Welding Glossary

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X YZ

Arc blow. The deflection of an electric arc form its normal path required is obtained from an electric arc. See twin carbon arc brazing.
Arc cutting. A group of cutting processes which melts the metals to be cut with the heat of an arc between an electrode and the
base metal. See carbon arc cutting, metal arc cutting, gas metal arc cutting, gas tungsten arc cutting, plasma arc cutting, and
air carbon arc cutting. Compare with oxygen arc cutting.
Arc gouging. An arc cutting process variation used to form a bevel or groove.
Arc oxygen cutting. See preferred term oxygen arc cutting.
Automatic welding. Welding equipment which performs the welding operation without adjustment of the controls by a welding
operator. The equipment may or may not perform the loading and unloading of the work. See machine welding.

Backfire. The momentary recession of the flame into the welding tip or cutting tip followed by immediate reappearance or complete
extinction of the flame.
Back gouging. The removal of weld metal and base metal from the other side of a partially welded joint to ensure complete
penetration upon subsequent welding from that side.
Backing. A material (base metal, weld metal, carbon, or granular material) placed at the root of a weld joint for the purpose of
supporting molten weld metal.
Backing ring. Backing in the form of a ring, generally used in the welding of piping.
Base material. The material to be welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. See also base metal and substrate.
Base metal. The metal to be welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. The use of this term implies that materials other than metals are
also referred to, where this is appropriate. See also base material and substrate.
Braze welding. A welding process variation in which a filler metal, having a liquids above 840° F and below the solidus of the
base metal, is used. Unlike brazing, in braze welding the filler metal is not distributed in the joint by capillary action.
Brazing. A group of welding processes which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to a suitable temperature and
by using a filler metal having a liquids above 840° F and below the solidus of the base metal. The filler metal is distributed
between the closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint by capillary action.
Burn-thru weld. A term erroneously used to denote excessive melt-thru or a hole. See melt-thru.

Capillary action. The force by which liquid, in contact with a solid, is distributed between closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint to be
brazed or soldered.
Carbon electrode. A non-filler material electrode used in arc welding or cutting , consisting of a carbon or graphite rod, which
may be coated with copper or other coatings.
Cladding. A relatively thick layer (>0.04 in.) of material applied by surfacing for the purpose of improved corrosion resistances
or other properties (see coating, surfacing, and hard facing).
Coalescence. The growing together terms covered electrode and lightly coated electrode. See electrode.
Coating. a relatively thin layer (<0.04 in.) of material applied by surfacing for the purpose of corrosion prevention, resistance
to high temperature scaling, wear resistance, lubrication, or other purposes. See cladding, surfacing, and hard facing.
Constricted arc. (Plasma arc welding and cutting). A plasma arc column that is shaped by a constricting nozzle orifice.
Constricted nozzle. (plasma arc welding and cutting) A water-cooled copper nozzle surrounding the electrode and containing
the constricting orifice.
Consumable insert. Preplaced filler metal which is completely fused into the root of the joint and becomes part of the weld.
Covered electrode. A composite filler metal electrode consisting of a core of a bare electrode or metal cored electrode to which
a conversing sufficient to provide a slag layer on the weld metal has been applied. The conversing may contain materials
providing such functions as shielding from the atmosphere, deoxidation, and arc stabilization and can serve as a source of
metallic additions to the weld.
Crack. A fracture type discontinuity characterized by a sharp tip and high ratio of length and width to opening displacement.
Crater. In arc welding, a depression at the termination of a weld bead or in the molten welds pool.
Crater crack. A crack in the crater of a weld bead.
Cutting torch. (ox fuel gas). A device used for directing the preheating flame produced by the controlled combustion of fuel to
the arc, and to direct the flow of plasma and shielding gas.

Defect. A discontinuity or discontinuities which by nature or accumulated effect (for example, total crack length) render a part or product
unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifications. This term designates reject ability. See discontinuity and
flow.
Defective weld. A weld containing one or more defects.
Deposited metal. Filler metal that has been added during a welding operation.
Deposition efficiency. (Arc welding). The ratio of the weight of deposited metal to the net weight of filler metal consumed,
exclusive of stubs.
Deposition rate. The weight of material deposited in a unit of time. It is usually expressed as pounds per hour (lb/h).
Depth of fusion. The distance that fusion extends into the base metal or previous pass from the surface melted during welding.
Dilution. The change in chemical composition of a welding filler metal caused by the admixture of the base metal or previously
deposited weld metal in the deposited weld bead. It is normally measured by the percentage of base metal or previously
deposited weld metal in the weld bead.
Direct current electrode negative (DCEN). The arrangement of direct current arc welding leads in which the work is the
positive pole and the electrode is the negative pole of the welding arc. See also straight polarity.
Direct current electrode positive (DCEP). The arrangement of direct current arc welding leads in which the work is the
negative pole and the electrode is the positive pole of the welding arc. See also reverse polarity.
Discontinuity. An interruption of the typical structure of a weldment, such as a lack of homogeneity in the mechanical,
metallurgical, or physical characteristics of the materials or weldment. A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect. See defect and
flow.
Double-welded joint. In arc and oxyfuel gas welding, any joint welded from both sides.
Dovetailing. (Thermal spraying). A method of surface roughening involving angular undercutting to interlock the spray deposit.
Drop-thru. An undesirable sagging or surface irregularity, usually encountered when brazing or welding near the solidus of the
base metal, caused by overheating with rapid diffusion or alloying between the filler metal and the base metal.
Duty cycle. The percentage of time during an arbitrary test period, usually 10 min. during which a power supply can be
operated at its rated output without overloading.

Edge preparation. The surface prepared on the edge of a member of a welding. Edge weld. A weld in an edge joint.
Effective length of weld. The length of weld throughout which the correctly proportioned cross section exists. In a curved
weld, it shall be measured along the axis of the weld.
Effective throat. The minimum distance from the root of the weld to its face less any reinforcement. See also joint penetration.
Electrode. A component of the welding circuit through which current is conducted to the arc, molten slag, or base metal. See
arc welding electrode, bare electrode , carbon electrode, composite electrode, covered electrode, electrode slag, welding
electrode emissive electrode , flux cored electrode, lightly coated electrode, metal cored electrode, metal electrode, resistance
welding electrode, stranded electrode, and tungsten electrode.
Electrode extension. (GMAW, FCAW, SAW). The length of unmelted electrode extending beyond the end of the contact tube
during welding.
Electrode holder. A device used for mechanically holding the electrode while conducting current to it.

Face of weld. The exposed surface of a weld on the side from which welding was done.
Face reinforcement. Reinforcement of weld at the side of the joint from which welding was done. See also root reinforcement.
Face shield. (Eye protection). A device positioned in front of the eyes and a portion of, or all of, the face, whose predominant
function is protection of the eyes and face. See also hand shield and helmet.
Feed rate. (Thermal spraying). The rate at which material passes through the gun in a unit of time. A synonym for spray rate.
Filler metal. The metal to be added in making a welded, brazed, or soldered joint, See electrode, welding filler metal, diffusion
aid, solder, and spray deposit.
Filler metal start delay time. The time interval from beginning of down slope time to the stop of filler metal.
Filler metal stops delay time. The time interval from beginning of down slope time to the stop of filler metal.
Fillet weld. A weld of approximately triangular cross section jointing two surfaces approximately at right angles to each other in
a lap joint, T-joint, or corner joint.
Fusion. The melting together of filler metal and base metal (substrate), or of base metal only, which results in coalescence. See
depth of fusion.
Fusion welding. Any welding process or method which uses fusion to complete the weld.
Fusion zone. The area of base metal melted as determined on the cross section of a weld.

