Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks

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 Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks form from pre‐existing rock 
particles:

• igneous, 
i

• metamorphic or 

• sedimentary. 

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 Sedimentary rocks
The parent rock undergoes:

• WEATHERING

• TRANSPORTATION 

• DEPOSITION

• LITHIFICATION : COMPACTION, CEMENTATION.

LITHIFICATION :  COMPACTION, CEMENTATION.

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 Sedimentary rocks
• WEATHERING by chemical and/or physical mechanisms 
into smaller particles. 

• These particles are TRANSPORTED by ice, air or water 
to a region of lower energy called a sedimentary basin
to a region of lower energy called a sedimentary basin. 

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• DEPOSITION takes place as a result of a lowering of 
hydraulic energy, organic biochemical activity or 
chemical changes (e.g., solubility).

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Once deposited, the sediments are LITHIFIED
(turned into rock) through
(turned into rock) through 
COMPACTION (decrease in rock volume 
due to weight of overlying sediment) and
due to weight of overlying sediment) and 
CEMENTATION (chemical precipitation in 
pore spaces between grains which "glues" the rock 
b t i hi h " l " th k
together).

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• Sediments may be rock particles such as 
mud, sand or pebbles which are usually 
d
deposited in the sea by rivers and waves. 
i di h b i d

• The
The weight
weight of the overlying sediments will 
of the overlying sediments will
compact those found below. 

• Over time, the compacted sediments
become sedimentary rocks. 

• Sometimes, these sedimentary rocks may be 
uplifted as a result of plate movements
uplifted as a result of plate movements 
forming mountain, eg. The Himalayas. 

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 Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed at the surface of 
are formed at the surface of
the Earth:

• either in water or 

• on land. 

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Th
They are layered accumulations of: 
l d l ti f

sediments
sediments,
fragments of rocks, 
minerals, or
minerals, or 
animal or
plant material.

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Sediment = loose particulate material (clay, 
sand, gravel, etc.).

Most sediment is derived from the weathering 
(breakdown) of pre‐existing rocks.

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Sediment becomes sedimentary rock through 
Sediment becomes sedimentary rock through
lithification, which involves: 

• Compaction due to pressure or weight of 
overlying sediments 
l i di

• Cementation by deposition of minerals in 
p
pore spaces from waters carrying ions in 
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solution 

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 Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Types of Sedimentary Rocks

• Clastic (Detrital) and 

• Nonclastic (chemical) 

sedimentary rocks.

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Clastic sedimentary rocks (also called terrigenous or 
d t it l)
detrital)

Clastic sedimentary rocks are derived from the 
weathering of pre‐existing rocks which have
weathering of pre‐existing rocks, which have 
been transported to the depositional basin. 

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They have a clastic (broken or fragmental) 
texture consisting of:
texture consisting of: 

• Clasts (larger pieces, such as sand or gravel) 
(larger pieces such as sand or gravel)
• Matrix (mud or fine‐grained sediment 
surrounding the clasts)
surrounding the clasts) 
• Cement (the glue that holds it all together), 
such as the following minerals:
such as the following minerals: 
– calcite 
– iron oxide 
iron oxide
– silica 

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 Clastic sedimentary rocks
sedimentary rocks

are accumulations of clasts, 
little pieces of broken up rock which 
little pieces of broken up rock which

h
have piled up and been "lithified"
il d db "li hifi d" by 
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compaction and cementation.

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Nonclastic (Chemical
Chemical sedimentary rocks) :
Many of these form when
standing water evaporates,

leaving dissolved minerals behind.

These are very common in arid lands

lands.

Thick deposits of salt and gypsum can form due

to repeated flooding and evaporation over long
periods of time.
time.

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 Non‐clastic sedimentary rocks (also called chemical and 
biochemical sedimentary rocks)
y )

They were formed by being precipitated from a 
solution or by evaporation.
l ti b ti

• These rocks
h k form within the depositional basin
f i hi h d ii l b i from 
f
chemical components dissolved in the seawater. 

• These chemicals may be removed from seawater 
and made into rocks by chemical processes or with
and made into rocks by chemical processes, or with 
the assistance of biological processes (such as shell 
growth). 
growth).
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 BY CRYSTALLISATION FROM DISSOLVED MINERALS

Crystallisation of dissolved minerals in a shallow part of the sea.

Nonclastic (Chemical
Chemical sedimentary rocks)
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 Clastic sedimentary rocks:
sedimentary rocks:
Clastic sedimentary rocks are named according to the grain size 
of the sediment particles. 
f h di i l

• Sandstone: grains ranging in size from 2mm to 
g g g
1/16 mm.

• SShale:
ae ggrains ranging in size from 1/16 mm 
a s a g g s e o / 6
to <1/256 mm. 

• Conglomerate: coarse (64 mm to >256 mm), rounded 
coarse (64 mm to >256 mm), rounded
grains 

• Breccia: coarse (2mm to 64 mm), angular grains
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 Sandstone rocks

• Sandstone is one of the most common sedimentary rocks. 

