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ABSTRACT. The influence of microstruc- factor was operable. Quantitative esti- and stress intensity range (DK), it is diffi-
ture on the fatigue crack propagation be- mates of the DK level below which grain cult to understand the role of microstruc-
havior of gas metal arc welds in 316L and size effects are expected to occur are in ture on fatigue resistance. For example, in
AL6XN austenitic stainless steels has reasonable agreement with the experi- a standard fatigue test conducted on a
been investigated. A constant DK (stress mental results. weld sample, the DK level is varied as the
intensity range) testing procedure with a crack propagates from the base metal into
stress ratio value of 0.6 was first used to Introduction the weld. In this condition, crack growth
deconvolute stress intensity range and rates will change due to varying DK, vary-
residual stress effects from microstruc- Stainless steel alloys are used in many ing residual stress level, and/or changes in
tural effects as the fatigue crack propa- applications that are exposed to cyclic microstructure. Thus, with all three fac-
gated from the base metal into the weld loading conditions. In these applications, tors changing simultaneously, it is difficult
metal. The results of this test demon- detailed knowledge of the fatigue crack to determine the role of weld metal mi-
strated that the large grain size of the weld growth behavior is important for estab- crostructure in detail. An alternative ap-
metal produced a rough fracture surface lishing allowable stresses and flaw sizes. In proach to this problem is to use a constant
with improved fatigue resistance relative addition, many components are fabricated DK test (Refs. 9–11). With this approach,
to the base metal. The influence of grain by welding, so knowledge of the fatigue a computer-controlled testing algorithm is
size on fatigue resistance was then studied behavior of the weld is also important. used that is capable of reducing the ap-
in more detail by generating full fatigue Although data exist on the fatigue plied loads as the crack grows from the
curves over a wide range of DK on base crack growth behavior of stainless steel al- base metal into the weld metal so that DK
metal samples that were heat treated to loys and their welds (Refs. 1–7), relatively remains constant. In addition, a stress
obtain various uniform grain sizes. Results little work has been conducted to deter- ratio, R (R = ratio of minimum-to-maxi-
from fatigue tests conducted on the base mine the influence of weld microstructure mum stress), is used that is high enough to
metal control samples were consistent on fatigue crack growth in detail. Results overcome residual stress effects. At low R
with the weld metal results and showed obtained to date have shown that the pres- values, the crack may enter into a region
that large grain sizes produced relatively ence of d-ferrite can influence the nature in which the compressive residual stress is
rough fracture surfaces with improved fa- of the crack propagation path, but this has higher than the minimum applied stress.
tigue resistance. The improved fatigue re- no significant effect on the actual crack Under this condition, the crack will re-
sistance occurred predominately at low growth rates (Refs. 1–3). It has also been main closed during a portion of the stress
stress intensity ranges where the plastic observed that the weld metal often ex- cycle, which reduces the applied DK to
zone size is approximately equal to or less hibits better fatigue resistance (i.e., lower some lower, effective DK level and causes
than the grain size. The improved fatigue crack growth rates) compared to the base a reduction in crack growth rate. In order
resistance with increasing grain size was metal (Ref. 8); however, the reasons for to overcome this effect, higher R values
attributed to three main factors, including this are not yet clear must be used in combination with a
1) a tortuous crack path that requires for- Most fatigue testing is conducted using method for directly detecting crack clo-
mation of a large surface area for a given standard DK-increasing tests. While such sure conditions so that it is ensured the fa-
length of crack propagation, 2) crack tests are useful for obtaining the direct re- tigue crack is always open. With this con-
growth out of the Mode I plane, which re- lation between crack growth rate (da/dN) stant DK/high R approach, any effects of
duces the stress intensity range available microstructure on fatigue resistance will
for crack growth, and 3) roughness- readily be signaled by a change in the mea-
induced closure that shields the crack sured da/dN as the crack propagates
from part of the applied load. Direct crack KEY WORDS across various microstructural zones, thus
closure measurements were used to iden- providing a sensitive method for deconvo-
tify the range of DK levels where the third Fatigue Crack luting microstructure effects from resid-
GMAW ual stress and stress intensity range effects.
Austenitic Stainless Steels In a companion article (Ref. 12), the
C. S. KUSKO is Research Assistant; J. N.
Fatigue Resistance fatigue crack propagation behavior of
DUPONT is Associate Professor and Director,
Joining and Laser Processing Laboratory; and A. 316L Stainless Steel stainless steel gas metal arc welds was in-
R. MARDER is Professor, Department of Materi- AL6XN Stainless Steel vestigated using a conventional DK-in-
als Science and Engineering, Lehigh University, creasing testing procedure. A series of
Bethlehem, Pa. stress ratios from 0.10 to 0.80 was investi-
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Table 1 — Chemical Compositions of Base
Metals and Filler Metals
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A B
Fig. 2 — Fatigue crack growth rate as a function of crack length. A — 316L GMA weld; B — AL6XN GMA weld.
