertube boilers - advantages
The advantages of a watertube boiler over a shell boiler for main

propulsion purposes are:
• Higher pressures and temperatures;
• Saving in weight and space;
• Higher evaporation rates;
• Greater mechanical flexibility;
• Rapid steam raising;
• Wider safety margin in event of rupture.
Higher pressures and temperatures

The advent of steam turbine propelling machinery called for higher pressures
and temperatures, which gives the advantages of:
• higher efficiencies; and
• higher output powers.
This also enabled machinery size and weight to be reduced for a given output.
The maximum practical pressure limit of shell boilers is approximately 21 bar.

Above this limit, the boiler shell thickness becomes excessive. This gives
difficulties in construction as well as increasing problems in thermal stress
during operation.
Watertube boilers, on the other hand, normally supply main steam at pressures
in the order of 50 to 60 bar. Some land installation boilers operate at pressures
in excess of 200 bar.

With higher steam pressures, the dry saturated steam temperature also
increases. Superheating this already high temperature steam increases the
steam plant efficiency even more.
Saving in weight and space

Watertube boilers give a relative saving in weight of 1:3 when compared with
shell boilers on a basis of equivalent heating surface. The relatively thin
walled tubes reduce the weight of metal used in the boiler. The relatively
small amount of water present in a watertube boiler also reduces its overall
weight.
Good circulation and the ability to withstand higher pressures have enabled
high outputs to be obtained from watertube boilers of very small dimensions
when compared to shell boilers, giving a physically smaller steam plant size in
comparison.
Higher evaporation rates

Since the furnace is not contained within the shell of the boiler, the watertube
boiler provides a greater heat energy exchange surface. Also, the relatively
thin tube walls allow for better conduction of the heat energy evolved. This
enables the heat energy from the burning fuel to be more readily transmitted to
the boiler water and so allows high evaporation rates.
Greater mechanical flexibility

Watertube boilers are designed to provide very good natural circulation of
water and steam. The boiler structure is also comparatively flexible. This
means that the watertube boiler is not so sensitive to fluctuating pressures. The
shell boiler, on the other hand, has poor circulation - especially when raising
steam - and is prone to mechanical stress and strain.
Rapid steam raising

The flexibility of watertube boilers, together with their positive circulation
allows for relatively rapid steam raising. A normally specified time for raising
steam in a watertube boiler is three or four hours from start up to full pressure.
If the boiler is already hot, this time can be reduced (in emergency situations)
to 20 to 30 minutes.
Wider safety margin in event of rupture

The possibility of a serious rupture is considered to be more remote with a
watertube boiler compared to an equivalent shell boiler. The watertube boiler
has smaller tube diameters and the drums are protected from direct radiation or
flame impingement at the furnace. Should a tube rupture, the contents of the
boiler (which as we have noted are relatively smaller) escape at a rate
determined by the tube bore.

Watertube Boilers
A rupture of the overheated furnace of a shell boiler can almost

instantaneously release the total boiler contents into the engine room.
1.3 Watertube boilers - disadvantages

The watertube boiler does have disadvantages when compared to a shell boiler.
These disadvantages must be considered and catered for when selecting and
operating a steam plant.
Disadvantages of a watertube boiler compared to a shell boiler for main

propulsion purposes are:
• Complex water level control system required;
• Complex combustion control system required;
• Better water quality and feed system required;
• Large furnace explosions can occur more readily and are more
dangerous.
Complex water level control system required

Compared to a shell boiler, a watertube boiler has:
• a smaller sized steam drum with a smaller water surface area and
• a larger rate of steam production.
Thus, changes in boiler water level will be rapid and must be controlled
effectively to prevent boiler damage. This means that a watertube boiler
requires a complex boiler water level control system.
Complex combustion control system required

The smaller sized steam drum also means that there is a smaller reserve of
water and steam in the boiler. Changes in steam pressure can be rapid and so
complex combustion control systems are necessary.
Better water quality and feed system required

Compared with a shell boiler, a watertube boiler requires:
• better quality feed/boiler water,
• a higher level of water monitoring and treatment, and
• an elaborate closed feed system supplying water to the boiler.
This is because:

• contaminants in the water cause greater problems at higher pressure,

• contaminants in the water can precipitate out more easily at the higher
temperatures and evaporation rates,
• the smaller tubes of a watertube boiler can become blocked or choked more
easily,
• it is more difficult to perform internal boiler examination, and
• there is little allowance for corrosion in the relatively thin tubes.
Large furnace explosions can occur more readily and are more dangerous
Watertube boiler furnaces are relatively larger than those of shell boilers.
It is easier for explosive vapours to collect in these large furnaces. Since
the furnace is so large, a furnace explosion (if it occurs) will contain more
energy which will cause more damage and can be lethal. Thus extra care
must be taken with boiler combustion and operation, especially when
raising steam.
Thus the watertube boiler is a better choice of boiler for the production of
steam for power generation. However, disadvantages of the watertube boiler
must be taken in to account.
2. What is a Watertube Boiler?

This sub-section is a simple introduction to the layout of a watertube boiler.
We will investigate the topics outlined with more detail in later sub-sections.
The basic components of a watertube boiler are:

• Fuel burning section;
• Steam generating section;
• Superheater section;
• Waste heat recovery section; and
• Additional fittings and mountings.

Watertube Boilers
Fuel burning section

All boilers have a furnace where fuel is burnt to release its energy. A large
surface area between the combustion chamber and the water enables the energy
of combustion, in the form of heat energy, to be transferred to the water.
Steam generating section

The major components of a watertube boiler are the watertubes. These contain
circulating water, and as they are heated, steam is generated. There are
different types of watertubes within a boiler, each type having different
purposes.
Drums are provided where:

• Steam and water are separated;
• Feed water is introduced and distributed to the watertubes;
• The steam is collected and sent to the superheater section;
• Sludge collects to enable easy removal.
There is normally a steam drum and a water or mud drum. The steam drum is
the point where feed water enters the boiler for distribution to the rest of the
boiler. It is situated towards the top of the boiler to provide good circulation.
The steam drum also separates the generated steam and water returning from
the watertubes. The steam is led off to the superheater section while the water
re-circulates back through the tubes.
The water drum is situated towards the bottom of the boiler, and also acts as a
collection and distribution point for the water. Any sludge created will collect
in the water drum for removal.
Headers are similar components to the drums, but they are smaller. They act
as collection and distribution points for the water and the steam in specific
areas of the boiler.
Superheater section
Dry saturated steam leaves the steam drum and enters the superheater section.
Here, the steam is superheated. Some of this superheated steam is then
desuperheated back to dry saturated steam to supply steam for auxiliary
purposes. Most of the superheated steam, however, is produced to supply the
main turbine.
Waste heat recovery section

Exhaust gas from the combustion process still contains heat energy. Some of
this energy is reclaimed in the economiser. This unit uses waste heat energy to
raise boiler feed water temperature up to or near the relevant saturation
temperature at boiler pressure.