• It is made from sand grains eroded from older rocks, cemented together 
i d f d i d df ld k d h
and then hardened into new rock. 

• They often form in layers

They often form in layers.

• They are often used as building stones. 20
 Sandstone rocks
Distinctive features:

• C
Colour:
l
Buff to brownish; sometimes reddish, due to presence of iron 
oxides, or greenish, due to presence of glauconite.

• Composition:
Sand grains (quartz), cemented by secondary silica or calcite.

• Field associations:
Compound and / or cemented ancient beach, river, delta, lake 
and desert deposits. 
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Occurs as thick, stratified beds in sedimentary sequences, often 
showing current or dune bedding.
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 Shale Rocks

• Formed from clay that is compacted together by pressure. 

• They are used to make bricks and other material that is fired 
in a kiln.

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 Shale Rocks
• Spilts easily into thin plates along well
easily into thin plates along well‐defined
defined planes parallel to the 
parallel to the
original stratification. Buff to grey very fine‐grained silty rock. 

• Colour:
Buff to various shades of grey.

• Texture and granularity:
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Fine‐grained.

• Composition:
Complex mixture of microscopic clay minerals, plus mica and quartz.

• Field associations:
D i df
Derived from ancient mud deposits,
i t dd it it occurs in most sedimentary 
it i t di t
sequences with fine sandstone and limestone.

• Varieties:
Probably mudstone.
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Shale

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Shale

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 Mudstone or Shale 

• These
These are simply just mud hardened into 
are simply just mud hardened into
rock. 

• They consist of much finer particles than 
sand .
d

• They often contain fossils. 

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 Marl
Crumbling sedimentary rock, sometimes called clayey
C bli di t k ti ll d l
limestone, 

including various types of 

calcareous clays and fine‐grained limestones.

calcareous clays and fine‐grained limestones

• Marls are often laid down in freshwater lakes and 
are usually soft earthy and of a white grey green
are usually soft, earthy, and of a white, grey, green 
or brownish colour. 

• They are used in cement‐making and as fertilizer.

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 Marl

Green Marl Red Marl

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 Conglomerate Rocks

• They are made up of large sediments like sand and 
pebbles. 

• The sediment is so large that pressure alone cannot 
hold the rock together; it is also cemented together 
g ; g
with dissolved minerals. 
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 Conglomerate Rocks
Distinctive features:
Boulders, pebbles, or shingle, set in fine‐grained matrix, 
sometimes resembling coarse concrete.

Colour:
Variable, depending on the type of rock fragments.

Texture and granularity:
Variable.

Composition:
Rounded rock fragments set in a fine‐grained matrix.

Field associations:
Derived from beach, lake and river deposits of boulders, 
pebbles and gravel. Often found near deposits of sandstone
and arkose.
and arkose.

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Conglomerate

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 BRECCIA
• Distinctive features:
Similar to conglomerate, but rock fragments are angular and 
set in fine‐grained matrix.
i fi i d i

• Colour:
Variable, depending on the type of rock fragments.

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• Texture and granularity:
Angular fragments of rock set in fine grained matrix.

• Composition:
Fragmented rocks of any kind can form breccia. The matrix is 
normally fine sand or silt, cemented by secondary silica or
normally fine sand or silt, cemented by secondary silica or 
calcite.
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BRECCIA

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Classification Sedimentary Composition Depositional
Rock Environment

Clastic
Cl ti Sh l
Shale Cl and/or
Clay d/ silt
ilt Swamp, fl
S floodplain,
d l i river
i
(Detrital) bottom

Sandstone Sand Beach, desert

Conglomerate
g Various-sized Riverbed
pebbles

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 Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks

• are generally stratified, fine‐grained.

• Many sedimentary rocks also contain fossils.

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Jurassic sandstone from the USA, notice the layers. Each layer is a record of an event 
in the past. Made from small grains of the minerals quartz and feldspar. 

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 How can you spot a Sedimentary rock?

• Sedimentary rock will often have layers or 
bands across them. 
across them

• It
It will often contain fossils
will often contain fossils which are 
which are
fragments of animals or plants preserved 
within the rock Only sedimentary rocks
within the rock. Only sedimentary rocks 
contain fossils.

• The rock will tend to scrape easily and often 
crumble easily.
crumble easily. 
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Wasson's Bluff, Nova Scotia. Notice the layers of sediments.

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 Chemical sedimentary rocks
• Evaporite chemical sedimentary rocks form as water
evaporates from a lake or ocean.

• During the process of evaporation, water molecules 
change from the liquid phase to the gas phase,
change from the liquid phase to the gas phase, 

• but atoms such as calcium, sodium, and chlorine are 
l f b h
left behind.

• As
As a result, the remaining
a result the remaining water becomes enriched
becomes enriched
in these atoms which begin to precipitate from the 
water.

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• Evaporite minerals and rocks tend to form in
arid climates 

where the rate of evaporation greatly exceeds 
a a
rainfall.

• Evaporites are light in color, and so can be 
are light in color and so can be
readily recognized, even from a great distance.

