COOLING TOWER TREATMENT

The Second Law of Thermodynamics clearly states it is impossible to use heat solely to
generate work in a cyclic process. Even in the most efficient cycles, some heat must be
exhausted for the cycle to operate. In power plants, that means the primary heat sink is the
water-cooled or air-cooled steam condenser. Similar heat exchange is often required at
large, non-utility plants as well. Waterside scaling or fouling seriously impedes heat transfer
in condensers, and can literally increase large plant fuel costs by hundreds to thousands of
dollars per day.1 this article touches upon some of the important fundamentals of cooling
water treatment.

Bacteria will grow in condensers and cooling tower fill, fungi on and in cooling tower wood
and algae on wet cooling tower components exposed to sunlight. Biocide treatment is
absolutely essential to maintain cooling system performance and integrity.

Except along the coasts, the typical makeup water for cooling systems comes from a lake,
river or, sometimes, groundwater for plants with recirculating cooling systems; that is,
systems with cooling towers. Regardless of the makeup source, at plants with cooling
towers the transfer of heat from the warm condenser water is primarily due to evaporation
in the tower. Of course, this causes the concentration of impurities in the bulk water to
cycle upwards. Blowdown is the common method to prevent excess dissolved solids build-
ups. But by itself blowdown typically cannot prevent scale formation, as several compounds
will exceed saturation level and precipitate on condenser tubes and other system internals.
Some of the most common scale-forming compounds, along with their heat transfer
coefficients, are shown on page 52, along with the coefficients for several common
condenser tube materials.

Table 1 shows how insulating the typical hardness compounds as compared to the metals
they may coat. (The table also shows why copper alloys were once almost universally
selected for condenser tube material: Thick-walled tubes could be used for structural
integrity, but excellent heat transfer was still possible.) Conversely, other foulants such as
silica compounds and slime from microbiological deposits can be even worse than the
hardness deposits regarding heat transfer.

In the absence of any treatment programs, the primary scale-forming reaction produces
calcium carbonate deposits.

Ca+2 + 2HCO3- + heat → CaCO3+ CO2 + H2O

Unlike many salts, calcium carbonate is inversely soluble with temperature. Thus as
temperatures rise in a condenser or heat exchanger, the potential for CaCO3 scaling
increases.

A straightforward and often used method to reduce the potential for calcium carbonate
scaling is to treat the makeup with sulphuric acid (H2SO4), where the hydrogen ions (H+)
from the acid convert the bicarbonate to carbon dioxide (CO2). The gas exits from the
cooling tower.

H+ + HCO3- → CO2 + H2O

However, acid feed alone may not eliminate scaling. Upsets of acid feed can lead to
corrosion or scaling, and sulphuric acid introduces sulphate ions (SO4-2) to the water. Over
time, this may lead to calcium sulphate deposition. Accordingly, supplemental chemicals are
normally used in cooling tower programs to further minimize scale formation.

An early treatment method was feed of phosphates, either ortho-phosphate (PO4-2) or

phosphate complexes that would revert to ortho-phosphate, to precipitate calcium as
[Ca3(PO4)2]. These programs also provided corrosion protection because phosphate will
react with ferrous ions (Fe+2) produced at anodic sites to form a protective barrier, while
[Ca3(PO4)2] precipitates in the local alkaline environment at cathodic sites. Zinc was a
common corrosion protection supplement, as zinc ions will also precipitate (as zinc
hydroxide [Zn(OH)2] at cathodic sites) thus enhancing the barrier film.

However, even small upsets in phosphate programs can cause severe calcium phosphate
fouling. Accordingly, treatment methods evolved to more forgiving methodologies, where,
in many cases, the backbone of these programs is an organic phosphate or phosphates
(phosphonates) with a supplemental polymer to sequester and modify the crystal structure
of scale-forming ions and compounds.

Phosphonates primarily function as crystal modifiers and attach to crystals as they form, and
thus alter their structure and reduce the crystals’ adhesiveness to condenser tubes and
other surfaces.