Results
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results are aligned with the fatigue results indicates that crack
so that the variation in surface roughness closure is occurring
can be matched with the corresponding while a single, coin-
crack growth rates. A length scale key is cident curve repre-
provided on the right of Fig. 3C for refer- sents a fatigue
ence. These results clearly show that the crack that is fully
fatigue resistance of the weld metal is bet- open. For example,
ter than that of the base metal and the the fatigue results
fracture surface roughness increases sig- for 316L tested in
nificantly as the crack propagates from the the as-received
base metal into the weld. condition with a
The results shown in Figs. 2 and 3 sug- grain size of 24 mm
gest that the large grain size is responsible (Fig. 5A) show all
for the rough fracture surface and con- offset curves are
comitant improvement in fatigue resis- coincident for all
tance. However, the large variation in the offset slope lev-
grain size and columnar grain morphology els (which gives the
in the weld make definitive conclusions appearance of a
difficult. Thus, base metal samples with single curve) over
controlled variations in grain sizes were the entire range of
used for fatigue testing to investigate this da/dN, indicating
potential effect in more detail and to de- that crack propaga-
termine how grain size influences crack tion has occurred Fig. 4 — Grain size as a function of annealing time at 1250°C for 316L and
growth rates over a larger applied stress free of closure for AL6XN stainless steel base metals.
intensity range. all DK levels. In this
case, the applied
Influence of Grain Size on Fatigue DK and effective DK are equivalent since the corresponding numerical data indi-
Resistance the crack is always fully open. By compar- cates an appreciable level of crack closure
ison, the results generated on 316L base in this growth rate range.
Table 2 and Fig. 4 summarize the influ- metal with grain sizes of 103 mm and 147 Figure 7 summarizes the applied
ence of annealing time on the grain size of mm (Fig. 5B and C) exhibit crack closure da/dN-DK curves for the various grain
316L and AL6XN stainless steels at up to approximately 7 · 10–10 m/cycle (Fig. sizes of each alloy. Two fatigue curves
1250°C. Each alloy exhibits similar start- 5B) and 2 · 10–9 m/cycle (Fig. 5C), re- were produced for each base metal in the
ing grain sizes. With annealing at 1250°C, spectively. (The range of da/dN where clo- starting condition (smallest grain size) in
the AL6XN grain size is consistently sure occurs is indicated in each figure.) order to demonstrate reproducibility of
higher at each annealing time. This may be Thus, as grain size increases, crack closure the test results. The data in this figure
attributed to the small amount of ferrite effects become evident at higher crack demonstrate the significant influence of
present in the 316L base metal, which growth rates and corresponding DK val- grain size on fatigue resistance. Specifi-
would pin grain boundaries and limit grain ues. Similar effects are observed for the cally, as the grain size increases, the crack
growth. The AL6XN alloy, by comparison, AL6XN alloy in Fig. 6, although the influ- growth rate decreases for a given applied
is fully austenitic and therefore contains ence of grain size on crack closure is not as stress intensity range. The reduction in
no second phases to restrict grain growth. large as that observed in 316L stainless crack growth rate with increasing grain
Standard fatigue crack growth data, steel. In this case, crack closure is ob- size is particularly evident at low levels of
along with DKeff data for five slope offset served below approximately 3 · 10–10 applied stress intensity range near the
levels, are provided in Figs. 5 and 6 for the m/cycle for the AL6XN sample with a 210- threshold regime. The crack growth rates
base metals of varying grain sizes. The mm grain size (Fig. 6B) and 6 · 10–10 then become similar as the applied stress
DKeff curves are analyzed in the same m/cycle for the sample with a 280-mm intensity range and concomitant crack
manner as discussed in previous research grain size — Fig. 6C. The unique offset growth rates increase to high values. The
in detail (Ref. 12). Briefly, the presence of curves in Fig. 6B are difficult to identify DKGS values noted in Fig. 7 will be dis-
unique curves for each slope offset level from the figure, but direct inspection of cussed in the next section.
