CHAPTER ONE

1.0 STEEL STRUCTURES AND METHODS OF DESIGN

1.1 Steel Structures

Engineering structures are required to support loads and resist forces, and to transfer

these loads and forces to the foundations of the structures. The loads and forces may arise

from the masses of the structure or from man’s use of the structures or from the forces of

nature. The uses of structures include the enclosure of space (buildings), the provision of

access (bridges), the storage of materials (tanks and silos), transportation (vehicles) or the

processing of materials (machine). Structures may be made from a number of different

material including steel, concrete, wood aluminum, stone and plastic, etc. or from

combinations of these.

Structures are usually three dimensional in their extent, but sometimes they are

essentially two dimensional (plates and shells), or even one dimensional (lines and cables).

Solid steel structures invariably include comparatively high volumes of high cost structural

steel which are under stressed and are uneconomic, except in very small scale components.

Because of this, steel structures are usually formed from one-dimensional members (as in

rectangular and triangulated frames), or from two-dimensional member (as in box girders), or

from both (as in stressed skin industrial buildings). Three dimensional steel structures are

often arranges so that they act as if composed of a number of independent two-dimensional

frames or one-dimensional numbers (Fig 1) The space frame itself is 3-D, is made up of

portal frame which is 2D and purlins which is 1 - D

1
Fig 1.1 Space frame (3D) structures and its components.

Structural steel members may be one-dimensional as for beans and columns (whose lengths

are much greater than their transverse dimensions), or two-dimensional as for plates (whose

lengths and widths are much greater than their thicknesses) as shown in Fig 1.2. While one-

dimensional steel members may be solid, they are usually thin-walled, in that their

thicknesses are much less than their other transverse dimensions. Thin-walled steel members

are rolled in a number of cross-sectional shapes or are built up by connecting together a

number of rolled sections or plates. Structural members can be classified as tension or

compression members, beams, beam-columns, torsion members or plates (Fig 1.3), according

to the method by which they transmit the forces in the structure.

Structural members may be connected together in a number of ways and by using a variety of

connectors. These include pins, rivets, bolts and welds of various types. Steel plate gussets or

angle cleats or other elements may also be used in the connections.

2
[a] Solid 1D Member t = d << L, [b]Thin walled 1D member t << d << L

[c] 2D members t << d ≈ L

Fig. 1.2 Types of structural steel members

[a] tension member [b] Compression member

[c] beam

[d] beam- column [e] Torsion member

Fig. 1.3 Load transmission by structural members

Structural elements are made up of rolled and finished sections and compound and built up
sections as shown in Fig. 1.4

3
Angle Tee Channel Universal beam Universal column Structural hollow
sections

Compound and built –up sections

Fig. 1.4 Structural elements

1.2 Method of Design

1.2.1 Design requirement

The principal design requirement of a structure is that it should be effective: that is, it

should fulfill the objectives and satisfy the needs for which it was created. The satisfaction of

the effectiveness requirement depends on whether the structure satisfies the structural and

other requirements. The structural requirements relate to the way in which the structure

resists and transfers the forces and loads acting on it. The primary structural requirement is

that of safety, and the first consideration of the structural engineer is to produce a structure

which will not fail in its design lifetime, or which has an acceptably low risk of failure. The

other important structural requirement is usually concerned with the stiffness of the structure,

which must be sufficient to ensure that the serviceability of the structure is not impaired by

excessive deflections, vibrations, and the like.

The other design requirements include those of economy and of harmony. The cost of

the structures which includes both the initial cost and the cost of maintenance is usually of

4
great importance to the owner, and the requirement of economy usually has a significant

influence on the design of the structure. The cost of the structure is affected not only by the

type and quantity of the materials used, but also by the methods of fabricating and erecting it.

The designer must therefore give careful consideration to the methods of construction as well

as to the sizes of the members of the structure.

The requirements of harmony within the structure are affected by the relationships

between the different systems of the structure, including the load resistance and transfer

system (the structural system), the architectural system, the mechanical and electrical systems

and the functional systems required by the use of the structure. The serviceability of the

structure is usually directly affected by the harmony, or lack of it, between the systems. The

structure should also be in harmony with its environment, and should not react unfavorably

with the community or its physical surroundings.