The phosphonates shown in Figure 1 (and their cousins) have been around for years and
have worked well in a large number of applications, although excess phosphonate feed can
result in calcium-phosphonate scale formation and fouling of heat transfer surfaces.

Also, many of the early phosphonates are susceptible to rapid degradation by oxidizing
biocides such as chlorine, bromine, chlorine dioxide and so on. A newer phosphonate,
phosphino succinc oligomer (PSO), offers excellent calcium carbonate scale inhibition
combined with good resistance to degradation. Often in phosphonate programs, a few
parts-per-million (ppm) of ortho-phosphate [PO4] are used for both cathodic and anodic
corrosion inhibition, as outlined earlier. However, at the higher pH of these treatments, a
strong possibility exists for calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2] scale formation. Thus, a small
dosage of organic polymer is frequently used in the formulations to keep calcium phosphate
in suspension, such that it leaves the cooling system in the blowdown. Modern treatments
may use or rely on co- or ter-polymersin which active groups include carboxyl and sulfonic
acid ions (COO- and SO3-, respectively) and amide OC-NH2. These products are designed to
control a variety of sales. A thorough evaluation of the cooling water is necessary when
considering and implementing any of these programs.

Some facilities will not allow the use of phosphate-containing compounds, either inorganic
or organic, due to the fact that phosphate is a nutrient for microbes, including algae. In
these circumstances, an all-polymer program (perhaps with acid treatment of the makeup)
may be the only alternative to maintain reasonable cycles of concentration in the tower.
Polyacrylate and related compounds (polymers with COO- groups) can be effective at
controlling CaCO3 deposition in these situations. In once-through systems, a well-monitored
biocide program along with a polyacrylate can often keep condenser tubes in good
condition through the warm weather months.

Microbiological Fouling Control

In my 20 years of direct experience at two coal-fired power plants and a manufacturing

facility, the most common cause of reduced heat transfer in condensers and auxiliary heat
exchangers was microbiological fouling.

Cooling systems provide an ideal environment—warm and wet—for microbes. Bacteria will
grow in condensers and cooling tower fill, fungi on and in cooling tower wood and algae on
wet cooling tower components exposed to sunlight. Biocide treatment is absolutely
essential to maintain cooling system performance and integrity.

Bacteria are separated into the following three categories,

Aerobic: Use oxygen in the metabolic process

Anaerobic: Live in oxygen-free environments and use other sources, for example, sulfates,
nitrates, or other donors for their energy supply

Facultative: Can live in aerobic or anaerobic environments.

A problem with microbes, particularly many bacteria, is that once they settle on a surface
the organisms secrete a polysaccharide layer for protection. This film then will collect silt
from the water, thus growing even thicker and further reducing heat transfer. Even though
the bacteria at the surface may be aerobic, the secretion layer allows anaerobic bacteria
underneath to flourish. These bugs in turn can generate acids and other harmful compounds
that directly attack the metal. Microbial deposits also establish concentration cells, where
the lack of oxygen underneath the deposit causes the locations to become anodic to other
areas of exposed metal. Pitting is often a result, which can cause tube failure well before the
expected lifetime of the material.
Fungi will attack cooling tower wood in an irreversible manner, which can eventually lead to
structural failure. Algae will foul cooling tower spray decks, potentially leading to reduced
performance and unsafe working locations.

The core of any microbiological treatment program is feed of an oxidizing biocide to kill
organisms before they can settle on condenser tube walls, cooling tower fill, and other
locations. Chlorine was the workhorse for many years, where when gaseous chlorine is
added to water, the following reaction occurs.

HOCl, hypochlorous acid, is the killing agent. The functionality and killing power of this
compound are greatly affected by pH due to the equilibrium nature of HOCl in water.

OCl- is a much weaker biocide than HOCl, probably due to the fact that the charge on the
OCl- ion does not allow it to penetrate cell walls. The killing efficiency of chlorine
dramatically declines as the pH goes above 7.5. Thus, for the common alkaline
scale/corrosion treatment programs, chlorine chemistry may not be efficient. Chlorine
demand is further affected by ammonia or amines in the water, which react irreversibly to
form the much less potent chloramines.
Due to safety concerns, liquid bleach (NaOCl) feed has replaced gaseous chlorine at many
facilities. The major difficulty with bleach is that the product contains a low concentration of
sodium hydroxide, thus when it is injected into the cooling water stream it raises the pH, if
by only a small amount.