Some watertube boilers also use waste heat energy to preheat combustion air.
Additional fittings, mountings, and controls

There must be fittings and controls to ensure that fuel oil, air, and feed water
are supplied and are matched to the steam demand. There must also be a
number of fittings or mountings which ensure the safe operation of the boiler.
3. Steam & Water Circulation

3.1 Three Parts of Circulation
Circulation of steam and water within a watertube boiler consists of three
parts:
• Flow of water to heated areas;
• Flow of steam and heated water to steam drum;
• Collection and release of steam.
3.2 How Circulation occurs

Circulation of steam and water in a watertube boiler is due to the density
difference between steam and water.
This is called natural circulation.
Figure 1 Natural Circulation Within A Simple Watertube Boiler

Watertube Boilers
Consider the simple watertube boiler shown in figure 1. Relatively cold feed
water enters the steam drum. This water has a greater density, sinks
downwards, and flows into the downcomer tube.
The water in the riser tube is heated by the heat energy of combustion. The
density of this water becomes less than that of the water in the downcomer.
There is also generated steam present within the riser tube.
This means that the mass of heated water and steam in the riser tube is less
than the mass of the colder water in the downcomer tube. Gravity causes the
heavier water in the downcomer to flow into the riser tube and displace the hot
water and steam already present in this tube. The hot water and steam
displaced flows up into the steam drum.
As the hot water and steam enters the steam drum, the steam is separated from
the water and flows out of the drum (to the superheater). The water from the
riser tube is no longer being heated from the heat source, mixes with the
incoming feed water, and recirculates, flowing into the downcomer.
The water from the downcomer is exposed to heat energy, becomes less dense
and evolves into steam. Thus the process continues.
As the mixture of hot water and steam flows up the riser, it is exposed to more
heat energy and so more of the water evolves into steam.
The boiler is designed so that there should be a ratio between the amount of
steam leaving the risers and the amount of water entering the downcomers.
This is called the water/steam circulation ratio and should be in the order of
4:1, ie, there should be four times as much water entering than steam
generated.
It is very important that there is always more water than steam in the
riser. If the riser was completely full of steam, the tube would overheat
and burnout would occur. Burnout, as the term implies, is where the tube
metal overheats, can no longer resist the pressure force within the tube,
and ruptures.
3.3 External Downcomers

As pressure increases, the density difference between water and steam
decreases. This means that in boilers at higher pressures, natural circulation
may be impaired.
To minimise this problem and improve circulation, marine watertube boilers

above 30 bar pressure are fitted with external, unheated downcomers.
These downcomers are large bore tubes connecting the steam drum to the
water drum. They are situated outside the boiler casing to ensure that they are
not heated. They are insulated to minimise unnecessary heat energy loss and to
protect personnel from injury.
With external downcomers, circulation of water from the steam drum to the
water drum is increased.
Figure 2 External Downcomers
3.4 Circulation within a Practical Boiler

A practical watertube boiler has many rows and runs of tubes. The furnace is
also contained within the tubes. Due to fluctuations or changes of combustion
gas flow (and so changes in heat energy release rates), a particular tube may
function as a downcomer one minute and a riser the next. It is not easy to
predict which tubes are acting as risers or downcomers. What can be predicted
is that more tubes act as risers as steam flow rates increase. This means that
the external downcomers have even more importance at high steaming rates.
In a modern boiler, all tubes act as risers except the unheated downcomers.
4. Superheated Steam
Watertube Boilers
4.1 What is a Superheater?

Steam that has been heated above saturation temperature corresponding to its
pressure is superheated. This steam contains more energy than dry saturated
steam.
A superheater tube has steam on the inside and hot gases on the outside. The
tubes are therefore dry, since no liquid water is present.
Dry saturated steam is drawn out of the steam drum and is led to the
superheater tubes.
Superheaters are referred to as convection, radiant, or combination type.
The convection superheater is placed somewhere in the combustion gas stream,

where it receives most of its heat by convection. This type of superheater is
shielded from the radiant heat of the actual furnace flame by watertubes known
as screen tubes. With other factors being equal, the more rows of tubes
between the furnace and the superheater, the lower the superheated steam
temperature. A radiant superheater, on the other hand, is placed much nearer
to the furnace, and receives the majority of its energy by direction radiation
from the furnace flame.
The superheater itself, whatever its type, is normally a set or sets of U or W-

shaped tubes, connected to inlet and outlet headers. The superheater tubes may
be placed horizontally or vertically, depending on boiler design. Horizontally
placed superheater tubes are inclined slightly to provide drainage of condensed
water when the boiler is shut down. The headers have internal baffles, which
direct the steam so that all superheater tubes have the correct proportion of
steam flowing through them.
Figure 3 Superheater Headers And Elements

The superheater is supported by heat resistant steel and/or by large bore

watertubes.
4.2 Temperature Control

As previously stated, superheater tubes are dry, that is, there is no liquid
present.
In a watertube, the temperature of the tube metal is closer to the water

temperature than the furnace/combustion gas temperature. This is because
water is a good conductor of heat.
Steam cannot conduct heat energy away as quickly as water. The steam can
actually act as an insulator. This means that the superheater tubes tend to work
at higher metal temperatures than water tubes, and are much closer to the metal
melting temperature.
Thus it is very important to control superheated steam temperature to

prevent overheating and failure of the superheater tubes.
There should always be steam flowing through the superheater tubes

while there is heat energy in the furnace and combustion gas path of the
boiler.
When the operating superheated steam temperature is well below the

temperature limit for the metal, sufficient control can be achieved by the
position of the superheater within the boiler.
In many cases, this method of superheated steam temperature control is

inadequate, and other methods of control must be used. These include:
• Using dampers to control the flow of combustion gases over the
superheater.
• Designing the boiler with two separate furnaces so that changing the
amount of fuel burnt in each furnace controls the superheated steam
temperature.
• Using an attemperator to cool some or all of the superheated steam. The
attemperator can be air or water cooled, and is fitted in circuit between two
sets of superheaters.