Gas shielded arc welding. A general term used to describe gas metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, and flux cored arc welding
when gas shielding is employed.
Gas welding. See preferred term oxyfuel gas welding (OFW).
Groove. An opening or channel in the surface of a part or between two components which provides space to contain a weld.
Groove angle. The total included angle of the groove between parts to be joined by a groove weld.
Groove face. That surface of a member included in the groove.
Groove radius. The radius used to form the shape of a J-or U-groove weld joint.
Groove weld. A weld made in the groove between two members to be joined. The standard types of groove welds are as
follows:

Double-bevel-groove weld
double-flare-bevel-groove welds.
Double-flare-V-groove weld.
Double-J-groove weld.
Double-U-groove weld.
Double-V-groove weld.
Single-bevel-groove weld.
Single-flare-bevel-groove weld.
Single-flare-V-groove weld.
Single-J-groove weld.
Single-U-groove weld.
Single-V-groove weld.
Single-groove weld.

Hard facing. A particular form of surfacing in which a coating or cladding is applied to a substrate for the main purpose of reducing wear
or loss of material by abrasion, impact, erosion, galling, and cavitations. See coating, cladding, and surfacing.

Inadequate joint penetration. Joint penetration which is less than that specified.
Inclined position. (With restriction ring). The position of a pipe joint in which the axis of the pipe joint in which the axis of the
pipe is approximately at an angle of 45° to the horizontal and a restriction ring is located near the joint. The pipe is not rotated
during welding.
Intermittent weld. A weld in which the continuity is broken by recurring unwelded spaces.
Interpass temperatures. In a multiple-pass weld, the temperature (minimum or maximum as specified) of the deposited weld
before the next pass is started.

Joint. The junction of members or the edges of members which are to be joined or have been joined.
Joint clearance. The distance between the faying surfaces of a joint. In brazing, this distance is referred to as that which is
present before brazing, at the brazing temperature, or after brazing is completed.
Joint design. The joint geometry together with the required dimensions of the welded joint.
Joint efficiency. The ratio of the strength of a joint to the strength of the base metal (expressed in percent).
Joint geometry. The shape and dimensions of a joint in cross section prior to welding.
Joint penetration. The minimum depth a groove or flange weld extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of reinforcement.
Joint penetration may include root penetration. See also complete joint penetration. See also complete joint penetration, root
penetration, and effective throat.

Kerf. The width of the cut produced during a cutting process.

Keyhole. A technique of welding in which a concentrated heat source penetrates completely through a work piece forming a
hole at the lead edge of the molten weld metal. As the heat source progresses, the molten metal fills in behind the hole to form
the weld bead.

Lack of fusion. See preferred term incomplete fusion.

Lack of joint penetration. See preferred term inadequate joint penetration.

Metal cored electrode. A composite filler metal electrode consisting of a metal tube or other hollow configuration containing alloying
ingredients. Minor amounts of ingredients providing such function as arc stabilization and fluxing of oxides may be included. External
shielding gas may or may not be used.
Metal electrode. A filler or non-filler metal electrode used in arc welding or cutting which consists of a metal wire or rod that
has been manufactured by any method and that is either bare or covered with a suitable covering or coating.
Molten weld pool. The liquid state of a weld prior to solidification as weld metal.

Nozzle. Devices which directs shielding media.

Overlap. The protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face, or root of the weld, in resistance seam welding, the area in the preceding
weld remelted by the succeeding weld.
Overlaying. See preferred term surfacing.
Oxyacetylene cutting (OFC-A). An oxyfuel gas cutting process used to sever metals by means of the chemical reaction of
oxygen with the base metal at elevated temperatures. The necessary temperature is maintained by gas flames resulting from
the combustion of acetylene with oxygen.
Oxyacetylene welding (OAW). An oxyfuel gas welding process which produces gas welding of metals by heating them with a
gas flame or flames obtained from the combustion of acetylene with oxygen. The process may be used with or without the
application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.

Parent metal. See preferred term base metal.

Partial joint penetration. Joint penetration which is less than complete. See also complete joint penetration.
Pass. See preferred term weld pass.
Peening. The mechanical working of metals using impact blows.
Penetration. See preferred term joint penetration and root penetration.
Pilot arc. (Plasma arc welding). A low current continuous arc between the electrode and the constricting nozzle to ionize the gas
and facilitate the start of the main welding arc.
Plasma. A gas that has been heated to an at least partially ionized condition, enabling it to conduct an electric current.
Plug weld. A circular weld made through a hole in one member of a lap or T-joint fusing that member to the other. The walls of
the hole may or may not be parallel and the hole may be partially or completely filled with weld metal. (A fillet welded hole or a
spot weld should not be construced as conforming to this definition.
Polarity. See direct current electrode negative, direct current electrode positive, straight polarity, and reverse polarity.
Porosity. Cavity type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment during solidification.
Position of welding. See flat position, horizontal position, horizontal fixed position, horizontal rolled position, inclined position,
overhead position, and vertical position.
Postheating. The application of heat to an assembly after a welding, brazing, soldering, thermal spraying, or cutting operation.
See postweld heat treatment.
Postweld heat treatment. Any heat treatment subsequent to welding.
Preheat. See preferred term preheat temperature.
Preheating. The application of heat to the base metal immediately before welding. brazing, soldering, thermal spraying, or
cutting.
Preheat temperature. A specified temperature that the base metal must attain in the welding, brazing, soldering, thermal
spraying or cutting area immediately before these operations are performed.
Procedures. The detailed elements (with prescribed values or ranges of values) of a process or method used to produce a
specific result.
Procedure qualification. The demonstration that welds made by a specific procedures can meet prescribes standards.
Procedure qualification record (PQR). A document providing the actual welding varibles used to produce an acceptable test
weld and the results of tests conducted on the weld for the purpose of qualifying a welding procedure specification.

Qualification. See preferred term welder performance qualification and procedure qualification.

Random intermittent welds. Intermittent welds on one or both sides of a joint in which the weld increments are deposited without
regard to spacing.

Shrinkage void. A cavity type discontinuity normally formed by shrinkage during solidification.
Size of weld.

groove weld. The joint penetration (depth of bevel plus the root penetration when specified). The size of a groove weld and its effective
throat are one and the same.

fillet weld. For equal legs fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest isosceles right triangle which can be inscribed within the fillet weld
cross section. For unequal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest right triangle which can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross
sectiion. Note: When one number greater than 105 degrees, the leg length (size) is of less significance than the effective throat which is
the controlling factor for the strength of a weld.

Slag inclusion. Nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.
Slugging. The act of adding a separate piece or pieces of material in a joint before or during welding that result in a welded
joint not complying design, drawing, or specification requirements.
Spacer strip. A metal strip or bar prepared for a groove weld and inserted in the root of a joint to serve as a backing and to
maintain root opening during welding. It can also bridge an exceptionally wide gap due to poor fitup.
Spatter. The metal particles expelled during welding and which do not form a part of the weld.
Start time. The time interval prior to weld time during which arc voltage and current reach a preset value greater or less than
welding values.
Surfacing. The deposition of filler metal (material) on a base metal (substrate) to obtain desired properties or dimensions. See
also buttering, cladding, coating, and hardfacing.