A popular alternative is bromine chemistry, where a chlorine oxidizer and a bromide salt,
typically sodium bromide (NaBr), are blended in a makeup water stream and injected into
the cooling water. The chemistry produces hypobromous acid (HOBr), which has similar
killing powers to HOCl, but functions more effectively at alkaline pH.

Another factor in favour of bromine is that it does not react irreversibly with ammonia or
amines. The primary disadvantages are that an extra chemical is needed and feed systems
are a bit more complex than for bleach alone.

Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) has found some application as an oxidant for two primary reasons.
Its killing power is not affected by pH, and it does not form halogenated organic
compounds. Also, chlorine dioxide is more effective in attacking established bio-deposits.
However, ClO2 is unstable and must be generated on-site, a common method being
reaction of sodium chlorite (NaClO2) and chlorine in a slipstream fed to the cooling water.

Costs are usually several times higher than for straight halogen treatment.

Other oxidants that have been tested for cooling water include hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
and ozone (O3), but the short lifespan and tendency of these chemicals to escape from
solution in the cooling tower typically make them ineffective in large cooling water systems.

A method to help control microbes is a supplemental feed of a non-oxidizing biocide.

Typically, feed is needed on a temporary but regular basis, perhaps once per week. Table 2
outlines some of the properties of the most common non-oxidizers.

Careful evaluation of the microbial species in the cooling water is necessary to determine
the most effective biocides. None of these chemicals should be used or even tested without
approval from the appropriate regulating agency. They must fit in with the plant’s National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) guidelines.

As with all chemicals, safety is an absolutely critical issue when handling the non-oxidizers.
Adherence to all handling guidelines and use of proper personal protective equipment is a
must. Many of these chemicals will attack human cells as well as those of microbes.

Chlorine Dioxide
Introduction

Chlorine dioxide, which has a long history of use in drinking water disinfection, is increasing its

share of the cooling tower microbiological control market. In large measure, this is the

result of chlorine dioxide's benefits when compared to other cooling tower biocides: it acts

rapidly; is less sensitive to cooling water contamination and pH changes; has few side

reactions, and is environmentally friendly. This brochure covers the theory and practical
application of chlorine dioxide to cooling towers. Figure 1. Heat Exchanger

Cooling Systems
A cooling system exists to remove heat from a process. This process may be a physical,

Chemical or mechanical process. Heat is picked up by a recirculated fluid from a heat exchanger.

A heat exchanger, shown in Figure 1, is a device in which the recirculated water is separated from

the hot process fluid by a thin heat-conducting surface. Heat moves from the hot process fluid

through the exchanger surface raising the temperature of the cooling water. From the heat

exchanger the hot cooling water goes to the top of the cooling tower, shown in Figure 2, it is

sprayed over the fill and slowly falls to the sump .The fan at the top of the tower induces a draft,

which causes water evaporation and cooling. From the sump cool water is pumped back to

the heat exchanger.

Cooling System Treatment

Treatment of cooling systems has two basic objectives:

To protect and extend the life of the cooling system and to insure good heat transfer and removal
any fouling of the heat exchanger surface by scale, debris, or microbiological growth decreases the
heat transfer efficiency. Corrosion destroys heat exchanger surfaces and causes leaks that result in
mixing of the cooling water and the process fluid. Consequently there are three components to a
cooling water treatment program: 1) microbiological control, 2)scale and deposit control and 3)
corrosion control. The treatment used for each component must be selected based upon its
performance and its compatibility with the other treatment components. Since biological control
chemicals can be aggressive, react with and alter other treatment chemicals, brief overview of
corrosion and scale control and the chemicals used will be given before focusing on microbiological
controls.