Watertube Boilers
Figure 4 Superheated Steam Temperature Control
All of these methods are used to protect the superheater, preventing the
tube metal temperature from reaching too high a level.
4.3 Desuperheating
Desuperheating is another form of steam temperature control. This provides
low temperature steam for use in auxiliary machinery and services, or where
limitations are imposed on the steam temperature for use in an astern turbine.

Two main forms of desuperheating are generally used:

• Surface desuperheating, and
• Spray desuperheating.
Surface desuperheating is performed using a system similar to attemperation.

Superheated steam is led to an attemperator positioned in the steam or water
drum of the boiler. The superheated steam is cooled by the boiler water and
becomes dry saturated. To avoid confusion between the attemperator used to
control superheated steam temperature and the attemperator used to
desuperheat the steam, we will define the attemperator used for the latter
purpose as the desuperheater.
If the attemperator is positioned within the steam drum, the desuperheater will
be in the water drum, and vice versa.
It would be easier to draw off dry saturated steam straight from the steam drum
of the boiler. However, it is important to pass as much steam through the
superheater as possible in order to keep the superheater cool. To help achieve
this cooling of the superheater tubes, all the steam produced by the boiler is
superheated, and the saturated steam needed for auxiliary purposes is then
desuperheated.
Spray desuperheating is where the mixing of the steam and a water spray
cools the steam. The water spray is mounted in a special chamber or is
injected directly into the steam pipework. An example of spray desuperheating
is to cool steam passing into the astern turbine (in order not to overheat the
main condenser).
5. Basic Boiler Construction

Early watertube boilers consisted of a single steam drum, watertubes, headers
and superheater tubes. Initially, they operated at a pressure of about 12 bar and
steam temperature of 221OC. Tubes were 100 mm in diameter and the
combustion gases had three passes over the tubes, gas flow being directed by
baffles. If a water drum was fitted, it was very small compared to the steam
drum and acted solely as a mud drum.
These boilers normally had a 15 degree inclination between the front and back
headers to assist in circulation. Due to this, they were called inclined header
boilers.
Later designs had working pressures up to 30 bar, steam temperatures up to

399OC, 21 mm diameter tubes and a single pass of combustion gases. These
designs also had the furnace surrounded by watertubes called waterwalls. This
reduced the amount of refractory insulation needed as well as increasing heat
energy input to the water.
Watertube Boilers
Figure 5 Inclined Header Watertube Boiler
Smaller tubes were possible due to the improvement in feed water quality, and
give a greater heat transfer area.
Superheaters in later inclined header boilers were positioned within the main
tube bank at right angles to the generating tubes of the boiler.
5.1 D-type or Bent Tube Boilers

The bent tube design of watertube boiler was a much later development. This
type of boiler has a steam drum, water drum, watertubes, and superheaters.
The furnace is said to be integral within the boiler. This means that the furnace
is totally surrounded by waterwalls, watertube floor and watertube roof.
This arrangement provides a distinctive shape to the boiler, giving the

appearance of a lower case letter d. Hence these boilers are often called D type
boilers.

5.2 Construction of components

We will now look at the construction of each of the major components of a
watertube boiler.
Drums
Early drums were riveted or forged from a single ingot of steel. Modern drums
are all welded.
Materials and construction procedures are laid down by Government

Authorities and Classification Societies, so the finished drums (and in fact, the
complete boiler) can properly withstand the forces set up by internal pressure
and thermal effects. The required thickness of metal is calculated, including
any necessary allowances for loss of strength due to holes cut and also
allowances for corrosion.
Each drum consists of four main parts:

• Tube plate,
• Wrapper plate, and
• 2 end plates.
Figure 6 Steam Drum
The tube plate in large drums is thicker than the wrapper plate to compensate
for the large number of holes needed to accommodate the tubes. The tube plate
edges are tapered down to the wrapper plate and end plate thicknesses. This
minimises stress concentrations at the joins. The drum diameter is such that
there is a constant mean diameter, again to minimise local stress problems.

Watertube Boilers
Figure 7 Tapered Tube Plate of Steam Drum
Since the ends of the drum do not need to be flat, they are dished outwards.
This means that these ends do not need additional support in the form of stay
tubes and stay bars as is the case with the flat ends of a shell boiler.
State why the drum ends of a watertube boiler do not need to be flat while the
end plates of a shell boiler do need to be flat.
Test pieces of drum material are taken and checked to ensure that the drum
material is satisfactory. Plates above 50 mm thick are also subjected to
ultrasonic testing to check that sub-surface defects such as laminations are not
present.
The plates are then cut to the required sizes and bent to the correct curvature.
Smaller thickness plates can be bent or rolled cold, but plate thicknesses above
50 mm necessitate hot bending or rolling. In some cases, it is not possible to
bend the plates up to the extreme edges. One solution to this problem is to
‘pre-set’ the ends of the plates by edge rolling and then rolling the plate as
normal. Another solution is to make the plates wider than necessary, and then
cut to correct width after bending is complete.
Any mill scale and other surface contaminants are removed by sand blasting or
by pickling in acid.
The plate edges are then machined to the correct shape for welding. The tube
and wrapper plates are then assembled ready for welding.

