The Earliest Pipil:

New Perspectives on'oToltectt Presence in Southern Mesoamerica

Paul Amaroli
I 989
 NOTE FROM THE AUTHOR. 2009

With the advantage of 20 years of hindsight. it is now evident that the possibility of a
direct linkage between the Loma China Phase and the Toltecs as expressed in this paper
should be weighed against other significant scenarios, perhaps most importantly (and as
it may now seem, more ltasibl¡,) those involving different models of interaction with
intermediaries.

This paper remains worthrvhile fbr its definition of the Loma China Phase. This
Epiclassic phase marks a remarkable intrusion which appears to have been at least
partly contemporary rvith the Classic Collapse in this region. I first discussed the major
traits of this phase in my 1986 report on the search fbr the Pipil capital, Cuscatlán (En la
búsqueda de Cuscatlán).

NOTA DEL AUTOR: 2009

Ahora, con la venta.ia de una perspectiva de 20 años, es evidente que la posibilidad de
una vinculación directa entre la Fase Loma China y los toltecas (tal como se expresa en
este documento) más bien debe ser sopesado entre varios otros escenarios relevantes,
particularmente aquellos que modelan diferentes formas de interacción con
intermediarios.

El valor principal de este documento es su definición de la Fase Loma China. Esta fase
Epiclásica representa una intrusión extraordinaria que parece haber sido al menos
parcialmente contemporánea con el Colapso Clásico en esta región. Discutí los rasgos
principales de esta fase por primera vez en mi informe de 1986. "En la búsqueda de
Cuscatlán".
The Earliest PipiI: New Perspectives on "Toftec" Fresence in
Souther¡r Mesoalner'-l ca

Introduct i on

'lht:'foltec pre$,crrce ¿rt the glr:at tlaya ceuter etl'L--fri.c:frr{r ttz¿i

Ias long [¡cr:n corrl¡'oversial. Ear:1ier ntodels ,les¡:riLe' l]:e
invasiorr t¡f' Cl¡i.clisltr .ILz¿í l¡y the liexica¡t TolLet:s, r'i j. th ¿rn e:rrsui tr¡!
fluor.escjerrL-e in a hybrid l1¿rl'¿l-Tol.tec st5"lc expressed irr ¡¡t'L ¡r¡ld
¿rr.ciri Lee Lu¡'tt \Tazzer 1957 ) . In cr:nt¡'¿¡sl, soine of tirrt rrc/r'.: r^'t.-.:rjrrL
evalu¿¡Lions iirgue lh¿rl tlie rir:ri styles ui¿¡t¡if'est-ed al. Ciriciióri lLzá
were a pur.ely l'laya deveJ-o¡rltienL, wlricir r{as Liren 1. l'i-tr¡srni L Lr:rl Lo
t-:entr¿rl Flcxi,r:o (l(ubler 1961, 19?5; I-incolrr 1986 ) . 'l'li is tre¡r¡l11
conr¡:lc'tely leverse Lhe direcLion c.¡f sLyl.Lstic irllluerrce. There
is cu¡r'enLly t!o agreerner)t or¡ t-he origin and sigtrif iea¡rr,:,: r:1' 1-irese
styles, apart fronr being irrdicative ofl soflre forttr of i rIt,r:ttsrj
int-er¿rr:tit:n beLwee¡r cenL¡'a1 lulexico a¡rd Yuc¿rtalr in t"1¡c'feLurinal
Cl¿issjr: Lr-, Eirr'l-y Poslcl¿rssic (ci.r. AD 850-1200)(si:e D¿'rt'it:s
197?:20?*22(t f'or ¿r balanced cliscussiorr of Llris pr:obJcnr).

{lr 1983 ¿rn,l 1gB5 tr+o'sites Here tliscove¡'t-'d .in Iii S¿rl-r,¡rdor
tll¿rL ..¡ff'rl¡' ¿i tlif fe¡:ent. per':;pccLive oIl Lhe quesLiotr r.rl' 'I'o.l Lec
irrllluerlcrj j.n soulherli I'Jesc.r¿rrnerica. Likc Ch j-chd¡r It.zí r Lhr:s,)
s j Les c¡lrrt.¿ti.¡r Tc¡ltec st¡'le ¿irchitectul'r:, scillpt.t.tt',,-', i,rr\d 1;or'LirLrlt:
¡r¡Lifgcts. Urtfilie tirr-')1¿ry¿r cit;', hoi.;c:ver', t-lic¡'t\'j(j.t-t: sii.ri¿rLed i¡¡
l'rc¿rl t-lrt, sout"lic¡.isLcrrr ¡.rer.'i plrrr¡' of llesc¡artre¡'ie¿r.

Ex(:¿rr,,;¡t.i.c¡ns at- t.he S¿rlvador¿t¡r s i Lr:s al.Lows l-ite tit:Í'irri. 1 i orr ril'
Lhe: Tolt-cr;-¡rfl'iliut-eci Lona China llh¿rse. 'fogttti:e:r wiLir oLltcr
t:r'idtrllct.r l'<-ri'Ifr¡xican irrLrusj-orr t-o El SaJvarlc;r', lllq: 1-.c-t¡¡i¿t (-ll¡j.¡¡a
Irhasc s i Lr*-s ¡-¡r'esenL iJ riew oi)porLuni Ly to ex¿rtiitle Lhe "Toltec
inl-rusic.¡r'1 " of' sc.¡trther-n iulesoa¡neric¡r i¡l a colltext. \'el-.)' di I'f'cleLrt.
flr.¡¡lr the Yuc.¡tcc case, 'fhe s,i-lnilari.tir:s ¿rnd,-ii,fl'erenc,:s bt-'Lrit--t:rr
t f¡e t.r¡t-¡ s j. Lu¿rtio¡rs tn¿1.y be lrroductive ,irr urrclt:r'starrdirig Ll¡t-r ¡lírt.urt:
f th i s llex i i-:¿rn ,i nte r¿ic L i ort .
c.¡

This pill)cr ivi..l. l (ix¿lrrtir¡€ the n(?w i-:v.ielr-'rrce fronr E.l S¿lr,acl<rr',
¿i¡r,-l co¡lsidet'1-i¡e ap¡rIjc¿rbil.it)'of clif'fele¡¡L ¡rr¡de1s t-o t,xplain tile
luc:r¡1 "Tc.¡l t.ec i¡rtrusi-c-rrt" .

Paper written in 1988 by PaulAmaroli forAnthro 2BB, Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University.
 Mexican Influence in El Salvador

Earl ier Research

Ttre first spanish exped.itions to penetrate southern

Ilesoa¡terica were surprised to f ind several native groups spealiitrg
a clialect of the language they knew as l\lexicario¡ lloh'Ei errer'¿'11.y
cal Le,l Nahuat. These groups, knor.tn as the Pipil , alscl shor.'ecl
stro¡g Lj.es rvith central l"Iexico in thei¡ tttaterial culLure,
religion, arrd social organization. Their major collcen'Lration t.¡&s
in ce¡r bral- ancl western EI Salvador. Throughout thu' Co"l onial
period j t was assurned that these Nahua spealiers had niigrated f rom
ceriLral- Ilexico at sone 1-inre in Lhe past, arL opittioti sirrce
substa¡tiated t[rough mal)y years of ethnolri sto¡ j-c and
archaeol<-¡gical research .

Soure c.rf l-he earfiest stuclies of the PipiI and tlreir'llexican

origin were c't¡nograpl'ric in nature. Even in the 1850's, Sc¡uier
(185S ) cornpared lfexican and. Pipil l-anguage ancl culture ( f ro¡u his
owrr observations nlade in t.¡estern E1 Salvador), and foulid an
asto¡rishing si¡ni l-arity between the two . llartntarrn ( 190 1 , 1 90? )
.ecorded ¡lexican nyths and customs among the Pipil of l'iahuizalco,
going su far ¿rs to call them "Aztecs". The Inore cietailed
stuclies of language and nyth recorded in Izalco b)'Schul-tze-Jer¡a
(Igii, lg82) al1orvecl hi¡n to trace closer parall-els with
Protohistoric central ltexican culture. Mol-e recent
lexicostatrsLic analyses of Nahua (e.g. Luckenback and Levy 1980)
atteurpterl to trace the phylogenetic relationships bet¡¡een its
dialecLs (incluciing Nahuat), and to d¿rLe thej-r sellaratiol-t'

prehistoric sirnilariti-es betrleen tire two areas I^¡ere rroted

soon af Ler ¿rrchaeologi-cal studies began in El Salvador. Spinden
(1915 ) , Sc)I (1929 ) , arrd Lotirrop (I92i ) both f ound late period
¿rrtifacts which they considered to be I'f exican in style ' I'lany
carriecl. representations of Tlaloc, Xipe Totec, and other clearly
rron-local dieties. Ilore recerrtly, Sta¡ley Boggs also noted
Pc¡stclassic remains in }lexica¡r styIe. These include a life-size
ceramic irnage of Xipe Totec 1944a ) ,
( incense burrrers represeuting
Xipe Totec ( 19?6 ) and Tlaloc ( 1949 ) , and wheeled figurines
(1g?3). However, Boggs' greatest contributiou was his excavatiorr
of the Tazunal site in the Chalchuapa archaeologic¿rl zorle (1943a,
1943b, 1944b, 1945, 1950, L962, 1963). The Tazunal site is
discussed in length belorv.
Withi¡ Lhe last d.ecacle, the Pipil sites of Clhuatán arrd its
possible satellite, Santa llarf a, r^Jere investigated by
Willian Fowler (1981). Fowler treated these as type sites,
leadi¡g to the definitio¡ of the first conprehensive archaeological
descril:tion f or llexican-derived assembl-ages in Early Pos tcltrssic
El Salvador. He termed this the Guazapa Phase. The Guazapa
phase $¡as stro¡Aly related. to contentporarreous phases iu ceutral
Mexico. So stro¡gly, in fact, that Fowler inte¡preted this as
evid.ence of Lhe Pipil- arrival-. Fowler and I now ¿1grec olr ¿i'

slight modification for dating the Guazapa Phase, where the trewly
def ir¡ecl, Lo¡na China Phase ( which is in f'act closely related to tlie
Pipi 1 arrival - see bel ow ) occul's f i rst , in the Termin¿r1
classic/Ear1y Postclassic ¡reriods (ca. AD 950-i050[?] ), wiLh
Guazapa foflowing directly afterward ( ca. AD 1050 t ? I -1200 )

(Arnaroli: in PreParatiorr) .
Lo¡¡ra Chin¡l r{as excavated by }lauuel NIJtrdez arrd }larruel }tu¡'cia
in 1982-83 as pa¡L of a salvage project for the San Lorenzo Danr
irr central Et Salvador. It reveal-ed a unique concentrat ic¡r¡ t¡f
I,lexic¿rn artifacts and types of Ce¡rLral A¡ueric¿ln ceranrics l'¡hicir
wer.e tracled widely in the Early Postclassic, inclu'li¡rg Silho Firre
or.ange , Tohi 1 P] umbate , and Ni-coya Polychrorne . rn 19 B 5 I
cc,¡r.luctecl anotirer salvage excavatio¡, but i-rl a Iocality of the
T¿rzu¡ual group named- Cementerio Jardln, sonle 120 liilometers from
the S¿rn Lo1'errzo Dam. i'ly study led nre to inLerview Boggs for
adrlitional d.ata on Tazunial, and- forced a reeval-uation of Lhis
site as a who]e. Loma China and Tazu¡nal are used here to define
the Loma China Phase, which replaced the "native" Late C1¿rssic
cultur.al braclitions, arrd a1¡nost, certainly represents Lhe ¿irriv¿r1
c¡f the earliest Pipi1. Presentation of the inf ornation f rt-rnr
these sites corrstitu'Les the bulk of this paper"
Tlte next two sections are neant to place tlie Pipil in ¿l
rneaningi ful context. In the firsL sec:Lion, I offer a llel'\r '
syntliesis of Lire Late Classic in El Salvador, based on my ovil]
wor.k a¡rd. on sone rei.rrterpretation of previous researchers. Tlris
is iurportant for und.erstanding the situ¿rtiotr ertcoultterecl by the
rnigrating pipil. It is followecl by a dj-scussion on the lrrr-tbJ-ettr
<,¡f PipiI origirrs.
El- Salvador orr the Eve of the Pipil Arrival
WesLer¡r and centraf El Salvador seen to have been
Largel)' homogeneous in ethnicity during the Late Classic, t''i-Lh
very. sl¡¡il-ar contporients f ound at Chalchuapa, Alrui-"chapán, Sarr
Andrds, l,ake Güija, Cerrdn Grande, attd the San Safvador valley;
this lrrobabJ-y exterrded westrvard irrto ¡rart of eastern Guatelnal-a,
Fi¡.nrer geogr.aphic bounds f or this phase, rvhich l r.'il I ref er to ¿rs
Payu (¿rt-tt:r j. t,s cera¡uic conrplex ) , carl rrow be f ixed irr o {-her
direcLions. The Tanasha Phase (equiv¿rlent to the Late/Terninal
Classic Cotzumalhuapa culture) is f'ourrd to the southrvest, on E1
Salvad.or's wesLern coastal plain (Anrarroli 1987a). Lep¿r Phase
sites occupy a cc¡ntiguous il.rea of si-nil-ar co¡¡st,¿rl plain a¡rd
coast-1ike f o¡¡ interior valleys, ranging f'rom Puriián (orr tire
centr¿rl coast ) , and including Laguneta, Los Llatrritos, Quelepir
(rrlrere the phase was def ined by Andret''s I976) ' and probably
TeIuacárr (Arnaroli 198?b). ]laterials recently 1t-¡oted f'r'ortt
Chalatenango suggest that the llorthern limits of' the Fayu Phase
[ra]¡ bc- "sof ter", grading into the \¡ery sinri]ar Cotrer Phase of
Copfir (Fie.1 shorvs my tentatj-ve distribution of cultural plrases
ext,ant ir: Late Classic El Salvador).
Wh¿it nrol'e can be said about ther ethniclt¡' r:f El Salr-ador's
Late Classi-c i-nh¿rbitanbs? This questic-¡n assumes itlr¡rortertrce liere
sirrce tl¡e inn¡igrant PiPil f irst inter¿icted witir tltese groups,
r¡hi-ch appear to have been represented by the Payu, Lr-:pa, ancl
Tan¿rsha phases.