Tack weld. A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment until the final welds are made.
Thermal cutting. A group of cutting processes which melts the metal (material) to be cut. See arc cutting, oxygen cutting,
electron beam cutting, and laser beam cutting.
Throat of a fillet weld.

Theoretical throat. The distance from the beginning of the root of the joint perpendicular to the hypotenuse of the largest right triangle
that can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross section. This dimension is based on the assumption that the root opening is equal to
zero.
Actual throat. The shortest distance from the root of weld to its face.
Effective throat. The minimum distance minus any reinforcement from the root of weld to its face.

T-joint. A joint between two members located approximately at right angles to each other in the form of a T.
Toe of crack. A crack in the base metal occurring at the toe of a weld.
Toe of weld. The junction between the face of a weld and the base metal.
Travel angle. The angle that the electrode made with a references line perpendicular to the axis of the weld in the plane of the
weld axis. See also drag angle and push angle. Note: This angle can be used to define the position of the welding guns, welding
torches, high energy beams, welding rods, thermal cutting and thermal spraying torches, and thermal spraying guns.
Travel angle. (pipe). The angle that the electrode makes with a reference line extending from the centre of the pipe through
the molten weld pool in the plane of the weld axis. Note: This angle can be used to define the position of welding guns, welding
torches, high energy beams, welding rods, thermal cutting and thermal spraying torches, and thermal spraying guns.

Weld. A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either by heating the materials to suitable temperatures, with or without
the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler material.
Weldability. The capacity of a material to be welded under the fabrication conditions imposed into a specific, suitably designed
structure and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service.
Weld crack. A crack in weld metal.
Welder. One who performs a manual or semiautomatic welding operation. (sometimes erroneously used to denote a welding
machine.)
Welder certification. Certification in writing that a welder has produced welds meeting prescribed standards.
Welder performances qualification. The demonstration of a welder’s ability to produce welds meeting prescribed standards.
Welding. A materials joining process used in making welds.
Welding current. The current in the welding circuit during the making of a weld.
Welding machine. Equipment used to perform the welding operation. For example, spot welding machine, arc welding
machine, seam welding machine, etc.
Welding operator. One who operates machine or automatic welding equipment.
Welding position. see flat position, horizontal position, horizontal fixed position, horizontal rolled position, inclined position,
overhead position, and vertical position.
Welding procedure. The detailed methods and practices including all welding procedures specifications involved in the
production of a weldment. See welding procedure specification.
Welding procedure specification (WPS). A document providing in detail the required variables for a specific application to
assure repeatability by properly trained welders and welding operators.
Welding process. A materials joining process which produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable
temperatures with or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of
filler metal.
Welding rod. A form of filler metal used for welding or brazing which does not conduct the electrical current.
Welding technique. The details of a welding procedure which are controlled by the welder or welding operator.
Weldment. An assembly whose component parts are joined by welding.
Weld metal. That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
Weld pass. A single progression of a welding or surfacing operation along a joint, weld deposit, or substrate. The result of a
pass is a weld bead, layer or spray deposit.
Work angle. The angle that the electrode makes with the referenced plane or surface of the base metal in a plane perpendicular
to the axis of the weld. See also drag angle and push angle. Note: This angle can be used to defined the position of welding
guns, welding rods, thermal cutting and thermal spraying torches, and thermal spraying guns.
Work angle. (pipe). The angle that the electrode makes with the referenced plane extending from the centre of the pipe
through the molten weld pool. Note: This angle can be used to defined the position of welding guns, welding rods, thermal
cutting and thermal spraying torches, and thermal spraying guns.
 Welding Processes

Major arc welding processes are:

1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
2. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
3. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
5. Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
6. Electroslag / Electro-gas Welding (ESW/EGW)
7. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Out of the above, SMAW & GTAW are most commonly used for maintenance purpose. Hence only these two are discussed in
detail. However, brief description of other welding processes are also given

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW):

Shielded metal arc welding is an arc welding process in which coalescence of

metal is produced by heat from an electric arc that is maintained between the
tip of a coated electrode and the surface of base metal in the joint being
welded.
Arc shielding is obtained from the gases that form as a result of the
decomposition of certain ingredients of electrode coating. The shielding
employed, along with the core wire, largely controls the mechanical properties,
chemical composition and metallurgical structure of the weld metal.

However the main functions of electrode coating are:

# Provides a gas to shield the arc.

# Provides de-oxidizers and fluxing agents that prevent excessive grain growth.
# Establishes the electrical characteristics of the electrode.
# Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal from the air.
# Increase the ionization potential.

Besides these functions, some times some alloying elements are also present in the electrode coating to change the mechanical
properties of weld metal.

Types of flux/Electrode
Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional capability are greatly influenced by the chemical
composition of the flux coating on the electrode. Electrodes can be divided into three main groups:
a. Cellulosic
b. Rutile
c. Basic

Cellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are characterised by a deeply penetrating arc
and a rapid burn-off rate giving high welding speeds. Weld deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can be difficult.
These electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted for their use in the 'stovepipe' welding technique.
Features
* Deep penetration in all positions
* Suitability for vertical down welding
* Reasonably good mechanical properties
* High level of hydrogen generated - risk of cracking in the heat affected zone (HAZ)

Rutile electrodes contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating. Titanium oxide promotes easy arc ignition,
smooth arc operation and low spatter. These electrodes are general purpose electrodes with good welding properties. They can
be used with AC and DC power sources and in all positions. The electrodes are especially suitable for welding fillet joints in the
horizontal/vertical (H/V) position.
Features
* Moderate weld metal mechanical properties
* Good bead profile produced through the viscous slag
* Positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride)
* Easily removable slag

Basic electrodes contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride (fluorspar) in the coating. This
makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile coatings - this is also fast-freezing which assists welding in the vertical and
overhead position. These electrodes are used for welding medium and heavy section fabrications where higher weld quality, good
mechanical properties and resistance to cracking (due to high restraint) are required.
Features
low weld metal produces hydrogen
requires high welding currents/speeds
poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile)
slag removal difficult

Process Scope of SMAW

The shielded metal arc welding is used in joining and surfacing application on a variety of base metals. The suitability of the
process for any specific base metal depends on the availability of a covered electrode, whose weld metal has the required
composition and properties. Electrodes are available for the following base metals.
# Carbon steels
# Low alloy steels
# Corrosion resisting stainless steels
# Cast Irons
# Aluminum & Aluminum alloys
# Copper & Copper alloys
# Nickel & Nickel alloys
# Cobalt & Cobalt alloys
The Shielded metal arc welding is adaptable to any material thickness within certain practical and economical limitations. For
material thickness less than 2 mm, the base metal will melt through and molten metal will fall away before weld can be
established. Because of limited deposition rate, it is economically not advisable to go beyond 38 mm (1.5"). Most of the
Shielded metal arc welding applications is on thickness between 3 to 38 mm. One of the major advantages of Shielded metal arc
welding is that welding can be done in any position on most of materials for which this process is suitable. Therefore, it is useful
on joints that can not be placed in flat position.

Classification of SMAW Electrodes:

American Welding Society has classified the Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrodes for different materials. A numbering system
has been devised for electrodes of different materials.

