Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
research-article2017
TESXXX10.1177/0888406417700825Teacher Education and Special EducationCooper and Scott
Article
Teacher Education and Special Education
2017, Vol. 40(2) 102–113
The Keys to Managing Instruction © 2017 Teacher Education Division of the
Council for Exceptional Children
and Behavior: Considering High Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
Probability Practices DOI: 10.1177/0888406417700825
https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406417700825
journals.sagepub.com/home/tes
Abstract
Academics and behavior are inextricably linked, and as such, management of behavior should be
considered not as an addition to the teacher’s repertoire of skills but as an integral foundational
component of effective instruction. Paradoxically, teachers report that students with challenging
behavior are both their greatest challenge and that behavior management is the skill with which
they are least prepared in their teacher preparation programs. In this article, the authors
first review a rationale for considering high probability practices as those that provide the
best probability for student success. Next, they present a set of key teacher-implemented
management strategies as an essential part of the curriculum for any prospective teacher.
Keywords
classroom management, teacher preparation, behavior management
the key features of effective classroom man- largely conceptual, providing a framework for
agement must be conducted with attention to effective intervention rather than a set of prac-
the comparative effect sizes of all potential tices. Furthermore, the primary tier of PBIS at
teacher practices. which effective teaching of behavior is a fea-
Although there are clearly limits to using ture has focused overwhelmingly on common
effect size as the sole arbiter of effective prac- areas rather than classrooms. To be certain,
tice, it provides one simple metric for consid- the PBIS model is a perfect fit for any discus-
ering the probability of positive effects at any sion of effective classroom management and
level of intervention. Considering the teacher instruction, but such content is not inherent
wager (Scott, 2016), if a teacher was told within the typical PBIS content in teacher
that student success tomorrow would result in training programs.
a US$10,000 salary bonus, what actions
would maximize the probability of the teacher
winning the money? This simple twist on
The Teaching Environment
the question of effectiveness puts the onus The teaching environment is comprised of all
squarely on the teacher to determine probabil- the routines, schedules, and physical attri-
ity. To be clear, there are no sure things, but butes of the classroom—including furniture
some practices do provide higher probabilities arrangement, student seating, and teacher
for success than do others. Rather than simply proximity. Although this potentially repre-
choosing the single practice with the largest sents a virtually endless array of possible
effect size, teachers must carefully and manipulations (e.g., adjusting the tempera-
thoughtfully consider the needs of an individ- ture, wall color, ambient noise levels, etc.),
ual classroom and piece together the strate- there are some very basic environmental con-
gies that best fit the unique needs presented. siderations that provide large probabilities for
facilitating student success (Scott & Hirn,
High Probability 2014). Foremost in considerations of the envi-
ronment are those features that are both most
Management Practices effective and under the immediate control of
The teacher’s job is to create instruction that the teacher.
maximizes the probability of success for stu-
dents. Although there are no sure things, it is Consistency. The degree to which the daily
clear that some things work better than others, classroom routines occur in the same order, at
and it is incumbent upon teacher preparation the same times, and in the same way each day
programs to model and teach those practices is an important predictor of student success
that have empirical evidence supporting not (Bull, Feldman, & Solity, 2013; Buyse, Ver-
only that it is effective but also that it is more schueren, Doumen, Van Damme, & Maes,
effective than alternatives. In fact, this is a 2008; Fairbanks, Simonsen, & Sugai, 2008;
basic tenet and legal foundation of special Jones, Jones, & Vermette, 2013). Of course,
education. In the classroom, the teacher has the degree to which consistency is important
control of both the learning environment and is related to the challenges presented by the
the delivery of instruction. Thus, these two student in a given classroom. Although a mild
areas are explored below in relation to prac- degree of consistency might be sufficient in
tices that are largely deemed to represent high some classrooms, students with more chal-
probability practice in terms of the likelihood lenging behaviors may require consistency
of facilitating success. with schedules that are detailed down the min-
The argument could be made that school- ute and spelled out on the board (Scott, 2016).
wide systems of positive behavior support From a probability perspective, the key is
(PBIS) provide the content necessary for that the students come to predict what will
effectively dealing with behaviors. PBIS happen so that it becomes a routine and a habit.