The Payu Phase has traditional-1y beerr called "llayir" (see for
exam¡rle Lothrop 1939; Longyear 1944, 1966 ) . Sharer ( 1978 ) aud
Sheets (1983) further specified that it was Chortf. They seelu to
have adopted. Thompson's (19?0) Chortí expansion h¡'lrothesis, r¡here
eLhnohistoric d.ata of dubious origin are freely lrrojecLed
hu¡dt-eds of years into the past, togeLher witir the idea that,
Copán was a Chortf cornmunity. Similaritie-s bettvr:en tire Payu
Phase assembl-age and Coprín suggested ¿t model tlhel'e El Salvador
r^ias depo¡rulated by the 3rd cenLury Ilopango e¡upL.i-on, tirc'n '
resettled by Late Classic Chortl speairers infl-uenced by Copíi.

Star:1ey Boggs Iong regarded tiie Payu Phase as ¿rutochLollous;

if ¡l¿rya, it r{&s as closely linlted to the defir¡itely rton-}laya
lrrhabiLants of easterlt El Salvador as to Copán. As eviderrce, lie
stresses the cornplete absence of Lorvland lllaya style arLifacts
(witli the excel:tion of some portable obiects), the local
architecl-ural style, ancl t,he f ack of }laya sculpture or gJ-yphs.
The few l{aya artifacts present at chalchuapa are even less comulon
than eastern Salvadoran inPorts.
Arthur Demarest also rejects a Chortf identificati-on (in
press ) , ¿rncl repeats nany of Boggs' criticisnrs irr viel'¡ of a rrew
mor]el for the d.evelopment of local chiefdoms. Dentarest sees the
rise of lea,fers rv¡o did enulate Copán in some l\rays to reirrforce
their Ito¡ler, but were essentially native and norr-!laya.
Denarestts points are well taken. Ile clenolishes the idea of a
Chortf resettlement of rvestertr and central EI Salvador, ancl
unrlerscores the local character of i. ts Late Class ic clevelopments .

His ideas represent a d.eparture frour much of Lhe curreut- wor'h oll
the "soutl¡ern periphery", which tacitly assurnes that I'faya
inf luence tend.ed. to be inherentl¡' stronger than non-IIaya. I would
add. that nrore atLention should be directed to the demonsLrated
and potential j-rrtelacLion between Payu centers aud othe'r nearby
f oci of vigor.ous, non-l'laya d.evelopnient peaking durirlg the
Terrl]inal classic, founri in the cotzumalhuapa and Lepa
areas.

A fun,la¡nentally d.ifferer¡t cultural pattern, Lerlned Lhe Lepa

Phase, was found in eastern El salvador. Andrews (19?6) has
iclenti f ied. the Lat,e/Tetn¡inal classic Lepa Phase both witir the
ancestors of ethnohistoric Lenca, who inhabitated most of eastern
El Salvaclor and Hon<luras, and with an invading Mexicarr elite
population. As was discussed above' new inform¿ution makes the
thesis of a Late Classic Mexican invasiou to Quelepa unterrable.
Linguistic prehistory of Lenca has been interpreted in suclt a I'¡ay
as to suggest that its presence irr eastern El S¿rlv¿rdor niay exLerrd
back to the Late Precl-assic (Campbel-t 1976 ) , Iending Irew support
toA¡rd.relvs,proposalthatthelocalClassicJlopu}atiorrl./aSLetrca.
Rosemary Joyce recently ( 1986 ) showed that the Lepa cerarltic group
Delirio Red.-on-while was dispersed. over a ve1ry wide area irr tlie
Terminal classic, incl-uding seibal and copan. This distritrution
helps .Lrace the rvide spheres of irrteraction that accr-uitrg
evidence suggests were characteristic of the Teruiinal classic ' To
these occurences nay now be add.ed f irids in Terniinal- Classic
contexts at Cara Sucia (Arnaroli 1987a) and the Rivas ¡egion of
Nicaragua (HeaIy 1980 - described ¿rs an unnamed red-on-r!'hi 1-e
ceramic ) . The Salvad.c,ran Lenca see¡I¡ to have "devolved" i¡-i the
postclassic. The S¡raniards reported no overarcirit-¡g political
organizatiorr uniting these Lenca, aud each iude¡leuderrt colnruunitl.
had to be conquere,J sc'parately - al] arduous and lengtilly process
(AmaroIi 1986, 1988).

Tire region's third major Lal,e Classic cult'ural lrheuse l\r¿ts

linited to the southwestern Pacific coastal- plain. This phase,
called, Tamasher, is a local manifesLatlon of the extensive
cotzumalhuapa culture, tvhere production of cacao, cotton, and
salt r.rere proniinent activi-ties (Arnaroli 198?a, 1987b). T¿rruasha
was also Late/TerminaI Classic ir-r date. The controversial ethr¡ic
affil-iation of tlie ancient Cotzunalhuapans is an i-mportanL but
unresolr,ed. question (see Parsons 1969). Excavations a'L the
easter¡most cotzumalhuapa site, cara Sucia, reveal a Ter.uritral
Classic f acet to the Tamasha Phase, rnarked by sollle ¡nodif ications
and acld.itions Lo the cultural asse¡nblage. "trlotagua"-style f irre
paste pigme¡t flasks, nold.nade cylindrical t'essels, f ine orangie
vessels very sirnilar to the Altar gl'oup, and copper a-l-I nia.ke
their appearence in this facet, dated between AD 800-950.

Pipi I Origins
It is beyond, the scope of this paper t-o rer-ieio adequatel¡'
preyious ideas on the Pipil and their origins. Bub one ¡ecertt
stat,enrent (Fowler 1985:37 ) provitles a point of departure f or the
folLowing discussion:
The PipiI and the Nicarao were Nahuat-speaking groups
who moved. from central and. southern Mexico into Central
t'I^Iaves" of
America in several complex stages or
migrations which began possibly as early as A.D. 700
and continued until about A.D. 1350 (Thompson 1948;.
Borhegyi 1965; Luckenback and Levy 1980; Fowler 1981).
Their movements, one of the clearest cases of large-
scale migration in Mesoamerican prehistory, were
probably indirectly connected with the collapse of
Teotihuacan and. both directly and indirectly related to
the expansi_on and later deurise of the Toltec empire
(Davies 1977; Weaver 1981 ) .
 The rloti.on of several "waves" of Pipil nligrations l{as
speculaLivel.y advarrced by Borhegyi itl his inf f ueritial ¡¡rLic Le
(1965). His motfel was Lentative, but nevertheless his three
Mexican nrígraLions to Cerl't-ral Anterica i-lave errjoyed an ul'Ilialural-ly
long lif e a¡rrl are still cited, f requently. I t is now cIe¿rr Lh¿rt
especially in his aLtitibutiorl of
he was funda¡¡rentally incorrect,
virtual])' ¿rny "llexican" iuf luence irr the regiort, regardless o1'

d.ate ol uaLure, to the P.i'piI invasions '

The f irst "Pipi1" migratiorr noted by Borhegyi occured ¿rr'ou¡rd

AD 400-500, and. r.,as rnarheci by the appearallce of Teotiiiu¿rc-'¿{rr "
traits at Kaninaliuyú. He describe,l these "Teoti¡uacá' Pipi l ¿ts
invading rvarriors a¡d nissiotiaries iriterested in Cacau t t{¡o
guile"
establislied themselves in tire region b)' "forcL ¿rird
(Boriregyi 1965 : 30 ) . il,hile lhe rnech¿inisn by wlr ich these trai ts
lre Ilol'r
Hcre irrtr.oduced to I'lighland Guatemala (and eJ'ser+here' as
linorv) is still very controversial- (see for crettrrp-le I{eaver
of the
1981:261), it r\7as completely unrelated to the introducLion
Iis Lolic Pipi-l- , rvhose cul,ture was cirawu f rolrr a trruclt L¿rLer llhase
of cetlLral }lexic¿rn developnent '

Borhegyi proposed a Late classic (AD ?00-900) ttrigratiot'i uf'

his uror.e enigmatic "Taiinirrzed-Tec.¡tihu¿rcan-Pipil"' For reasolls
thaL are rlot explicit, Borhegyi also called- this gloup bhtr
"pipil-Nicaro" . I\7ith the " f all " c¡f Teot.i-huacJn ' ref ugees
or
clispersed through rnany areas previously under t-liat ciLy's sway
ln ' Af te. a period
-inf luence, incluciing the Gulf Coast around' T¿ri o

of residence, those who had f led. to the Gulf coasl becatue

group tli¿r1-
"Ta j inized" and corrverted" to "arl aggresive t warlike
nay have cause<f r+iclesprea,J. populatiorl di-spJ-acerlienL ¡vhet'ever they
moVe,c1,' (B<¡rheg),i 1965:40 ) . The Tajinized'-Teotiiruacán-PipiI
are
seen as agents in the aban'lonent of classic- cettters in soutirerr¡
Mesoamerica, and the establishntent of def ensiVe hi1lt'op sites '
of
Borhegyi associaterf this group wit.h the cotzunra'l-hua1"ra cu'l-ture
pacific coastal Guatemala and El Salvador, and in so doing he was
follorvirrg the earlier ideas of Thonpsr:n (1941) ' Af ler e-xcavatirrg:
a cot-.zunalhuapa site, Thompson soon after (1948) erpressed far
less conf icience in his earlier judgernenL, since he tJas abl-e Lo
shr¡r+ that tite cotzumalhuapa culture existed before t'he
historic
pipiJ-'s probable arrival. This has since been substarrbiafed by
exca'aLions 1n Guatemafa (Parsons 196?, 1969; Rubio 1986) and E1
Salvador (;\¡naroli 1987a' 1987b) Even tirough ire ci-t ed Tltr',lttrps';rr' s
 irrto account '|horttpsort's ItIot't:
later work, Borlregyi d.id. not take The "Tajiuized-
cauLious perspective on Cotzunialhuapa'
Teotihuacln-Pipil,,nigrationisthelnostinagi-rrativeir¡it,s
origilrsalrd.theleastsupportedinternsofar'clraeological
evj-rlence.Butasrvi]-lbediscussecllater.,hisi.]e¿itliat'¿tPi¡li1
migratronlrrtlsrespo}}Sibleforachalrgeitrsett}elrretitl)atterlis
(alt-Iroug}rbetr.¡eenAD900_1000)rnay}rar,ebeenpzirtiallyÚot.I.t]Ct.
migr¿rtion is Lire:
The,,Nonoalca-pj,pir-Toltec-chichimec"
firralPipifnroveurentdescribeclbyBor}regiyi.llederir'edLlrrs
groul)frc¡macoalescenceofthose}egetrclaryTrrlteca_CIrjc]tintecas
r¡hod"epar.LeciTulaforTlarpallárr,¿rn.l.f]rorntheNonoalci¡,wituire who
sees as clescendants of other.''Tajinized-Teotiiruacárr-Pipi-ls"
area. Jn itself , tlris
harl. relnair¡ed in the Lagurra d'e Térrnj-lrosTlaptrllcn is a legtjndai'y
preserrts a corrf using situatiotr, sitrce
place sonretiutes icle.Lifie¿- witil the Lagu'tr cie T'd''rinos at'e¿1 .f
}lexico,sGulfCoast,arrtlisoftenuseclaS¿lSJnor}}/lnfort}teland Bett'¡een AD 1000-
of the Nonoalca as well (Davies Igii:1'13-144 '
)
1200,t}rese,,Pipi'Is',enteretltireGuatenralanI'liglllandsand
acL]uir'eclcontroloverSOurcesofsaltlaÉriculturalproclucLS
(especiallycottonalrdcacao),obsidiarr,jade,flit-it,volcatric at:r''l olhers were Lheir
stone, and copper. The Quichd, cakchiquel,
clescen¡laltts,andtire}fexicarrtraitsrecordedfortL¡esegroul)S
wel.einLroduced'bytlreNorroalca-Pipil-Toltec-Chiclritlrec.tiiLhout
questi.on,tlrepostulatedoriginsofthisPipilgroupareentirely
Speculat,ive.Borhegyi,s,,NonoaIca-Pipil-Toll-ec_ChicLrinlec''I{ereat}
artificer.¡lrichheinvolteclwithoutd.irectsupportfrt-¡nt siniil¿rr Lc) lris
etlrtrohistory. Their role Seems to lrave beet-¡ \.er}
earli er ,,Taji^ized-Teotihuac/n-PipiJ-" , so nuch so that it is not
tltem' The peLliod irivc¡lvecl
a1)parenL how Bor.hegyi rlistinSuishecl
,Loes r ltotvever r approximately
corr''esponrJ to the earf ier Pifiil
p|eserrceitrttreregion,¿rcCordingtot}reevidencellot.laLllzrnd,
ati.lSOtlreprc.lposed,,N<:noalca-Pipi1-Tr¡lLec-Cliichilrec''niiÉratiotr
truttr'
ilaYr i-¡r a Iinited way' be closer to historical
is still unclear r'¡liether'
LeavrnEl Borht-'g)'i's mocleI asirJe' it
Llrereisotlrerevidencefor¡IroretlranonePi¡lilnrig¡r:.a|-itlti.The
allSl{er'asprovid.eclbylinguisticsantlarc}iaeology'Seens1-obe
IrO .
 Nalruatlras}ongbeenconsideredanear].ierdialectoftire
Nahualatrguage.*Lexicostatistica¡ralysisofitstwontajur
r.ecord.ed d.ivisions, salvadoral] Nahua.t ( spoken by t-tre Pit¡iI ) and
staLus '
Ver¿rct,uzan Nahual, shows their very clOse phylogelletic
IL ilas beerr calculated. that Nahuat dif ferentiated j-1e fronr otlter
its dir-is iurt
Nahua dialects by tlie 9th or 10tfr cetrl'ury AD, rvh
irrto Veracruz¿n and sal-vacloran varieties has been p1'rcerl itr Lhe
If
131,h celrtury (Iiauf rnatrrr 7gi 4; LuclierrbaLc-li arrd Levy
1980 ) '
proxirrrity
notlling e,Lse, t-his indicates their great lexica'L