AWS A5.1-81 "Specification for Carbon Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes"
This coding system starts with the prefix E, which designates an electrode. Then the next two-digit number is 60 or 70. The
number 60 indicates tensile strength of at least 60 ksi of the weld deposit. Similarly, 70 means minimum weld metal tensile
strength of 70 ksi.
The third digit indicates the position in which the electrode can be used satisfactorily, as follows:
1 F, V, OH, H
2 F, H-fillet
4 F, OH, H, V-down
the last two digits (third & fourth) taken together indicates current condition (type of current) and the type of
coating. Following table shows the complete classification, as also the significance of the last two digits.

AWS Weld Metal Type of covering Welding position Type of

Classification Strength current

E6010 60 ksi High cellulose sodium> F, V, OH, H D+

E6013 60 ksi High titania potassium F, V, OH, H D+, A

E6020 60 ksi High iron oxide H-fillet D-. A

E7018 70 ksi Low hydrogen potassium iron F, V, OH, H D+, A

powder

E7048 70 ksi Low hydrogen potassium iron F, OH, H, V-down D+, A

powder

AWS A5.5-81, "Low alloy steel covered arc welding electrodes"

This classification system is the same as for carbon steel electrodes, i.e., the prefix E designates the electrode; the first two
digits (or three of a five digit number) designate the minimum tensile strength of the weld in ksi.
The third digit (or fourth digit of a five digit number) indicates the welding position. The last two digits, taken together, indicate
the current condition as well as the coating type exactly as in the carbon steel electrode classification. In addition, a letter suffix
such as A1, B1, C2, etc., designates the chemistry of deposited metal.
AWS A5.4-81, "Specification for corrosion resisting chromium and chromium-nickel steel covered welding electrodes
This is a very exhaustive standard covering 38 classes with chromium in the weld deposit ranging from 4.0 to 32% and nickel
from nil to 37%.
In this standard, the electrodes are classified on the basis of the chemistry and mechanical property requirements of the weld
metal. The classification system consists of suffix letter E (to indicate an electrode) followed by various combination of digits and
letters to indicate the chemical composition of weld metal , which is further followed by -15 or -16 to indicate position of welding
and type of current.
In stainless steel electrode, the core wire chemistry and weld metal chemistry need not necessarily be identical. For example, an
E308 Mo electrode or an E310 electrode may have 304 SS type core wire and flux covering alloyed with requisite proportions of
Cr, Ni or Mo (if necessary). Hence it would be incorrect to verify an electrode class by analysing its core wire. One must get at un
diluted all weld metal and determine its core wire chemistry.
In designation -15 and -16, 1 indicates that the electrode (in size 4 mm and lower) can be used in all positions. The last digit 5
means that the electrode works only on DC+; 6 means the electrode works either on AC or DC+.
A few classes carry suffix L, which indicates that the carbon content in the deposits is restricted to 0.04 % maximum, in order to
obtain resistance to intergranular corrosion caused by carbide precipitation, which can occur when the carbon content is higher
and welded joint is exposed to corrosive media in service. Where suffix ?H?, it indicate high carbon content. These are meant for
the welding of high alloy, heat and corrosion resistant castings of same general composition.

Power source
Electrodes can be operated with AC and DC power supplies. Not all DC electrodes can be operated on AC power sources,
however AC electrodes are normally used on DC.

GAS TUNGDTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW):

Gas tungsten arc welding is a welding process wherein coalescence of

metals is produced by heating them with an electric arc between a tungsten
(non-consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding of electrode, the arc,
and weld zone is obtained from a inert gas or mixer of inert gases. Filler
material may or may not be added.
Gas tungsten arc welding is very good for joining thin base metals because
of excellent control of heat input. The process itself leads to high quality
welding. In very critical service application, for very expensive metals or
parts, the materials should be carefully cleaned off surface dirt, grease and
oxides in preparation for welding.

However the limitations of the process are:

1. Slower process than consumable electrodes .

2. Tungsten contamination
3. Higher equipment and welding cost than other processes.

Process Scope of GTAW

This process is being applied increasingly to industrial pipe welding and it is extensively used on almost all of the ferrous and
non-ferrous piping materials. The root passes of substantial quantities of carbon steel piping, especially those for critical
application, are welded with Gas tungsten arc welding process. For pipe wall thickness more than 1/4", it is economical to
complete the pipe weld with other welding process such as Shielded metal arc welding or Gas metal arc welding, after the gas
tungsten arc root pass has been made. Root run by GTAW is also preferred where flushing of the lines after welding is not
possible.
Virtually all the tube to tube sheet welding is done with automated gas tungsten arc welding equipment, with or without the
addition of filler material.

Tungsten Electrodes (Non-consumable)

Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are classified as pure Tungsten, Tungsten with one or two percent Thoria, Tungsten with
0.15 to 0.4 percent Zirconia. These tungsten electrodes are generally available in diameters ranging from 0.25 to 6.4 mm.
Tungsten electrodes of 99.5 % purity are less expensive and are generally used in less critical operation. A pure Tungsten
electrode has a relatively low current carrying capacity with A.C power and has a low resistance to contamination.
Tungsten electrodes with 1 or 2 % Thoria are superior to pure Tungsten electrode in several respects. They have higher electron
emmissivity, better current carrying capacity, higher life and greater resistance to contamination.
Tungsten electrodes that contain some Zirconia have properties that generally fall between those of pure and Thoria containing
Tungsten electrodes.

GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW):

 Gas metal arc welding is an electric arc welding process, which produces
coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc established between a
continuous filler (consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding of arc and
molten weld pool is obtained entirely from an externally supplied gas or gas
mixture.
All commercially important metals such as carbon steel, stainless steel,
aluminium, and copper can be welded with this process in all positions by
choosing appropriate shielding gas, electrode and welding conditions. The
vast majority of gas metal arc welding applications requires the use of
direct current reverse polarity (electrode positive). This type of electric
connection yields a stable arc, smooth metal transfer, relatively low spatter
loss and good weld bead characteristics for the entire range of welding
current used.

GMAW is operated in semiautomatic, machine and automatic modes. It is utilised particularly in high production welding.

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW):

Submerged arc welding produces coalescence of metal by

heating them in an arc (or arcs) maintained between a bare
metal electrode (or electrodes) and the work. A blanket of
granular, fusible material placed over the welding area shields
the arc. Filler metal is obtained from the electrode and some
times from a supplementary welding rod or other metallic
addition.

The feature that distinguishes submerged arc welding from

other arc welding processes is the granular material that
covers the welding area. In common use of this material is
termed as flux although it performs several important
functions in addition to those strictly associated with a fluxing
agent.

SAW is used extensively in ship and barge building, railroad

car fabrication, pipe manufacturing, and the fabrication of
structural members where long welds are required.

FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW):

Flux cored arc welding is an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metal by heating them with an arc between a
continuous filler metal (tubular and consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is provided by a flux contained within the
tubular electrode and may be supplemented by an externally supplied gas.
The feature that distinguishes the flux cored arc welding process from other arc welding process is the enclosure of fluxing
ingredients within a continuously fed electrode. The benefit of flux cored arc welding are achieved by combining two general
features.

1. The productivity of continuous welding.

2. Metallurgical benefits that can be achieved from a flux.

FCAW has found wide application in shop fabrication, maintenance and field erection work.