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 Evaporites are common
are common

• where lakes form and then evaporate in a 
desert (such lakes are referred to as playa 
desert (such lakes are referred to as playa
lakes), or 

• in shallow and warm arms of the ocean
adjacent to desert areas.

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 Nonclastic (Chemical Sedimentary Rocks)
(Chemical Sedimentary Rocks)
• Limestone=composed of the mineral calcite, may 
contain marine fossils, formed by precipitation from 
, yp p
water 

• Rock
Rock salt= composed of the mineral halite (salt), 
salt composed of the mineral halite (salt)
formed by evaporation

• Rock gypsum= composed of the mineral gypsum, 
formed by evaporation

• Chert=composed of microscopic mineral grains of 
q
quartz, very hard with sharp edges 
, y p g

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 Limestone Rocks

made from:
the mineral calcite which came from the
beds of evaporated seas and lakes and
sea animal shells.

This rock is used in concrete and is an

excellent building stone for humid
regions. 43
 Limestone
• Limestones are made from fragments of sea
creatures that sank to the bottom of ancient 
tropical seas. 

• Limestones frequently contain fossils.

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 Limestones
• Limestones are easily identified because they effervesce in dilute 
are easily identified because they effervesce in dilute
hydrochloric acid.

• Often rich in fossils.

• Colour: White to yellowish or grey. Black varieties are rich in 
hydrocarbons. 
• Composition: Mostly calcium carbonate. 
• Field associations:
Deposited in ancient seas by precipitation or by the accumulation of 
calcite‐rich shells etc., coral reefs, around hot springs.

• USES: Source of cement, building construction (locally), 
blackboard chalk.

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 Limestone effervesces (fizzes rapidly) when treated with cold dilute 
hydrochloric acid and is easily scratched by a knife blade
hydrochloric acid and is easily scratched by a knife blade. 

Vinegar, which contains acetic acid and water, will also cause limestone 
to effervesce
to effervesce.

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Natural acids in ground 
Natural acids in ground
water can dissolve 
limestone in the 
ground, which is why 

caves and other karst‐
solution 

features are common in 
many parts of the 
world.

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Here we see a stalactite from the limestone cave system a few 
miles away in Ingleton. 

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 Dolomite
• Dolomite (dolostone) is a sedimentary rock 
( ) y
composed chiefly of magnesium calcium carbonate. 

• It
It is closely related to limestone, both physically and 
is closely related to limestone both physically and
chemically; 

• in fact, when the magnesium content decreases, it 
is often referred to as magnesian or dolomitic
is often referred to as magnesian or dolomitic
limestone. 

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 Rock salt
Crystals of salt, called rock salt, form on top of the
dried soil.

Rock salt is formed when minerals are dissolved in

water, then the water evaporates.

As the water evaporates,

p the salt molecules start to
cling together and grow into larger crystals.

The slower the evaporation,

evaporation the larger the crystals
crystals.

composed of halite (NaCl). 

composed of halite (NaCl)
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 Halite (sodium chloride)
comes from the Greek 

halos,
h l meaning "salt" and 
i " lt" d
lithos meaning "rock," and 

is in fact, better known as rock salt. 

Halite is called an evaporite because 

Halite is called an evaporite because

it is formed by the evaporation of saline water in partially 
enclosed basins
enclosed basins. 

It is very common worldwide, as a dissolved solution in oceans 
and many arid region inland lakes
and many arid‐region inland lakes.
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52
Rock Salt

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 Gypsum Rocks

• Made up of sulfate mineral and 
p

• formed as the result of evaporating sea water in massive 
prehistoric basins. 

• It is very soft and 

• is used to make Plaster of Paris, casts, molds, and 
wallboards.
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 Chert
• Chert is usually brown or creamy white, and 
is usually brown or creamy white and

• it sometimes looks smooth and waxy. (Chert also comes 

in white and other colors.) 
in white and other colors )

• Freshly broken edges may be scalloped or sharp. 

• You can't scratch chert with a nail or knife. Chert is made 

mostly of extremely tiny crystals of the mineral, quartz.

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 Bituminous coal
Bituminous coal
• Coal
Coal is formed from peat,
is formed from peat which is an 
which is an
accumulation of decayed vegetation usually 
associated with swamps
associated with swamps. 

• The process of the
Th f h transformation
f i from 
f
peat to coal is called coalification. 

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In the stages of coalification
In the stages of coalification, 

• peat is altered to lignite, 
is altered to lignite

• lignite
li it is altered to sub‐bituminous
i lt d t b bit i coal, 
l

• sub‐bituminous
b bi i coall is altered to bituminous coal, 
i l d bi i l
and 

• bituminous coal is altered to anthracite coal.

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58
 Non‐Clastic (Chemical)
Classification Sedimentary Composition Depositional
Rock Environment

Non-Clastic Limestone Calcite or Shallow sea, coastline

(Ch i l)
(Chemical) f
fragmented
t d
shells

Chert (flint) Chalcedony Formed from a silica

silica-rich
rich
(quartz), traces of precipitate in a deep
other minerals ocean environment.

Bituminous Plant material Ancient forest or swamp

Coal

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