*The Nahua l.anguage conprises a number.- of mutually -in1-elligibl"e

di¿¡1ecl-s,itrclud-iligNahuatl,Nahual'Vera<:ruzallNahuat'alrd qilril
s¿rl'adoran NahuaL ( Luckenbach ancl Levy 1980 ; F owler' 1983 )'
h¿rs beerr prouroted- as a ternt f or sa.1r'adora¡r Nahuat
by i t's
principalscholar,LyleCampbell(1985).lithnolrisLori.cSources
alsorefertobythisr}ane,altltoughmexicano,tlleXi(]al}Ovtilgar.,
nahuaL, atrd nahuate are also used. (AmaroIi 1986)' orrly
the
last trvo are eruployed by its present speahers irr El Salvadol" worhing
Non-linÉiursts (archaeologists and ethnographers iucluded)
in this regiorr ir¿rve for rnarry years called' 1-his dialect Nahuett
'
reservirrg Pipi l as an ethnic term re f err ing to its speahers ' I an
be no
very reluctar¡t to Lake issue with carnpbell, but Lhere c¿rtrlatrguage
doubt that he j-s mistaken in cotrsidering t.his a separal-e f acts
within a broacler Nahua linguisLic grouplng ' There are n)a]ly j ust
supporting i- bs pos ition as a dialec t of the Nahu¿r la¡rguage '
a f er^¡ of rvhich r.riIl be ¡nentiorred here. To beE; irt with, Lhose who
partici¡>'rt-ed
cotrcluered EI Salvad.or were nostly Spaniard's r'ho had
in tlle Conquest of }lexico, and their Nahu¿rt1-speaking " itrdios judged
'
amigos,, - llexica, Texcocoa.n, and Tlarcalan allies; they
t¡e pipil to speak ',1-engua de Máxico" (Lard.é y L'.fn N¿lhuat 19??:35 ) '
used
Eterly c¿rtholic missionaries worhing r'¡ith Salvadoran
flolina's 7571 Nahuat.L-spanish dicl-ionary in their rvc'¡rh (Squier'
1g55 : 350-351 ) , and distinguished th
j.s d'ialec'i' f rom central
lulexican Nahuatl (Ii*own simply as "rrexicano" ) by use
of such ternts
aS " lengua tnexicana cOrrupta" and " l-c-ngiua mexic-anaproof plebeya"
(Larcle y Larirr 79'77 :36-3? ) ' Perhaps the ulti¡nate of
clialectical status is nuLual intel, l igibi l ity, as can be attested
(who was aLso a
by olte spealrer of modern cerrtral }lexicarr Nahu¿¡t1
]inguist.)whoconverSed.withspeakersofSall'adoranNa}luatina :
srnall coruururri t-y of western EI Salvad-or ( osrnf¡l }lagafi¿¡ 1986
r¡ersonal commullication ) '
arld shot"s that it is IegiLinate to speak of Nalruat in an
incl-usive sense for both Salvad.oran atrd Veracluzat-I dialects

on lirrgui-stic, d.ocumentary, and archaeological grounds'

there is general agreeü]ent that a Nahua dialect is tlre besL
(li¿tufrriari
catrdidate f'or the language spoken by tire Toltecs
19?4:19; Davies 1977 :16l-169). The Historica Tc¡'l-Leca-C'lLici¡irneca
is irr f ¿rct r.¿rther def inite on this point (I(irckrhof f 194? : xxxi ) '
The datirrg a¡rcl historic disl-ribution of Nahuat 1ed solne sc:holars
to specify this as the particular diafect used by tire Tolt-ecs
(weaver 1981, c.f . Kirchhoff 194?:xxxi), an i-dea tvhich f i¡rds sorre
support i. a. anrbiguous renark by Ixtlitxóchitl (1950) who
cI¿rssif ies l-he Pipi-I as "d.e nacidn tulteca". If this l'ietv is
correct, the Nahuat enclaves docuntenLed for veracruz, El
Salvaclor, ancl elsewhere are relics of a clistributiorr forllrerly
rrrtrch nrore exLeusil'e, especi'aIly in central Mexico'

It shoul,cl be apparenl- that tlte linguisLic evidence e¿si'l'y

admits a single period of migration for Nahuat-speakers, but
does
not support ll¡r¡]-tiple periotls of moventents for differenL ]'ía]rua
clialecLs, as Borhegyi's model would irave us bel-ieve '
Furtherrnore, the suggesteci differentiatiorr of Nahu¿rt in tlie 9th
or 10th century AD and the subsequetrt diversification of i1-s
varieLies by the 13th century places this Nahua dialect in a
cribica.l positir¡¡r r.¡ith respect to }lesoamerica¡-r culture l¡isLory'
The dialect arises rvith the pronirretrce of TuIa, which itself
rllay
time
have been Nahuat-speaking, and loses its cohesion aroutld the
of Tul a's demise as a nra jor cetrLer '

Archaeology also best supports a single Pipil tnigl'atiuti, or

at least a single period of migration. we riow li¿rve dal-a fr-o¡n Lwo
sites j,n the Pipil heartland of EI Salvador l-hat appear to jnre
clocumenb the Pipil arrival betweerr AD 900-1000. This is a t
when links with central |lexico were ¡nailltained for a bri-ef
periorl . Numerous other Pi pil sites are llnotcn in the reEi iotr, but
unlilie the earlier ones, they do not evince active links rvitir
llexico. The infornation from these ttlo s j-tes, Tazunlal- atrcl Loura
china, f or¡r the core of this paper atrd are discussed belt¡r{ '

A differ.enL stance if taken by Arrdrews o¡) a "llexican"

(or nore specifically, Ver.acruzan) intrusiotr at the easterrr
Salvacloran site of Quelepa, which he excavatecl in Lhe late 1960's

10
 (Anclrews 1976 ) . I have proposed that preserrt inf or'¡nation shorcs
that Andrewst " in\.asion" was actua]1y a l-oca] rnanif estation of
Termin¿rl Classic interactioti between Quelepa (and other Lepa
Phase siLes of eastern El Salvador) and the Cotzunralhuaparr sites
which exLend fro¡n Guatemala into rvestern El Salvador. I¡r fact,
virtual-1)'¿rl1 of the traits Andrel.¡s considered "llexicart" can now
be den¡orrstraLed as Cotzul¡ralhuaparr in origin. The separaliou
betrveen the Cotzunialhuapa and Lepa areas is orrl¡r about 50
h j. lomeLers, and it see¡ns errtire-ly ullneccessary to sc-arch fat'
af ield to ascribe these Lraits to \/eracruz, at several, ltutrdred
hil-orneters distarrce f rorn El Salvador (A¡iaroli 1987a ' 1987b ) .
Quele¡:a probably rraintained its etlttric identity fol tlre entiret.y
oll the Olassic, ¿rnd sone¡ local- cer'¿r¡ttic groups corrtittt-tt:
througirout the period, evell r¡itir the introductit"¡tr of "fol'eig¡r"
traits. I bs occupatiorr ef f ectively ended arc.,uud AD 900- 1000,
cor,r.espouding to the introduction of llexicar-rs irt treighboritrg
areas .

Discussions of Pipil origi¡rs ha'n'e too ofLeu been

charactu-rized by tenous argunrents and speculaLiorr irr attenr¡tts to
bridge over Llre considerable gaps lef t by arcl"raeology ¿rrrrl
eth¡o[ j-st-ory. Tiie f ol]-orving i¡rf o¡'nrat j-orr f r-out Loma Chi¡r¿r arrd
Tazumal opens new possibilities for the irrterpreLatior¡ of the
Pipil and the critical problen of their inLrusion into Cetrtral-
A¡uer-i.ca.

The Archaeology of Loma China and Tazunal

]¡e t-ona Cnina Sl

Tragically Iittl-e is t.rr,r*n abc¡ut the Loma China site. It
was one of many localities inr¡undated by l-he cotlstrucLiorr of the
San Lorenzo Dam on the lower Lenipa River in cenLral E1 Salvador',
completed in 1983. A limited archaeological salvage project r\¡as
co¡rducted by the Adnrinistracion de1 Patrirnonj-o Cultural. T'he
initial survey worli was aborted in 1980 due t-o social utrrest, arrd
rvork resuured in 1982 wiLh a opportunisti.c survey 1-haL locaLed
severaf mound sites. Between 1982 and 1983 approxirnatel.y six

11
T¡
sites were excavated that ranged in age fron Late Classic to Late
Postclassic. AurorrEl these was the extraordinary Lorna Chirra si Le.
The results of this work have yet to be adequately studied.
lly inforrnation for Loma China was collected fron field ¡llaps drawrt
b)' its excavator, ManueI Mtíndez, and througtt several interviews
with iulanuel LIurcia, a c-'aporal who worlted urrcler' Nfe'udez. ftr 1986
¡'lanuel López, r^¡iro is the direct-or of the Museo Nacio¡ral "David J.
Guzr¡rán" in San Salvador, graciously pernritt-ed nre access to the
Lorrr¿r Chirr¿r arLif¿rcL collection.
t{it}r }1u¡'cia's l-relp and exta¡iL f ield records r I was abi-e Lo
reL-oltstruc.t s()me of the finds at Lorna China. The sil-e collsi-sts
of four. ¡uourrds, siLuated on a terrace next to the e¿rsl- barrk of
the Lempa River (Figs. 1, 6 ) . In ei eneral, tireir constructior¡ w¿is
of earth f ill, faced by stones, only solre of' rvhicl¡ had beerr
roughly shaped into blochs. The¡' are designated as Structures A
through D.
excavated three structures.
Iulánciez Str.A irad origirrally
appeared as a very Iow but extensive platfornt. Excavation
revealed the cobble footings of a ¡nultirooned structu¡e
associated. with a square platforrrr which rose j-rr three vertical
terraces (Fig. ? ) . The f ootings of a sinril-¿ir n¡ul-tiroorttecl
structure in Tazumal supported adobe and rubble tval1s, but i-t is
rrot know¡r if suclr r./as the case al- Lona Chin¿r. 'I'he irrves tigation
of Str. D revealed arrother complex of roonrs, but in this case'
supported on a large, low platfornt.
T'[e third mound, Str.B, was a solitary platform, very n¡uch
l ike the one incorpora bed wi thirr S tr . A. S tr. B was packed rvi t-h
of feri¡rgs. A central buriat belo¡.v its sunut¡it was i.n a f lered
positiorr, and spaced around the skeleton t./ere four thin sarrdstone
placlues, each covered with identical mosaics. Tlrese delrict a
stalrdirrgl individual with the helnet, pectoral, satrdals, ¿ttrd
f eat-hered square shield characteristic of Toltec warriors (I.'iB'. B;
c. f . Tozzer 1957 ) . The incli-vidual holds 'c\ f eathered set'¡rent
(complete r¡ith rattles) arching up front behind (see Tozzer 1957
for TolLec rvarriors in ecluivalent poses). Tiie ¡naterials used to
make the ¡:laques were jade for the individual a¡rd the feathered
serpe¡L, shelf and turcluoise f or the warrior:'s f,-ace, atrd. ilon
pyrites for the encircling frame.

1'
 The central- burial in Str.B afso had large nunrbers of tiny
( urostl.y one centimeter in dia¡neter arrd less ) Lurquo i" se placlues iu
the area of its head. Their beveled edges arid abunda¡rce are the
only evid.ence r{e have that a turquoise-encrusted lnasli orlce
covered i- ts f ace .

At leas L three other burial-s were f our¡d itr the Ic.¡tre¡'

terrace:s of Str.B. Ai1 were "multilated". Orle exarnple L:onsisted
solc'1), of Lire trurrlr. of an adult body, trhose rib cage I{¿is cltarred
f ron i¡Lensive burning. No artifac'bs t{ere associated wi []r tlrese
th¡'ee irrtertttents.

St,r.B dj,J, irowever, contain rrurnerous arLifacts. I'ldrrclez and

IrIurcia both believed. thaL these were ofl'eritrgs for the L-t-'I)LreIl
burial. Cer.a¡¡ric vessels abounded, t.'ith 13 of 'fohi-I PlutnbaLe, 34
of Nicoya Polychrorne, and a striki-ng exam¡rle Si-l-ho Irine Úrallge
carved rvith a featt¡er serpent notif . These ceranlic's groups IJere
wid.ely exirangecl in the EarIy Postclassic, ¿ind r-'ill be discussed
at f e¡gtir r¡i Lh ¡egar{ to the Tazumal s i te . Sever'¿rf grceli
obsidian prisnatic bladc.s appeared in a cacire. They I{ere utrusual
i-n sel,er.a1 r'es¡rec t-s. They r{ere cc.,rttltIe Le spucinrt-'tts , Llte.1' t{ere
excel.rl-io¡irlly narrow (one cerrtiureLer or less), and Lire l-c-zc.r-lilie
edges of 1-hese clelicate objects showed no signs of use. I t' nra)'
be that. there sliarply pointed dlstal ends were used as ltrlrceLs
fo¡. blr-¡ocl-lettirrg. Anol-irer cache unearthed in Sbr.B cot-ISist.ed of
about 6 chert and c¡bsitLian bifaces, including corncr-notched and
sicLe-notched varieties that are rnorphologically idetlLica-l- to
sl)ecimerrs fr-om C\ichen li'za and cetrlr¿r1 Mexico (Sileets 19?8).