and other multitiered systems, however, are For students who have difficulty transitioning
Cooper and Scott 105
into new subjects, teachers can increase suc- here is with the type and arrangement of furni-
cessful transitions by having a consistent rou- ture as the teacher must insure that there are no
tine for when to transition, writing the schedule barriers to easy eye contact with students from
on the board, and calling attention to it with any vantage point in the room, including times
verbal reminders throughout the class. These when the teacher is seated at his or her desk.
are not difficult to implement and are not Infusing this content into preservice teacher
beyond what most experienced teachers would preparation can be accomplished by having
consider common sense. These, however, are course instructors discuss and model these
not behaviors that are necessarily taught as practices.
part of what should be a standard procedure, Whether the desks are arranged in rows,
particularly for teachers who are likely to work circles, or groupings is important only in the
with students with challenging behavior. context of the expectations for whatever task
is at hand. Obviously, group work is facili-
Physical arrangements. Where the teacher and tated by groupings, and independent work is
particular students are located, the students’ likely more successful when not seated in
desk arrangement, and how well the teacher is groups—but these are not always arrange-
able to monitor students are all important con- ments that the teacher has control over as fur-
siderations in the classroom environment, but niture style often dictates this. Teachers,
ones that typically get little to no consider- however, can assign students to sit in particu-
ation in teacher training programs (Oliver & lar locations to avoid predictable problem
Reschly, 2014). As a general rule, teacher pairings or locations (Kriegel, 2016). Special
movement about the room to maintain fre- education teachers must consult with their
quent proximity to all students is an effective general education counterparts to consider the
practice for increasing student engagement necessity of assigning seats to maximize stu-
(Cangelosi, 2013; Conroy, Asmus, Ladwig, dent success. Seat assignment is most effec-
Sellers, & Valcante, 2004). The teacher should tively introduced as students enter the room or
continue movement as much as possible, tak- at the beginning of an activity rather than in a
ing advantage of frequent passes to provide reactive way during the lesson, which tends to
additional prompting and feedback to students predict confrontations that are time-consum-
who are particularly prone to challenging ing and predictive of larger problems. There
behaviors. In addition, movement through the are, however, times when misbehavior is dis-
room allows the teacher to more efficiently ruptive to the point that a change of seat
assess the degree to which students are assignments may be necessary midlesson. As
engaged and understand lesson content. with all environmental considerations, the
Active supervision refers to the teacher’s practices should be taught as potentially ben-
purposeful and continuous supervision of the eficial actions to be considered in terms of the
entire classroom at all times (Haydon, & unique individual features of the classroom
Kroeger, 2016; Oliver & Reschly, 2014). When and student.
the teacher is looking at students, the probabil-
ity of misbehavior is lower—providing oppor-
Instructional Practices
tunities to provide feedback for positive
behavior. One way of facilitating active super- Although social order in the classroom is nec-
vision is to consider whether all students in the essary to promote academic achievement,
classroom believe that you could make eye effective instruction is also necessary to pro-
contact at any point in less than 1 second (Scott, mote social order. The link between student
2016). This requires that the teacher positions behavior and academic success is well
himself or herself in such a way that any stu- founded in the research literature (Siperstein
dent could be easily observed with just a quick et al., 2011). Logically, students who are
turn of the head. An additional consideration not successful with academic tasks are less
106 Teacher Education and Special Education 40(2)
interested in the lesson and have a greater Simonsen et al., 2014). Effective instruction
incentive to engage in behaviors that either dis- of any behavior begins with a rationale (i.e.,
tract the teacher or result in an escape from why this is important in student’s life), con-
instruction (Gest & Gest, 2005). If the teacher’s nections to prior knowledge, and a clear
job is to maximize student success, then explanation of critical rules that are then
effective classroom management must involve modeled and demonstrated by the teacher
effective teaching practices to drive curricular with frequent questions and tasks to foster
content for both academic and social behaviors. student interest and engagement. Next, the
Teaching practices are those behaviors in teacher guides students through practice in a
which the teacher engages during the delivery manner to promote high levels of success
of instruction, and there are well-established with teacher acknowledgment. These suc-
links between these practices and student cessful practice opportunities facilitate a con-
behavior (C. E. Cameron et al., 2008). These fidence that enhances independent work with
include how the teacher presents instruction more authentic examples (Scott, 2016).