1.2.2 Design Methods

1.2.2.1 Working stress design

The working stress methods of design given in previous codes and specifications

required that the stresses calculated from the most adverse combination of loads must not

exceed the specified permissible stresses. These specified stresses were obtained after making

some allowances for the uncertainties in the determination of material strengths. In effect, the

specified stresses were expressions of their ultimate strengths divided by the factors of safety

SF. Thus

(1)

5
It was traditional to use factors of safety of 1.7 approximately. The working stress method of

the previous steel design code (BS 449 part 2) had been replaced by the limit states design

method of BS5950.

1.2.2.2 Ultimate load design

The ultimate load methods of designing steel structures required that the calculated

ultimate load carry capacity of the structure must exceed the most adverse combination of

loads obtained by multiplying the working loads by the appropriate load factors LF. Thus

(2)

This load factor allowed some imaging for any deliberate and accidental errors and

for the uncertainties in the structure and its loads, and also provided the structure with a

reserve of strength.

1.2.2.3 Limit states design

Different types of load give different probabilities of occurrence and different degrees

of variability, and that the probabilities associated with these loads change in different ways

as the degrees of run load considered increases. Because of this, different load factors should

be used for the different load types.

In limit state design, unlike the previous method of structural design, many factors of

safety are introduced. Different load factors are introduced to different load types and

different strength factors are introduced to different types of materials.

The object of limit state design is to achieve an acceptable probability that a structure

will not become unserviceable and this is called a ‘Limit State’. The most important of these

limit states which must be examined in design are:

1. Ultimate limit states and

2. Serviceability limit state

6
1.2.2.4 Plastic Method of Design

Elastic and plastic moment

Let us consider the simply supported beam shown in Fig. 1.5a.

L/2 L/2
x d

PL/4

(a) (b)

x d

s s
f

M = My M > My M = Mp

(c) (d) (e)

PL/2 PL/2
PL/4

(f)

Fig 1.5 : Internal Stress diagrams in plastic method of design

7
 In the previous methods of design, collapse is said to take place when internal stress

diagram takes the form of Fig1. 5(c). But in the actual fact the beam will not collapse and, it

can withstand more additional loading until the internal stress diagram takes the form of

Fig1. 5(e) and then collapse of the beam will take place.

The loading causing the internal stress diagram to take the form of Fig1. 5 (e) is the collapse

load Pu (or ultimate load), and the moment at this section is called full plastic moment. The

cross section of a member which is fully plastic can sustain large increases of curvature, and

is known as plastic hinge (Fig1. 5 f).

From the theory of bending stresses it is known that

M  E
  - (3)
I y R

M  I
  M    Ze
I y y

Where M - elastic moment

σ - yield stress

Ze - elastic modulus of section

I - second moment of area

bd 3 d
I ;y 
12 2

I bd 2
\ Ze  
y 6

In order to calculate full plastic moment; let’s consider a figure which has only one

axis of symmetry y – y (Fig. 1.6)

8
 N1 :Resultant tensile
stresses = ATen x s

A s
y

ACom
Neutral y1
surface
x1 x1

x x y2
ATen

y A s
N2 :Resultant tensile
stresses = ATen x s

Fig. 1.6:
In this case, the neutral axis (X1 – X1) will not coincide with the axis that passes through the
centre of gravity. The position of the neutral axis can be found from the fact that that sum of
normal forces from bending streses equals zero i.e for Equilibrium algebraic sum of the
horizontal forces must be zero:

Acom  y dA - �
N1 + N 2  � ATen  y dA  0

i.e σy Acom = σy ATen

i.e Acom = ATen (4)

Which means the neutral axis divides the cross-section into two parts with equal areas.
Let’s find full plastic moment Mp
Mp  � AC  y y1 dA + �
AT  y y2 dA

  y ( S xC1 + S xT1 )

c
where S x I - first moment of area of the compression zone about neutral axis X1 – X1.
S xT1 - first moment of area of the tensile zone about neutral axis X1-X1
Let Zp = S x1 + S x1
c T
(5)
Where Zp – plastic modulus of section