I have been told that Loura chiria r{as not corlrpJ-eLel¡'

inpundated by tl¡e new reservoir, aud it nray be possibly Lo
co¡rt inue studies at thi s s¡nall- but fascinaLing siLer.

The Tazumal Site

Tazunal is much better docu¡nented than Lonta China This

site and its gerreral region of t{esteI'n El Sal.vador hostt-'d
severerl arcfuaeological i¡rvestigatiotrs since the 1940's. I t has
figur.e,J in broader debates regarditrg the origitr and deveJ,ol:nrenL
of complex society in sout.heasterrt iv[esoarterica (Sharer' 1978;

't?
De¡uarest i-n press ) . Af so in contrast to Lo¡¡r¿¡ Chinel , it is well
docuuler¡ted ethnohistorical J-y.

The lazurual" si Le -l-ies in tlie rvestern Salvadoran towrr of'

Chalcliuapa (Fig.1) . It is often stated th¿it Cirulchuapa occurs in
the "hi-gkil-ands" of souLlieaster¡r I'lesoa¡nerica (as ir¡ Sharer 19?8).
Al-though tlr"re in ¿ relative sense, it is little lilie the
Guatenral¿rn IJiglrlands. E1 S¿r1v¿r.dor's "highlancis" Ele cluiLe 1ow,
nornrarl ly rirngirrg beLrveen 400 to 800 r¡ieters above se¿l levei, ¿rnd
ChaLchuapa is found ¿¡t ?00 neters. PalynoLogical studies shotv
its clinrax vegetzLtion 'Lo ]rave been similar Lo 1-he Petr:ti ('I'sukada
and Deevey I 96? ) .

Or:r Lhe eve of Concluest, Cfralchuap¿i lay on Llre i''u.stelrr lirrits

of a major Pipil polity centerecl at Cuscatlúr. Bt:f ore Sirarrish-
induced econo¡nic changes af f ected the reg ion, Ciralciluall¿i r./¿rs rv-as
r'¡oted f or i Is lrroduction of rnaize, cac¿]o, anci cotLon (Alrtiroli
1986 ) .

Unlilie rjvery c.,t-her' colrrnruriit¡' in the Cus,:allán provirretr,

Cha.lchua¡.,a's ir¡hatlita¡rts were ¡roL Nahuat s¡.reakers. It is
pr.obarble that bheir' languarge was Pc,liotnarn (a flaya latrguage ) , aL
le¿rst to judge fron Lhe early 17th through late lBth century
(G¿rE.- 1702; Xinrenez 1929; CctrLéz )' Larraz i95B ) . It is perlraps ¿t

uniclue situat,ion to f .ind a !1aya coururutrity utrder Pipi I st\lay.

It appears tira t Charlciruapa was f orrnerly Pi¡ri-1 , arrd. Lhe Irokc-¡rna¡n
were installed only a short tinre bef ore tire Sparrish col)quest. It
had f ong beerr tliought. that ¿rl1 of centra-l- ar¡d west.errr E] Sa1vador
]r.¡d once beerr Polionanr sireahing, but as a resul t of tlie Pipi J-

arrival only CLralchuapa still ¡uairrtairred this i'laya iderrtit¡'uporr

tire arrival of the C¿estiflans (Lothrop 1939). Archaeology ¿rrrtf
li¡rguisLics are once again in aE;reelnelrt orl a differerrL
perspective. Several avenues of linguistic investig¿tiou show
Pokoman to have been rapj.dly exparrdi-ng on the eve of'Conquest;
tireir presúnce in Ch¿¡lchuapa began very short.ly bef ore AD 1500
(Carnpbell 1977 ) , The arcliaeologic¿r.l- recc"rrd can ¿¡ccornodate an
i¡rterpretation whc.re t.he resident Pipil ¿rre replaced by Pokout;rnr,
or at least enter into sLrorrg i¡rteract.ion witir l-lr.e Pokoniaru ar-e¿l
(os nr¿rr'hecl by Cltinautla Polycirroure and other nun-Pi1,iil
artifacLs), at sorre point after AD l2OO (Sirarer 19?8; Stanley
Boggs antl. Flanuel- Ldpez 1985: personal corumurrication).

t4
 B¡t if this is sor how was Chafchuapa traltsfor¡rred froln a
Pipil to Polionra¡n settle¡nent, and how did it retttaitr parL of a
Pi¡til st¿rte? Part of the answer mal'1ie in the rrature of i'te>:icatr
polities , in tL¡at a chief concern with subjec I co¡ntuurrities was
tribute, not cultural u¡ifornity. (But this is ¡ot to sa)'th¡rt
t¡e tripil ¡nigratiorr several cerrturie-s ¡:r'ior did not displ.cice ol'
destr.6y the native population. ) f ilave elsewhere of f erecl ¿1n
ex¡rlanat ion wirere Chalchuaper and another Pokottrattt ertcl-al'e tvel'e
forme'd u¡rder Pipil paLronaei e as buffers erga,inst the
expansic-¡¡ri-s Lic Calichiquel (Anaroli 1988 ) .

l{iretirer tire Poliomam speakers took Chalchuapa b¡' f orce, o¡

rv¡ethe¡ ther.e rJ¿rs a nore peaceful transforrtraLicln, Cuscat. 1tlt, tias
evitlently able to acconlodaLe thei"r preserlce and cor¡Linue to
ext.ract tribute. The point here is Lliat t-he Poli<-rttra¡ri erttet' itrLo
t[e stor.v at a late date, and I.]ere not pJ-ayers ori tlie scene of
the Pipil rnigration, despite apparer¡L politlcal affili¿¡t-ions.

Cir¿rlchuap¿\'s ¡icfr archaec¡l-ogical heriLage iras 1t-rrlg ¿rt-tl'¿rcLed

scIolar. 11. interest. Solne of it.s ¡nonutnental scul¡ltule iias remot'eil
to the capi-tal as early as 1892, laneu1-ab1¡' ¡vitiiout a very useful
record of the-ir provenience ( Lardé y Lalln lTi i ) . Durirrgi Ihe
1g20, s the Salvatforan nal-ural scienList Jorge Lardd recognized
Clralchuapa as iln "archaeological regiol't" cotrtposed of severa-[
discreLe sites, including Tazumal, Cas¿l Blanca, E1 Trapic]¡e,
Pa¡rpe, and Lake Cuscac[apa (Lardé 1926). Starrley Boggs' wo¡li
here is so extensive, stretching front the 1940's to the preseIlL,
that i t deserves tnention itr ¿1 separate paragraph. As l'c¡r L'he
rese¿rrciters, Hilliam Coe begarr to study the EI Trapi,che site
,luring thtl 1950's, rvork that r^/as abruptly Ler'¡uirrat.ecl bcf'ole i ts
completion (Coe 1955); despite this, his initial fi-¡ditrgs
clc-lnonstrat.ed al) ilnportant Late Preclassic oL--cupat iorl ¿ls did
Boggs' e¿r¡Iier discovery of Of mec bas l'ef ief s. Cotrtinued
irrterest in t'his lreriod of "highland" llaya develt-r¡-"tuerrt et'errtuaLly
lerl to a najor archaeologica] projecb uuder the sponsorship of
tlre U¡iver,sity of Penrrsylvarria and the directorstrip of Robert
S¡arer'. The Chalchua¡>a Project ran fro¡n 1966-1970 aud rvas a
larrdn¿rrli i¡ Sal-vadoran ¡II'cha.eology (see S[arer 19?8 ) . Its
pr.incip¿l focus was on the Preclassic, but siLes dating frol¡i ¿t
differe¡t periods r.¡ere a,lso excavated, resul-ting in a culi-ural
secluerlce ratlging fron apllroximately 1200 BC to Lhe Protohistoric
per.iocl. The Chalchuapa Project did ¡ro'L excava.te at Llre 'Iatzurri¿rl-
si Le, ¿¡r3 bztr-e1y used its inf orntal-ion in recottstructing tlre
cultural sequence and history of Chalchuapa. Later in the
1970's, l-lanuel- López of' the Administracidn deI P¿rtrimc¡r¡io
Cultur'¿rl- er:cavated a bas¿rL tunnel start.ed by titt-' Chal-chuapa
Project under the Middle-Late Classic Str'. C1-1 of tire Cas¿r
B1a¡c¿r s j,te . This sanle structure was partially rest-ored irr the
etrrly 1980's. f ti 1978 Witlianr Fc¡rvl,er Jr'. ¿rr-icl llar¡ue1 López,
utider.t-oc.¡k a salt'age excava'Lion of a snr¿r11 LaIe Precl¿rss i.c ¡ttr-iurrd
i¡r the Et Tral"riche site, rvhere tirey found evidetrce of a nlass
hu¡ran s&crif ice (Fowler 1984 ) .

'lh¡.ee pr:ojects of Ihe 1980's cleserve ¡nenLion i t¡ Lh is rrjview

of archaeology in Chalchuapa. In 1985 it rr¡8.s rrotieecl tir¿rt tlte
r¡ain s Lructure irr tire Tazumal" gi roull r{as slunrping, atLd sorne rrf the
Lerraces restored by Boggs in tire 19-l0's seerued in d¿Ltrger',-.¡f
i¡uulerrL coll,apse. This led to the "recollsLrucLior¡ ol' a
reco¡sLruction" rvhich continues today on Structure 1 ¿rt '-f¿rzt¡mal.
Tfrougli not strictly ¿rrchaeological irr lrature, tlie b¿rcligt'c¡ulld
rese¿rr.cir led to a series of interviervs rvi t-h Roggs ¿rlrc[ Liie
recoverl- clf l;()lrle significarrt unpublrsired data. 'l'ivc¡ sal-r'iig.r
projer:ts r{tl r€ ¿rlso conducted in 1985. Under -l,ess th¿rn ide¿rl
corrdi t-ic-,r¡s, Ilanuel lulurci.a ( Administracidn de.l. P¿rl.rilnonio
Cultur.¿rl) ruonitored t-he 1:aving of streets near the TazunraL siLe
and recovered several- caches of artifacts daring f'ro¡u tfre }liddle
Classic to t.he Postclassic. I c¿rrrietl out the other salvage
¡troject. at a 1oc¿rIity lrrrorvrr as Cemeuterio Jardln. Tliis 1c",ca1-ity
r.epresents an extension of the Tazuntal site t s latest occupati-on,
a¡c1 i ts excavtrtion, together wi t,h the in1'ornta Lio¡i provide-d b)'
lloggs, led to a reinterpretation of Tazuntal . The nel.¡ data and
i nterpretat io¡rs are presented belc¡w.

Fe¡l if any Mesoanerican archaeologists have liad a lotrger

invof vemer¡t lvith a single zorLe than Stanley Boggs tviLli
Clialchuapa. I{is major r.¡or}r there focused on the Tazutnal site,
car:r.i u.d out in tlvelve seasorrs betweerr L942 arrd i955. 'fa::ulttal
originafly had 13 visible morlnds, including an enclosed
ballcourt- , a circular platf orm, and the monumerita.L r:omplex 1'orlrted
by Structures 1 and 2, Subsec¡uent worli ¿rf so def jned part of ¿:rn
associaced residential area (FiS. 2). A¡ound 1940, Bc.,ggs f'ou¡d
ti¡.at tl:e rnajor structures at this site r{ere being nined for earL}r
to ur¿rnuf¿rcture ¿rdobe bricks. OLher adjacent ¡not¡nds w'e r'€ be j.¡rg
dgnr1rl- ished ¿rs ltoclern Chalchuiepa grow. Under these circuntsL¿lnt--es
hls first e-xcat'atiorrs at Tazumal ain¡ed to sa,l,r'age basic
inf or¡riatic,¡¡ about sorre of the l-argies L prehi-storic struc Lures itr.

tt)
Chalc-huapa. The discovery of extensive architecLural- f ¿rci"ngs
¿rnd ¿.r I-ate Classic tonb fill-ed with artifact-s lrelpe'd convirrce the
government to take ac'Lion and to preserve its princillal
str'uc tures .