Corrosion Control

Corrosion is the process by which solid elemental metals or alloys are converted to oxides or other
compounds, which are frequently soluble. The rusting of iron is a typical corrosion process.
Corrosion occurs at sites that are connected by an electron (e-) flow through the metal. Different
types of chemical reactions occur at these surfaces. An oxidation reaction or the loss of metal
(Equation 1a) occurs at the anode; a reduction reaction (Equation 1b) occurs at the cathode.
Electron flow and both surface reactions are required for corrosion to occur.

1a. Anode Reaction

Fe0 Fe+2 + 2e-

1b. Cathode Reaction

O2 + 2 H2O + 4e- 4 HO-

1c. Net Corrosion Reaction

2 Fe- + O2 + 2 H2O 2 Fe(OH)2

Chemical corrosion treatments function by forming a passivating (or insulating) barrier at either the
anode or cathode surfaces. This stops the surface reactions and prevents corrosion. Common
corrosion treatment chemicals are given in Table 1.

Typical Corrosion Control Chemicals

Chemical Formula Function

Chromate NaCrO4 Anodic Protection

Molybdate NaMoO4 Anodic Protection

Poly Phosphate NaO-[PO3Na]x-Na Cathodic Protection

Silicates (Na2O)3 ·(SiO2)10 Anodic Protection

Triazoles R-C6H4N3 Copper Protection

Zinc ZnCl2 Cathodic Protection

Scale and Deposit Control

Scale and deposits have detrimental impact on the cooling systems, causing loss of heat transfer
efficiency, flow restrictions, and system pluggages. The difference between scale and deposit is
based upon their normal state in the cooling water. Dissolved solids cause scale; suspended solids
cause deposits. Scale is formed from chemicals that exhibit inverse solubility, i.e. are less soluble as
the water temperature increases and deposit on heat exchanger surfaces. The most common of
these scale compounds is calcium carbonate. The chemistry of calcium carbonate scale formation is
given in Equations 2a & 2b.

2a. HCO3 - + OH- CO3 + H2O

2b. Ca+2 + CO3 = CaCO3

Three types of chemicals are used to control scale and deposits: chelants, sequesterants, and
dispersents. Scale may be controlled Corrosion Control Corrosion is the process by which solid
elemental metals or alloys are converted to oxides or other compounds, which are frequently
soluble. The rusting of iron is a typical corrosion process. Corrosion occurs at sites that are
connected by an electron (e-) flow through the metal. Different types of chemical reactionsoccur at
these surfaces. An oxidation reaction or the loss of metal (Equation 1a) occurs at the

anode; a reduction reaction (Equation 1b) occurs at the cathode. Electron flow and both

surface reactions are required for corrosion to occur.

1a. Anode Reaction

Fe0 Fe+2 + 2e-

1b. Cathode Reaction

O2 + 2 H2O + 4e- 4 HO-

1c. Net Corrosion Reaction

2 Fe- + O2 + 2 H2O 2 Fe(OH)2

Chemical corrosion treatments function by forming a passivating (or insulating) barrier at either the
anode or cathode surfaces. This stops the surface reactions and prevents corrosion. Common
corrosion treatment chemicals are given in Table 1.

Scale and Deposit Control

Scale and deposits have detrimental impact on the cooling systems, causing loss of heat transfer
efficiency, flow restrictions, and system pluggages. The difference between scale and

deposit is based upon their normal state in the cooling water. Dissolved solids cause scale;
suspended solids cause deposits. Scale is formed from chemicals that exhibit inverse solubility, i.e.
are less soluble as the water temperature increases and deposit on heat exchanger surfaces. The
most common of these scale compounds is calcium carbonate. The chemistry of calcium carbonate
scale formation is given in Equations 2a & 2b.

2a. HCO3 - + OH- CO3 + H2O

2b. Ca+2 + CO3 = CaCO3

Three types of chemicals are used to control scale and deposits: chelants, sequesterants,

and dispersents. Scale may be controlled by any type of treatment; deposits must be controlled by

dispersents.

Microbiological control is perhaps the most important portion of a cooling tower treatment
program. Failure of the microbiological control program causes microbiogical fouling, corrosion of
metal, and rot of tower wood. Three main types of organisms are found in cooling systems: bacteria,
algae and fungi. While fungi are more complex, bacteria and algae share a common structure, which
is shown in Figure 4.