Test pieces, cut from the original plate material, are tacked welded to each end
of the longitudinal weld in such a way that the weld can be continued across
the test pieces during the welding process. Using the test pieces in this manner
achieves two functions. Firstly, the weld will start and stop on the test pieces
and not the drum itself. Secondly, the test pieces are removed from the drum
after welding and specified tests are performed to check that the weld is
satisfactory.
Some form of automatic fusion welding process is used to weld the drum. The
machine moves along the stationary drum in any weld process used.
The longitudinal weld seams so formed, as well as the welded test pieces, are
dressed flush and then subjected to radiographic examination to determine the
presence of harmful defects. Where the plate thickness exceeds 75 mm,
ultrasonic testing of the seams is used to supplement the radiographic
examination.
The cylinder so formed is then checked for circularity, marked off and
machined on its ends for the circumferential seams.
The drum ends are made from steel plate of the same composition and tensile
strength as the shell plates. The ends are hot pressed to shape under a
hydraulic press. After pressing, the ends are normalised by heat treatment and
machined for welding to the cylinder. The circumferential seams connecting
the dished ends to the tube and wrapper plates are then welded.
When all seam welds have been completed and dressed, a complete
radiographic and/or ultrasonic examination is performed as required by
Authorities. If any defects such as porosity are present, the affected sections
are cut out, re-welded, and re-tested.
The drum is again marked off, the holes cut for drum mountings; branch pipes,
supporting saddles, and other such fittings and components are welded on.
Holes for the watertubes are then drilled. Special drilling machines are used to
ensure the correct alignment of the holes with the tube plate. Stub tubes, if
used, are now welded.
When all machining and welding has been completed, the drum is stress
relieved. Heating the drum to between 580 and 620OC, maintaining this
temperature for a specified time relating to metal thickness, and then cooling at
a specified rate provides this stress relief. Test pieces also undergo the same
stress relieving process before they are cut up to provide the required test
specimens.
When satisfactory test results have been received, all nozzles and branches are
plugged, manhole doors fitted and the drum is prepared for hydraulic pressure
testing. The drum is filled with water and the pressure raised to 1.5 times the
design pressure. The pressure is held for at least 30 minutes and the drum is
inspected for leakages and other defects.
Watertube Boilers
When no stub tubes are to be welded, the tube holes may be drilled after the
hydraulic test has been performed.
Support
The boiler must be supported. Typically this is done by using:
• Fixed and sliding feet;
• Girders and brackets.
Girders and brackets are used to provide support for the boiler drums and other
sub-assemblies such as headers. In some cases a bracket may be spring loaded
to allow for expansion. Concentrated loads are imposed where these supports
are located on the boiler, which must be taken into account and proper
precautions taken.
One end of the water drum is normally provided with a fixed foot which is
secured to the ship structure.
The other end of the drum has a sliding foot.
Figure 8 Boiler Sliding Foot
As the boiler heats up, it will expand. It is important to secure the boiler to the
ship structure, but it is equally important to allow for the relative expansion
between the boiler and the ship structure. The sliding foot has slotted holes in
way of the holding down bolts. These slots allow relative movement between
the boiler foot and the ship structure in one direction only.
Headers
Superheaters, economisers, and waterwalls all use headers. These are normally
made from solid drawn round or square section steel tube. Ends, branches, feet
and casing connections are welded on before stress relief. The header is

hydraulically pressure tested, and then access doors holes and tube holes are
machined and drilled.
Tubes
Tubes can be made from solid drawn steel or can be electric resistance welded.
Some tubes such as downcomers or those made from special steel are not
welded but solid drawn only.
The tubes are bent to shape using jigs, and then fitted to the drums and headers.
Tubes can be:

• expanded and bell mouthed; or
• welded.
Tube expanding or rolling is a process of cold working the end of a tube into
contact with the metal of the drum or header. When a tube is expanded, the
outside diameter, inside diameter, and length increase, while the tube wall
thickness decreases. A correctly expanded tube provided sealing as well as
strength. Expanding consists of using a special tool to expand the tube into the
tube sheet.
The conventional expander consists of three cylindrical (or semi-cylindrical)

rollers mounted in a frame. The frame has holes at each end to allow a tapered
mandrel to be inserted between the rollers. The mandrel can be hand driven,
hand driven through gearing, or machine driven. As the mandrel is turned, the
rollers rotate and forced out against the tube internal wall. Continued turning
of the mandrel causes the end of the tube to be enlarged and the outer surface
of the tube is pressed against the tube hole. Over-expanding can cause a
deformity of the hole shape, making it less likely that a proper seal will be
effected.
The tube ends can be bell mouthed which improves steam and water flows as
well as provided strength to the joint.
Figure 9 Expanding A Boiler Tube

Watertube Boilers
Large diameter tubes may have grooves machined into the tube hole. When
the tube is expanded, tube material expands into these grooves and makes the
joint even stronger.
Figure 10 Large Expanded Tube With Grooved Seat
A tube may be welded directly to the drum or header, or it can be welded on to

a stub piece. The advantage of using a stub piece is that the tube is not welded
directly onto the drum or header. The stub pieces are welded on during drum
and header construction and so their welds are stress relieved. The tube to stub
piece weld is easier to perform when many tubes are being fitted (due to
access) and the weld is not quite as critical as when welding directly to a drum
or header.
Figure 11 Welded Boiler Tubes
Welded connections of large tubes are usually checked by radiography on

completion.
Some tubes are finned along their length. They are called monowall or
membrane wall tubes. After these tubes have been fitted to the drums and
headers, the fins are welded, connecting one tube to the other. We will
investigate this type of tube later in this Section.
Superheaters and economiser

The superheaters and economisers are prefabricated as much as possible before
final assembly into the boiler. Their construction is similar to the waterwall

tubes and headers. Support of these components must also be provided,

examples of superheater support are shown in the following figures.
Figure 12 Superheater C and T Support Arrangements
Economiser tubes in low exhaust temperature regions are fitted with cast iron
gills. These are sleeves with extended surfaces which fit over the tube. These
gills increase the heat transfer surface area and they also protect the tube itself
from corrosion due to low temperature acid condensation from the exhaust gas.
Figure 13 Cast Iron Gilled Economiser
In the lower part of the exhaust stack, where temperatures are higher and low
temperature corrosion is less of a problem, fingers, plates or other
arrangements are welded onto or formed from the economiser tubes.
Watertube Boilers
Figure 14 Welded Steel Fin Economiser
Access and fittings

Access must be provided for inspection, cleaning and repair of the internal
spaces of the boiler. Thus, personal access doors are made at suitable places in
the drums, normally at the drum ends. Headers, due to their size, are fitted
with handhole doors. As well as providing access to the headers and drums,
these doors give access to the tubes for initial fitting, inspection, cleaning, re-
rolling, and replacement. The holes must be large enough to provide the
necessary access.
Large holes in pressure vessels must be reinforced to compensate for the metal
removed. This reinforcement may be achieved by either forming a flange
around the hole from the shell material or by welding a reinforcing ring to the
shell.
In most cases, access doors are elliptical in shape. The door itself can then be
placed inside the boiler. This allows boiler pressure to keep the door in place
in operation. If the door were placed on the outside of the boiler, boiler
pressure would tend to force the door off the boiler.
Casings
Casings are of two types, single or double.

