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Structural Analysis:
Structural Analysis is the prediction of the performance of a given structure
under prescribed loads and/or other effects, such as support movements and
temperature change.
Structural Design:
Structural design is the art of utilizing principles of statics, dynamics and
mechanics of materials to determine the size and arrangement of structural
elements under prescribed load and/or other effects.
Estimation of Loads
Structural Analysis
Strength and
NO
Serviceability Revised Structural Design
Requirements
YES
Construction Phase
Cantilever construction
Continuous arches
Three-hinge arch
Shells
Moment-resisting frames
Typical structure
Typical structure
Typical structure
Typical structure
Classification of Concrete
A. Cementitious materials
Cementitious materials shall conform to the relevant specifications as
follows:
• Portland Cement; ASTM C150
• Blended hydraulic cements: ASTM C595;
• Expansive hydraulic cement: ASTM C845;
• Fly ash and natural pozzolan: ASTM C618;
• Ground-granulated blast-furnace slag: ASTM C989;
• Silica fume: ASTM C1240
B. Aggregates
Concrete aggregates shall conform to one of the following specifications:
• Normalweight: ASTM C33;
• Lightweight: ASTM C330.
C. Water
Water used in mixing concrete shall conform to ASTM C1602M.
D. Steel Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be deformed reinforcement, except that plain reinforce-
ment shall be permitted for spirals or prestressing steel;
Deformed reinforcement
a) Carbon steel: ASTM A615M;
b) Low-alloy steel: ASTM A706M;
c) Stainless steel: ASTM A955M;
d) Rail steel and axle steel: ASTM A996M. Bars from rail steel shall be
Type R.
Plain Reinforcement
F. Admixtures
Admixtures for water reduction and setting time modification shall
conform to ASTM C494M. Admixtures for use in producing flowing
concrete shall conform to ASTM C1017M.
Air-entraining admixtures shall conform to ASTM C260.
A. Compressive strength
Standard acceptance test for measuring the strength of concrete
involves short-time compression tests.
• Cylinder 600 × 1200 (ASTM Standards C31 and C39)
• Cylinder 400 × 800 (ASTM Standards)
Observations:
The 7- and 28-day strengths are re-
duced by cold curing temperatures
High temperatures during the first
month increase the 1- and 3-day
strengths but tend to reduce the 1-
year strength
Concrete placed and allowed to set
at temperatures greater than 80◦ F
(27◦ C) will never reach the 28-day
strength of concrete placed at lower
Effect of temperature during the first 28 days on the strength
temperatures.
of concrete (w/c ratio = 0.41, Type I cement, specimens cast
and moist-cured at indicated temperature for first 28 days).
where
0
fc(t) = compressive strength at age t
Effect of temperature during the first 28 days on the strength
of concrete (w/c ratio = 0.41, Type I cement, specimens cast
and moist-cured at indicated temperature for first 28 days).
Biaxial stresses.
Triaxial Loading
The strength of concrete cylinders loaded
axially to failure while subjected to confin-
ing fluid pressure is (Richart, Brandtzaeg
and Brown)
0
fcc = fc0 + 4.1fl
where,
0
fcc = axial compressive strength
of confined specimen
fc0 = uniaxial compressive strength
Axial stress-strain curves from triaxial
compressions tests. of unconfined specimen
fl = lateral confining pressure
Stress-strain curves for concrete Axial load-strain curves for 4.5” square
cylinders confined by circular spirals. concrete prism with various contents of
square ties.
Typical stress-strain diagram for a brittle material showing the proportional limit
(point A) and fracture stress (point B).
Location of Reinforcements:
Concrete cracks due to tension, and a result, reinforcement is required where
flexure, axial loads, or shrinkage effects cause tensile stresses.
Location of Reinforcements:
Location of Reinforcements:
Location of Reinforcements:
A. Elastic Design
• is considered valid for the homogenous plain concrete beam as long as
the tensile stress does not exceed the modulus of rupture, fr
B. Working Stress Design or Alternate Strength Design
• Working (service) loads are used and a member is designed based on
an allowable compressive bending stress normally 0.45fc0
C. Strength Design
• A more rational approach where service loads are multiplied by
appropriate load factors. A member is designed so that its strength is
reduced by a reduction safety factor. The strength at failure is
commonly called the Ultimate Strength.
Service Loads or working loads refer to loads encountered in the everyday
use of the structure. Specified loads without load factors.
where
D = dead loads
E = load effects of earthquake
F = loads due to weight and pressures of fluid
H = loads due to weight and pressure of soil, water in soil
L = live loads
Lr = roof live load
R = rain load
W = wind load
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Flexural Analysis and Design
(a) (b)
Assumed stress–strain relationship for (a) reinforcing steel (b) concrete.
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Behavior of Beam Under Load
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Effect of Major Section Variables on Strength and Ductility
Cracking Point
Flexural tension cracking will occur in the section when the stress in the
extreme tension fiber equals the modulus of rupture, fr .