ELECTROSLAG / ELECTRO-GAS WELDING (ESW/EGW):

 Electroslag welding is a welding process producing
coalescence of metal with molten slag, which melts the filler
metal, and the surface of the work to be welded. The molten
slag shields the molten weld pool, which move along the full
cross- section of the joint as welding progresses.
The process is initiated by starting an electric arc between the
electrode and joint bottom. Granulated flux is then added and
melted by the heat of arc. As soon as a sufficient thick layer of
molten slag is formed, all arc action stops and the welding
current passes from the electrode through the slag by
electrical conduction.

Welding is started in a sump or on a starting tab to allow the process to stabilise before the welding reaches the work. Heat
generated by the resistance of molten slag, to the passage of welding current, is sufficient to fuse the edge of the work piece
and the welding electrode.
The flux is a major part in successful operation of the Electroslag welding process. Flux composition is of at most importance
since its characteristics determines how well the process operates. During the welding process, the flux is melted into slag that
transforms the electrical energy into thermal energy to melt the filler metal and base metal.
This welding process is extensively used for welding of thicker sections. Process is used in structural, ship, pressure vessels and
castings welding.

PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW):

Plasma arc welding is an arc welding process where coalescence of

metals is produced by heating with a constricted arc between an
electrode and the work piece (transferred arc) or between the electrode
and constricting nozzle (non-transferred arc). Shielding is generally
obtained from the ionised gas issuing from the orifice of the constricting
nozzle.
Low-current plasma arc welding applications are:
1. Thin wire mesh screen filters.
2. Small wire butt welds.
3. Relay case fabrication.

4. Bellows assemblies.

High-current plasma arc welding applications are:

1. Stainless steel and titanium tubing (longitudinal welds).

2. Girth joints in pipe fabrication.
3. Missile tankages.
4. Turbine engine components.

Welding of Carbon Steel

Carbon steel represents a broad range of steel that contain 1.0 % Carbon (maximum), 1.65 % Manganese
(maximum) and 0.6 % Silicon (maximum). These steels do not contain alloying elements like Chromium,
Nickel or Molybdenum. Carbon steels are sub-divided into four categories based on their carbon content.
Typical use and their weldability of these steels are as follows:
Common Carbon Typical Use Weldability
 Name content
(%)

Low Carbon 0.15 Special plates and Excellent

Steel maximum shapes, sheet,
strip,

Mild Steel 0.15 - 0.30 Structural shapes, Good

plates and bar

Medium 0.30 - 0.50 Machine part and Fair (preheat and post
Carbon tools weld heat is normally
Steel required)

High 0.50 - 1.0 Spring, dies, rails Poor (preheat post weld
Carbon heat and low hydrogen
Steel welding process is
required)

Main problems that are associated with welding of carbon steel are:

a. Martensite transformation:
Martensite transformation is more predominant in steels where carbon percentage is more than 0.35 %. Martensite is
the supersaturated solution of carbon in alpha iron. It is very hard and brittle. Martensite formation from austenite is
accompanied by increase in specific volume (about 3 percent) This is the main reason why larger stresses are set up in
weldment and crack can occur.
To avoid, this preheating is done prior to welding and post welding heat treatment is also done.
b. Hot Cracking:
The other problem in plain carbon steel is due to presence of sulphur in steel. In steel sulphur easily forms iron
sulphide, which has a very low melting point, which remains liquid even when whole structure is solidified.
To avoid this we add Mn so that sulphur will form MnS because thermodynamically the formation of MnS is more
favourable than FeS. However in absence of Mn the maximum allowable sulphur is 0.04 %. Phosphorous has also
similar effect as sulphur. But it if both sulphur and phosphorous are present we use high oxide (FeO) electrodes. These
electrodes have oxygen percentage of 0.2 %.
c. Hydrogen Induced Cracking:
Such cracking is also known as under bead cracking or delayed cracking. It generally occurs at temperature below 100
0
C immediately upon cooling or after a period of several hours. The time depends on type of steel, magnitude of welding
stress and hydrogen content of weld and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ). Hydrogen induced cracking in welded joints may
be caused by stresses developed from transformation hardening or by excessive stresses imposed upon the joint. Such
cracking is associated with the combined presence of three conditions,
1. Presence of Hydrogen in Steel.
2. A Susceptable microstructure, that is partly or wholly martensitic.
3. A Tensile Stress at the sensitive location
Hydrogen induced cracking will not take place if any one of these conditions is absent or at low level.
d. Strain Ageing:
At certain position in solid's, nitrogen atoms diffuse to dislocations and cause segregation. This segregation of nitrogen
atoms block the movement of dislocation, preventing the plastic deformation and leading to embrittlement. This
phenomenon occurs at 2500C. Strain ageing is avoided by heating the weld at 600 0C.
Although carbon is the most significant alloying element affecting weldability, the effects of other elements can be
estimated by equating them to an equivalent amount of carbon. Thus, the effect of total content can be expressed in
terms of a carbon equivalent.

CE = %C + (%Mn + %Si)
4

SELECTION OF ELECTRODE & FILLER WIRE

Selection of welding electrode (or filler wire) is based on compatibility between base metal to be joined and service requirement
of the weldment. Carbon steel can be welded with essentially any classification of covered carbon steel electrodes within certain
limitation and service requirement. These limitations are the carbon and strength level of the base metal and the restrain
condition. The essential factors in selection of electrodes for carbon steels are:
a. Mechanical Property
b. Material Composition
c. Cost

a. Mechanical Property:
Carbon steel electrodes classified in the type E60xx series may be used for welding lower carbon content steel. Where
higher strengths are required, electrodes possessing higher weld metal deposits strength i.e. E70xx series, are used.
For full penetration welds, an electrode must be selected to ensure compatibility with the minimum strength level of the
base metal. For fillet welds, the matching of minimum strength properties may be compromised to the extent of
modifying the weld size.
b. Material Composition:
 Carbon steel which posses less than 0.3 % Carbon are readily weldable with any class of Low Carbon Steel electrode.
Steels which posses a Carbon content on the range of 0.3 % to 0.6 % Carbon have restriction in the applied welding
procedure and electrode selection. In this range, low Hydrogen electrodes are necessary. Preheating may be required
depending on carbon content, condition of restraint and service temperature. Post weld heat treatment may be required
depending upon service requirement. With Carbon content above 0.6 %, the welding procedure requires the same
precautions, but uses higher preheat temperature. Carbon steels containing over 0.05 % Silicon require low Hydrogen
electrode.
c. Cost:
The principal factors when considering welding cost is deposition rate. This influences overall welding cost in two areas:
cost of labour and productivity. The higher the deposition rate, the greater the number of inches of weld that can be
produced per unit of time. Deposition rate, however, with its effect upon welding travel speed should not exceed the
maximum travel speed capability required to maintain quality welds.

QUALITY OF CARBON STEEL WELDS:

The welds in plain carbon steel can be divided into two groups depending upon their tensile strength.

1. Welds of high yield and ultimate tensile strengths.

This type of welds are produced by coated electrode or Oxy-Acetylene welding because these processes have high rate
of cooling thus having fine grain size which lead to high yield strength and high ultimate tensile strength.

2. Welds of low yield and ultimate tensile strength.

These types of welds are produced by submerged arc welding. In submerged arc welding whole weld metal is
submerged in flux blanket. So heat dissipation is low leading to low cooling rate and thus large grain size, low yield and
ultimate tensile strength of the.