With single casing boilers, the pressure parts (such as waterwalls) form the
main casing. All that is needed outside this casing is refractory insulation
covered with a lightweight outer casing.
Double casing boilers have two major casings, one outside the other. This
permits the passage of pressurised air between the two casings, which prevents
gas leaks into the engine room and reduces heat energy radiation out of the
boiler. Allowance must be made for expansion of the two casings, and sliding
seals must be fitted.
Refractory and insulation

There are two basic purposes of refractory and insulation:
• To minimise heat energy loss out of the boiler into the engine room;
• To protect particular components from overheating.
Heat energy loss from a boiler is reduced by insulation. This insulation

provides both safety of personnel and improves the boiler thermal efficiency.
Materials that are used most frequently for insulation are mineral wool,
calcium silicate block, high temperature plastic, diatomite blocks, and ceramic
fibre. Lagging is an outer covering, and as well as providing some insulation,
protects the main insulation from water or mechanical damage.
Refractory is insulation in and around the furnace. Refractory is material in

solid form that maintains its shape at high temperatures. Refractory may be
present as fire bricks, clipped or otherwise secured to the furnace waterwall
tubes.
Another type of refractory is plastic refractory, which consists of plastic clay

mixed with crushed firebrick. This type of refractory can be moulded in
position in areas such as the bottom of the steam drum, top of the water drum,
above furnace floor tubes, and in the higher temperature areas of waterwall
tubes. Mouldable refractory is put in place and then set by applying heat
energy (such as minimum firing rate of the boiler burners), while castable
refractory is plastic refractory which is air drying like concrete.
Some boiler types have waterwall tubes that have numerous studs on their
external surfaces. These studs help to provide keying to the plastic refractory.
This means that the refractory has something more than the tube’s smooth
surface to secure itself to.
Plastic chrome ore is an example of plastic refractory.
Hydraulic testing
Boilers and their components must withstand a hydraulic pressure test without
showing signs of weakness or defect. This test consists of filling the boiler
completely with water, using a pressure gauge that is known to be in good

Watertube Boilers
order, and using a positive displacement pump to raise the pressure within the
boiler.
The hydraulic test of a new boiler may be carried out by either of the following
methods:
1. The completed boiler shall be tested to a pressure of 1.5 times the design
pressure; or
2. Where construction permits, all individual components of the boiler shall
be tested to a pressure of 1.5 times the design pressure. The completed
boiler after assembly shall then be tested to 1.25 times the design pressure.
In either test method, the pressure is held for a minimum specified time period.
5.3 Boiler Materials

Steel used in boiler construction must be of a very high quality, with its
constituents carefully controlled. Remember that the material must withstand
the stresses due to boiler pressure at elevated temperatures. Plain carbon (or
mild) steel is a suitable and economic material to about 450 to 480 degrees
Celsius, depending on pressure. Above this temperature, the strength of this
steel rapidly decreases, and alloy steels must be used. An alloy steel is one
where additional elements are intentionally added during the steel making
process. Several elements are use to produce high temperature alloy steel,
chromium and molybdenum being important examples.
The quality of the steel is determined by chemical analysis for alloys and
impurities. Carbon content is limited to about 0.28% to ensure optimal
ductility for bending and welding operations. Higher levels of carbon will
cause the steel to harden and crack under the influence of pressure and
temperature.
Minimum quality of steels used is specified in Classification Society Rules.

Generally the boiler manufacturer will used steels specified in National
standards.
Creep
Stress and high temperature changes the steel’s internal structure. One
important change is a small but permanent deformation known as creep. When
a boiler is adequately designed, made from the correct materials, and correctly
operated, this change is too small to be measured over the boiler’s lifetime.
Components such as studs, nuts, and safety valves should be made from creep
resistant materials and should be checked regularly for creep.
Drums and headers

Good quality low carbon steel. The main constituents are:
• 0.28% carbon maximum

• 0.5% manganese
• 0.1% silicon
• remainder ferrite (iron)
Steels with chrome, molybdenum, manganese, and vanadium are increasingly

being used. The increased strength and creep resistance enables less material
to be used. They also give reduced weight, overall cost, machining and
assembly time. They are more difficult to weld and adding these elements
increases the cost of the steel itself.
Superheater tubes
Plain low carbon steel, with about 0.15% carbon can be used up to about
400OC steam temperature.
1% chromium, 0.5% molybdenum low carbon steel can be used up to about

480OC steam temperature.
Austenitic stainless steel, with 18% nickel and 8% chrome and niobium, can be
used up to about 590OC steam temperature.
Weld decay
When stainless steel tubes are welded to superheater header stubs, the metal
adjacent to the weld can change in structure. Corrosion protection by the
chromium in the steel can be lost. This can give a band of corrosion around the
tube known as weld decay. Niobium helps to stabilise the metal against this
problem.
Other boiler tubes

Since these tubes operate at temperatures corresponding to the saturation
temperature of the water, they are generally made from plain low carbon steel.
Uncooled superheater element supports and baffles

These components must have resistance to creep and corrosion. Alloys of
nickel and chromium containing high proportions of these materials are
suitable.
5.4 Boiler Water Tube Arrangements

Bent tube design
Earlier watertube boiler designs used straight tubes connecting to headers.
This was a simple arrangement but limited design potential. An improvement
was to use tubes bent to various radii.
Generating tubes

Watertube Boilers
These are numerous small diameter tubes placed in the main flow of hot gases.
They provide a large heat exchange process, steam generation is mainly by
convection.
The number of generating tubes in modern boilers tends to be reduced. Some

boilers have no generating tubes, evolving steam in the waterwalls and screen
tubes only.
Screen tubes
These are tubes in the furnace region, and their special function, apart from
acting as risers and downcomers in steam generation, are to protect the
superheater tubes from the direct radiant heat of the furnace flame.
Due to their location and purpose, screen tubes have a larger diameter
compared to waterwall tubes in order to prevent them from overheating.
Waterwall tubes
These tubes form the walls of the furnace. They are the principle steam
generating section of a modern boiler.
Riser or return tubes

These tubes return steam bubbles and water from the top waterwall headers to
the steam drum.
Improving waterwall arrangements

Watertube boilers have suffered many problems with furnace refractory
material. Two arrangements which minimise these problems by minimising
the amount of refractory insulating the tube from the furnace flame are the:
• Tangent tube/close pitch tube;
• Membrane tube/monowall tube.
The tangent tube arrangement has tubes placed very close together (hence the
term close pitch). These tubes are backed with high temperature insulation,
low temperature insulation and the boiler casing. Boilers with this tube
arrangement will have double casings.

Figure 15 Tangent Tube Arrangement
The double casing arrangement has an air passage which provides preheating
for combustion air. Other features of this arrangement are:
• Amount of refractory reduced
• The boiler is gas tight
• It increase the overall boiler size
• Expansion joints in the casing are necessary
• Access to refractory is impaired and so repairs can be difficult.
The membrane tube arrangement has tubes which have a steel strip welded
between them to form a completely gas tight enclosure.
Figure 16 Membrane Tube Arrangement
This arrangement eliminates much of the high temperature insulation

previously needed. The reduction in insulation:
• Reduces cost (since there is less refractory used)

Watertube Boilers
• Reduces refractory maintenance

• Reduces boiler weight.
The membrane wall also makes the boiler gas tight - giving no leakage of gases
- without the need for a double casing, which also means that the encased
boiler will be slightly smaller.
Repairs to damaged membrane wall tubes, however, are more difficult to

effect.
With both tangent tube and membrane walls arrangements, some refractory
will be used to protect tubes in very high temperature areas of the furnace.