Table 2 — Summary of Grain Size Table 3 — Summary of DKth Values and Number of Data Points Utilized for DKth Calculations
Measurements for 316L and AL6XN
Stainless Steels after Heat Treating at Test Identification Grain Size DKth (MPa√m) Number of Data
1250°C (mm) Points between
10–10 and 10–9 m/cycle
Condition Average Grain
Size (mm) AL6XN–As Received-1 21 –2.4 4.2 22
316L AL6XN AL6XN–As Received-2 21 –2.4 4.4 19
AL6XN–Annealed 45 min. 211 –26.3 6.5 24
As-received 24 –3.3 21 –2.4 AL6XN–Annealed 5 h 281 –29.7 8.5 12
Annealed: 103 –12.8 211 –26.3
316L–As Received-1 24 –3.3 3.2 28
1250°C – 45 minutes
Annealed: 147 –21.6 280 –29.7 316L–As Received-2 24 –3.3 2.9 26
1250°C – 5 hours 316L–Annealed 45 min. 103 –12.8 4.3 24
316L–Annealed 5 h 147 –21.6 5.6 19
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A B
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A B
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A B
Fig. 7 — Applied da/dN-DK curves for various grain sizes. A — 316L; B — AL6XN.
Table 4 — Summary of DK Levels below Which Table 5 — Summary of Grain Sizes and Calculated Yield Strengths for 316L Stainless Steel
Crack Closure Was Observed
Sample d (mm) sys (MPa) DK below Which
Grain Size (mm) DK below which M-Measured Grain Size Effects Are
closure was observed, C-Calculated Expected, MPa√m
(MPa√m)
316L–As received 24 –3.3 320-C 8
316L Stainless Steel 306-M
24 –3.3 No closure observed 316L–Annealed 45 min. 103 –12.8 239-C 13
103 –12.8 7 · 10–10 316L–Annealed 5 h 147 –21.6 227-C 15
147 –21.6 2 · 10–9 AL6XN–As received 21 –2.4 397-M 10
AL6XN Stainless Steel AL6XN–Annealed 45 min 211 –26.3 282-C 23
21 –2.4 No closure observed AL6XN–Annealed 5 h 281 –29.7 275-C 25
211 –26.3 3 · 10–10
281 –29.7 6 · 10–10
to changing their path. The expected re- permit a good estimate of the yield so term in Equation 3. With this assump-
sult would be a tortuous crack path, as ob- strength as a function of grain size for this tion, the so term in Equation 3 can be de-
served experimentally in this study. alloy. Priddle (Ref. 21) previously estab- termined so that agreement is found be-
Equation 1 can be used with known sys lished the influence of grain size on yield tween the starting grain size (d = 21 mm)
values to estimate the DK value below which strength with the following Hall-Petch and yield strength (sys = 397 MPa) of
these grain size effects are expected to equation for 316L stainless steel: AL6XN. A so value of 229 MPa provides
occur. This value of DK is denoted at DKGS this agreement. Thus, the following two
for reference. By setting the plastic zone k Hall-Petch equations were used to deter-
size (given by Equation 1) equal to the grain s ys = s o + d mine yield strength as a function grain size
size, the DK value below which grain size ef- d (3)
fects are expected to occur is given as 0.77
in which so = 163 MPa and kd = 0.77 s ys = 163 +
1 MPa mm. Equation 3 produces very good d (4)
Ø d ø2 agreement between calculated (320 MPa)
DK GS = s ys Œ œ and measured (306 MPa) sys values for for 316L stainless steel
Œ
º0.033 œ
ß (2) 316L in the as-received condition (5%
error). Although no Hall-Petch relation 0.77
Where d is the grain size. There was in- was available in the literature for AL6XN, s ys = 229 +
sufficient material available to directly de- Equation 3 can be used to at least estimate d
(5)
termine the yield strength of all the sam- the expected change in yield strength with for AL6XN stainless steel
ples as a function of grain size. However, grain size for AL6XN. Here, it is assumed
knowledge of the yield strength of the as- that the incremental change in sys with d where d is in mm. Table 5 summarizes sys
received 316L and AL6XN provide two is similar to 316L (i.e., the kd constant in values calculated for each grain size for
useful data points. In addition, Hall-Petch Equation 3 is identical), and that the net each alloy. Also shown in the table are the
parameters established for the 316L alloy variation in sys can be accounted for by the DKGS values below which grain size effects
12 -S JANUARY 2004
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Fig. 8 — Variation in threshold stress intensity range, DKth, as a function of Fig. 9 — Comparison of fracture surface roughness in AL6XN base metal
grain size. samples with various grain sizes. A — Grain size is 21 mm and crack
growth rate is 1.5 · 10–10 m/cycle at arrow; B — grain size is 211 mm and
crack growth rate is 1.7 · 10–10 m/cycle at arrow location.
WELDING JOURNAL 13 -S
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nisms to fatigue improvement described funding for this research. The authors 150–154.
above. would also like to acknowledge Mike Rex, 11. Shih, Y. W., Chen, B. Y., and Zhang, J.
