Static torque (also called starting torque) is 1.5 times the full load torque of the motor.

This
starting torque is slightly greater than its full load, so this motor will start carrying any load that
it can supply at full power. Unlike a synchronous motor the induction motor can start with full
load attached to its shaft.

Pullout torque (also called breakdown torque or maximum torque) is the maximum possible
torque that cannot be exceeded. This torque is 2 to 3 times the full load torque of the motor

Since the induced torque is equal to 𝑃𝐴𝐺 /𝜔𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 the maximum possible torque occurs when the
air gap power is maximum since the air gap power is equal to the power consumed in the resistor
𝑅2 /𝑠 the maximum induced torque will occur when the power consumed by that resistor is
maximum

Maximum or pullout torque is

 2
3𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
2𝜔𝑠𝑦𝑛𝑐 [𝑅𝑇𝐻 + √𝑅𝑇𝐻 + (𝑋𝑇𝐻 + 𝑋2 )2 ]

Electromagnetic torque

The electromagnetic torque is the torque applied to the rotor through the interaction of
electromagnetic fields. The power used to calculate it is the mechanical output power plus the
mechanical losses. The mechanical losses are bearing friction and aerodynamic drag also known
as windage. It is also the input power minus the electrical losses in the stator consisting of copper
losses and iron losses. This assumes that the excitation power is considered separately from the
input power.

Cogging torque

Introduction

Cogging is an undesirable characteristic of some permanent magnet motor designs. It’s also
known in stepper motors as ‘detent’ or ‘no current’ torque.

Cogging torque is generated when the sides of the rotor teeth line up with the sides of the stator
teeth within the motor. We can think of permanent motors as having a magnetic circuit as well as
an electrical circuit, and when the rotor and stator teeth are aligned the ‘resistance’ in the
magnetic circuit is at its lowest.

Cogging Effects

Therefore when you rotate an unpowered motor shaft (e.g. with your fingers) you can feel it
‘jumps’ from the current point and ‘settles’ in another. The torque experienced in these jumps is
the torque required to break away from the current rotor/stator alignment and move into the next
rotor/stator alignment.

When driven, the cogging torque in motors is undesirable especially at low speed as it causes the
output torque of the motor ripple. At higher speeds, the inertia of the rotor will smooth the
rippling making it less obvious. You can see a visualisation of the cogging torque ripple in the
diagram in Figure below.
Fig.1. Cogging Torque for Typical 3 Pole DC Motor

Cogging also presents a varying torque loading when the motor is driven in reverse, and in a
(non-geared) positioning system it can also affect the positional accuracy because the rotor tends
to lock onto a position where the motor rotor and stators are aligned.

Cogging Solutions

There are a number of ways to reduce cogging, but nearly all of them by changes to the motor
design.

Coreless motors don’t suffer from cogging at all, due to them having a uniform 360-degree
magnetic stator field and no permanent magnetic circuit elements in the rotor. This means that
there is no case where the rotor and stator magnetic circuits are falling in/out of alignment.

Another method is to increase the number of poles that a motor uses. A 7 pole motor will
experience a lower cogging torque than a 3 pole, and the angle between the cogging positions
will be less.

An interesting method for higher torque multi-pole motors is to ‘skew the slot’ as illustrated
below in figure 2. These motors are also known as ‘twisted-slot’ motors, but this reduction in
cogging comes at a cost. Twisted slot motors have lower efficiencies because the ends of each
rotor slot overlap the stators slots, meaning there is less area for the magnetic fields to interact
when driven (which is also what reduces the cogging).
Fig 2. Twisted-slot Motors Reduce Cogging at the Expense of Lower Drive Efficiencies

One final method which is more advanced is possible for motors with an encoder. Knowing the
position of the motor, from the encoder it is possible to modulate the current drive to the motor
to compensate for some of the cogging torque ripples and smooth it with electronic drive
techniques.

Summary

Cogging is a necessary evil, but in many applications, it doesn’t present any significant
problems. If cogging is an issue for your application, the quickest way is to move to a coreless
design (either brushed or brushless). However, there are some more advanced techniques that we
can employ if a coreless design can’t work (e.g. the torque density of the motor is too low).

Remember that the earlier that you engage us in a design conversation the earlier we can head off
issues like cogging before they become a problem.

Shaft torque

in the case of DC motors, the actual torque available at the shaft for doing useful mechanical
work is known as Shaft Torque. It is so called because it is available on the shaft of the motor. It
is represented by the symbol Tsh. The output of the motor is given by the equation shown
below where Tsh is the shaft torque in r.p.s and the N is the rotation of the motor in r.p.m. The
shaft torque is expressed as
The difference between the armature torque and the shaft torque ( Ta– Tsh ) is known as the lost
torque and is due to the formation of the torque.