Bo.ggs' excavatior¡s at Tazunal reveaf ed a contplex series c.¡f

1jt superinposed constrr¡ction episodes spanning a period of sorle
700 year.s (the follor.ring infor¡nation is based on inl-elvietvs wi- bir
tsoggs l¡etr.'een 1985-198?, and on Boggs 194'la, 19"14b) . T.he
earliest structure hras part of a low platfor'¡n whose coltst-r'ucLion
had beetr ir¡Lerrupt-ed, but only tenrp<-rrari1y, by a volc¿rrriu ¿rsir
fa11 - possibly fro¡n tire 3rd cenlurl' AD Ilo¡:atigo erul)l-ic.¡rr. Soou
af terward in the sequence, a platf orm strongl-y reurinisceut ot'
TeotiIuacá¡ "ta1ud-tablero" architecture rvas erecterl , an,l lvit. lti-tr
it was ¡ound a burial rvith several arLif acts i t'r Teol-ii¡uacln
st¡'1e: a slab-f ooted cylindrical vessel, a carrdelero, atrd a stone
i¡censario sculpted to co¡ubine fel-ine and avian elemetlts -in a l^¡ay
¡rarirlleling sou)e depictions linotvn fron Teotihuacán. l{orvever', the
nrost specL¿rcular offering l¡ith this buriaf w¿rs al-l "¿rssembly line"
ceraruic incerrsario built of nold¡nade and lnodel-ecl cotttl:otten Ls,
p€jrhaps representing Quetzalcoatf sur¡ounded b¡' sea sireIIs.

llassj-ve coltst¡'ucLions later envelo¡red t-iris Ear'1)' Cll¿rssic

platforrn, culminating in a Late Classic stepped ¡ryramid seL upon
a \.ery f ar.ge basal platf orn. Str. 1, as this construcLiorr is
li¡orvn, reached approximately 24 meters in heigilt, probabJ-y l' j sing
in ni¡e ver-ticaI telraces (Fig. 3). A balus.t-r:adeci slairtra.\' l'ose
on its west side, but any trace of a superstructure had bee¡
obliLeratt:d. by time and the depredations of adobe br-ick rnal'ers.
Trventy huniarr bur ials were excavated within this structure, of
r.¡hich Tomb l was the rnost iurporlatrt in tertus of loc¡rtiotl ¿rnci
cor¡tents. I t w¿ts f ound on the pyranritl t s wes Lern sirle, urider the
st¿ri¡r^/ay. l,iire rlost of 'the other'I'azunal graves, thi.s "Lottrb" llad
bee¡r consLr.ucted as a shaf t with its contents arranÉed ol-I the
jrotLotn. It li¿rcl theu been filled with earth and rubble" Llier¡
capper3 rvith rougil slabs. The adult nrale interred in T'onrb t had
been rvra¡.lped i¡ i'ig tree lamate] paper and placed ol1 a nraL
Ipetate.] , tvher.e he r.ras and surrounded by a tre¿rsurc- Lrove o1' Late
Cl-¿rssic ¿rrtifacLs. About 90 ceratnic vessel-s l{ere present, i.tr
addiLi.on to plain yugos with a sculpted hacha' pyrite mirrors oll
plain slat-e bac-liings, ¿r ja<ie pectoral in a style cotntnoll al- {)opln,
¿rrr,l. thr-ee Lu¡nbaga figurines thought to be of Costa Ricatr origin
( so¡ue of Lire earliest n¡etalrvork l-o hal'e reacired soutlteasterrt

1,7
Ilesoanerica; c.f . BraY Ig77), Over half c,f tire t'essels I.¡ere
"los1-" during Boggs' absence from El Salyador in tIe early
1950's; those renaining in the Nationa] lluseu¡n col-f ection h'€rt'€
briefly reported b}' sharer (1978). Copador, Salua (al-so called
Babilorria or Ulua Pol-ycirrorne), San Juan Plulnbate, and crther'1r¡ca-l
Late Classic cerauric groups r^rere re1-rresented, mos'Lly t,elor-rgirlg.Lo
t[e Payu r:erau¡j-c conplex estab]-isired by S]rarer', atrd there ri¿-rs ¿]l-I
exarnple of Peten Gloss Ware with a gll'ph band. Torllb 1 cleal'j.y
helfl a prestiious occupant, the abuudant and tliverse offe¡'i,trgs
bei¡g an erpression of his participaLiori iti far'-r'¡]rrgilrg tt.:tl''ot-lts
of irrterac Liort.

AL sonre Line af ter the cornple tior¡ of Taz¡-¡nral 's '¡1,¿rss i r'¿'
Str. 1 , probubly i-n the Early PosLcf ¿ssic per"iod, ¿r \-cI')- d j f f et'e:nt
rrrgnu¡ne¡La1 platforn r.ras erected on i ts wesLerlr side, tvltel'e it
d.irectly ¿rbutted and covered part of Str. 1 's batter (FiS. 3 ) .
s tr. 2 has lat e "NIexicarr" s tyle talud-tablero terraces . A
baf usLraded stairway is fourrd oI) its t¡esteru side. Tire e:;tetrsive
basal platfortr LhaL supported St¡'.1 l{as etrlarged e\/elr furt"irer Lq¡
i¡tegrerte botir strucLures l and 2 as a single archiLectulal ur-ri-t.

Several_ f eaLures of Str. 2ts corlstruc t i on were IIeh' Lo

southeastern Mesoamerica, and seem to be of llexican origirr. Each
of its three terr:¿rces rvere built of nutnerous rubble-fi11ed cells.
Snrall stones studded the flanhs of Slr.2, and were interpreted as
ancIor.s f or. the 1-iricli coaLing of f ine r¡hi te stucco which covered
the bui I ding . Several- shall,owf y buried caches of Toiri l- Pl.unrbate
were spac:ed around the base of Str.2. No other of ferings we1'e
associ¿rted witir this buildirrg, but several iutrusive bur-ials
found in the old Late Cl-assic Str.i &re believed to date tc-r Lire
Early Postclassic. Tirey rlt€r€ buried lvith several vessels
bel.c¡ngirrg t.o tl-ie cer-a¡nic group rvhich Sharer natned Cozatol. 'fhis
associ¿ition t.'ith the CozaLol group is a¡l i-nportant he¡'in
irrtet'preLaLion, as rvill be dj.scussed belc,rv.

Boggs also recognized two other constructions at Tazutr¡al

that were contenl:oraneous with Stl .2. The nearly desLt'o¡'g¿ base
of a small platform was uncovered just rrorth of Str.1. It was
a]so unusual in its use of caref ully f i t ted pc.¡f ygonal slabs to
face its rubble fill - a techni-que since noted ¿Lt the Postc'lassic
site of Cihuatí1 (Fowler 1981). Boggs excavated t|¡e ot]rt:r
building, Str.6, r+hic| was being destroyed by the growt| of
n¡c.¡dern Cl"ralchual;a. Its nethod of construct-i"on was idenLical to

Ió
that of Str.2. Str.6, horvever, was a circular plat-f'ornr ttrat rose
in t¡^¡o terl-aces, again faced l^¡ith late style talud-tableros, attd
was equippetl r¡ith bafustraded stairt'rays oll botii its norLh ¿¡ud
souLh sides. Remnants of a circular sulrerstructure were found on
its sulrurit. Three buri¿rls r^¿ere f ound rvithin S tr.6 , but norre had
offer:i.ngs pretserved - these individuals probably I{ere the
of f er.i¡gi s f i¡r t.lris build Lng. S Lr.ucture 6 rnay have been ¿1 ternirle
deciicatetj Lo 1-hat manifesLation of Quel-z¿rlcoat"l- hnotln as Eliecat.I
(Davies I9i7). It lnust be mentioned here that tlre Ch¿rIcI¡Llap¿r
ProjecL reportedly excavated ttvo Early to I'1 iddle Classic burials
fr.oln "the si.t.e t¡f Structure B1-6 [tlie proiect's desigrral,iot-r for
'Iazu¡lral Str.6I " (Sharer 19?8: 120 ) . According to Stanle¡' Boggs '
who of corlrse excavaLed Str,6, these burials llere rioL at t-he
l-ocati on of the then-destroyed Str. 6 '

A fourbh structure in the Tazurnal group flray now h.re

t.entativel y attributed to this same period. The ent:l-osed
r-shal:erl ballcourt (orie¡ted easL to h'est ) has )'et Lc'¡ be
excavated. Sur:f ace collections irrdicate an Early Postclassic
daLe.

Tl"re Early Postclassic structures of Tazulnal fittd close

corref at j,ons with contenporaneous Tula. Both sites silaf e rubble-
fillecl celluar corlstruction for pl-attforrus, studs for ar¡chorirrgf
plaster.coatings, square platforms or "pyranids" with talud-
tablero facirrgs and balustraded stair!'iays, sini. lar cil'cular
platf ornis, ancl I-siraped ballcourts (Acosta 1941, 1945, 1956;
Diehl 1983).

llonumenLa.l- Sculpture at Tazumal

Four morlur¡ental- sculptures r{ere associated r^¡itir t}re Earl¡'
Postclassi.c structures. l{hi1e not rvell-carved , Tazullral ' s
sculptures are extraordinary f or th j-s region of I'fesoatnerica.
Like some co¡temporary sculpture in central I'lexico, Llte¡- appear
to have been roughed c-¡ut in a blocky shape, then f ormed tiirough
excavaLic¡¡ of afeas, d.epencling heavil)' on girooves to out-Line tlre
cle[ails of the subject. At least three f ind t]reir closest
conlpariso¡s rvith Toltec sculpture. They irrclude two Chactnools, í1
" jagrtar tltrorte" , and a stela.

19
 Tire tr.'o chacnrools are illustrated by Anderson ( 1978 ) ' llost
aud bhe
of tl¡e sculpture irr that stud.y i-s poorly illustrated,
Chacnools are no exception' Although several det¿ri-ls are
j-sible. Andersolt's descripti:oris
dist-orted, others are not even v
the)' are equally
nlust have been based on these photographs, since
sp¿rrse,ThesesculpLuresl^rere'l'esi€liaLedasClralcltu;rpa
ilidiVidual ' L'ith
Monunrents 23 and 24, Both represenL a reclinin€
head hel d eI'ect artd Lrvisted towar<f its lef t; tlie l¡¿rrrds sulrpor''t a
tray irelcl on its belly. A Toltec "mariposa", probtlbly nleatlL ¿ts tt
bird'(c.f.,|c.¡zzer1957),isvisibleollthechestofbotlrf-igures'
a hnife itr a
h¿rlf covered by an arm. The left arllrs both irave
sheath worn beLr¡eerr the elbow anrL shoulcler' AII these det¿¡ils
Chichdrr 'It-zá'
rc,semble features on Chacmools found ¿rt Tula ancl
anrongot|rerlllaces.TheneareStcolnparablesculptureswou.ldbe
,t-he small chacrnool f rom Quj.rigua (Sharer 1985 ) , an example f ron
Aguateca (Iiicaragua)r artd then Chichdn ILzí' iLself '

Chacnools have a wid'e distribution in PosLclassic

Ilesoamerica. They have been reported from Tura, Tenochtit'lan'
Ili-c¡oacán, TIaxcala, Cempoala, Chichén It'zá' Aguateca Illay
(I.Iicaragu&), and Quiriguá (a¡r al-l-eged Costa Rican "ChacntooL" its
but
be ln so¡ne way d.eriVe,:l f rom the Mesoamerican cotrcept' sotne
f clrn and execution are fund.amentaJ-ly dif
f ere*t ) . For
nruddled tlreir
authors, the ample dispersion of Chacnoo]-s lras
relationt,otlreToltecsandothergroups(Davi-es]r9772209).BuL to
tiris relation becomes clear if d'ue ¿rttention is al10ted
dating.TireearfiestdatedspecinrensareL}remosturrifortlrin
Tul¿r ( 12
tirc-ir execuLion and appear between AD 900-1000 at At each of
(2t only.
exirtnples ) l Clric}r6n ILzi' ( 14 ) , arrd Tazumaf
platfr:rlrrs or
these sites, chacnools I^¡ere placed before raised
aS alt¿ir's,
etrtrartceS to chatubers, which nay lrave futrctj.oned(Weaver 1981:369;
ternples artd., in perhaps in sone cases' palaces
be conside|ed
|1iller. 1985 ) . I suggest that the early Chacnools
se¡-rartrtely frot¡r the latc'r sculptures '

TtreearlygroupofClr¿¿cmoo].ssirowsacollSj.ster¡taSsociatiorr
rritlt Quetzalcoatl and iaguar thrones. At ch j-chdn a chacniool- was
before
cliscc¡vererl wiLhin the castj-llo sub (Tenrple of I(ukulca¡r)'
theelltrancetoavestibulecontainirrgthefanousredjaguar
Ll-rrone.AttheSanesite,aC}rac¡noolisseLaLtlrecrrtl.arrC¡:to
1-ire ,lenple of' warriors, rvith the colunns behind it displayitlg
fe¿rther.ecl serpenl-s. The first excaval-ed cliacnool r{i1s found ¿rt
¿1 recl
chiclién in t-ire Plal- f orrn of the E¿rgles, iust unc]erI¡'inB

/) 1\
jaguarr sculpture (Tozzer 195?:91). Similary, the two Tazunral
Chacrnools had been placed at the eutrances to a probable Ehec.rtl
or euetzaLlcoatl teurpJ-e (see beforv). It is e¡"¡tirely possibl-,: tltat
another sculpture , a " jaguar throne " , r./as f ound t-here .

lfirr.y lli-l1er recently proposed that Chacnoo.ls originart-ed in

the l,la)'a area, ancl rvere then transnritLed to ce-rrt-ral }ie:lict-r ¿ttrd
e.lsewhere in the EarJ-¡- Postclassic (!liller l9B5)' The core r-rf
this ar.gun¡ellt is that Chacnools clepicLed captives iti a ¡,rostune c.,f
defeat- ancl subn¡issi.on, sornervhat an¿rl-ogous to tire CLassj,c llayir
vict-i¡us r who f r,equently appe-ar bour-id i-tr awhward positions. Tltt'
n¡ost obvious flaw wiLh this idea is that Chacmool.s defini-tely are
not def eated victiurs. Contrary to f airl)- rrtriver"sal llesoattrel'ican
conventions fo¡' capLit'es, Chacmools are noL stripped of cl.othirrgl
a¡cl ol'nanrenl . Insteaci, they te¡rd to wear TolLec lielttre Ls , rvith
lrnives in shoulder sheathes and a "nrariposa" on 1-ireir chests.
Sanclals, wr.ist arrd anhle ruf f s, arrd the t.ypical r+aisL gar.llret worn
by ulaf es conplet-e their attire. AII titese are features of Toltec
f./ar.r.iors, rtoL ca¡>tive ltfaya (c.f. Tozzer 1957). ¡1il-1er goes on to
argue Lhat "the greater variation of lhe IChacmool] at Chichén
ILzí alsc., suggest its developruerrt aL that site" (1985:14 ) . The
o¡1y evicl.ence of "greater variatiort" slre sliares, howeve¡', is a
Chic-hdn exarrrple with i-ts legs in a nore relaxed posil-ir-.rn, tvlticlt
d.oes not- seenr substantialty clistinct f ron the rest. If' not talien
out of co¡t-ext, Lhe Chac¡noo.l. renains a soIi.d coniponerrt- of'l'oILec
arL, rvit-h clear antecedents in Teotihuacarr atrd otlier ear-lier
centr'¿rl }lexican sites; tliese ties are reinf orced by LIe
associ¿rLion c¡f Chacniools wit.h the ¿ruc j.errt central llexic¿rn dei Ly,
Quet za) coaLr' .