The major components of all cells are the cell wall, the cytoplasm, and the nuclear material. While
cells of higher organisms have more specialized components called organelles, understanding of
microbiocides actions can be understood using the simplest cells. To survive and grow,
microorganisms must keep their cellular material together, obtain food and excrete wastes, process
the food into energy and cellular material, and reproduce. For the simplest cells the cell wall serves
the dual purpose of keeping the cellular material together and energy synthesis. While both
cytoplasm and nuclear materials have a role in the conversion of food to cellular matter, only the
nuclear matter is involved in reproduction. Microbiocides kill microorganisms by attacking cellular
sites and inhibiting necessary cellular functions. These products can be divided into two major
groups based upon their mode of action: non-oxidizing biocides and oxidizing biocides.

Biocidal Treatment Alternatives

Non-oxidizing Biocides

The first group is the organic microbiocides. This is a diverse collection of chemicals that are typically
slow acting and are slug-fed, i.e. added weekly to achieve high concentration, then allowed to
decrease until the next addition. This type of treatment overdoses the microbiocide in the hope that
an effective residual remains until most of the microorganisms in the water are dead. The chemical
species used as non-oxidizing biocides are:

1. dibromo-nitrilo-propionamide

2. glutaraldehyde
3. quatenary ammonium salts

4. various organo-sulfur compounds.

A summary of the properties and use of non-oxidizing biocides can be found in Table 4.

Dibromo-nitrilo-propionamide (DBNPA) is a broad spectrum biocide that may be used over a pH

range of 6 to 8. This product is not compatible with hydrogen sulfide, organic contaminants, or
strong reducing agents. It achieves control by attacking the cell wall, which interfers with material
transport: and binding with protein, which interfers with energy production.

Glutaraldehyde is a broad spectrum biocide that may be used over a pH range of 6 to 14. This
product is not compatible with ammonia or amines. Like DBNPA this product achieves control by
attacking the cell wall, which interfers with material transport; and by binding with proteins, which
interfers with energy production.

Quatenary ammonium salts are narrow spectrum biocide that may be used over a pH range of 6 to
14. These salts function primarily as algicides, since the higher dosages required for bacterial control
usually cause foaming problems in the cooling tower. Anionic polymers and organic contaminants
interfer with the performance. They achieve control by attaching to and rupturing cell walls causing
lysis or the release of all cell material.

Organo-sulfur compounds of various types are used as microbiocides.

Carbamates are good bactericides and algicides that may be used over a pH range of 7 to 14, but are
not compatible with chromates or dissolved iron. They achieve control by interfering with the
electron

Basic Chemicals

transfer necessary for the cell's energy production.

Isothiazolinones are good bacteriacides, but only fair algicides. They may be used over a pH range of
6 to 9, and are incompatible with chlorine and hydrogen sulfide. Like the carbamates they achieve
control by interfering with the electron transfer necessary for the cell's energy production.

Thiocyanates are broad spectrum biocides that may be used over a pH range of 6 to 8 but can not
tolerate dissolved iron. Like the carbamates they achieve control by interfering with the electron
transfer necessary for the cell's energy production.

Thiones are broad spectrum biocides that may be used over a pH range of 7 to 14. Like carbamates,
they are compatible with chromates. They achieve control by forming products that resemble
microbial metabolites.These products interfer with the bio-chemistry of the cell resulting in its
death.

Oxidizing Biocides

The second group, the oxidizing microbiocides, includes chlorine (gas, hypochlorites, & chloro-
isocyanurates), bromine (NaBr-NaOCl, & bromo-chloro-methyl-hydantoin), and chlorine dioxide.
These microbiocides rapidly react with both microbiological species and chemicals present in the
water. This reactivity is both the strength and weakness of these products. Rapid reaction with
microbiological species means a rapid and effective kill; rapid reaction with chemicals means
consumption of the product for other than microbiological control. Since chemical reactions are
usually more rapid, only the portion of the product remaining after the chemical reaction (demand)
is complete is available for microbiological control. This portion is usually called the residual and is
related to the dose by the following Equation 3 below:

3. Residual = Dose - Demand

The demand of the cooling water depends upon 1) the level of microbiological growth in the cooling
system, 2) chemical loading from process leaks, makeup water and the air, and 3) the chemistry of
the product.