M p   yZp (6)
Let’s consider a beam with rectangular cross-section

Mp Z p y Zp
b  
Me Z e y Ze

9
Where

bd 2
we know that Z e 
6
From equation (5)
Zp = S x1 + S x1
c T

d/2
d/4
d
d/4
d/2

bd d bd d
X + X
2 4 2 4

bd 2
Zp 
4
bd 2 6
\b  X  1.5
4 bd 2
where b - shape factor
\ Zp  b Ze  1.5Ze

In plastic design, plastic method of analysis is used to determine plastic stress e.g full
plastic moment Mp. In plastic design, the expression

must be satisfied.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LOCAL BUCKLING AND CROSS SECTION CLASSIFICATION
2.1 Local Bucking

10
 The efficient use of material within a steel member requires those structural properties
which most influence its load-carrying capacity to be maximized. This coupled with the need
to make connections between members, has led to the majority of structural sections being
thin-walled. Moreover, apart from circular tubes, structural steel sections (such as UB; UC,
cold-formed purlins, built-up box column and plate girders) normally comprise a series of flat
plate elements. Simple considerations of minimum material consumption frequently suggest
that some plate elements be made extremely thin but limits must be imposed if certain
potentially undesirable structural phenomena are to be avoided. The most important of these
in everyday steel work design is local buckling.
When a slender plate is subjected to in plane compressive or shear loads or to a
combination of compression and shear as in Fig. 2.1a it is prone to buckle.
Any of the slender components plates of such a cross – section is prone to local
buckling. For Fig. 2.1b each plate of the box column may buckle locally before the load
required to cause the overall cross-section to buckle as struct is attained; prematured failure
of the member will then occur. A plate girder subjected to a typical combination of bending
moment and shearing force is shown in Fig 2.1 c. This places the upper flange in
compression, whereas the web sustains a combination of direct and shear stresses that may
also cause buckling.

Nx Nxy

Ny
y
x

Ny

Nxy Nx

(a) General loading conditions (b) Box column

11
 (c ) Plate girder in bending and shear
Fig. 2.1:Examples of structural members prone to local buckling
Figure 2.2 shows a short UC section after it has been tested as a column. Considerable
distortion of the cross-section is evident with the flanges being deformed out of their original
flat shape. The web, on the other hand, appears to comparatively undeformed. The building
has therefore been confirmed to certain plate elements, has not resulted in any overall
deformation of the member and its centroidal axis has not deflected. In the particular example
of Fig. 2.2, local buckling did not develop significantly until well after the column had
sustained its “squash load” equal to the product of its cross-sectional area times its material
strength. Local bucking did not affect the load-carrying capacity because the proportions of
the web and flange plates are sufficiently compact. The fact that the local bucking appeared
in the flanges before the web is due to these elements being the more slender.

Terms such as compact and slender are used to describe the

proportions of the individual plate elements of structural
sections based on their susceptibility to local buckling. This
phenomenon is independent of the length of the member and
hence is termed local buckling. It is dependent upon a member
of parameters. The following are of particular importance:
Fig 2.2 local building of column

12
 i Width to thickness ratio of the element. This is the most important governing
property. The ratio of plate width to plate thickness, β, is often referred to as
the “b/t ratio” or the aspect ratio.
ii Support condition. This is dependent upon the edge restraint to the element. If
the element is supported by other elements along both edges parallel to the
direction of the member, then it is called an internal element, as both edges are
prevented from distorting out of plane. If this condition only occurs along one
edge, it is said to be an outstand element, as the free edge is able to distort out
of plane. Each half of the flange of an I section is an outstand element, whilst
the web is an internal element.
iii. Yield strength of the material. The higher the yield strength of the material the
greater is the likelihood of local bucking before yield us reached.
iv. Stress distribution across the width of the plate element. The most severe form

of stress distribution is uniform compression, which will occur throughout a

cross-section under axial compressive loading or in the compression flange of

an I section in bending. However, the web of an I section under flexure will be

under a varying moment which is a less severe condition. This is because the

maximum compressive stress will only occur at one location and the stress

level will reduce across the width of the element possibly even changing to a

tensile value.

v. Residual stresses in rolled or welded sections. The presence of a weld within a

cross-section can produce quite severe residual stresses that will adversely

affect the behaviour with respect to local bucking.