A lliircl sculpture has suffered considerable t¡ru.LLilaLiotr, but.

c:an still be recogl)ized as a " jaguar throne". 1t is crucle but
sirnifar i¡ coltcept to Lhose ulleartired at Cirichen ILza, tvhere such
tlrr.orres are slior"'n in use by Toltec t{&l'riors ('lozzer 1957:103).
Ter¡ninal Classic Uxmal is al-so well-krrown f or its jaguar Ei'i1'olie.
T\e Tazumal. examl:le is in a crouched position, artd a Toltec
"m¿1riposa" appears or.r ot-ie side of its body be-low its rrrissírrg
heatf . Its haunches support a circular plate wibir nearly
obliteral-ecl rern¿ritrs of incised desig¡rs, recalling LIie ntosaic
plaque suppor.ted by the fanlous red jaguar throne in t.he sanctuar-'y
of Citichén's Cat.illo sub structure. Tire Tazunial. sculpture,
rlesig¡¡atc'd I'lonunrent 25 (Anderson 1978), I.Jas carved front deep red
scoria; i-t-s cofor is a further parLrll.el ¡vith Cliichén. It is

2t
similar- to the Tazunal Chac¡nools in i ts t+orlrnauship alrd gerreral
dimensions.

'lhe fourtI sculpture is a stela courntotrl-I'kttotvrr irr El

Salvador aS "la virgen de Tazunal". It i-s now l-lunbered aS
FIo¡ilr¡¡e¡t27 (Anderson 19?8; a nore r.¡seful illustri¡.tit¡r¡ rll¿i.l' Lre
founti in LoLhrop 1939). It was carved fron¡ a large, tliin slab,
rvith a height of 2.6 meters. Its face shows a standirrg urale
whose rj,glit arrn crosses his chc-st and irolds a long, decorated
object. 'l[e elaboraLe headgear shotls TIaloc, and cluet-zir1
feathers str.eani from each si-de and fl.ow downwards to fr¿rltre che
ind.ividual's ova"l face. He rvears a wide beaded (?) ¡lect.c-,r¿r-l
band, árrd siurilar ¡lri-stlets. His Loincloth consists c-¡f a
d"ecoratecl girdl-e, with a strip of cloth ¡lendarit bef ore .[ri s groin.
The 1:orLra¡'al of his f ace is exceedingl"y simple, as t llougir a
single gr.oove was contil'rued to f orm tlvo oval eyes (wi th cerltr¿rl
concavities ) and a large trapezoidal- nose. Tiru- noutir is ¿1 sinrple
sirorL arrd wid"e groove. The thirr sides of tii j-s l¡torlu¡lterIL liave
renrrran'Ls of carving that have been called glypirs (onc:e agairr,
poorly r.endered iu Anderson 19?8). There I^;ere prr:bab1y four
er',,.¡1y spa.cetJ. r:lelnen.Ls on each side. Pendirrg ex¿tllritiatiort by ¿1n
epigrap[er', it appears b]rat t]tese desigps are on1¡' vaguely
glyph-like.

llotiutnent 2l canltot easily be colnpalred to oLher Tc.¡ltec

scul¡rtures at Tazumal . A general similarit¡'exists r+iLh the two
Tol-tec stelae recovered at 'Iul-a, which are r¡otable in tire use of
i\ 1arge, thin sl-ab, f eathered Tl-aloc headgear, and sirnple oval
face and. eyes. |1ore re¡note sinli.l-arities nay be fou¡rd in their
pecLorals and f o j.nclothes (Nichol-sot"t 19? 1 : Fie.27 ) .

NIany of these features are found in Lor.'larrd l"la¡'a stelae

also, rrncl it nray r.¡elf be that the carver of the Tazumal sIe]-a l"ras
clinrl-y irrs¡rirecl by hj-s irupressions of Maya ¡nottulttents - il-r such
case Monunent 2l would be Late Classic in date and could have
been taken from an origi¡al association ivith Str.1 bo be
repositioned in front of Str.2.

All four sculptures had been talien to San Salvado¡' in the

I 890's. At the time, their origi nal- l-ocations lrrer€ onll' r'aguel¡'
s tat t-rd . Boggs lras abL e to interv iew reside¡rts rvho, itr 1,9+2 '
s Li I L rernembered their removal . His best reconstruct itrn is that
trio Chac¡r¡r.>o1s had origir-rally been set aL orl t lre nortir atyl soutlt

22
sid.e of str.6, at the bases of the sLairways }eading to its
circular shrine. The stela hati been ta.kerr fro¡n Lhe r.resLertr side
of Str.2 (Anclerson 19?B:160 mistakenly gives its pro\¡enience as
Str. 1) . tve ¡rlay never lcrrow more abouL the ¡>r'o'"'errie¡)ce o1" the
"jaguar throrle", beyond. tlie fact th¿rt. it t^Jas soniet+here in tltc
ar.ea of Tazuural's large structures. Periraps like othef iaguar'
thrr-.¡ties, iL too trr¿t.5 associ-ated. wiLh chacmools. If iL did obey
such calrnorls of sculptural ¡>lacettlerlt, i t Iüay have occu¡].ied Lht¡
surnnrit of Str.6.

'flie Cenrerrterio Jarclln Local i!¡

Rece¡t s¿rIva.ge exavaLj-ons have f'orced ¿1 t'r:itil-er'1lreL¿ttion aL'

the EarJ-¡, Postclassic component at Taz-ulrai. Bu11d,--'zer cuts itr a
lot lrear thet principal structures of Tazunral tul'rled up aburrdattt
prelrisLor.i-c sherds, and as a result the AtLniinstl'¿rcidrr rlel
pal_¡.intorrio cultural begarr a salvage projec-L urrciel'llrl'- direcrLic'rtl .
T'h is locaJ-ity is called Cementerio Jardln, arid Iies approxirlately
700 nie Lers souLheasL of tire niain Tazurnal- group (Fig ' 2 ) '

Surf'ace material-s I\rere nixed, tvi"t h Late Pr'eclassic, Late

Classi-c, a¡d. Earl.y Postclassic ¡ia1,eria1s. Orr f-Ll'sL ilrsl.ret:Liorr,
E¿rrly posLcI¿¡ssic sherds seemed the most abr.rlldaut atrcl least
e.odccl . 'lhelr t¡e di-scover¡. of several gI'eerr obsidiarr llrisnrartl-c
bl-rl.d.cs itrvitecl conrp¿iI-isoIi wi t.h the si-trrilar' ¿rsseurblage aL Loltra
Chilra.

Our 1r¡oject sanli arl iriiti¿rl se¡'ies of llti x 1t¡r Lest r'rliits in
a cr.oss pattern Lo provicie norLir-south atrd east-i./est Lr-¿rtrsee-Ls itr
ancl beyond the arr)a ¡^¡trere sherds had appeared. l{e flt-¡utid rro
feirLur-cs, and reachecl sterile bedrock oIr clays between 40-100cm
c.l epth. Tire shertis i¡cIuded. sonle erc¡ded Late Preclass it: arrcL
ClassLc ceramic groups. The Early Postcf assic m¡¡t.eriaIs ¡roted on
ciistulbt-.cl surface r^Iere abundant a¡rcl rvell-preservecl i¡r the
exLraval-ion, anel includetL Tohil Plumbate, Nicova Polyc-hronre, ¿rlld
s¡:ihed ir¡ce¡sario fr.'agurents. Otrce ¿IgaiIl, several Eret-rI t.¡bsidiarr
prisnizrLic bl-ades were present.

.) {l
 Small, probabj-y residential pltrtforms are comnon on
surrourrdirr.g parcels, with a continuous disbribution to Tazuttt¿rl's
morrurnental s1-ructures. Early Postclassic ¡naterials on Che
su¡face suggesLed- that many of these coufd belorrg to t-tre s-LLe's
latest conrporrent (see also the results of' an earlier surl¿ace
survey irr Strarer. i9?B ) . This 1ed to an irrtetrsive search i'or
s1-rucLur.al re¡rajns over the tvhole of CenteuLerio Jardín, ittcludirrg
l-at.g.e br.ush¡' are¿1 s c¡f old untended cof fee bushes. It r!'a.:; irr ulre
sucll area th¡rt tr l-ooter's pit had turrred up ¿rI) aciobe bric-ir
(1or-,t-irrg is exLr.eilrely colnmorl in Ch¿¡lchuapa). Test e-xca\-atii-.'tts to
eitl¡er sicle ]ri L stone ¿rrrd adobe f eaLures at I0cnr. 'lhese r'rere
i¡Lerpre IetL as tire f ooLing of a w¿r11 atrci ¡rart of a11 as:;uciat-ed
fl oor.

Areal exposur.e rras then begun r.'ith a crel{ of six tvoririug

l-,ith 2n x 2n units. The test u¡rits denronsLrated tiial the
overbur.¡len rjas d.evoid of cul-tural materials, so chis I{as rapidly
relroved. A nixed layer of burned adobe' soil, bahareque (l''¿rttle
and dzeub), ancl charcoal flecks covered the stolie feaLures, arrd on
reaciring this \7e replaced shovels with tror'e1s.

As L¡e layer. of bur¡ed. debris rr,&s slot.rl¡' renloved, renlaills of

snashed. ¿rnd. scattered ceranic vessels were found irr co¡rtact wiLli
tanpe<i. earth f loori-ng. Atnong these r'/ere sherds f ¡'otn TohiI
Plurnbate, Nicoya Polychrorne, l-arge spilted censers¡ and ladle
(]E¡IS€:TS. A greer¡sto¡e plac1ue, ceralttic fluter Breeu c.¡bsidiarr
priuratic blades, twerrty complete and f ragmenta¡'y obsicliarl
bifaces, ancl a few other s¡nal-l- artil'acLs l^rere also sLrewll acl"'oss
the fIoor. It llas interesting to see lhal bheir breahs were
ulreroded.. Nc-¡ \/essel could be cornple Lely reconst ructed, l-.ru L i-t
was possible to sIow t]raL some joinarble sirerds ii€r'€ separatecl by
a distarrce of Lwo ureters or rriore, wfrile oLlte¡'s r.]ere adjacerlt-. By
the end. of tlie three weeii l-inri-t on f ieldwork, the areal e\posure
had uncover-ed BO square neters, which still lef t ¡rarts of the
s Lruc Lure u¡rexc¿rv¿,r' Led .

'fhe ruins of a mult-iroon building ;rere l'evealed (F-ig.5).

I¡ nry j-pLer.pr.etaLion, Lhe st.ructural- Llnes ser\¡ed as footings for
adobe and rubble rva11s. A f ew snrall cuL stt-¡¡re bloclis tier'e found
on tl¡e footing. There was no direct indicatiol"I of r'rltat t-he
r.oof i¡g ruate¡.iaIs h¿rd been. An azot.ea (f J-at, beaned rool') rvoul-d
p.ol-reil., l¡'iiave lr:ft more debris thari ¡"¡as f'outrcl , atrd so it. lr¿1y llave
been t-hatche-tl . Solne pavecl ir¡ternal areas lIIa)¡ r'€lpreselit, ollt: ol'

ol
Irrol.e paIios, At sotl]e poinb in ti¡ne, several ceratnic vessels ¿llrd
censefs NL're smashed; parts Irrer€ droppecl r¡i.thin the building,
otirer.s were scat tered ¿rbout wi thirr artd probably r.¡i thouL, t-lie
l-atter falling beyond our exca\¡atiorI. Other objecLs once
contai¡recl in ttre sLructure may hav(: beett renrovecl itrLacL. It is
i¡rpi:rssible l-o ascertaitr tlre tine elalrsed be.Lrveen the sntashilrg of
clbjecLs ¿rt'¡cl tIe burrriug of the buildir-rg. 'fhe I¿r¡'ge s]rerds olI lhe
f'1c.,or in,licat-e tlre sudden destruction of Lhe bt¡ilding; Lirese
r.roulcl not hat,e long survived pulveri zaLiorr i f pec,l--¡ie con Lirrued Lo
enter tht- structur-e.

Corupar.able s Lructures are urrknowtr f or e¿rr'lit:r' p*-'r'iods t¡1'

Sal vad.orarr prehistory. They do appear aL ct-rtrt-elnpol'ary Lottr¿r
Chi¡a, a¡rl conLirrue ¿rt other Pipil sitc's, irrcl.utli¡rS 1-lte slight.ly
Later sit.e of Cihuatfn, ¿rnel ar) etI-rnohistot'i-c ct-'nter cirll-t-tl Apupa'
or tLle liacir.e Tier.ra si.be. This ¿rrclii Lec Lural e ()rIceIlL tvou.LcL Lheri
al)peirr 1.() have bet:rr introcluced to E.] Salvador b)'Iile ¡¡tigr'¿rting
pilti I , arrd j. t is reasonable t o seeli ariterteden ts iu thei r ¿rr. ea of
or.igirr . Ce¡ Lral [lex j.cr-¡ does presetrt l]ultlerous exatrrlrles of
cotrte¡lpot'i:rr/ arrd ear'1ier multir'oo¡ued sLrucLul'es. Irr parl-iculirr',
t¡e strucLures int.erpr.eted as elite resicle¡lces at Tu1¿r bea¡' griJat
sil'ilarilies j-n boLh layouL arrrl rnel-hods of corISt-.t:tlctj.orr (Diehl-
1983 ) .