A summary of the properties and use of oxidizing biocides can be found in Table 5; discussion of the
chemistry of disinfection with oxidizing biocides follows.

Oxidizing Biocide Disinfection Chemistry

Disinfection is the process of killing microorganisms to achieve microbiological control. Three

oxidizing biocides dominate cooling tower treatment: chlorine, bromine and chlorine dioxide. The
limitations, properties and chemistry of each oxidizing biocide will be discussed.

Chlorine Chemistry

As shown in Equation 4, following, chlorine reacts with water to form hydrochloric acid and
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which is the most active biocidal form of chlorine. Likewise metal
hypochlorites (MOCl) and chloroisocyanurates are chlorine sources that react with water to form
hypochlorous acid. Their reactions are summarized in Equations 5 and 6 respectively.

4. Cl2 +H2 HCl + HOCl

5. MOCl + H2O MOH + HOCl

Ammoniacal Reactions

Chlorine (in all its forms) reacts rapidly with ammonia and amines to form chloramines, which have
1% the biocidal efficacy of hypochlorous acid. This is a stepwise reaction which forms a mixture of
mono-, di- and tri-chloramine. These reactions, which are summarized in Equations 7a-c, require 7.6
parts of chlorine for every part of ammonia-N to form trichloramine or nitrogen trichloride (NCl3).

7a. HOCl + NH3 NH2Cl + H2O

7b. HOCl + NH2Cl NHCl2 + H2O

7c. HOCl + NHCl2 NCl3 + H2O

Chlorine's Limitations

As a result of its response to pH and its reaction with ammoniacal compounds, chlorine's use in
cooling towers has limitations. Simply increasing the chlorine dosage in the presence of high pH or
ammonia levels is not advisable since this causes increased metal corrosion, wood delignification
and higher levels of total dissolved solids (TDS). In addition many water treatment chemicals are
attacked by chlorine. Among these are triazole corrosion inhibitors and the scale inhibitors EDTA,
NTA and AMP. Finally, in the presence of organic material chlorine can form THM's
(trihalomethanes). These compounds have been shown to be carcinogenic and are currently limited
to 100 ppb in drinking water.

COOLING TOWER WATER CHEMISTRY PARAMETERS

pH - 7.5 to 8.5 and if you chlorinate the system then up to 9
Conductivity - I would give TDS, rather, as 300 to 500 PPM depending on no. of COC you want to
maintain. The figures I gave are maximum limits.

Total Hardness - Not more than 100 ppm.

Chlorides - Depends upon your TDS

Silica - (Suspended)less than 5 ppm. Dissolved silica should not matter in cooling water temperature
range.

Iron - well, as low as possible

Turbidity - Mostly depends on suspended silica. However less than 10 NTU should be ok.

These are the values we follow, let's see what others say.

Believe it or not: A Neutrino is so mass less (and electrically neutral) that, a conservative estimate
states, it can pass through a 50 light year thick lead block.

A specific answer is not possible with without some additional informations. The cooling water
specification may depend on:

a)materials employed in the system. If you have are using cooling water with high resistant materials
to reach high concentration cycles you will have a different specification as when you have austenitic
steels (like AISI 304).

b) Chemical treatment used. According to the treatment your operation ranges will be modified for
example if you use dispersants the limits for some undesired particles like calcium can be higher.

c) Make up water quality. If you know your water at the inlet, some characteristics (like
temperatures etc.) and the materials you can establish you chemical conditioning program and this
will also establish the cooling water parameters.

I recommend a conditioning program unless your water and environment as close to heaven. No, I
do not work for a company that sell them

pH 8-8.5

Calcium Hardness 800-1000 mg/l

Total Alkalinity 200 mg/l

Chloride 1000 mg/l

Silica 150 mg/l

TDS 8,000 mg/l

These are typical parameters for large cooling systems with common construction materials. You
may be able to exceed some of these parameters by using various condition chemicals and
metallurgy. Also, your results may vary depending on relationships between the parameters in your
actual water analysis.