and the degree to which instruction is designed
to be engaging and effective to facilitate indi- Engagement. The degree to which students are
vidual student success. Both academic and actively engaged with the curricular content
behavioral content are inherent in each lesson. during instruction is perhaps the most power-
Thus, teachers must take care to use the tenets ful predictor of student achievement (Berliner,
of effective instructional delivery in both 1990). Although some students are more
realms as part of an integrated focus. Although inclined to be engaged than others, the respon-
a full discussion of effective instruction is sibility for engagement falls on the teacher
beyond the scope of this article, there are (Pianta, 1996). Making the curriculum rele-
some basic tenets that enjoy particularly vant to students’ lives, connecting to prior
strong support for facilitating student success. learning, guiding lessons to provide high lev-
els of student success, and demonstrating a
Direct and explicit instruction. The available genuine interest and excitement all encourage
empirical evidence makes clear that, when student engagement. Teachers, however, can
working on new behaviors, teaching students also be more direct in how they create engage-
how to deal with particular problems is far ment for all students within a lesson by pro-
more effective than simply asking students to viding students with opportunities to respond
explore a problem to find solutions on their in some way related to the curriculum.
own (Hattie, 2009). Furthermore, selecting Teacher-provided opportunities for stu-
relevant examples from the real environment dents to respond to the curriculum include
for modeling enhances the probability of questions, commands, or directions that set
mastery (Engelmann, 2007). The most effec- the occasion for student thought and response
tive instruction is delivered directly to stu- (i.e., interaction with the curriculum). These
dents in a clear and concrete manner. Teachers curriculum-related prompts can be provided
should model all skills and expectations— to either the group or an individual student
whether academic or behavioral in nature and have been shown to be associated with
(Brophy, 2006) and that modeling should improved academic and behavioral outcomes
include verbal explanations to accompany (Haydon, Mancil, & Van Loan, 2009; Kern &
physical demonstrations. Clemens, 2007; Partin, Robertson, Maggin,
Within empirical literature, there is no dif- Oliver, & Wehby, 2010). For example, teach-
ference in those teacher behaviors that are ers may tell students, “Raise your green card
known to maximize the probability of suc- if you think this one is correct” or “Make one
cess in reading (e.g., National Reading Panel, yourself and hold it up.” In either case, the
2000) and those that are known to maximize teacher has constructed a lesson that involves
the probability of success with behavior (e.g., student engagement as part of the delivery.
Cooper and Scott 107
Questioning students, by itself, is not nec- discussed, effect size alone does not warrant
essarily an effective strategy for student blind adoption of any practice. In the case of
engagement (Hattie, 2009). The key to effec- feedback, however, the evidence in favor of
tive engagement is in promoting high levels of its effect combined with the simplicity of its
student interest and success. Difficult ques- delivery presents a very compelling case for
tions may actually have the opposite effect, school-wide adoption as a high probability
creating failures that promote student disinter- practice. This is a message that preservice
est and escape-motivated behavior problems. teachers need to hear in a repetitive manner
Effective questions are delivered frequently and be asked to demonstrate as a core compe-
but with a thought toward generating student tency of effective instruction. Importantly,
success—which is simply an opportunity for however, positive feedback is only warranted
the teacher to provide praise to increase stu- when students are successful, and thus is only
dent success. useful when instruction is effective.
Because naturally occurring rates of oppor- Like OTR, despite the supporting research,
tunities to respond (OTR) have been generally instructional feedback appears to be an under-
found to be low (Scott, Hirn, & Cooper, 2017), used teaching tool (Scott, Alter, & Hirn, 2011;
recommendations have simply focused on a Stichter et al., 2009; Sutherland, Wehby, &
“more is better” platform. Recent research on Yoder, 2002). Positive feedback has been
OTR as a practice, however, has shown that associated with improving student’s academic
rates at or above 3 per minute are generally and behavioral outcomes and decreasing
predictive of student engagement (Gunter, problem behaviors (Apter, Arnold, & Swin-
Hummel, & Conroy, 1998; Haydon et al., son, 2010; Gable, Hester, Rock, & Hughes,
2009; Partin et al., 2010; Sutherland, Alder, & 2009). Paradoxically, teacher practices with
Gunter, 2003). Because observed rates in typi- students with challenging behaviors have
cal school classrooms are well below 1 per largely involved less rather than more engage-
minute during instruction (Scott et al., 2017), ment and feedback (Sutherland et al., 2002).