Cracking moment, Mcr is defined as the moment that causes the stress in
the extreme tension fiber to reach the modulus of rupture
fr Ig
Mcr =
yt
Failure of plain concrete beam section in tension is sudden, to prevent this brittle
failure the code (ACI 10.5) specifies minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement,
As,min in positive bending as,
p
0.25 fc0
As,min = bw d
fy
1.4bw d
and not less than
fy
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Effect of Major Section Variables on Strength and Ductility
Moment–curvature relationship for the section using fc0 = 4000 psi and
fy = 60, 000 psi
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Effect of Major Section Variables on Strength and Ductility
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Effect of Major Section Variables on Strength and Ductility
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Simplifications in Flexure Theory for Design
1. The tensile strength of concrete is neglected in flexural-strength calculations.
(ACI 10.2.5)
2. The section is assumed to have reached its nominal flexural strength when
the strain in the extreme concrete compression fiber reaches the maximum
useable compression strain, εcu = 0.003 (ACI 10.2.3)
(a) (b)
Ultimate strain from tests of (a) reinforced members (b) plain concrete
specimen.
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Simplifications in Flexure Theory for Design
3. The compressive stress–strain relationship for concrete may be based on mea-
sured stress–strain curves or may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal,
parabolic, or any other shape that results in prediction of flexural strength in
substantial agreement with the results of comprehensive tests (ACI 10.2.6).
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Simplifications in Flexure Theory for Design
3. The compressive stress–strain relationship for concrete may be based on mea-
sured stress–strain curves or may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal,
parabolic, or any other shape that results in prediction of flexural strength in
substantial agreement with the results of comprehensive tests (ACI 10.2.6).
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Simplifications in Flexure Theory for Design
β1 = 0.85
fc0 − 28 MPa
β1 = 0.85 − 0.05
7 MPa
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Analysis of Nominal Moment Strength for Singly
Reinforced Beams Sections
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Internal forces on rectangular section.
Code notations:
As = area on nonprestressed tension reinforcement
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel (200,000 MPa)
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block
b = width of compression face of member
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis
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Internal forces on rectangular section.
Code notations:
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
longitudinal tension reinforcement
fc0 = specified compressive strength of concrete
fs = calculated tensile stress in tension reinforcement
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement
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Internal forces on rectangular section.
Code notations:
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
longitudinal tension reinforcement
fc0 = specified compressive strength of concrete
fs = calculated tensile stress in tension reinforcement
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement
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Example
Beam section.
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Strength Design Method:
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Strength Design Method:
Required Strength, U, shall be at least equal to the effects of factored loads. The
effect of one or more loads not acting simultaneously shall be investigated [ACI
9.2 or NSCP 409.3.1].
U = 1.4(D + F )
U = 1.2(D + F + T ) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R)
U = 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (1.0L or 0.80W )
..
.
U = 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H
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Strength Design Method:
Design Strength, φSn , provided by a member shall be taken as the nominal strength
multiplied by strength-reduction factor φ [ACI 9.3.2 or NSCP 409.4.1].
φ = 0.90
φ = 0.75
φ = 0.65
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Strength Design Method:
φ = 0.75
• Bearing on concrete
φ = 0.65
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Definition of Balanced Conditions
Balanced condition is a condition when the steel strain, εs corresponding to section
equilibrium is equal to the yield strain, εy and the strain in the extreme concrete
fiber is equal to the maximum useable compression strain, εcu = 0.003.
If a beam section with good ductile behavior was overloaded accidentally, it would
soften and experience some plastic rotations that would permit loads to be redis-
tributed to other portions of the continuous floor system. Thus, it is desirable to
have a ductile section.
[ACI 10.3.3] Sections are compression-controlled if the net tensile strain in the
extreme tension steel, εt , is equal to or less than the compression-controlled strain
limit when the concrete in compression reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003.
The compression- controlled strain limit is the net tensile strain in the reinforcement
at balanced strain conditions. For Grade 420 reinforcement, and for all prestressed
reinforcement, it shall be permitted to set the compression-controlled strain limit
equal to 0.002.
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Code Definitions of Tension-Controlled and
Compression-Controlled Sections:
[ACI 10.3.4] Sections are tension-controlled if the net tensile strain in the extreme
tension steel, εt , is equal to or greater than 0.005 when the concrete in compression
reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003. Sections with εt between the compression-
controlled strain limit and 0.005 constitute a transition region between compression-
controlled and tension-controlled sections.
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Code Definitions of Tension-Controlled and
Compression-Controlled Sections:
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[ACI 10.3.5] For nonprestressed flexural members and nonprestressed members
with factored axial compressive load less than 0.10fc0 Ag , εt at nominal strength
shall not be less than 0.004.
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Variation of the strength-reduction factor, φ
Variation of φ with tensile strain in extreme tension steel, εt and c/dt for Grade
420 reinforcement and for prestressing steel.
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• Section with stirrup-tie (or
hoop) transverse reinforcement
250
φ = 0.65 + (εt − 0.002) ×
3
1 5
φ = 0.65 + 0.25 −
c/dt 3
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Upper Limit on Beam Reinforcement
2. Compute the nominal moment strengths, and the strength reduction factor,
for three singly reinforced rectangular beams, each with a width b = 300 mm
and a total height h = 550 mm as shown.
Beam section.
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Example
3. Figure below shows a simply supported beam and the cross section at midspan.
The beam supports a uniform service (unfactored) dead load consisting of its
own weight plus 20.4 kN/m and a uniform service (unfactored) live load of
2 kN/m. The concrete strength is 24 MPa, and the yield strength of the
reinforcement is 420 MPa. The concrete is normal-weight concrete. For the
midspan section shown below, compute φMn and show that it exceeds Mu .
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END OF PRESENTATION
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