Welding of Alloy Steels

Alloy steels of these family contain 0.5 to 9.0 % of Chromium and 0.5 or 1 % Molybdenum. The carbon content is normally less
than 0.20 % for good weldability, but the alloys have high hardenability. The chromium provides improved oxidation and
corrosion resistance and molybdenum increases strength at elevated temperatures. Chromium-Molybdenum (Cr-Mo) Steels are
widely used in petroleum industries and in steam power generation and elevated temperature application.

The Cr-Mo steels are readily joined by arc welding and brazing processes commonly used for carbon steels. The combined carbon
and alloy content of these steels is sufficient to promote the formation of Martensite from austenite on rapid cooling which may
be hard and brittle. Steels in this group are also very sensitive to hydrogen induced cracking. Therefore, the welding process and
procedures should minimise the presence of hydrogen during welding as well as the formation of Martensite. To avoid these
problems preheating and post weld heat treatment are done. Extent of preheat and post weld heating is decided by "Carbon
Equivalent" in the particular steel.

CARBON EQUIVALENT:
Although Carbon is the most significant alloying element affecting weldability. The effects of other elements can be estimated by
equating them to an equivalent amount of carbon. Thus the effect of total alloy content can be expressed in terms of carbon
equivalency (CE)

CE = %C + %Mn + {%Cr+%Mo+%V} + {%Si + %Ni + %Cu}

6 5 15

Steels having CE less than 0.35 usually require no preheating and post heating. Steels having CE between 0.35 and 0.55 usually
require preheating, and steels with CE more than 0.55 require both preheating and post heating. Because the carbon equivalent
is calculated from base metal composition and includes no other variable, it is only an approximate measure of weldability or
susceptibility to weld cracking. Section thickness or weldment restraints are of equal or greater importance.

Three major steps are invloved in the welding of the Low Alloy Steels. These are:

a. Preheating
Preheating is required in most cases to prevent hardening and cracking. Recommended minimum preheat and inter
pass temperatures for various thickness of Cr-Mo steels are given bellows.
Nominal Wall Thickness Minimum Preheat & Interpass
Base Metal Group
(mm) Temperature (0C)
<12.7 mm 10
Alloy Steel Cr <0.5%
>12.7 mm 80
 Alloy Steel
All 150
0.5% < 2%<>
Alloy Steel
All 175
2.25% < 10%<>
b. The method of heating should be one that will provide a uniform temperature along the entire joint length before
welding is started. Also the width of the heated area should be sufficient to ensure that the temperature is nearly
uniform through out the thickness.
c. Selection of Electrode/Filler Material
The filler metal should have the same nominal composition as the base metal, except for the carbon
content. Normally the carbon content is lower than that of the base metal. Suggested welding
consumables are given below.
Alloy Steel Electrode for SMAW * Electrode for GTAW #
1
/2Cr - /2Mo
1
E80XX-B1 ER80X-B2L

1Cr -1/2Mo, E80XX-B2 ER80X-B2

11/4Cr -1/2Mo E80XX-B2L ER80X-B2L

2Cr -1/2Mo, E90XX-B3 ER90X-B3

21/4Cr - 1Mo E90XX-B3L ER90X-B3L

E90XX-B3 ER90X-B3
3Cr-1Mo
E502-XX ER502
5Cr-1Mo E502-XX ER502
ER502
7Cr-1/2Mo E7Cr-XX
ER505
9Cr-1Mo E505-XX ER505
d. * Shielded Metal Arc Welding Electrodes from AWS Specification A5.4-78 or A5.5-81.
# Welding Rod or Filler material from AWS Specification A5.9-77 or A5.28-79.
e. Post Weld Heat Treatment
A stress relief heat treatment is used to reduce welding stresses and also to increase the ductility and toughness of the
weld metal and heat affected zone (HAZ).
The welded joint or the entire weldment is heated to some
temperature below the temperature at which the steel will begin transformation to austenite.
Recommended temperature and holding time for alloy steels are given below:

Nominal Wall Recommended Holding Time Minimum

Base Metal Group
thickness (mm) Temperature Range (hr/Inch of wall Thk) Holding Time
Alloy Steel <19 None None None
Cr 1/2 % >19 595-720 OC 1 1

Alloy Steel <12.7 None None None

1
/2% < 2%<> >12.7 705-745 OC 1 2
Alloy Steel
All 705 OC 1 2
21/4<CR<10%< td>

Welding of Stainless Steels

Stainless steels are mainly classified in three groups.

1. Austenitic Stainless Steel
2. Ferritic Stainless Steel
3. Martensitic Stainless Steel

1. Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel

Austenitic stainless steels, except for the free machining, are more weldable than ferritic and martensitic stainless steel.
The welded joint of this steel is characterised by high degree of toughness. Satisfactory welds are readily obtained if the
welding condition adopted are competent enough with physical and mechanical properties of austenetic stainless steel
being welded. However, the problems which arise during welding of Austenitic stainless steels are:
a. Carbide Precipitation
This is also known as "sensitisation" of stainless steel. At high temperature 650 0C Chromium carbide is formed, which is
very hard and remains in weld as non-metallic inclusion. So in weld and HAZ a Chromium depleted zone is formed and
corrosion resistance property of stainless steel is reduced in this zone. To prevent carbide precipitation, the following
precautions are to be taken.
# Heat the welded structure to about 1100 0C and quench is taken.
 # Add Niobium or Tantalum or both in steel
# Use a steel of very low carbon (C<0.015%).
b. Microfissuring or Hotcracking
In austenitic stainless steel microfissuring is predominantly related to microstructure of weld metal. In the case of
austenitic stainless steel weld metal with wholly austenitic structure is more susceptible to microfissuring than weld
metal with a duplex structure of delta ferrite in austenite. This can be reduced by small increase of carbon / nitrogen or
a substantial increase in manganese.
It is important to minimise amount of stress imposed on austenitic stainless steel weld metal as it cools from solidus
down to about 950 0C. It is in this temperature range that weld metal is most susceptible to microfissuring.
c. Under Bead Cracking
Under bead cracking often occurs when thickness is more than 3/4" and particularly if weld metal contains Cb or Ta.
The cracking is more susceptible if the Columbium forms Columbium carbide leading to cracking beneath the weld.

Electrode or Filler material Selection

Recommended
Recommended Electrode for
Type of Austenetic Stainless Steel Filler Material
SMAW
for GTAW
301, 302, 304, 305, 308 E308 ER308
302B E309 ER309
304L E308L, E347 ER308L, ER347
303, 303(Se) E312 ER312
309, 309(Se) E309 ER309
310, 310S E310 ER310
316 E316 ER316
316L E316L, E318 ER316L, ER318
317 E317 ER317
321, 347, 348 E347 ER347
2. Preheating is not required in austenitic stainless steel.
Stress relieving or post weld heating could be used to take care of stress dilution and stability. This is carried out at
660 OC for 4 hrs per inch thickness. Though it is not necessary, but desirable. But this could lead to carbide
precipitation in the weld. (back)
3. Welding of Ferritic Stainless Steel -
Ferritic stainless steel is less weldable than austenitic stainless steel but better weldable than martensitic stainless steel.
The main problems involved in welding of this type of stainless steel are-
a. Martensite Formation
Although most ferritic stainless steels have composition that ensures a ferritic structure, variation in composition in
regular limits can result in formation of martensite in a matrix of ferrite. the martensite reduces both ductility and
toughness of steel.
b. Grain Coarsening
In addition to formation of martensite, heating to temperature above 950 0C results in grain coarsening, which also
reduces the ductility and toughness of steel. Although annealing can eliminate martensite, the coarsened ferrite grain
remains unaffected.