Although the vigorous treatment of plate buckling is a mathematically complex topic,

it is possible to design safely and in must cases economically with no directed consideration

of the subject. For example, the properties of the majority of standard hot-rolled sections have

been selected to be such that local buckling effects are unlikely to affect significantly their

load-carrying capacity when used as beams or columns. Greater care is, however, necessary

13
when using fabricated sections for which the proportions are under the direct control of the

designer. Also cold-formed sections are often proportioned such that local buckling effects

must be accounted for.

2.2 Cross-sectional Dimensions and Moment-Rotation Behaviour

Fig 2.3 illustrates a rectangular box section used as a beam. The plate slenderness

ratios for the flanges and webs are b/T and d/t and elastic stress diagrams for both

components are also shown. If the beam is subject to equal and opposite end moments M,

Fig. 2.4 shows in a qualitative manner different forms of relationship between M and the

corresponding rotation θ

Fig. 2.3 Rectangular hollow section used as a beam

Assuming d/t to be such that local buckling of the webs does not occur, which of the

four different forms of response given in Fig. 2.4 applies depends on the compression flange

slenderness b/T. The four cases are defined as:

14
Fig. 2.4 Behaviour in bending of different classes of section

a. b/T ≤ β1, full plastic moment capacity Mp is attained and maintained for large

rotations and the member is suitable for plastic design- plastic cross-section (class 1).

Plastic cross-sections are sufficiently stocky that the material design strength may be

attained throughout the cross-section. The moment of resistance is therefore equal to

the fully plastic moment Py S.

b. β1 < b/T < β2, full plastic moment Mp is attained but is only maintained for small rotations

and the members is suitable for elastic design using its full capacity-compact cross-

section (class 2).

c. Β2 < b/T ≤ β3, full elastic moment capacity My (but not Mp) is attained and the

member is suitable for elastic design using this limited capacity-semi-compact cross-

section (class 3). Semi-compact cross-sections are able to attain the material design

strength at the extreme fibres of the cross-section and some way into the section but

are unable to attain that stress throughout the entire cross-section. Such a cross-

section can resist a moment equal to Py Seff, which is between the plastic moment

capacity Py Z. Seff is the effective plastic modulus and is calculated using the

expression given clause 3.5.6 of BS 5950.

15
 d. β3 < b/T, local buckling limits moment capacity to less than My – slender cross-section

(class 4). Slender cross-sections contain elements that are so slender that local

buckling is likely to occur before the attainment of the material design strength on the

extreme fibres.

The relationship between moment capacity Mu and compression flange slenderness

b/T indicating the various β limits is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 2.5. In the figure the

value of Mu for a semi-compact section is conservatory taken as the moment corresponding to

extreme fibre yield My for all values of b/T between β2 and β3. This is more convenient for

practical calculation than the more correct representation shown in Fig 2.3 in which a

moment between My and Mp is indicated since the classification of the section as plastic,

compact, etc is based on considerations of the compression flange alone, the assumption

concerning the web slenderness d/t is that its classification is the same as or better than that of

the flange. For example, if the section is semi-compact, governed by the flange proportions,

then the web must be plastic compact or semi-compact; is cannot be slender.

Fig. 2.4 Moment capacity as a function of flange slenderness

16
2.3 Section Classification Process

For the classification process, BS 5950-1 provides figure 5, which is used, in

conjunction with Table 11 [for sections other than Circular hollow section (CHS) and

Rectangular hollow section ( RHS)].

The cross-section classification process follows five basic steps, as listed below. For

each element in turn, carry out steps (i) to (iii)

[i] Evaluate the slenderness ratio (b/T or d/t) of all of the elements of the cross-section in

which there is compressive stress.

[ii] To allow for the influence of variation in the material design strength, evaluate the

parameter Є as (275/Py)0.5

[iii] Where necessary, evaluate the stress ratios r1 and r2.