'lirer.e is tittle basis for idenl-ifying the fttucLion of titis

structure. Spi-ked an'l ladle censers ¿Ire3 riLual objects, but
t6eir preserlce could be due as ¡rtucit Lo lrousehc¡Iel li tual ¿rs ¿t
speci¿rli-ze6 ritual- use for Lhe buitding. The other object-s foutrd
wi-thin - "crJln¡re¡cial" ceratnics, obsidiarr bifaces ¡ &l'rcl oLher
objects - are diverse. This diversity does noL perniit a sirrgle
furrcLiorr Lo be ¿rssignetl., buL could reflect a resicletrti¿tl Llstl ,
r,,herr: nrul t iple activities wouf d result in a diversit)' of
rnaterials.

Tl¡is rJas rrot tlie only nrultiroont sLt'ucture ilr the Cetttenlerio
Jar:¿i¡ locality. A nonth af ter our worl{, bulldozers revealed
arrother se¡ies of footirrgs about l-0Onr frorn our e-\c¿rvaLioIi. It
was not possibl-e to inlervene for further salvage work.

Anong the artifacts found on the f loor of tlre exc¿rvaLed

bui Iding r.¡ere types believed to be Mex j-can-reIated. Sherds of
ruoLcajetes (gpater borvls) a¡e relaLed to the Tanroa Buff groui)
descr.iberl try Fo¡.'ler f r:r t he ce¡rtra1 llerican-deri-r'eti ¿isserrrL¡l-age of

.)l:
Ciiruatán ( 1981). Very sinilar side-notched obs j-dian bifaces have
beerr r.eported fro¡n |l.ryapán, Chichén It-zá, Zarculeu, and ct¡¡rt¡'al
Uexico (Sheets 1978:.21) ,

Seve¡al sherds of the Cozatol ceratnic gr'úup tJcre f'ourrcl in

the excavation. It will- be remembered that Cozatof vesseLs
acconrpalried bhe i¡rtrusive burials uncovered in T'azurna-l Str'. 1 .
T¡is is a itey associatiori, and to u¡iderstarrcl its sigrrif ica¡rce it
is lrecessary to corrsider t|is group irr g¡eate¡ deptti. 'I'[e
Cozatol group has been docuruented for several l"ocalibies in El
Salvador. At Lhe coastal sil-e of Cara Sucia it lias i.¡rt-rodur-'ed in
t.he TÉ.r.¡¡tiri¿r1 Classic (t.he Tamasha Phase, Lat-e Facet), i'hieir ended
¡rL approxiurately AD 950 (Arnarol- j- 1987 ) . CozaLc.¡I vessels, ¡rgain
irr a Ternii,na.l Classic context (associated r.'ri th peri{'orr¡l iars ) '
were excavated with a burial at the El Tirnque si t.:, situated in
L¡e north-central- Sa"l-vadorarr Depar-Lnrent- c,f Chal-¿rtenaligo (Cr'¿rrre
19?8 ) . OtIer CozaLo]- s]rerds and vessels h¿rve beerr leporLeul l'or
yicirrities near Soyapango and AEuilares in central El S¿lr'¿rdor'.
Tlre occur.et'rce of Cozato1- seeurs to sparr ¿1 shc;rt period of tinlt:
betr.¡een the end of the Tantasha and Pa¡'u phases through tl¡e
ensuirigl Lorua China Phase. From the associatiorrs c¡f Cozztttol , I
specrllate tirat the "Early Postcl-assi-c" Loma Chin¿r Pilase is
closely equivalent in tine to the Ter¡nina1 Classic, atrcl nrary
briefly have overLapped or coexisted with the Tamasha and Payu
p¡arses, before tltese were conpletely replaced by Loura Ch'rrra or
Lhe slightly later Guazapa Phase.

Tohi1 Plumbate sirerds were ¡nore abuudant here th¿in in al))'

site docuntented in El Sal-vador, conprising 2.i% of the tut¿rl.
Fo¡ courparative purposes, only 0.6% was f c",urrd at the Ea¡ly
postclassic si te of Cihuatalr (Fo¡¡f er 1981 ) . Nico¡'a Pol-.1'chronie
uas closely sinllar in its relative abu¡rdarice here, arrd scalrclty-
el-servhe¡e. Both Lhese ceranric groups t{ere widely distributed i.n
Lhc- Early PosLc,l,assic arrd have beerr found together in cacltes f'roln
lil Sulvador, Nicaragu¿l, (l{ealy 1980), and in Tula, t.¡here Tohil
Plu¡ubate. r{as surprising}y t}re r¡rost abu¡rda¡rL "nott-l-oca1" cet'atttic,
e\¡t.rn surpassin€ groups from the relatively nearby GuIf Co¿¡st
(DiehI et aI 1974). Severa-l associations of Silho Fine Orange
a¡rcl Tohil Plunrbate vessels are hnowtr (lleal-y 1980 ) , and ¿r-ll three
ceramic groups r.Jere urreartlied frorn a single co¡itext at Lo¡¡ta
Chin¿r.

26
 The or.igins of Plumbate remain today ¿1s li"ttle understood as
r,¡lren shepar,l approached tire problem .1 0 years aÉo
(1948 ) . Her'
best guess for the source of TohiI Pl-umbate l.¡as t'he P¿tcif'jc
coastal zone of the chiapas-Guatell¿rIa border, a region lino¡''tr as
Soconusco cluritrS the early Cr:]onia] period' Sirepard also
recognizetf t.h¿rt a sluall area of centr'a1 El Salvaclor uas tltt:
origin f or. al-mr:st one half of all Tohil Plumbate vessels kliotvrr '
shepar.d, therefor.e- suggested the poss-ibititl' of rnuftiple
gtri.dcnce
productiorr cenLer.s. Several yeaI-s I)revic.,usIy, under t-ile
r.¡f t-hi s cr-1 Lerion of abund.ance, Lothro¡-r \19'¿1 ) was led tc¡
identif¡'central EI Salvatfor as bhe sole origin for Tohil
Plurub¿lte. lIe e\.en reported. the Illallufacturrl of Plur[bate-'l Llre
ceramics i¡r rec(rnt ti¡rtes 1'or tliis aretr. Not oril¡' i s Tolril
plurnb¿rte abl¡ild¿rnt l¡ere, but several tlupl ica te lrieces iravc b€i(jlr
tfiscor.e'tlcl . one of the nrost, intriguing cases irlvolved ft¡ur'
uniclue Tl-aloc rviiisLling jars, aill identic¿rl, and aI1 ¿iLtr.ibutecl
(t-llree i'iere
to ¿L five liilor¡reLer radir¡s itr central E1 Salvaclor
in
repor.ted in Sheparcl 19 jl 8, aucl a f ourth was found ¿rt lfapiltrpa
1985 ) .

Tire fiLerature ¡:ublishecl since Sltepeird.'s st-udy l-ras l'epu-¿r'tÉrd

on1¡. the firsL half of her hypol-hesis, and f'uri-hernore' ltlany
l¡riter.s ci-te tLre proposed soconusco or'j-girr as though it ir'€I'€
arr

es1-ablished fact.

Tlie problern of Plunrbate origlr¡s h¿rs beerr colrsj-dered afresh

irrastiruulatingpaperbyNeffandBishop(irrpress).T}rey
pr.opose t.l.raI P]-u¡ubate ]irrd iLs rool-s in Lhe "fi¡rel llasted"
Tiquis¿rte laare found on the Pacific coast of Gu¿rtemal¿r in Llle
11 ictdle a¡rd Lat,e classic. satl Juarr Plurnbat-e I áD earlier varie Iy
rlating to Llie Late arrd Terminal classic, was produced in the
socorrusco r.egior-t. Tire potters switchecl to a di-ffererrt PlutttbaLe
clay Source buL colitinued to matrufacture San Juari forms utrtil
thr'-
Ear.]}. Postclassic, r.¡|rerr To}ril Plumbat,e ef f igy t'esSelS beu-¿lttre

popular'.Neffarr.l.Bisilopsupporttheirstudyrvit}rneutrotl
¿rctivatio¡t studies.

I lra.ve several- comments on Nef f and Bishop regardiug Lheir

a.d corlclusions, but here r will linit myself to their
'rethods
cotrc.l-usions regiard.inÉl Plu¡nbate origins. Front tlie beginnil¡g, they
Ioade,l the study in favor of a soco¡rusco origi¡r. I agre': t'lr¿¡'t
Tiqrrisate r{are was probably t}re antecessor of Plunrbate, but tire
j
rlriters ignore the variaLiotr to be f oun<l botlr n Ticlui si'r1-e f ornis

27
¿irid cornposition (with gross differences r.isible llracroscopictrlly)
írcross its are¿f of distribution, exterrdi.t'rg along the P¿icific
crJast f r.on Chi-"ipas to El Salvador. Ttris coulrl ref lec t nrultiplt:
zorres of 'l'icluis¿rte productiorr, rvhich coulrl have "c¿rl-l'ied oVel"'
for plunrbate. Neff and Bishop choose to ignore Liris possjbiiity
altd, in f'avor of the Soconuscc¡ h¡'pothesi-s, rrarlotlly f ocused tlteir
st-udy orr tire Guatenrala-Chiapers border area. Most of tlreir
plurnbate sarlple rras taken from a site 1:ostholed b¡'lieff .).tI 1,.i¡e
southeast coast of Guatemala, supplertiented by suri-ace ctlllections
t¿rlren f¡orn tr¡o nearby sites. In order Lo detnoustr'¿¡te a Socc¡tiusco
or.igi¡ for Plunrbate'through neutron activitiou, valu¿b1e .Lrace
ele¡¡e¡t ch¿rr.¿lcte¡.izations of Plur¡rb¿rte (whi.ch incide-rrtly re\;e¿iIed
tirree closel¡' r'elated comllositional varieties ) ar'e coinllar'ed
ag¿r irrst a "generalized eastern Soconusco groull . . . forllt€d usitr.q
tlr i r.L¡'- Lwo spL:c intens I'epI'esu'¡lt i ng Lr.'el-ve s i Les , at It:ast f our'
cl iffer.elL ti¡r¡e periods, er¡rd botir coarse ar¡d fi¡ie-¡raste wa"r'es".
It c|¡r1]¿i¡ges belief tirat Lire lunping of sucli ¿t heterogerluus atid
1-irry sarurple could produce nrealtingflul- resuIl-s. No ef f orL t.ras ntade
to coltstitute other "g;ener¿rlized" contparisotr groups l'or adjaceut
are¿rs be.yond Socottusco, den.ying us tire opporLurti,t-y to gauge
Plunbate's r.elatedrress r"¡ith other potential productiotr zorles.

I t siroulci be obvious that I wisii Lo see thu- issue t¡1'

Pluurbate or.igins left open. Tlie possibili-ty of' nultiple
pr.oduct ion cenLers f or 1-he Tohil variety, f irst raised b1'
Sire6,ar.d, sti1l deserves further testing. Ilore sptjcificall¡', it
is ltecessary bo furthe¡ e\¡aluate tlie region of cetrtral El
Salvador nc¡ted. f'or abundatrt finds of Tohil Plunrbate as a püssible
productiort area.

Nicoya. Po1¡'chrorne preserrts another sticliy ltroblettt. N icoya

polychr.6nre is a br,¡atl ternl , under whicli are luruped sel'er¿rl
poll'c¡ronie varieties sharing a firre white slip r.¡ith recl, blacir,
a¡cl yel1ow 1:tritrting, manufactured on the southertr limits of
flesoan¡erica l¡etween the Cf assic a¡rd Postclassic periods (l{ealy
1980). The specific variety found assocj-ated rvith Toiril P.lu¡rrb¿rte
h¿rs been icierrCif iecl by Healy as the Papagayo $roup, wlrich hc
tLefirres on the basis of less than 40 srr¿rl1 shc-rds foutrd irl the
Riv¿rs ¡egiulr of Nic¿rragua (but sLf,e ¿ilso Fot+-Ier 1981). 'llrt:
abuntlant sanpJ-e of whole vessel-s fronr El Salr'ador do not
cor.resy)ond to his descriptiou for Papaga¡'o or anl'otl¡c'r
iiic¿rr.aguan group. Particularly disti-nctive in El Sal-vador Í¡re
tall cyli¡drical !¡ases rvith annu,l-ar bases, the fairl¡' co¡lllltoII

28
oLrcuf errce of malier t s niarks ' ancl 'cr verlr f irle ptr'ste. An
inLer¡rret-ation itr agreentel.rt with tIe eviderrce th¿LL tlre
aL ]ra¡rd is
S¿rl r"¿rclor¿rn variety is a Iocal ly produced group of' Nic-oya
Pol¡'chrortie. The publisired photo$ra1:rl'rs of tlie i'lico.1'a Pulycirrortie
vessels fourrcl with Tohj-1 Plurnbate aL TuIa (Dielrl et al 1'9711,
Diehl 1983 ) ¿ire nrost sirnilar Lo the Salv¿rdorarr groul)'

Anotlri-¡'di¿igrlostic of the Lona Clrina pltzese related Lo Tula

is gl.et)rr o'bsidiarr. This accounted for t.6% t-¡f' al.l obsidi¿in
t-c+crvered., w j th the I'enrainder al-lrost enti- rely f ro¡u Ixteileque
(basecl (rl-¡ r.jsual eNanljnation). The otrLS' ltnor"'u sourr.ie r.'f gI.tjel)
obsidi-¿rn is P¿rcirt¡ca, located j-n cent-r¿rI Merico. Tile excavirtors
of Tula feel tirat che Pachuca source ti¿1s urrcler'loltcc euliLl'ol
dur.ing the Ear'1y Postclassic, havi¡g cotrt¡ibuted 80% ol' tlre total
c¡bsiciia¡ f ou¡d irt Lhe ir capital (Diehl 1983 : 111 ) '

The CernenLerio Jardln finds inrposed a reevaluation o1'