6. Boiler Types
There are many different types of watertube boilers. Development of marine
watertube boiler design has been minimal since the late 1960’s, at least for
main propulsion purposes. This sub-section provides examples of typical
boilers used for main propulsion giving important features for each design.
6.1 Babcock & Wilcox integral furnace
Figure 17 Babcock & Wilcox Integral Furnace Boiler
Important features
• Two drums and water wall headers.
• Bent tube construction of waterwalls enclosing furnace.
• External downcomers connect steam drum to water drum and waterwall
headers.
• Refractories cooled by waterwalls - plastic chrome ore on stud tubes.
• Superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and supported by
water-cooled support tubes.
• The superheated steam temperature is controllable within certain limits by
fitting an attemperator, and a desuperheater can be fitted for auxiliary
purposes.
• Main generating bank of small tubes after superheater.
• Mud drum on waterwall.

Watertube Boilers
6.2 Babcock & Wilcox selectable superheat
Figure 18 Babcock & Wilcox Selectable Superheat Boiler
Important features
• External downcomers connect steam drum to water drum and waterwall
headers.
• Plastic chrome ore on stud tubes from baffles.
• ‘W’ shape superheater tubes run only half the length of the furnace,
superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and supported by
water-cooled support tubes.
• The other half-length of the furnace has generating tubes after the screen
tubes.
• Superheat temperature control is by regulating gas flow by dampers, the
dampers being in a relatively cool area.
• Mud drum on waterwall.

6.3 Babcock & Wilcox marine radiant (MR)
Figure 19 Babcock & Wilcox Marine Radiant Boiler
Important features
• Improvement in many features of feed supply and boiler systems improved
the efficiency of the boiler such that the required amount of boiler heating
surface was reduced. This meant that less convective heating surfaces are
present in this more modern boiler.
• Membrane waterwall arrangement, with no generating tubes.
• Downcomers connecting steam drum to lower headers.
• 2-stage superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and
supported by water-cooled support tubes.
• Superheated steam temperature controlled by attemperator.
• Roof fired burners for improved combustion efficiency.
• Bled steam combustion air heater.
• Minimum of refractory used.
• Boiler tubes welded to drums and headers.

Watertube Boilers
6.4 Foster Wheeler ESD 1

The Foster Wheeler Company was acquired by Senior Thermal Engineering in
1988, but this company is still constructing Foster Wheeler designs.
Many of the salient features of all three Foster Wheeler designs investigated in
the Section are the same. Thus, the ESD 1 boiler will be described, and the
ESD 2 and ESD 3 boilers will be compared to the ESD 1. ESD stands for
External Superheater D type. External indicates that the superheater is sited
external to the furnace.
Figure 20 Foster Wheeler ESD I Boiler
Important features
• External downcomers connect steam drum to water drum, the waterwall
headers being supplied by the floor tubes.
• Refractories cooled by waterwalls - tangent wall construction over
firebrick.
• Double casing enclosing boiler.

• 2-stage superheater protected from radiant heat by screen tubes, and

supported by water-cooled support tubes.
• Superheated steam temperature is controlled within limits by passing some
or all of the superheated steam through an air-cooled attemperator placed in
the circuit between the primary and secondary superheaters.
Figure 21 Foster Wheeler ESD II Boiler
Important features (compared to ESD 1)

• Developed to overcome limitations and problems associated with the ESD
1.
• Control of superheated steam temperature is not achieved by air
attemperation. Basically, air as a cooling medium was found to be
inadequate for attemperation purposes.
• Superheated steam temperature controlled by diverting combustion gas
path. This is achieved by using linked dampers after the primary
superheater, before the main economiser bank. If superheated steam
temperature is too great, the gas flow through the primary superheater is
reduced (thus there will be less heat energy input to the steam).

Watertube Boilers
• The diverted gas passes through a control unit. This is an additional

economiser section placed in parallel to the primary superheater.
Figure 22 Foster Wheeler ESD III Boiler
Important features (compared to ESD 1 and 2)

• Developed to overcome limitations and problems associated with the ESD
2, as well as incorporating new design concepts.
• Roof fired furnace.
• External downcomers from the steam drum supply water drum and front
and rear waterwall headers, the sidewall and roof being supplied by floor
tubes.
• Side waterwalls and roof tubes tangent tube arrangement over refractory,
but the screen tubes are of monowall construction.
• 2 stage superheater. The primary superheater (and the economiser) are
arranged to give counter flow of gas and steam (water in the case of the
economiser). This gives more efficient heat transfer. The secondary

superheater, sited in a hotter gas zone and having higher temperature
steam, is arranged to give parallel flow. This means that the incoming
steam is fed to the bottom of this superheater stage, where the hottest gases
are. Even though this is less efficient than counter flow heat exchange, it
maximises the cooling of the very hot superheater tubes in this region.
Simply, parallel flow helps to protect the secondary superheater tubes from
overheating.
• Superheated steam temperature control is achieved by two linked valves;
one in the steam line leading to a water cooled attemperator in the steam
drum, the other in a bypass line leading directly to the secondary
superheater inlet header.
• Later ESD 3 models no longer used tangent wall arrangement around the
furnace, but used the membrane wall arrangement. This means that these
boilers were now single cased.
• A desuperheater placed in the water drum was used to provide saturated
steam for auxiliary purposes from the superheated steam.

Watertube Boilers
7. Internal Fittings
The steam drum of a boiler is not the empty space that one may think; it is
filled with many components.
The major fittings within a steam drum are:

• Feed pipe;
• Attemperator;
• Dry steam pipe;
• Baffles;
• Other steam separators.
Figure 23 Steam Drum Internals
Feed pipe
Feed water enters the boiler through feed pipe. This is a perforated pipe
running the length of the steam drum. It has a two-fold purpose. Firstly, it
distributes the feed water along the steam drum to ensure that all downcomer
tubes are fed with water and so not be starved of water. Secondly, by evenly
distributing the relatively cold feed water, it prevents there being a cold area in
one part of the drum, so minimising thermal problems.