[vi] In table 11 identify the appropriate row of the for the element under consideration and

determine the class of that element, according to the limiting value of thickness ratio.

[v] Classify the complete cross-section according to the least favourable (highest)

classification of the individual elements in the cross section.

The choice of the appropriate row of Table 11 depends on the boundary support

conditions of the element and its stress condition (whether subject to uniform

compressive stress or varying stress).

[a] For the compression flange if an I, H, channel or box section, the element is

either an outstand element (support along one edge only) or an internal element

(supported along both edges). The stress is assumed to be uniformed.

[b] For webs of I, H and box sections where the stress various from tension to

compression and the level of zero stress is at the mid-depth of the element there is a

simple set of three limits.

17
 [c] For webs of I, H and box sections where the stress varies across the width of

the element, other than for the simple case above, a stress ratio r 1 and r2 must be

determined. Expressions for the calculation of r1 and r2 are given in clause 3.5.5 of BS

5950-1 and are repeated below for the case of I and H sections with equal flanges.

[d] For webs of channels, there is a simple set of three limits, irrespective of the

stress condition

[e] The elements of angles and tees are all treated as outstand elements and there

are simple sets of three limits for three cases.

2.3.1 Stress ratios r1 and r2

For I and H sections with equal flanges:

Fc
r1 = but - 1 r1 1
dtPyw

Fc
r2 
AgPyw

Where Ag – the gross cross-sectional area

d – the web depth

Fc – the axial compression (-Ve for tension)

Pyw - the design strength of the web

t - the web thickness

Note: r1 and r2 are positive for compression and negative for tension.

Example 1 A 457 x 191 x 67 UC in steel grade S355 is to be used under three different

conditions, as described below. Classify the section for each case and evaluate the local cross-

section resistance. Conditions:

i. under pure bending

ii. Under bending plus 700 KN axial compression

18
 iii. Under pure axial compression of 700KN. The following section properties

may be obtained from section property table.

B = 189.9mm; T = 12.7mm ; d = 407.6mm

t = 8.5mm ; Ag = 85.5cm2 ; Z = 1300cm3

S = 1470cm3 ; b/T = 7.48 ; d/.t = 48.0

Solution

Maximum material thickness T = 12.7mm

Py = 355N/mm2 (TB 9)

Ε = (275/Py)0.5 = (275/355)0.5 = 0.88

[i] Flanges (TB11)

The limiting values of b/T for class 1 is 9Є

9Є = 9 x 0.88 = 7.92

Actual b/T = 7.48 < limiting value b/T = 7.92.

Therefore the flanges are class 1 plastic.

Web

The limiting value of d/t for class 1 is 80Є.

80 x 0.88 = 70.4

Actual d/t = 48.0 < limiting value d/t = 70.4

Therefore the web is class 1 plastic.

The entire cross-section is classified as class 1 plastic and thus the design strength of

the material can be attained throughout the section. The moment capacity of the cross-section

given by clause 4.2.5.2 is thus

Mc = Mp = Py Sx = 1470 x 355 x 10-3 = 522 kNm

19
[ii] Flanges

The limiting value of b/T is as in (i) above and the flanges are therefore class 1

plastic.

Web

The level of zero stress will not be at mid-depth of the web, so it is necessary to

determine the stress ratios r1 and r2 from TB11

Fc 700 X 103
r1    0.569
dtPy 407.6 X 8.5 X 355

Fc 700 X 103
r2    0.231
Ag Py 8550 X 355

100 � 88
  47.5
The limiting value of d/t for class 2 compact is 1 + 1.5r1 1 + 1.5 X 0.569

Actual d/t = 48 > limiting value d/t = 47.5

Therefore the web is not class 2 compact.

The limiting value of d/t for class 3 semi-compact is

120 � 120 X 0.88
  72.2
1 + 2 r2 1 + 2 X 0.231

Actual d/t = 48 < limiting value d/t = 72.2

Therefore the web is class 3 semi-compact
The entire cross-section is therefore class 3 semi-compact and thus the design strength
of the material can be attained at the extreme fibres. The moment capacity of the cross-
section given by clause 4.2.5.2. is thus,
Mc = Py Zx = 1300 x 355 x 10-3 + 462kNM
[iii] Flanges
The limiting value b/T is as in (1) above and the flanges are class 1 plastic

20
Web
When considering an I section in pure compression there is only one limit given in
Table 11. The limit is the same as in [ii] above and web is therefore class 3 semi-compact .
The entire cross-section therefore may be treated as not slender (under pure axial
compression need to check if section is slender or not). The compression resistance (for a
stocky strut) is given by clause 4.7.4 as:
Pc = AgPy = 8550 x 355 x 10-3 = 3035KN.

21
 CHAPTER THREE
3.0 TENSION MEMBER

3.1 Introduction

Theoretically, the tension member transmitting a direct tension between two points in

a stricture is the simplest and most efficient structural element; they are nominally in a state

of uniform axial stress, in many cases this efficiency is seriously impaired by the end

connections required to join tension member in the structure.

However, in many cases a tension member is not loaded or connected concentrically

or it has transverse loads acting, resulting in bending action as well as axial tension action.

Simple design procedure are available which enable the bending action in some member with

eccentric connections to be ignored, but more generally special account must be taken of the

bending action in design

3.2 Types of Tension Member

The main types of tension members, their applications and behaviour are:

a. Open and closed single rolled section such as angle, tees, channels and the structural

hollow sections, these are the main sections used for tension members in light trusses

and lattice girders for bracing.

b. Compound section consisting of double angles or channel, at least one axis of

symmetry is present and so the eccentricity in the end connection can be minimized.

When angles or other shapes are used in this fashion, they should be interconnected at

intervals to prevent vibration especially when moving loads are present

c. Heavy rolled sections and heavy compound sections of build-up H and box sections.

The build-up sections are tied together either at intervals (batten plates) or

continuously (lacing). Batten plates or lacing do not add any load-carrying capacity to

the member but they do serve to provide rigidity and to distribute the load among the

main elements.

22
d. Bars and flats. In the sizes generally used, the stiffness of these members is very low;

they may sag under their own weight or that of workman. Their small cross-sectional

dimensions also mean high slenderness values and, as a consequence, they may tend

to flutter under wind loads or vibrate under morning load.

e. Ropes and cables.

Typical uses of tension in members are:

i. tension chords and internal ties in trusses and lattice girders in buildings

and bridges

ii. Bracing members in buildings.

iii. Main cables and deck suspension cables in cable stayed and suspension

bridges

iv. Hangers in suspended structures

3.3 Concentrically Loaded Tension Members

3.3.1 Members without holes

For a straight member subject to direct tension, F

F
Tensile stress, ft  ------------------ (3.1)
A

FL
Elongation, d  -------------------- (3.2) (in the linear elastic range)
AE

This linear increase continues until the yield stress Py of steel is reached at the general

yield load:

Py  p y A ------------------- (3.3)

When the extension increases with little or no increase in load until strain-hardening

commences. After this, the load increase slowly until the maximum value

Pu  pu A - (3.4)

23
is reached, in which Pu is the ultimate tensile strength of the steel. Beyond this, a local cross-

section in of the member necks down and the load N decreases until fracture occurs.

The behaviour of the tension members is described as ductile, in that it can reach and

sustain the general yield load while significant extensions occur, before it fractions. The

general yield load Py is often taken as the load capacity of the member.

3.3.2 Members with holes

Members with holes may fail before the gross yield load Py is reached by fracturing at

a hole, as shown in Fig 3.1 the local fracture load

Pu  pu An ---------------------------- (3.5)

Is calculated on the net area of the cross-section An measured perpendicular to the

line of action of the load, and is given by

An  Ag - �dt --------------------------- (3.6)

Where d is the diameter of a hole, t the thickness of the member at the hole, and the

summation is carried out for all holes in the cross-section under consideration. The fracture

load Pu is determined by the weakest cross-section, and therefore by the minimum net area

An.

Sg

Sg

Sp Sp Sp

Fig 3.1 Possible failure path with staggered holes.

A member which fails by fracture before the gross yield load can be reached is not ductile,

and there is little warring of failure.

24
 In many practical tension members with more than one row of holes, the reduction in

the cross-sectional area may be reduced by staggering the rows of holes (Fig. 3.1). In this

case, the possibility must be considered of failure along a zig-zag path such as ABCDE in fig

3.1, instead of across the section perpendicular to the load. The minimum amount of stagger

Spm for which a hole no longer reduces the area of the member depends on the diameter d of

the hole and the inclination Sg/Sp of the failure path, where Sg is the gauge distance between

the rows of holes. An approximate expression for the minimum stagger is

Spm = (4 Sg d) ½ (3.7)

When the actual stagger Sp is less than Spm some reduced part of the hole area A n must

be deducted from the gross area Ag, and this can be approximated by

An = dt (1 - S P2 / S PM
2
), hence

An = dt ( 1 - S P2 / 4 Sgd) (3.8)

2
An = Ag - ∑dt + ∑ S P t / 4S g (3.9)

Where the summations are made for all the holes on the zig-zag path considered, and for all

the staggers in the path i.e the sum of the section areas of a chain of holes lying on any

diagonal or zig-zag line extending progressively across the member or element less an

2
allowance of S P t / 4 S g for each gauge distance Sg that it traverses diagonally.

The use of equation (3.9) is allowed for in clause 3.4.4.3 of BS5950. Alternatively,

25
 A B C

g1
b Direction of
g2 direct stress

g1

S1 S2 S1 S2

On line A:

On line B: )
On line C:

Where D is the hole diameter.

3.3.3 Design by BS 5950 - 1

The design of axially loaded tension members is given in clause 4.6. The tension

capacity is

Pt = Ae Py (3.10)

Where Ae is the effective area defined in clause 3.3.3. This clause stated that the effective area

of a member with holes may be taken as K e times its net area but not more than its gross area.

The net area is defined as the cross area less deductions for fastener holes.

The factor Ke, values of which are give below for steel complying with BS 4360, has

been introduced as a result of tests which show that the presence of holes does not reduce the

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effective capacity of a member in tension provided that the ratio of the net area to the gross

area is suitably greater than the ratio of the yield strength to the ultimate strength

Us
For other steel grades: Ke = 1.2 P where
y

Py – design strength

Us – Specified minimum tensile strength

Ke = 1.2 for grade S275

Ke = 1.1 for S355

Ke = 1.0 for grade S460

From above the effective area Ae can be expressed as:

Ae = Ke An (3.11)

3.3.4 Simple tension Members

Angles, channels or T-sections subject to tension with moments cause by eccentric

end connections can be designed as simple tension members’ using the provisions of clause

4.6.3. Other members subject to tension and bending should be designed using clause 4.8.2

The design method of simple tension members used in BS 5950 -1 is to account for the

bending moment by using a reduced tension capacity as given below (4.6.3.1).

For a simple tie, designed as axially loaded, consisting of a single angle connected through

one leg only, a single channel connected only through the web or a T-section connected only

through the flange, the tension capacity should be obtained as follows:

Pt = Py (Ae - 0.5a2) for bolted connections

Pt = Py (Ag – 0.3 a2) for welded connections

For double angle, channels or T-section members (clause 4.6.3.2) is given as below:

For a simple tie, designed as axially loaded, consisting of two angles connected through one

leg only, two channels connected only through the web or two T-sections connected only

through the flange, the tension capacity should be obtained as follows:

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a) if the tie is connected to both sides of a gusset or section and the components are

interconnected by bolts or welds and held apart and longitudinally parallel by battens or solid

packing pieces in at least two locations within their length, the tension capacity per

component should be obtained from:

Pt = Py (Ae – 0.25a2) for bolted connections

Pt = Py (Ag – 0.15a2) for bolted connections

Where

Py – the design strength

Ae – the effective net area of the member

Ag – the gross cross-sectional area

a2 – Ag – α1

a1 – the overall gross area of the connected element.

b) if the components are both connected to the same side of a gusset or member, or not

interconnected as given in a), the tension capacity per component should be taken as given in

4.6.3.1.

In case a) the outermost interconnection should be within a distance from each end of ten

times the smaller leg length for angle components, or ten times the smaller overall dimension

for channels or T-sections.