Three major steps are invloved in the welding of the Ferritic Stainless Steels. These are:

1. Preheating
Preheating of ferritic stainless steel is essential. Recommended temperature range for ferritic stainless steel is 175 0C to
250 0C. The need for preheating is decided to a large extent by the composition, mechanical properties and thickness of
steel being welded. Ferritic stainless steel less than 1/4" thickness are much less likely to crack in welding when
thickness is more than 1/4" thick. However other factors like type of joint, joint location, restraints imposed by clamping
and jigging, welding process and rate of cooling from welding temperature also affect the weld cracking.

2. Selection of Electrode or Filler Material

Type of Ferritic Stainless Recommended Electrode or
Steel Filler Material
405 405(Cb), 430
405, 430 308, 309, 310
430F, 430F(Se) 308, 309, 312
430, 430F, 430F(Se) 430
440 440, 308, 309, 310
4. Thus we see that both Ferritic & Austenitic stainless filler materials are used in the arc welding of ferritic stainless steel.
Ferritic stainless steel rods give similar properties as the parent metal but the use of austenetic stainless steel rods
produces welds of higher ductility.

3. Post Weld Heat Treatment

The temperature range for post weld heat treatment of ferritic stainless steel is 800 0C to 850 0C, which is safely below
the temperature for austenitic transformation. Annealing transforms a mixed structure to wholly ferritic structure and
restores the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance, that may have been adversely affected by high
temperature encountered during welding. Annealing, except for its inability to refine coarsened ferrite grain, is generally
 beneficial. However annealing has disadvantage of consuming time and heat energy as well as producing scale on
surface. (back)
5. Welding of Martensitic Stainless Steel -
Welding of this type of stainless steel is more difficult than other stainless steels. Martensitic being hard phase, its weld
metal is most susceptible to cracking during solidification. Preheating and post weld heating are normally done during
welding of these stainless steels.
Three major steps are invloved in the welding of the Ferritic Stainless Steels. These are:

1. Preheating
For preheating following guidelines are used.
a. Carbon below 0.1% - in general neither preheating nor post weld heating are required.
b. Carbon 0.1 to 0.2 % - preheating of 250 0C is done.
c. Carbon 0.2 to 0.5% - preheating of 300 0C is done.
d. Carbon more than 0.5% - preheating of 350 0C is done.

2. Selection of Electrode or Filler Material

Austenitic stainless steel filler materials are often used to weld the martensitic stainless steels. These welding rods
provide a weld deposit of somewhat lower strength but with greater toughness. However, 410 and 420 are only
standard martensitic stainless steel available in the form of electrode.

3. Post Weld Heat treatment

Post weld heat treatment in martensitic stainless steel are carried out to reduce hardness of the weld metal and heat
affected zone (HAZ). Some time it is also called annealing.
Normally two type of post weld annealing are done, namely "subcritical annealing" and "full annealing". The
temperature range for subcritical annealing and full annealing of martensitic stainless steels are as follows: (back)

Type of Martensitic Sub-critical Annealing Full Annealing Temperature

Stainless Steel Temperature (OC) (OC)
403, 410, 416 690 - 800 850-880
420 750-780 880-900
404 675-710 --
431 625-675 --
440A, 440B, 440C 690-800 880

Common Welding Defects

In Welding, the main objective is to obtain sound, defect-free welded joints, but this is not always easy to attain. It has to be
admitted that perfect welds are almost impossible to obtain on a production scale. Normal welds always contain minute slag
inclusions or porosity as revealed in non-destructive testing. Such small imperfections, which cause some variation in the normal
average properties of the weld-metal, are called discontinuities. When a discontinuity is large enough to affect the function of the
joint, it is termed a defect. Defects are caused by substandard welding consumables, inadequate welding procedures, insufficient
workmanship, lack of cleanliness, unfavourable properties of the base metal, and extraneous agencies such as low ambient
temperature and atmosphere. Even when all these factors are taken care of, imperfections can and do occur and they may be
allowed or removed and repaired as dictated by the nature of the fabrication and its intended service.
Having realised that consistent production of radiographically perfect welded joints is an expensive exercise and gouging out and
repairing internal welding defects increases fabrication costs considerably, standard codes do permit limited levels of
imperfections based on fracture mechanics approach, taking into consideration the service conditions of the fabrication. Different
types of welding Defects are:

1. Lack of Penetration
2. Lack of Fusion
3. Undercut
4. Slag Inclusion
5. Porosity
6. Crack
7. Faulty Weld Size & Profile
8. Distortion

1. Lack of Penetration:
This defect occurs at the root of the joint when the weld-metal fails to reach it or the weld-metal fails
to fuse completely with the root faces of the joint. As a result, a void remains at the root zone, which
may contain slag inclusions. In a fillet weld, poor penetration at the root zone can give rise to
cracking. Incomplete penetration is caused by incorrect size of electrode in relation to the form of
joint, low welding current or inaccurate joint preparation and fit-up. It occurs more often in vertical
and overhead positions. The figure shown below are depicts the various types of Lack of penetration
caused by different parameters.
 a b

c d
a) Excessively thick root face
b) Too small a root gap
c) Misplaced welds
d) Power input too low
e) Arc (heat) input too low

e
2. In a butt weld where access is possible only from one side, adequate root penetration is ensured by using a temporary
or permanent backing and depositing the first pass with a sufficiently high current. When a butt joint is to be welded
from both sides, care must be taken to chip out or flame gouge the back of the first run before depositing the back run
from the second side of the joint. The groove formed after chipping or gouging must reach the sound metal and be wide
enough to permit proper manipulation of the electrode and ensure full penetration of the weld-metal while the backing
run is being deposited.
In a fillet weld, adequate root penetration is ensured by using the correct size of electrode (4 or 5 mm diameter) and
sufficiently high current, and directing the arc towards the root during deposition of the root pass. The use of a small
electrode (3.15 or 2.5 mm diameter) at relatively low current does not necessarily mean improved penetration.
Rectification of this defect is a very costly proposition, because it requires removal of the entire thickness of the weld
and rewelding. Care must be taken that after removing the defective metal, a sufficiently wide groove remains, in which
the electrode can be correctly manipulated.
3. Lack of Side Wall Fusion:
Lack of fusion is defined as a condition where boundaries of unfused metal exist between the weld-
metal and base metal or between adjacent layers of weld-metal. The term should not be confused
with lack of penetration.
This defect is caused by the presence of scale, dirt, oxide, slag and other non-metallic
substances, which prevent the underlying metal from reaching the melting
temperature. Improper deslagging of a weld pass also causes it, before an adjacent or
overlapping pass is deposited. When individual passes are badly placed or their
surfaces are rough, thorough deslagging becomes difficult. In such cases, the weld
should be chipped or gouged before the next pass is deposited. One typical example of
lack side wall to weld metal pool fusion is shown here.