Attemperator
An attemperator in the steam drum is a common device used in main boilers to
control superheated steam temperature. It consists of a bundle of U-shaped
tubes. This feature allows the attemperator to expand and contract as the steam
flow through it changes, without needing other, more difficult, expansion
arrangements between it and the steam drum.
Dry steam pipe

The contents of the steam drum are not a quiescent body of water with an
atmosphere of dry saturated steam above it. In reality, the contents are a turgid
mass of steam and water, mixing and bubbling in a complex environment. The
dry steam pipe is a perforated pipe through which the steam passes as it leaves
the drum. Its purpose is to minimise the amount of water which is carried over
in the steam discharge. Remember that the steam leaving the boiler is meant to
be dry saturated.
Baffles
These components are used to direct the steam and water flows. They are used
to:
• Improve steam and water circulation within the boiler;
• Separate the steam and water at the water level, so that above the baffle
there is steam, while above it there is water;
• Prevent water being carried over with the steam discharge.
Other steam separators

Even with a dry steam pipe and baffles, wet steam can still leave the drum.
Other components can be used to ensure dry saturated steam. Different types
are used, but they all generally use one method of separating the water from the
steam. This method is to provide a torturous path for the steam and water
mixture. As the steam and water pass through the separator, centrifugal force
is used to separate the water from the steam (due to the greater density of the
water).

Watertube Boilers
Figure 24 Steam separator
8. Steam to Steam Generation

Steam to steam generators are used to provide dry saturated, low pressure
steam for auxiliary purposes. This means that a desuperheater and main steam
reducing valves are not required.
The steam to steam generator is effectively a low pressure boiler made of

carbon steel. The heat energy source is not a flame but main boiler steam. The
main steam does not mix with the feed to the generator, but is contained within
heating coils in the form of U-tubes(to allow for relative expansion).
The generator is fitted with the usual boiler mountings such as safety valves,
gauge glasses, level controllers, scum and blowdown lines. An internal dry
pipe and baffle arrangement is also present.

Figure 25 Steam To Steam Generator
The main advantages of steam to steam generation are:

• Untreated feed water can be used, or al least the level of water treatment is
reduced compared to main feed.
• Main feed make up is reduced. Auxiliary steam use increases the amount
of steam and water loss from the system. This is due to leaks and
intentional consumption of steam. Since main and auxiliary steam systems
are separate, make up feed water to the main boiler does not have to cope
with the losses from the auxiliary system.
• Reduced main boiler maintenance.
• Auxiliary system contaminants do not enter the main boiler. Auxiliary
steam is used for such purposes are fuel oil heating. If a leak occurred
between the steam system and the fuel, oil could contaminate the system.
Oil in boilers is undesirable to say the least, as it coats the internal boiler
surfaces and acts as an insulating layer. This reduces heat transfer and
impairs efficiency, as well as posing serious overheating problems for a
fired boiler. Any such contamination of a steam to steam generator stops
oil entering the main boiler. If efficiency is impaired, it is only the
efficiency of the generator and not the main boiler. Also, since the
generator uses steam as the heating source, there is no danger of failure by
overheating.

Watertube Boilers
9. Common Boiler Defects & their

Repair
The causes of boiler defects can be placed into five major groups:
• Faulty initial design. For example, if waterwall tubes are too close to the
boiler flame and are not insulated, they will overheat.
• Wastage, internal and external. This is due to corrosion and erosion, and
means that there is loss of metal from the boiler and so a reduction in
strength.
• Effects of overheating.
• Combined effect of mechanical action and corrosion.
• Faulty combustion.
These causes can be related. For example, faulty combustion can cause
overheating or make additional deposits on superheater tubes.
The human factor in boiler defects is quite large. Poor operation

procedures and poor maintenance of the boiler and its systems will cause
defects. Poor inspection may also allow the defect to become so large that
a major accident could occur and/or a totally new boiler may be required.
9.1 General procedure for rectifying a defect

The procedure outlined in this sub-section will not necessarily be followed in
the sequence given, this depends on the actual defect identified and other
factors (such as if the vessel is in port or at sea).
Depending on the defect, non-ship personnel may need to be contacted,

consulted, and/or employed. These may include:
• Ship’s Engineering Superintendent or other Company representative.
• Statutory Authority and Classification Society personnel.
• Boiler manufacturer.
• Repair specialists.
• Suitably qualified repair technicians (such as certified welders).
The following procedure lists the general actions that should be taken
upon identifying a defect (this procedure assumes that the boiler is shut
down):

• Identify the extent of the defect. For example, if one tube has
overheated and failed, check for others.
• Identify the impact or consequences of the defect. Is the boiler safe
to operate?
• Identify the reasons for the defect. Did the tube fail by overheating
due to loss of boiler water or did it fail by corrosion due to poor water
treatment?
• Determine if an immediate repair is required before the boiler may
be operated again, or if repairs can be effected at a later date.
• Determine if repair or replacement is the best option.
• Decide if a temporary repair or permanent repair is required at the

present time. A burst tube can be plugged and replaced at a later date.
• Make the repair.
• Stop the defect from re-occurring (if possible).
• Make permanent repair when possible (if a temporary repair was
made).
9.2 Refractory repair

Refractory defects include:
• Spalling
• Cracking
• Slag attack
• Oil contamination
Spalling is the loss of refractory material from the hot surface. Cracking is as
the name suggests. Slag attack is a chemical reaction between the ash in the
fuel and the refractory. Oil contamination is due to unburnt fuel leaking into
the furnace and soaking into the refractory.
Depending on the type of refractory and defect, repairs include:

• Replacement of defective refractory with similar material.
• Replacement of defective refractory with different material.
• Clean up the defective area and temporarily using plastic refractory to
cover it.

Watertube Boilers
It is important to repair damaged refractory before the boiler pressure

parts affected by the defect themselves become defective.
9.3 Corrosion and other thinning of drums,

headers, and tubes
It is very important to ascertain the degree of these defects. If they are noticed
in the early stage, the cause of the problem can be addressed and no actual
repair of the small defect is required, apart from regular inspection to check
that the problem has been addressed and the defect is not getting worse.
In some cases, the defect can be built up by welding. An example of this is

eroded baffle plates in superheater steam headers. These plates direct the
steam through the superheater tubes. Small diameter holes at the bottom of
these baffles allow drainage of water when the boiler is cold. If the baffle
becomes eroded, the steam will short circuit (not flow through certain tubes)
and the tube may overheat and fail. Building up by welding provides an
acceptable repair.
If these problems are allowed to build up, the only effective solution is to
replace the defective component or at least that part of the component which is
defective. This could involve large costs if, for example, the steam drum is
heavily corroded or many tubes have thinned so much that they must be
renewed.
9.4 Cracking due to thermal or mechanical

stresses
Weld repairs of cracks in certain low stress areas may be allowed, but other
cracks such as thermal stress cracks on the underside of a steam drum require
replacement of the defective component.
9.5 Burst tubes

A burst tube will require replacement at some point. However there are times
when it is desired to operate the boiler.
A temporary repair in these situations is to plug the tube at both ends.