It's very difficult, if not impossible, to give definitive figures for what you request. However, I used to
work in the industrial water treatment industry supplying products and services for the control of
corrosion, deposition & bio fouling but it was some time ago! My advice may be a little out of date
but here goes....
As general rule, problems of one sort or another will be encountered if no conditioning controls are
employed.

1. Start as already advised by examining raw water quality and system operational characteristics
(temperature range, max temperatures, local environment, materials of construction, any local
discharge limits, current problems, etc.)

2. A useful tool for determining the likely problems that you may encounter can be the Langelier
Saturation Index or the Ryznar Index. This will indicate the likely scaling / corrosion potential of the
system and allow a conditioning treatment progrqamme to be tailored

3. From the above, you can also then determine the max COC (Cycles of Concentration)
allowable - remember, the prime function of a cooling system is generally not to cool
water but to save water by recycling! If water were free we'd all be using "once through"
systems.

4. The greater the COC the lower the water & chemical bill - treatment chemicals (except
biocides unless applied continuously, viz possibly chlorine / bromine) concentrate in the
process stream as do other dissolved / suspended materials.

5. Best to contact a number of suppliers regarding an inhibitor programme

6. TYPICAL (emphasised) ranges for the determinants you request:

pH - usually between 6.5 to 8.5. Lower potentially increases corrosion risk but reduces scaling,
higher favours scaling. Higher ph reduces efficacy of chlorine (hypochlorous acid is the effective
biocidal component. A high pH may also reduce the protection offered by certain forms of treatment
(e.g. zinc products)

Cond - (or Total Dissolved Solids). Higher can increase risk of corrosion but ususlly just considered as
indicator of system concentration. Figures of around 2000 to 2500 uS are probably a typical max.

T Hardness - Calcium generally more of a problem due to more ready ppt'n of calcium carbonate.
Actual value of Ca hard used in Langelier calc. Actual permissable values would vary considerable
depending upon nature of the system and other ions present (e.g. a CaCl2 brine system would be
very high indeed due to the high solubility, CaSO4 predominant would lead to typical figures of
around 2000 max applied, CaCO3 a lot less dependant mainly on system temp)

T ALk - indicator of temp hardness. Again no actual max usual, but used in Langelier calcs

Cl2 - very useful indicator of cycles of conc as usually unaffected by environment of the system. Only
really an issue with susceptible materials present (e.g. stressed stainless) when levels of 200 max
might be applicable.

Si – is not normally an issue unless particulate than becomes part of sus solids / turbidity
consideration w.r.t erosion & deposition potential. Silica based corrosion inhibitors can be used.

Fe – is undesirable due to indicator of corrosion within ferrous systems and considered as an

essential nutrient for some biofoulants. Consider that a potable water system would operate at 50
ppb target with MAC 200 ppb. probably means that a system value of 1 to 2 ppm would be OK

luissabate (Chemical)16 Oct 03 23:37

There is not only one answer to your question.

The limits are chemically related:

Total Hardness & Total Alkalinity

Mg & SiO2 (soluble)

pH & Alkalinity

Ca & SO4=

Cl- + SO4= & EC (or TDS)

From the analysis of feed water you can calculate teorical COC. Then recalculate the range for the
other parameters.

(But there is always a choice, the design of the treatment program).

e.g.:

Repo

TH= 120

TA= 300

SiO2= 70

Tower

COC <1.9 (90%x150/70)

pH < 9.2

TH = 90%xCOCx120 - 110%xCOCx120

TA= K/TH
The President

N.F.L Cooperative Store Batinda (PB)

Sub:- Regarding Transfer of LPG connection

R/Sir

I would like to inform you that my LPG gas connection having no 1280 of Gas Agency N.F.L
Cooperative Store VIJAIPUR (MP) is transferred from NFL Vijaipur to N.F.L Cooperative Store Batinda.
Kindly give me a LPG connection as per my Transfer Voucher.

Thanking You

Date- 29/09/2018

Your’s Sincerely