John Gregoris, and Gene Kozma at X. 1990. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 36:
Conclusions Lehigh University for assistance with fa- 893–902.
tigue crack propagation sample prepara- 12. Kusko, C. S., DuPont, J. N., and Marder,
The influence of microstructure on the tion and testing and Arlan Benscoter for A. R. 2003. To be published in the February
fatigue crack propagation behavior of gas assistance with metallography. The au- 2004 Welding Journal.
metal arc welds and base metals of 316L thors also gratefully acknowledge Ravi 13. Banovic, S. W., DuPont, J. N., and
and AL6XN austenitic stainless steel has Menon of Stoody Company for prepara- Marder, A. R. 2003. Dilution and microsegre-
been investigated using conventional fa- tion of the welds. gation in dissimilar metal welds between super
tigue testing and constant DK testing pro- austenitic stainless steels and Ni base alloys.
cedures. The following conclusions can be References Science & Technology of Welding and Joining
drawn from this research: 6(6): 374–383.
1) Large grain sizes in both the weld 1. James, L. A. (A) 1973. Crack propagation 14. American Society for Testing and Mate-
metal and base metal produce a rough behavior in Type 304 stainless steel weldments rials. 1996. ASTM E112. Annual Book of ASTM
fracture surface that leads to improved fa- at elevated temperature. Welding Journal 52: Standards. Section 3: Metals test methods and
tigue resistance. 173-s to 179-s. analytical procedures. 03.01: 226–248.
2) The observed improvement in fa- 2. James, L. A., and Mills, W. J. 1987. Fa- 15. American Society for Testing and Mate-
tigue resistance occurs at low stress inten- tigue crack propagation behavior of Type 316 rials. 1998. ASTM E647. Annual Book of ASTM
sity ranges when the plastic zone size is ap- (16-8-2) weldments at elevated temperature. Standards. Section 3. Metals test and analytical
proximately equal to or less than the grain Welding Journal 66: 229-s to 234-s. procedures. 3.01: 565–601.
size. 3. Provenzano, V., Hawthorne, J. R., and 16. Yoder, G. R., Cooley, L. A., and
3) The improved fatigue resistance Sprague, J. A. 1978. Properties of steel weld- Crooker, T. W. (B) 1977. Metallurgical Transac-
with increasing grain size can be attributed ments for elevated temperature pressure con- tions A 8A: 1737–1743.
to three main factors: 1) a tortuous crack tainment applications. Ed. G. V Smith, The 17. Yoder, G. R., Cooley, L. A., and
path that requires formation of a larger American Society of Mechanical Engineers: Crooker, T. W. 1978. Metallurgical Transactions
surface area for a given length of crack New York, pp. 63–75. A 9A: 1413–1420.
propagation, 2) crack growth out of the 4. Shahinian, P., Smith, H. H., and 18. Yoder, G. R., Cooley, L. A., and
Mode I plane, which reduces the stress in- Hawthorne, J. R. 1972. Fatigue crack propaga- Crooker, T. W. (A) 1977. Journal of Engineering
tensity range available for crack growth, tion in stainless steel weldments at high tem- Materials and Technology 99: 313–318.
and 3) roughness induced closure that perature Welding Journal 51: 527-s to 532-s. 19. Priddle, E. K., and Walker, F. E. 1976.
shields the crack from part of the applied 5. Raske, D. T., and Cheng, C. F. 1977. Nu- Journal of Materials Science 11: 386–388.
load. clear Technology 34: 101–110. 20. Pedron, J. P., Diboine, A., and Pineau, A.
4) Quantitative estimates of the DK 6. Hawthorne, J. R. 1978. Naval Research 1984. Fatigue and Fracture of Engineering Mate-
level below which grain size effects are ex- Laboratory Report 8201. rials and Structures 7: 137–143.
pected to occur are in reasonable agree- 7. Lloyd, G. J., and Walls, J. D. 1980. Engi- 21. Priddle, E. K. 1978. Scripta Metallurgica
ment with the observed experimental re- neering Fracture Mechanics 13: 897–911. 12: 49–56.
sults. 8. Pickard, A. C., Ritchie, R. O., and Knott,
J. F. 1975. Metals Technology 2: 253–263.
Acknowledgments 9. Dowse, K. R., and Richards, C. E. 1971.
Metallurgical Transactions 2: 599–603.
The authors thank the United States 10. Griffiths, J. R., Mogford, I. L., and
Office of Naval Research for providing Richards, C. E. 1971. Metal Science Journal 5:
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Correction
There was incorrect information in Table 5 on pg 320-S of the November Welding Journal for the paper “Evaluation of Necessary
Delay before Inspection for Hydrogen Cracks,” by R. Pargeter. The corrected table is below.
Table 5 — Guidelines for Delay Time before Inspection for C-Mn Steels of Yield Strength of up
to and Including 450 N/mm2 and up to 50 mm Thick
Observed Proposed
greatest delay time for ultrasonic
crack initiation, h inspection, h
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