this is an issue deserving attention. Again, Although negative feedback is also an
preservice teachers must not only be exposed important component of instruction, there are
to this information but must also see effective two important points to consider. First, the
demonstrations from their instructors and manner in which negative feedback is deliv-
have opportunities to practice with regular ered is important. Reprimands are more pre-
performance feedback. dictive of future negative teacher–student
interaction than is correction (i.e., reteaching;
Feedback. Another empirically derived mea- Nelson & Roberts, 2000). Second, the contin-
sure of teacher-initiated engagement is the ued use of negative feedback for a given
provision of performance feedback to stu- behavior is an indication that instruction is not
dents, including both verbal and gestural feed- working (Scott, 2016). Thus, effective instruc-
back for student academic and social behavior tion is associated with more positive than
(Beaman & Wheldall, 2000). Despite over- negative feedback. Rates of feedback, how-
whelming empirical support in terms of posi- ever, have continually been found to be low
tive effects on student achievement (J. and skewed in favor of negatives (Levy &
Cameron, Banko, & Pierce, 2001), education Vaughn, 2002; Scott et al., 2011).
continues to fall prey to unsubstantiated cri- The ratio of positive to negative feedback
tiques of feedback (e.g., Kohn, 1999, 2001). is calculated by dividing positive feedback by
In his meta-analysis of instructional practices, negative feedback (Fredrickson & Losada,
Hattie (2009) found that feedback had an 2005), providing an index of the degree to
effect size of .73, ranking it in the top 10 of which rates of feedback are reflective of an
all possible instructional practices in terms overall positive or negative balance. This is
of facilitating student success. As has been important given the research indicating that
108 Teacher Education and Special Education 40(2)
Scott, 2015). In short, science suggests that As with other fields, education should turn
certain instructional procedures offer a greater to science to determine the effectiveness of
probability of student success in both the practices and procedures. Using science as a
behavioral and academic areas. Given this, guide, there are some basic instructional pro-
and given the fact that educators need to be cedures that provide a greater opportunity for
able to effectively manage the behavior of student success. These procedures can be
students within the context of content area summarized as being teacher-driven to pro-
instruction, it would seem warranted for vide high rates of (a) consistency, (b) engage-
teacher preparation programs to examine the ment between the teacher and student, (c)
way classroom and behavior management is student success, and (d) teacher feedback.
taught to preservice teachers. Oftentimes, however, teachers are leaving
In addition to a course or courses focused their teacher preparation programs ill-
specifically on classroom management, it is equipped to effectively manage student
recommended that effective classroom and behavior (Zabel & Zabel, 2002). This may, at
behavior management practices be integrated least in part, be due to the current model of
across the teacher preparation curriculum. This teacher preparation for special education that
would promote a shift from viewing behavior addresses classroom and behavior manage-
management procedures as practices designed ment in isolation, taught separately from other
to be used in isolation to viewing these proce- teaching methodology coursework. The result
dures as part of the overall instructional model is an inadvertent increase in the research-to-
that integrates the use of effective, science- practice gap that is evident when considering
based instructional practices across all content behavior management practices in schools
areas to maximize student success. (Banks & Zionts, 2009).
The importance of classroom and behavior
management skills for special education
Conclusion teachers is well established, and teachers will
Classroom behavior and academic perfor- be called on to implement effective practices
mance are inextricably linked (Najaka et al., and assist others in doing the same. In addi-
2002; Siperstein et al., 2011). Both special tion, not all special educators are coming out
educators and those who train special educa- of teacher preparation programs prepared to
tors in teacher preparation programs, how- effectively implement high probability class-
ever, tend to view classroom and behavior room and behavior management practices
management as a secondary skill, something even though effective practices have been
that must be done in addition to core academic clearly identified (and summarized in Table
instruction. To be certain, the existing evi- 1). Given this, two things are evident. First,
dence suggests that many of the same instruc- the field of special education, and education
tional behaviors that increase the probability in general, should continue to use science to
for academic success (e.g., physical room identify those foundational practices deemed
arrangement, high rates of student engage- to provide high probability for success of
ment, positive feedback) also increase the both academic and social behaviors. Second,
probability of behavioral success. In addition, special education teacher preparation pro-
special educators are going to be called upon grams should reconsider how effective
to provide consultation and mentorship in the instructional procedures are taught to preser-
areas of classroom and behavior management vice special educators. Rather than teaching
to other educators and administrators in their classroom and behavior management proce-
school settings. This fact increases the need dures in isolation, separate from other teach-
for special educators to transition to the work- ing methodology courses, an integrated
force with an ample supply of high probability model of management and instruction in
instructional practices in their repertoire. which behavior management procedures are
110 Teacher Education and Special Education 40(2)
Table 1. Key Components of High Probability Classroom Practices for Instruction and Management.