Figure 26 Plugging Defective Tube - inserting plug
The plug is inserted through the handhole door in the header. It is pulled into
position using the string attached to the end of the plug.
Figure 27 Plugging Defective Tube - plug in place
The bridge piece and nut hold the plug in place until the boiler is under
pressure. Once the plugs are in place and the boiler is operational, boiler
pressure will keep the plugs in place. Boiler manufacturers can supply
specially designed plugs for such occurrences. With some types of plugs, the
tube will need to have access holes cut in it at the tube ends.

Watertube Boilers
Other plugging methods involve cutting the tube near the header and fitting
plugging caps to seal the tube ends.
Another methods to effect a temporary repair is to prepare the area around the
burst site, weld a plate cut from an oversize tube over the hole, and cover the
area with plastic refractory. It is important that this repair is insulated, even
with a membrane tube, as the extra thickness of the patch will impair heat
transfer and cause overheating.
A plugged tube, depending on its location and type, may require vent hols cut
into it and/or covering with plastic refractory. In some cases, the plugged tube
may be allowed to burn out.
In some cases, the complete defective tube may not need to be replaced. The
defective portion of the tube is cut out, and a new tube portion is inserted.
9.6 Leaking tube ends

If tube ends at headers or drums are leaking, expanded tubes can be re-rolled
with expanding equipment. Unless care is taken however, the repair could
make the leak worse.
Another solution is to seal the tube by welding.
9.7 Defective doors

Defective doors and their seating surfaces will be evident as steam leaks. If the
problem is detected early enough, the repair may be to shut the boiler down,
replace the defective joint and ensure that the door is centralised when
replacing it.
Some boiler types have special covers which can be placed over defective
handhole doors to minimise the leak. However, this stops water loss without
stopping the defect, and at best is only a temporary repair until the ship arrives
in port.
If the door seating is damage by the erosive action of the steam leak, the
surface can be built up by welding and then grinding to shape with special
equipment. If the damage is minimal, just grinding back to a flat surface may
suffice.

9.8 Notes on weld repairs, including testing

For any welding of the pressure parts of the boiler, there are set requirements
which must be followed. These requirements include specifications for:
• Material requirements
• Welder qualifications
• Welding procedures
• Heat treatment before and after welding
• Non-destructive testing required.
Welding techniques and procedures can be supplied by the boiler manufacturer

(which must meet the approval of regulatory bodies). The welding is
performed by qualified welders who have passed the required code testing.
The use of post-weld heat treatment is required to relieve residual stresses that
are created in the welding process.
Non-destructive testing of the weld may involve radiographic testing (X-

ray or gamma ray testing). These rays are harmful to personnel so access
to the engine room while testing is being conducted must be restricted.
Only necessary personnel, suitably protected should be allowed into the
space.
Depending on the scale of the repair, the boiler will be subject to a hydraulic
test.
Welding without stress relieving and non-destructive testing is restricted to use

on items such as door seats where it is not required to strengthen the pressure
parts of the boiler.

Watertube Boilers
Progress Check
1. Describe why watertube boilers were developed for main propulsion
purposes.
2. List and describe three advantages and three disadvantages of watertube
boilers compared to shell boilers.
3. Briefly explain why shell boilers are not used for steam pressures above
approximately 21 bar.
4. Make a simple sketch of a water tube boiler, identifying its main

components, and indicate steam, water, and combustion gas paths.
5. Identify why it is necessary to use external unheated downcomers for high
pressure watertube boilers.
6. State a typical composition of a shell boiler material.
7. With the aid of a sketch, describe the monowall construction of watertube
boiler water walls.
8. Identify the basic reason for controlling superheated steam temperature in a
modern boiler.
9. List five (5) main boiler defects, giving an example of repair for each
defect.

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Auxiliary Boiler Operation

Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 1

2.1 Preparations (after maintenance) 6

2.3 Burner Operation 7

2.4 Raising Steam Pressure 9

2.5 Boiler Water Level During Steam Raising .... 10

2.6 Additional Checks & Actions 10

2.7 Operating the Waste Heat Unit 11

3. Auxiliary Boiler Shut Down 12

3.1 General Points on Shut Down 12

3.2 Isolating The Shut Down Boiler 13

5. Auxiliary Boiler Lay Up 13

5.1 General Principles 15

5.2 Boiler Water Emergencies 16

5.3 Combustion Side Emergencies 19

2 Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

6. Boiler Alarms & Trips 23

Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 3

Boiler operation is very important to the marine engineer. At best, incorrect

Equipment and procedures of different ships will vary to some degree, so

4 Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Procedures for operating a watertube boiler will be somewhat different to

Superheater circulating/vent valves protect the superheater. They must

Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 5

2.1 Preparations (after maintenance)

Internally (steam and water spaces)

Other important points

6 Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Lines which should be shut

2.3 Burner Operation

• Ensure fuel system is operating.

Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 7

• Air should flow through all burner registers.

8 Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

2.4 Raising Steam Pressure

If pressure (and temperature) is increased too quickly, there will not be

Alternatively, the procedure may consist of a timed burner operation. For

These procedures are designed to minimise thermal stresses and allow a

Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 9

• If fitted, check that superheater circulating/vent line is venting steam.

2.5 Boiler Water Level During Steam Raising

2.6 Additional Checks & Actions

10 Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

• Check correct operation of automatic controls.

2.7 Operating the Waste Heat Unit

Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 11

3. Auxiliary Boiler Shut Down

• Change combustion control from automatic to manual.

12 Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

Where possible, the specified minimum cooling down period should be

3.2 Isolating The Shut Down Boiler

• Protection of the boiler.

Isolation will include the following points:

5. Auxiliary Boiler Lay Up

Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 13

A laid up boiler should be treated as a confined space. Confined space

14 Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper)

In a watertube boiler emergency where the boiler is tripped (and

Steam Engineering Knowledge (Watchkeeper) 15

Follow ship’s procedures when dealing with emergencies. It is very easy

There will be differences to every emergency. The following situations are

5.2 Boiler Water Emergencies

If a tube ruptures, however, there will be sufficient indications of this problem,

Immediate actions to be taken should include: