Mechanics of Materials

UNIT 4
Axial Load
Prepared by:
Dr. Mohammad Amin Khadimallah
Dr. Fahd Aslam
Department of Civil Engineering , Prince
Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University,
Kharaj, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

The Lecture has been prepared from “Mechanics of Materials” by RC RC Hibbler tenth edition

fahidaslampsu@gmail.com, +966509074678

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 Objectives the chapter

In Chapter 1, we developed the method for finding the

normal stress in axially loaded members.
To determine the deformation of axially loaded members
To develop a method for finding the support reactions
when these reactions cannot be determined from the
equations of equilibrium.
Analysis of the effects of thermal stress, stress
concentrations, inelastic deformations, and residual stress
will also be discussed.

UNIT 4– Axial Load 2

 Overview of the Chapter

Saint-Venant’s Principle

Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded Member

Principle of Superposition

Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Member

Thermal Stress

UNIT 4– Axial Load 3

 Recap of the previous lecture

In the previous lectures, we have developed the concept of

stress as a means of measuring the force distribution within
a body and strain as a means of measuring a body’s
deformation.
 We have also seen that the mathematical relationship
between stress and strain depends on the type of material
from which the body is made.
 In particular, if the material behaves in a linear elastic
manner, then Hooke’s law applies, and there is a
proportional relationship between stress and strain.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle
Saint-Venant’s principle:
 The stress and strain produced at points in a body sufficiently removed
from the region of load application will be the same as the stress and strain
produced by any any other applied external loading that have the same
statically equivalent resultant, and are applied to the body within the same
region.
In other words:
 The difference between the effects of two different but statically equivalent loads
becomes very small at sufficiently large distances from the load.
 The stresses and strains in a body at points that are sufficiently remote from
points of application of load depends only on the static resultant of the loads and
not on the distribution of loads.
 That is, when a portion of a solid body is in a system of forces that are in
equilibrium, the stresses produced within the body diminish with increasing
distance from the point of application of load.
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UNIT 4 –Axial load
 4.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle (cont.)

Localized deformation occurs

at each end, and the
deformations decrease as
measurements are taken
further away from the ends.

c-c is sufficiently far enough away from P so that localized

deformation “vanishes”, i.e., minimum distance
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UNIT 4 –Axial load
 4.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle (cont.)
Graphical representation of Saint Venant’s Principle

Both are equal

Homogeneous
material

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UNIT 4 –Axial load
 4.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle (cont.)

• For example, if two symmetrically applied forces P/2 act on

the bar, Fig. 4–1c, the stress distribution at section c–c will
be uniform and therefore equivalent to σavg = P/A as in Fig.
4–1b

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.1 Saint-Venant’s Principle (cont.)
Graphical representation of Saint Venant’s Principle

UNIT 4– Axial Load 9

 4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially
Loaded Member
Using Hooke’s law and the definitions of stress and strain,
we are able to develop the elastic deformation of a member
subjected to axial loads.
Suppose an element subjected to loads,

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially
Loaded Member

Provided the stress does not exceed the

proportional limit, we can apply Hooke’s law;
i.e., σ = E(x)ε, and so

For the entire length L of the bar, we must

δ = displacement of one point relative to another integrate this expression to find 𝛿. This
point. results in
L = distance between the two points
N(x) = internal axial force at the section, located
a distance x from one end
Eq. 4–1
A(x) = x-sectional area of the bar, expressed as a
function of x
E = modulus of elasticity for material
where 11
UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially
Loaded Member
Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area.

• In many cases the bar will have a constant cross-sectional area A; and
the material will be homogeneous, so E is constant.
• Furthermore, if a constant external force is applied at each end, Fig.
4–3, then the internal force P throughout the length of the bar is also
constant. As a result, Eq. 4–1 can be integrated to yield

Eq. 4–2

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially
Loaded Member
Sign Convention..
• Force and displacement is positive when tension and
elongation and negative will be compression and
contraction.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially
Loaded Member
Sign Convention..
• For example, consider the bar shown in Fig. 4–5a. The
internal axial forces “P,” are determined by the method of
sections for each segment, Fig. 4–5b.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially
Loaded Member
Sign Convention..
 They are PAB = +5 kN, PBC = -3 kN, PCD = -7 kN. This variation in axial load is
shown on the axial or normal force diagram for the bar, Fig. 4–5c. Since we now
know how the internal force varies throughout the bar’s length, the displacement of
end A relative to end D is determined from

 If the other data are substituted and a positive answer is calculated, it means that end
A will move away from end D (the bar elongates), whereas a negative result would
indicate that end A moves toward end D (the bar shortens).

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Let’s see again what we studied in
previous slides

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.2 Elastic Deformation of an Axially
Loaded Member
Procedure for Analysis
 The relative displacement between any two points A and B on an axially loaded
member can be determined by applying Eq. 4–1 (or Eq. 4–2).
 Application requires the following steps.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.3
• Rigid beam AB rests on the two short posts shown in Fig. 4–8a. AC is made
of steel and has a diameter of 20 mm, and BD is made of aluminum and has
a diameter of 40 mm. Determine the displacement of point F on AB if a
vertical load of 90 kN is applied over this point.
• Take Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.3
solution
Internal Force.
 The compressive forces acting at the top of each post are determined
from the equilibrium of member AB, Fig. 4–8b. These forces are equal to
the internal forces in each post, Fig. 4–8c.

A B
A B

C D

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.3
solution
Displacement.
The displacement of the top of each post is

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.3
solution
Displacement.
 A diagram showing the centerline displacements at A, B, and F on the
beam is shown in Fig. 4–8d. By proportion of the blue shaded
triangle, the displacement of point F is therefore

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.3 Principle of Superposition
 The principle of superposition is often used to determine the stress or
displacement at a point in a member when the member is subjected to a
complicated loading.
 By subdividing the loading into components, the principle of superposition
states that the resultant stress or displacement at the point can be determined
by algebraically summing the stress or displacement caused by each load
component applied separately to the member.
 The following two conditions must be satisfied if the principle of
superposition is to be applied.
Conditions
 The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to be
determined.
 The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or configuration
of the member.
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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.3 Principle of Superposition
 The loading must be linearly related to the stress or displacement that is to be
determined.
For example, the equations σ = N / A and 𝛿 = NL/AE involve a linear
relationship between σ and N, and 𝛿 and N.
 The loading must not significantly change the original geometry or configuration
of the member.
If significant changes do occur, the direction and location of the applied forces and their
moment arms will change. For example, consider the slender rod shown in Fig. 4–9a,
which is subjected to the load P. In Fig. 4–9b, P is replaced by two of its components, P
= P1 + P2. If P causes the rod to deflect a large amount, as shown, the moment of this
load about its support, P𝛿, will not equal the sum of the moments of its component
loads, P𝛿 ≠ P1𝛿1 + P2𝛿2, because 𝛿1 ≠ 𝛿2 ≠ 𝛿.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.4 Statically Indeterminate Axially
Loaded Member
 Consider the bar shown in
Fig. 4–10a which is fixed
supported at both of its
ends. From the free-body
diagram, Fig. 4–10b, there
are two unknown support
reactions. Equilibrium
requires
 This type of problem is
called statically
indeterminate, since the
equilibrium equation(s) are
not sufficient to determine
the two reactions on the bar.
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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.4 Statically Indeterminate Axially
Loaded Member
 In order to establish an additional equation needed for
solution, it is necessary to consider how points on the bar
displace.
 Specifically, an equation that specifies the conditions for
displacement is referred to as a compatibility or kinematic
condition.
 In this case, a suitable compatibility condition would require
the displacement of one end of the bar with respect to the
other end to be equal to zero, since the end supports are fixed.
Hence, the compatibility condition becomes

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.4 Statically Indeterminate Axially
Loaded Member
 This equation can be expressed in terms of the applied loads by using
a load–displacement relationship, which depends on the material
behavior. For example, if linear-elastic behavior occurs, δ = NL/AE
can be used. Realizing that the internal force in segment AC is +FA
and in segment CB the internal force is -FB Fig. 4–10c, the above
equation can be written as

Assuming that AE is constant, then FA = FB (LCB/LAC)

 so that using the equilibrium equation,
 the equations for the reactions become

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.4 Statically Indeterminate Axially
Loaded Member
Procedure for Analysis
• Equilibrium.
• Draw a free-body diagram of the member in order to
identify all the forces that act on it.
• The problem can be classified as statically indeterminate if
the number of unknown reactions on the free-body diagram
is greater than the number of available equations of
equilibrium.
• Write the equations of equilibrium for the member.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.4 Statically Indeterminate Axially
Loaded Member
Procedure for Analysis
• Compatibility.
• Consider drawing a displacement diagram in order to investigate
the way the member will elongate or contract when subjected to the
external loads.
• Express the compatibility conditions in terms of the displacements
caused by the loading.
• Use a load–displacement relation, such as to relate the unknown
displacements to the reactions.
• Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the reactions.
If any of the results has a negative numerical value, it indicates that
this force acts in the opposite sense of direction to that indicated on
the free-body diagram.
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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.5

The steel rod shown in Fig. 4–12a has a diameter of 10 mm. It is fixed to
the wall at A, and before it is loaded, there is a gap of 0.2 mm between
the wall at B’ and the rod. Determine the reactions at A and B’ if the
rod is subjected to an axial force of P = 20 kN as shown. Neglect the size
of the collar at C. Take Est = 200 GPa

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.5
solution
Equilibrium.
• As shown on the free-body diagram, Fig. 4–12b, we will
assume that force P is large enough to cause the rod’s end
B to contact the wall at B’. The problem is statically
indeterminate since there are two unknowns and only one
equation of equilibrium.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.5
solution
Compatibility.
• The force P causes point B to move to B’ with no further
displacement. Therefore the compatibility condition for the
rod is
• This displacement can be expressed in terms of the
unknown reactions using the load–displacement
relationship, Eq. 4–2, applied to segments AC and CB, Fig.
4–12c. Working in units of newtons and meters, we have

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.5
solution
Compatibility.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.7
• The three A-36 steel bars shown in Fig. 4–14a are pin connected to a
rigid member. If the applied load on the member is 15 kN, determine
the force developed in each bar. Bars AB and EF each have a
crosssectional area of 50 mm2,and bar CD has a cross-sectional area
of 30 mm2.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.7
solution
Equilibrium.
• The free-body diagram of the rigid member is shown in
Fig. 4–14b. This problem is statically indeterminate since
there are three unknowns and only two available
equilibrium equations.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.7
solution
• Compatibility.
• The applied load will cause the horizontal line ACE shown in Fig. 4–
14c to move to the inclined line A’C’E’ . The displacements of points
A,C, and E can be related by similar triangles. Thus the compatibility
equation that relates these displacements is

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
Example 4.7
solution

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Problem

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Problem
Solution

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.6 Thermal Stress

• A change in temperature can cause a body to

change its dimensions.
• Generally, if the temperature increases, the body
will expand, whereas if the temperature
decreases, it will contract. Ordinarily this
expansion or contraction is linearly related to
the temperature increase or decrease that
occurs. If this is the case, and the material is
homogeneous and isotropic, it has been found
from experiment that the displacement of a
member having a length L can be calculated
using the formula

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 4.6 Thermal Stress

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.10
• The A-36 steel bar shown in Fig. 4–18a is constrained to
just fit between two fixed supports when T1 = 60°F. If the
temperature is raised to T2 = 120°F, determine the average
normal thermal stress developed in the bar.
• α=6.60(10-6) (1/°F)

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.10
solution
• Equilibrium.
• The free-body diagram of the bar is shown in Fig. 4–18b.
Since there is no external load, the force at A is equal but
opposite to the force at B; that is,

• The problem is statically indeterminate since this force

cannot be determined from equilibrium.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.10
solution

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4.11
• The rigid beam shown in Fig. 4–19a is fixed to the top of the three
posts made of A-36 steel and 2014-T6 aluminum. The posts each have
a length of 250 mm when no load is applied to the beam, and the
temperature is T1 = 20°C.
• Determine the force supported by each post if the bar is subjected to a
uniform distributed load of 150 kN/m and the temperature is raised to
T2 = 80°C.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4. 11
solution
• Equilibrium.
• The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Fig.4–19b. Moment
equilibrium about the beam’s center requires the forces in the steel
posts to be equal. Summing forces on the free-body diagram, we have

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4. 11
solution
• Compatibility.
• Due to load, geometry, and material symmetry, the top of
each post is displaced by an equal amount. Hence,

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4. 11
solution
• The final position of the top of each post is equal to its displacement
caused by the temperature increase, plus its displacement caused by
the internal axial compressive force, Fig. 4–19c. Thus, for the steel
and aluminum post, we have

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4. 11
solution
• Applying Eq. 2 gives

• Using Eqs. 4–2 and 4–4 and the material properties on the
inside back cover, we get

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UNIT 4– Axial Load
 Example 4. 11
solution
• Solving Eqs. 1 and 3 simultaneously yields

• The negative value for Fst indicates that this force acts opposite to that
shown in Fig. 4–19b. In other words, the steel posts are in tension and
the aluminum post is in compression.

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UNIT 4– Axial Load