Components Examples
Environment
Consistency Daily schedule, reminders, written advance organizers
Physical arrangements Frequent proximity to all students, active supervision, sight lines, furniture
arrangement to maximize student success
Teaching
Explicit instruction Clear rules, teacher modeling, authentic teaching examples, explanations,
guided practice
Engagement Questions, comments, tasks, and role-plays that keep students active in the
lesson content
Feedback Verbal and gestural feedback for positive behavior on a frequent basis across
all students, correction for errors, positive feedback more frequently than
negative feedback
taught as instructional procedures, integrated Berliner, D. C. (1990). What’s all the fuss about
across the preprofessional curriculum may be instructional time? The nature of time in
more powerful. In turn, this may ultimately schools: Theoretical concepts, practitioner
increase the probability of success for our perceptions. New York, NY: Teachers College
Press.
special education teachers and their students.
Brantlinger, E., & Danforth, S. (2006). Critical
theory perspective on social class, race, gen-
Declaration of Conflicting Interests der, and classroom management. In C. M.
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of Evertson, & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook
interest with respect to the research, authorship, of classroom management: Research, prac-
and/or publication of this article. tice, and contemporary issues (pp. 157-179).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Funding Brophy, J. E. (1979). Teacher behavior and its
effects. Journal of Educational Psychology,
The author(s) received no financial support for the
71, 733-750.
research, authorship, and/or publication of this
Brophy, J. E. (2006). History of research on class-
article.
room management. In C. M. Evertson, & C.
S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom
References management: Research, practice, and con-
Agostinone-Wilson, F. (2006). Downsized dis- temporary issues (pp. 17-43). Mahwah, NJ:
course: Classroom management, neoliberal- Lawrence Erlbaum.
ism, and the shaping of correct workplace Bull, S., Feldman, P., & Solity, J. (2013).
attitude. Journal for Critical Education Policy Classroom management: Principles to prac-
Studies, 4, 129-158. tice. New York, NY: Routledge.
Apter, B., Arnold, C., & Swinson, J. (2010). A Buyse, E., Verschueren, K., Doumen, S., Van
mass observation study of student and teacher Damme, J., & Maes, F. (2008). Classroom
behaviour in British primary classrooms. problem behavior and teacher-child rela-
Educational Psychology in Practice, 26, tionships in kindergarten: The moderating
151-171. role of classroom climate. Journal of School
Banks, T., & Zionts, P. (2009). Teaching a cogni- Psychology, 46, 367-391.
tive behavioral strategy to manage emotions. Cacioppo, J. T., Gardner, W. L., & Berntson, G. G.
Intervention in School and Clinic, 44, 307-313. (1999). The affect system has parallel and inte-
Beaman, R., & Wheldall, K. (2000). Teachers’ use grative processing components form follows
of approval and disapproval in the classroom. function. Journal of Personality and Social
Educational Psychology, 20, 431-446. Psychology, 76, 839-855.
Cooper and Scott 111
Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., Gunter, P. L., Hummel, J. H., & Conroy, M. A.
& Jewkes, A. M. (2008). Effects of class- (1998). Increasing correct academic respond-
room organization on letter-word reading in ing: An effective intervention strategy to
first grade. Journal of School Psychology, 46, decrease behavior problems. Effective School
173-192. Practices, 17, 36-54.
Cameron, J., Banko, K. M., & Pierce, W. D. Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). Visible learning: A syn-
(2001). Pervasive negative effects of rewards thesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to
on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues. achievement. New York, NY: Routledge.
The Behavior Analyst, 24, 1-44. Haydon, T., & Kroeger, S. D. (2016). Active super-
Cangelosi, J. S. (2013). Classroom management vision, precorrection, and explicit timing: A
strategies: Gaining and maintaining students’ high school case study on classroom behav-
cooperation. New York, NY: John Wiley. ior. Preventing School Failure: Alternative
Colvin, G., & Scott, T. M. (2015). Managing the Education for Children and Youth, 60,
cycle of acting out behavior (2nd ed.). New 70-78.
York, NY: Corwin Press. Haydon, T., Mancil, G. R., & Van Loan, C. (2009).