4. To prevent the occurrence of this defect, the following steps should be taken:
a. Keep Joint surfaces free
b. Use adequate welding current
c. Deslag each weld pass throughly
d. Place weld passes correclty next to each other.
5. Undercut:
This defect appears as a continuous or discontinuous groove at the toes of a weld pass and is located on the base metal
or in the fusion face of a multipass weld. It occurs prominently on the edge of a fillet weld deposited in the horizontal
position.
It is usually caused by excessive welding current. It may also result from too high a speed of arc travel, wrong electrode
angle or excessive side manipulation. In special cases, it is caused by damp or improperly formulated electrodes.
The defect is rectified by filling up the undercut groove with a weld pass. If undercut is deep and contains slag, it should
be chipped away before rewelding. If the rectification is being carried out on thick joints and on high-tensile steels, the
welding procedure including preheating should correspond to the recommended procedure for the particular steel.
6. Slag Inclusion:
Non-metallic particles of comparatively large size entrapped in the weld-metal are termed as slag inclusion. The term
should not be confused with non-metallic inclusions, which result from the metal-slag reactions in the molten weld pool
and are finely dispersed throughout the weld. Slag inclusions are detected by the normal non-destructive testing
methods, while non-metallic inclusions are observed in the weld microstructure at high magnification.
Slag inclusion usually occurs in multipass welds due to imperfect cleaning of the slag between the deposition of
successive passes. Heavy mill scale, loose rust, dirt, grit and other substances present on the surface of the base metal
or bare electrode may also cause it. Typical slag inclusions are shown below
 Slag in between the passes Typical rediograph showing slag inclusion
7. To prevent slag inclusion, following steps are taken:
a. Use proper welding consumables.
b. Keep joint surfaces (especially gas cut surfaces) and bare filler wires Perfectly clean .
c. Avoid undercuts and gaps between deposited passes .
d. Clean the slag thoroughly between weld passes.
To rectify this defect, the portions of weld-metal, which contain slag inclusions, must be removed and then filled with
sound weld-metal.
8. Porosity:
The presence of a group of gas pores in a weld caused by the entrapment of gas
during solidification is termed as porosity. The pores are in the form of small
spherical cavities, either clustered locally or scattered throughout the weld
deposit. Sometimes the entrapped gas gives rise to a single large cavity, which is
termed as a blowhole. In some rarer cases, elongated or tubular gas cavities are
presented. These are referred to as piping or wormholes.

9. Porosity is caused by:

# Chemically imperfect welding consumables, for example, deficient in deoxidisers.
# Faulty composition of the base metal or electrode wire, for example, high sulphur content.
# Oil, grease, moisture and mill scale on the joint surface .
# Excessive moisture in the electrode coating or submerged-arc flux .
# Inadequate gas shielding or impure gas in a gas-shielded process .
# Low welding current or too long an arc.
# Quick freezing of the weld deposit.
Presence of small, finely dispersed porosity is normally not expected to affect the static and even dynamic properties of
a welded joint. However, excessive porosity, blowholes or piping must be guarded against, as they seriously impair
these properties. Their presence is detected by the conventional NDT methods. The defective portions must be removed
and rewelded.
10. Crack:
Crack is defined as a discontinuity caused by the tearing of the metal while in a plastic condition (hot crack), or by
fracturing of the metal when cold (cold crack). It represents a failure under stress of a metal when it is behaving in a
brittle manner, i.e. it is inclines to fracture without deformation.
Cracking can occur in the weld-metal, at the fusion line or in the base metal. Cracks may be classified according to
location and direction of line and they may range in size from large cracks which can be seen by the naked eye (called
macrocracks), to extremely small fissures which are detected with the aid of a microscope (called microcracks).
Hot Cracks
These cracks occur at temperatures above 540 ° C, and when observed
under the microscope, are to have travelled across the boundaries
between the grains (intergranular). If the crack has extended to the
surface, the fractured surface is found to be coated with blue scale or
possibly black scale.
A typical example is FeS (iron sulphide). In a solidifying steel rich in
sulphur, the last trace of the liquid containing FeS will not solidify until
about 980 ° C. Such hot shortness caused by sulphur can be avoided by
having enough Mn in the steel, because sulphur has higher affinity for
this element than for Fe.

11. Hot cracks can also occur in the HAZ of the base metal when it contains complex carbides or intermetallic compounds of
lower melting points. Such cracks have been reported in the welding of Cr-Mo steel tubing having the following
composition: 0.35 % C, 1.0 % Cr and 0.20 % Mo.

Cold Cracks
 These cracks usually occur in the HAZ of the base metal, when this
zone becomes hard and brittle due to its rapid cooling after the weld-
metal has been deposited, and sufficient hydrogen has been absorbed
by the weld-metal from the arc atmosphere. Joint restraint also
contributes to its occurrence. Cold cracking is also referred to as
hydrogen-induced cracking. Cold cracking can be prevented by using
# A steel of lower carbon equivalent
# Higher heat input during welding
# Preheating
# Low hydrogen welding consumables.

12. Crater Crack

This crack tends to occur in the crater formed at the end of a weld bead, because the crater cools at a faster rate than
the rest of the bead, and because the crater solidifies from all sides towards the centre. Hence it is a form of shrinkage
cracking. Crater cracking is encouraged by elements like C, S and Cb, which are prone to segregation. To reduce the
possibility of its occurrence, the crater must be filled up properly with the weld-metal and the electrode withdrawn
gradually.
13. Faulty Weld Size and Profile:
A weld, which is otherwise correctly deposited and formed, is termed faulty when it is different in shape and/or size
from that specified.
A butt weld is considered faulty if it has lack of reinforcement, excessive reinforcement or irregular profile. When the
face of a weld lies below the parent plate surface, the weld is said to have lack of reinforcement. On the other hand,
when the weld-metal is deposited in excess of the reinforcement required or specified, the weld is considered as having
excessive reinforcement.
All these faults arise from the use of an incorrect welding procedure and will not occur if the following factors are
correctly specified and follow:
# joint preparation and fit-up;
# electrode size and welding current;
# number and locations of runs and
# welding speed or length of run per electrode.
In the case of a fillet weld, faulty weld size refers to undersize weld or weld of variable size as measured by the
minimum leg length. Faulty profile refers to excessive concavity or convexity, unequal leg lengths and irregular weld
face.
Excessive concavity or convexity may be caused by an incorrectly formulated electrode, or by use of incorrect welding
current.
14. Distortion:
Because a weldment is locally heated (by most welding processes), the temperature distribution in the weldment is not
uniform and changes take place as welding processes. Typically, the weld metal and the base metal heat-affected zone
immediately adjacent to it are at a temperature substantially above that of the unaffected base metal. As the molten
pool solidifies and shrinks, it begins to exert shrinkage stresses on the surrounding weld metal and heat-affected zone
area. When it first solidifies, this weld metal is hot, relatively weak, and can exert little stress. As it cools to ambient
temperature, however, the shrinkage of the weld metal exerts increasing stress on the weld area and eventually
reaches the yield point of the base metal and the heat-affected zone .
Residual stresses in weldments have two major effects. First, they produce distortion, and second, they may be the
cause of premature failure in weldments. Distortion is caused when the heated weld region contracts nonuniformly,
causing shrinkage in one part of the weld to exert eccentric forces on the weld cross section.
The distortion may appear in butt joints as both longitudinal and transverse shrinkage or contraction, and as angular
change (rotation) when the face of the weld shrinks more than the root.
Distortion in fillet welds is similar to that in butt welds: transverse and longitudinal shrinkages as well as angular
distortion result from the unbalanced nature of the stresses in these welds.

Control of distortion can be achieved by a number of techniques. The most commonly used are those which control the
geometry of the weld joint, either before or during welding. Examples of these techniques include prepositioning the
workpieces prior to welding so that weld distortion leaves them in the desired final geometry, or restraining the
workpieces so they can not move (and distort) during welding