3.3.5 Tension Members also Subjected to Moments

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 Members that are under both tension and moment must be checked to ensure that the

combined actions may be safely resisted. The necessary checks are in two parts. The first is a

cross-section capacity check given in clause 4.8.2.2 and as given below:

Ft Mx My
+ +  1
Pt M cx M cy

Where

Ft – the axial tension at the section

Pt – the tension capacity

Mx – the moment about the major axis

My – the moment about the minor axis

Mcx – the moment capacity about major axis

Mcy – the moment capacity about the minor axis

However, this is not a sufficient check in all circumstances as, if the axial load is mall,

then it can readily be seen that the member is essentially a beam and lateral torsional bucking

can occur. Clause 4.8.2.2 therefore requires lateral torsional bucking under the bending

moments alone to be checked.

Example 1: A 200 x 200 x 16mm angle section in grade S275 is to be used as a tie. Firstly the

connection will be made by a welded gusset plate and secondly by two M24 bolts in a line a

cross the width of the member. Determine the tension capacity in each case.

Solution

From section table: Ag = 61.8cm2

Tmax = 16mm ≤ 16mm;

Therefore Py = 275N/mm2 (TB9)

For connected leg a1 = 200 x 16 = 3200mm2

For unconnected leg a2 = 6180-3200=2900mm2

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i. Connection using a welded gusset Tension capacity from clause 4.6.3.1

Pt = Py (Ag – 0.3a2 ) = 275 (6180 -0.3 x 2980) x 10-3

Pt = 1454kN

ii. Connection using bolts

For the connected leg, the net area an1 is given by

an1 = a1 – 2 x Dn x t

= 3200 – 2 x 26 x 16 = 2368mm2

ae1 = Ke an1 but ≤ ag

= 1.2 x 2368 = 2842mm2 < 3200mm2

Ae = ae1 + a2 = 2842 + 2980 = 5822mm2

Tension capacity (clause 4.6.3.1)

Pt = Py (Ae – 0.5a2) = 275 (5822 – 0.5 X 2980) x 10-3

Pt = 1191kN

Example 2: Design a back to back double angle tie in grade S355, which is subjected to the

following loadings: Dead load = 144KN, Imposed load = 240KN. Assume welded connection

by the long led. Hint: Try 2 x 75 x 50 x 8

Solution
From section tables

Ag = 9.41cm2; t = 8mm

T = 8mm < 16mm \ Py = 355N/mm2

a1= 75 x 8= 600

a2= 941-600= 341

Pt = 2Py (Ag – 0.15 a2) = 2 x355 (941 – 0.15 x 341) x 10-3

= 2 x 315.89675 = 632KN

F = 1.4 x 144 + 1.6 x 240 = 586KN

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 Pt = 632KN � 586KN \ design OK.

Example 3: Both flanges of a universal column section member have 22mm diameter holes

arranged as shown below.

If the gross area of the section is 201 x 102 mm2 and the flange thickness is 25mm,

determine the net area An of the member which is effective in tension.

60

120

60

60 60

Solution

Path A

Path B

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Path C

Example 4: Determine the tension capacity of the tension member of example 3 if the design

strength is Py = 345N/mm2

Solution

From Example 3 An = 153 x 102 mm2

Ae = Ke An Ke = 1.1

Ae = 1.1 x 153 x 102 = 168.3 x 102 mm2< Ag

Pt = 345 x 168.3 x 102 x 10-3 = 5806.35KN

Example 5: A 610 x 229 x 125 UB tension member of grade S355 is connected through both

flanges by 20mm bolts in four lines, two in each flange as shown below. Check the member

for a factored tension force of Ft = 4000KN

Solution

T = 19,6mm; Ag = 15900mm2

Py = 345N/mm2 TB9

An = 15900 – 4 x 22 x 19.6 = 14175mm2

For S355 steel, Ke = 1.1

Ae = Ke An = 1.1 x 14175 = 15593mm2 < 15900mm2

Pt = 345 x 15593 x 10-3 = 5379.585KN > 4000KN \ Section O. K.

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