Conroy, M. A., Asmus, J. M., Ladwig, C. N., Using opportunities to respond in a general
Sellers, J. A., & Valcante, G. (2004). The education classroom: A case study. Education
effects of proximity on the classroom behav- and Treatment of Children, 32, 267-278.
iors of students with autism in general edu- Idol, L. (2006). Toward inclusion of special educa-
cation settings. Behavioral Disorders, 29, tion students in general education a program
119-129. evaluation of eight schools. Remedial and
Cook, B. G., Tankersley, M., & Landrum, T. J. Special Education, 27, 77-94.
(2009). Determining evidence-based practices Jones, K. A., Jones, J. L., & Vermette, P. J. (2013).
in special education. Exceptional Children, 75, Exploring the complexity of classroom man-
365-383. agement: 8 components of managing a highly
Engelmann, S. (2007). Student-program alignment productive, safe, and respectful urban environ-
and teaching to mastery. Journal of Direct ment. American Secondary Education, 41(3),
Instruction, 7, 45-66. 21-33.
Fairbanks, S., Simonsen, B., & Sugai, G. (2008). Kern, L., & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent
Classwide secondary and tertiary tier practices strategies to promote appropriate classroom
and systems. Teaching Exceptional Children, behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44,
40(6), 44-52. 65-75.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2000). Extracting meaning Kohn, A. (1999). Punished by rewards (2nd ed.).
from past affective experiences: The impor- New York, NY: Mariner Books.
tance of peaks, ends, and specific emotions. Kohn, A. (2001). Five reasons to stop saying,
Cognition and Emotion, 14, 577-606. “good job!” Young Children, 56, 24-30.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Losada, M. F. (2005). Kriegel, O. (2016). Starting school right: How
American Psychologist, 60, 678-686. do I plan for a successful first week in my
doi:10.1037/3333-066X.60.7.678 classroom? Association for Supervision and
Freeman, J., Simonsen, B., Briere, D. E., & Curriculum Development. Retrieved from
MacSuga-Gage, A. S. (2014). Pre-service http://www.ascd.org/Publications/Books/
teacher training in classroom management: A Overview/Starting-School-Right.aspx
review of state accreditation policy and teacher Landrum, T. J., Tankersley, M., & Kauffman, J. M.
preparation programs. Teacher Education and (2003). What is special about special educa-
Special Education, 37, 106-120. tion for students with emotional or behavioral
Gable, R. A., Hester, P. H., Rock, M. L., & Hughes disorders? The Journal of Special Education,
(2009). Back to basics: Rules, praise, ignor- 37, 148-156.
ing and reprimands revisited. Intervention in Levy, S., & Vaughn, S. (2002). An observational
School and Clinic, 44, 195-205. study of teachers’ reading instruction of stu-
Gest, S. D., & Gest, J. M. (2005). Reading tutor- dents with emotional and behavioral disorders.
ing for students at academic and behavioral Behavioral Disorders, 27, 215-325.
risk: Effects on time-on-task in the class- Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (2002).
room. Education and Treatment of Children, Effective instruction for special education.
28, 25-47. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
112 Teacher Education and Special Education 40(2)
McEvoy, A., & Welker, R. (2000). Antisocial Scott, T. M., Alter, P. J., & Hirn, R. (2011). An
behavior, academic failure, and school climate examination of typical classroom context
a critical review. Journal of Emotional and and instruction for students with and with-
Behavioral Disorders, 8, 130-140. out behavioral disorders. Education and
Najaka, S. S., Gottfredson, D. C., & Wilson, D. Treatment of Children, 34, 619-642.
B. (2002). A meta-analytic inquiry into the Scott, T. M., & Hirn, R. G. (2014). Addressing
relationship between selected risk factors challenging behavior: Considering the logic of
and problem behavior. Prevention Science, 2, probability. Intervention in School and Clinic,
257-271. 49, 313-316. doi:10.1177/1053451213493169
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching chil- Scott, T. M., Hirn, R. G., & Cooper, J. T. (2017).
dren to read: An evidence-based assessment Teacher and student behaviors: Keys to suc-
of the scientific research literature on reading cess in classroom instruction. Lanham, MD:
and its implication for reading instruction— Rowman & Littlefield.
Reports of the subgroups. Retrieved from Shoenfeld, A. H. (2006). What doesn’t work:
http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/ The challenge and failure of the What
nrp/documents/report.pdf Works Clearinghouse to conduct meaningful
Nelson, J. R., & Roberts, M. L. (2000). Ongoing reviews of studies of mathematics curricula.
reciprocal teacher-student interactions involv- Educational Researcher, 35, 13-21.
ing disruptive behaviors in general educa- Simonsen, B., MacSuga, A. S., Briere, D. E.,
tion classrooms. Journal of Emotional and Freeman, J., Myers, D., Scott, T., & Sugai,
Behavioral Disorders, 8, 27-37. G. (2014). Multi-tiered support framework
Odom, S. L., Brantlinger, E., Gersten, R., Horner, for teachers’ classroom management prac-
R. H., Thompson, B., & Harris, K. R. (2005). tices: Overview and case study of build-
Research in special education: Scientific meth- ing the triangle for teachers. Journal of
ods and evidence-based practices. Exceptional Positive Behavior Interventions, 16, 179-190.
Children, 71, 137-148. doi:10.1177/1098300713484062
Oliver, R. M., & Reschly, D. J. (2010). Teacher Siperstein, G. N., Wiley, A. L., & Forness, S. R.
preparation in classroom management: (2011). School context and the academic and
Implications for students with emotional and behavioral progress of students with emo-
behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, tional disturbance. Behavioral Disorders,
35, 188-199. 36, 172-184.
Oliver, R. M., & Reschly, D. J. (2014). Special Stichter, J. P., Lewis, T. J., Whitaker, T. A.,
education teacher preparation in classroom Richter, M., Johnson, N. W., & Trussell, R. P.
organization and behavior management. In (2009). Assessing teacher use of opportunities
P. Sindelar, E. McCray, M. Brownell, & B. to respond and effective classroom manage-
Lingnugaris (Eds.), Teacher preparation in ment strategies. Journal of Positive Behavior
classroom organization and behavior man- Interventions, 11, 68-81.
agement (pp. 288-301). New York, NY: Stockard, J. (2010). An analysis of the fidel-
Routledge. ity implementation policies of the What
Partin, T. C., Robertson, R. E., Maggin, D. M., Works Clearinghouse. Current Issues in
Oliver, R. M., & Wehby, J. (2010). Using Education, 13(4). Available from http://cie.
teacher praise and opportunities to respond asu.edu/
to promote appropriate student behavior. Sutherland, K. S., Alder, N., & Gunter, P. L. (2003).
Preventing School Failure, 54, 172-178. The effects of varying rates of opportunities
Pianta, R. C. (1996). High-risk children in schools: to respond to academic requests on the class-
Constructing sustaining relationships. New room behavior of students with EBD. Journal
York, NY: Routledge. of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11,
Rozin, P., & Royzman, E. B. (2001). Negativity 239-248.
bias, negativity dominance, and contagion. Sutherland, K. S., Wehby, J. H., & Yoder, P.
Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, J. (2002). Examination of the relationship
296-320. between teacher praise and opportunities for
Scott, T. M. (2016). Teaching behavior: Managing students with EBD to respond to academic
classroom behavior with effective instruction. requests. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral
New York, NY: Corwin Press. Disorders, 10, 5-13.
Cooper and Scott 113
Walker, H., Ramsey, E., & Gresham, F. (2004). a former classroom teacher of students with emo-
Antisocial behavior in schools: Evidence- tional and behavioral disorders in Utah, Wyoming,
based practices (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: and Florida. His research interests include func-
Wadsworth. tion-based intervention planning, effective behav-
Wei, R. C., Darling-Hammond, L., & Adamson, ior prevention systems, and the effects of teacher
F. (2010). Professional development in behavior on student behavior.
the United States: Trends and challenges.
Terrance M. Scott is a professor, distinguished
Dallas, TX: National Staff Development
university scholar, and director of the Center for
Council.
Instructional and Behavioral Research in Schools
Zabel, R. H., & Zabel, M. K. (2002). Burnout
at the University of Louisville. He is a former
among special education teachers and percep-
counselor, classroom teacher, and behavior consul-
tions of support. Journal of Special Education
tant in both residential treatment and public school
Leadership, 15, 67-73.
systems.His research interests include school-wide
prevention systems, the role of insructional vari-
Author Biographies ables in managing student behavior, functional
Justin T. Cooper is an assistant professor of spe- behavioral assessment, and scientific research in
cial education at the University of Louisville. He is education.