Tazumal, s Early Postclassic com¡rotretrt. Tti begirr wi Llt, [']rt:
occultaLion during this t inre was llot Iilrrited to nrol)unieIrL¿1 I
st.r.LrcLures as it ¡llay have beerr previousJ-1', L-¡ut r.¿rLir.elr e-'iterrderl
over a 1ar.ge area whose lirnits have yet- to be drat''tr, Lrut' reacllirlg
aI least ?00 rneters to the Cenenter.Lt-, Jardírr localiLy' IiiLhirr
tiris area are remn¿rnts of sntall platforms and nluf ti-rooured
st-r.ucLures, rrrany of ¡.¡hjch are probably residellccs' Accordi¡g to
nol-I-s).stenatic surface cof l-ections tafte¡ b¡' SIa¡er (1978 ) , tlle¡'e
nray be cot-rsjder¿rble contirruity betlveerr Lhe Late Cl¿rssi,: ¿r¡ltl Ei'r'r'1¡'
postclassic \tse of over one square lii.l-onleter in ChaIcliuaPa, but-
tlre are¿1 he s¿rlnpl-ed. is l-argely to the trorth of T¿¡zurnal ' l"lo Early
pcls-t.classic strucLures r{ere excavated by t}re chalchua¡:a }rroject '
so the rlature of "use" il-r those localities relllains ulldefi¡red.
The excavati-c¡ns and surface inspectlon at Cenrenterio 'I¿rrdln do
poitit Low¿:.rcl ttre exis.Lence of possible residenti¿Ll Llsu sc¡utll c'¡t'
Tazumal, but ad.rLitional survey is neecied to deterrrrirre the 1-otaf
area rvith Early Postcl-assic materials'

But Lirere was allother result of the reevaluiltion. It also

led Lo r-ethinking the nature of the Pipil migratiotr as
represerrterl by Tazutnal a¡d Loma China. The f ol lowi¡g sectiolt
Sulnrrral'izes atrd inl-erpret.s the inf ornration f ron tltese Ltvtl s i t.es '

29
 Tazumal and Loma China: Summary and Interpretation

Tazuna.l- and Loma China are used here to defirre e cult-ut¿tl

pirase, termed. Lorra Cliina, dated as bc-girrning alor-¡rrd AD 900-1000.
Tlre'y repl'tjseut coutponents with a collsisterrt asseblaEe', i.rrclirdirrg
Tohll Pluurbate, Nicoya PoJ-ychronre (of i\ variet¡, peculiar Lo El
Safl'¿rclor')r Paclitrca obsidian, certain "l'le,-:ican" bjface f'crllns, errrd
l¡iul Liroorled struc l-ures .

Irt ¿¡dditic-¡n lo these shared l-r'tii Ls , 1-irel'e also cxi,s t sorne

di-f f ererrces bettveer'¡ the tr+o sites. At the erid of' Lhe C1¿rssic
¡-reriod Taz:uru¿rI tias a ver')' old ¿rnd pr'ollr j-r'rerrt uiolrLr.¡ue)nta l. (-:t)r) bcr .
Witir tlie iriLroductiorr of the Loma Chiria Phase, rrtj!i, Ilexiearr sl-5'le
bu j ldings were erect,ed arnld the pre-rlxisLing s Lr- Llctules, olrrl
beirrg built against Tazumal's l.arge p¡'rarniid. The i-r:nra Chir¡a
Plr¿Lse buildirrgs ir"lcluded a rnecLj-ul¡r sized ¡r¡'r'arnid, a c-ircu-lar'
sLrucLurc, arl enclosed ballcourt, ¿rnd an extensj,ve ¿rrea rriLh
rnul Li i'ootrred sLruct-ures, itrl-erpreted as residerrces. flonurrrerrLerl
scr.rlptlrre r{¿rs set before these trujldirrgs and arej clcrsel¡'
c<rniparirble orrly to eixanrples frorn Tu.la ancl (lll1r:llt,írr Itzl,

Lolu¿rChina, in L-orltrast, r{as & singi-e componerrL sj.Le. Ther'e

a¡'e no tna.jor L¿rt.e Classic sites recc¡rded in its r,'icinit)'. ILs
structufes ¿rre suralJer-, atrd t.he site as a rqhole less extel¡sit'e
thar¡ i.n its equiva.l-eut component at Tazurnal-. Tlior,rgh u¡ore r:usLic:
i¡r ever)' serrse¡ Loñá China had tlie largest hoard of Toliil
PJ.ututrate, Nicnyei Polychrotne, at'rd Siliro Firre Orange irrror,'rr Lo 1-his
r.,,riter. These r^Jer.e associ¿rLed with four extrrroldinar-5' Tr-rlLec'
Inos¿ric plaques whi.cli certainly r./ere noL nrade 1octr1.1.y, atrcl sever'al-
I)ossible sacri f icial victims - all apparent of f'erings to the
cerrt-ral b.,ur.ial of an adr-rl-t ln¿e1e.

Irrhile solüe of the differe¡rces betlveen T¿¡zu¡lal- alicl Lu¡n¿i Chi.r-¡¿r

are adnrittedl-y based on negative evidence, adclitional arciiaeology
ivj ll nr.¡t chal¡ge the essential- i:icture. At Tazurnal, a rnarjor.
cente-r of southeasLern iulesoamerica r{¿1s directly overlairr lly a
ntajor 'lc¡ILec-sL¡'le cenLer. Lo¡ua Ciriria rrr&s established ir¡ a ki-rrd
of hinterland, ar{¿ry f ro¡n any signif icant pre-existir¡g site.

l,or¡r¿¡ China ancl Tazu¡na1 fortuitously 1ie rre¿rr'lhe easterr¡ arrd

western limits, respectively, of the ethnohistoric distr:ibution

30
of t¡e Sa}r'adoran Pi.pil. Looted m¿rterials indicate tii¿rt ol'lte l
l.ouia Cllirra Phase sites aw¿rit di-sco\¡ery at varitlus loc¿lf -i ties
witirin tiris ar.ea. As if tr: connect the Lonra Chirra Phase rvitli the
et¡rroIis Ior.ic Pipil, sites of tlir-' intr:rvenitrg Guaztrpir Pil¿rsc
(ident.ified as irnnrediately antecedent to Lhese Pipil) share ¿r
ver.y siurilar.distribut,ion. In sltort' accor-ding Lc¡ 1-tLe r-Li.l'ecI
histor.ical. approach, Lhe roots of the ethnohistoric PipiI nra¡'
.Ieei iLiuraLel.t'be ¡rrojecteci from the ProtohisLol'ic "Cuscat,L¿l¡1 "
ph¿rse, 1-lir"ough the Guazapa Pherse, trnd bacli to the Lom¿r Cirir.a
Ph¿rse.

How carr h,€ charactt-''rl-ze tl¡e it-rt¡:oducti.oti of Lhe Lo¡u¿i C'lri,n¿r

Phase, and t-ire subsecluent changes l-eading to tile Pipil
ent_:ountered by the Spanisir? The Loma Chirra Ph¿rse represetrts t-.he
entrance to bhis regiorr of a signific¿rnt IIt:rican pol.ruIatiott
clerived, etL l-east ul-tmately, frour a regioli of celrtral I'lerir:o r.iere
'I'oltec traciitions prevailed. The local assemblage at T¿¡.zunral is
cornpletely r.epLerced by one of l"le-xican style on IIIaIry levels. A
rrel{ i{exican styl €j monulnerrtal center is creatL-d, creating ¿} r'isual
dis jurrctio¡ lvith the ad.jacerrt "native" strucLul'es. Not otr-L¡' t'/ere
tire ¿rrchitectu¿rl- f orms derived f rom llexican proLot¡'pes, but al-so
tfre lrrethorls of construction. The suggested associatio¡r of
CLr¿rcrnool a¡r,l jaguar throne sculptures with a circular tentll 1e
pr.obabl¡' dedicated to Ehecatl (Quetzalcoatl) represetrLs ¿l ¡>atterrr
afso founcl at Toftec Chichdn'Itzá and echoed at Tula. Tahen as a
wlrole, no cornparable Toltec s1,yle orrerf ay has bee-n l'ound ¿r L arly
other si-te in southertr |leso¿rlnerica. The case of Nohrnul i.s
r.erni¡risce¡t only to a l.imited degree (C[ase artd Clrase 1982),
r.¡hile at Cirichén ILzt! ToItec and llerya styles intedigitated and
"lrybridized" to sone degree (Tozzer 1957). The Loma Cirina site,
¿rgain j-n contrast r^¡it-h I'azumal, can be viewed as a outpost set up
by the i'le.:xican intmigrants, poorer itr ar" chi Lt¿c Lut-t'.', bttt tlui l-e
weirlthy it-i comrnerica] ceramics and exotic a¡tifacts. It is
terrrpt-ing to speculate that the 1>ri.nary coltcerll of i ts oct:u¡)ients
l.ias irr f'acL the acquistiorr of ceratnics ¿rnd 1>er'haps other Ioc¿rl
prc.rtiuc t s . Lo¡rta Ch irra n¡¿ry ltave an errtre¡ret .

T¡e Lo¡n¿t China Phase se-'ttl-enents appear to hat'e fornred part

of ar¡ active 1-rvo-ivay netrvork of exchange that lirrked tht¡ttt to
Tu1a. Bot| stylistic evid,ence and exotic materials support this
co¡jectur.e. Sigr¡ificarrt quantities of Pachuc¿t obsidii-irr, Lire
nrie jor soulrce expl,()ited by the T'r-r1.tecs, havrl bt:elt fou¡rd ¡rt t-he
S¿rli.adorar¡ Lorna Ch j rra Phase sítes;. Needltlss t <.¡ sáY, r"j t. lr scVelral

31
otl)er obsid ian sources within niuch easier reac:h, Llie r'ol e o1'
Pachuca obsidlan most liltely would have been s1'mbolic rather Lhan
tecltnolugical, its strihing greel-I c,lfo¡ beirrg a yisual e\pl-'essig)tr
of ciista¡L relatio¡sirips. Lo¡n¿ Chirra's four- I¡osaics po¡t¡¿¡'.ing
Toltt_-c r{arriors lviLh feathered serpents are, bc¡l}r irr tn¿¡Leri¿r1s
¿inti sty1e, forei,gn 1-o E1 S¿rlvaclot'. They ¡^¡oultl be corlsidered
except iorral f j ¡cls i.rr arry flesoallleric¿rrr si Ie r ¿]tid t¡rus t lr¿rVe b*:t'tl
j o¡i ' 1'he'i¡.
nr¿rrtuf acLured itr sollie ma jor centtjr of 'lol Lec Lr-¿l'dit
rralue irr El salr,ador too rvoulcl ha.r'e been sy¡nbolic' possibl¡'
enrblenric Of'a 1'oltec hc.ritage. fn Tr¡l-a' oIl the other h¿rnd', 'lzrrge
clrr¿rrrtit-ies of sher.ds fr()nl Cerrtral Alttc'rrican Cr:r'arnic Vessels lraVt':
l¡et:rr flound , elspecially Tohi I Pl.unbate ¿rud Nict-ry¿¡ Pol.l'ciirolire '
colupJete vessel s of boLI¡ groups havc' e\/elI beeri fOulicl i,Uget'ilt:r'- irr
cat:hr:s. Alt-houÉh the provenie¡rce of'T()hil P1'untb¿r1'e rerlairls, it¡
lny. o1,rlnrg¡, unI'esolved, Llte pir¡ticular: r'ari-et¡'c.'f' Ni.cc')yz-r
po l¡,ctrr.one f ound" at Tula reprt senls a gr-oup so f ¿ir rt:portt--ci t''tily
frcrln E1 Strlvaclor', and probably indigellous to it'
iias been of1'e¡'ecl tir¿rt t-ire
Sorrre er.icle¡rce, adnritt.ed.ll'h'eal!,
j'llre r' iti' s(:jveral
I-omir China Pirase tnay ilaVe brief ly r-¡-"'el'lallpecl itr t
locaI, "n¿iLiVe" phases. To that itrternal (i'e'' t''itirin El
S¿rlyad.or ) evicience Inay be adcled the presellce of locall ¡' pl'f,rtlut:€d ¡
rrorr-Tc.¡ltec trade it.ems, espec j"a1l¡' 1'ohi1 Irl ulrib¿rte and Nicoya
pol.ych¡-ome, aL boLh Lona clrina Phase sites a¡rd 1'ul¿r. At a
lrri.rrirtrutll , their existence suggests an overla¡r t''it.h act.ive
"rr¿It ive" soc-i"eL ie:s .

Tn t.he er¡suing Guazapa Phase it ar)llears tii¿tt a.g|eatel'

rfit'ersity c;f'lriexican style artifacts are introduct:d, buL at tlre
s¿]me t.iure-:,:¡ther elentents clia.grrost.ic r:f the l'otna Ohitra ilh¿rse
d.isap¡rear (c.f. Fowler 1981). Ilost- sig¡rificat¡tly, in Lhe Guiizapa
ptraser t.irere is no greerr obsiiiian, rlo ¡nosaics r very litLLe ( if
irrdeed ar-iy) Tohil Plumbate and Nicoya Polychromc', and rlo
cIacruools, iagu¿rr thrc¡nes, of ot]ier Tol'[ec st'yJ-ti sCLl'11'rttlr':' Irr
slrort, the evidence suggests a breali in tire linjiage t'¡itl¡ c-enLraI
Ilerico tLuring the Guazapa Pirase. Guazapa Phase sit,es al'e
nLir)rerü\-¡s ¿rncl def ini1,e1¡' sigtrerl the f'ull replacenlent of
"lr¿lti-ve "
cult-ur'es, arttl prcibab-ly societies, by the PipiL (c'f ' Forvler
1981). Perhaps Lrtura cliina Phase sites i.¡ere abarrdoned at this
tirne, but Lite sa¡lip.L€) of these is exceedi¡rgly slll¿I1-L arrd f'utLul't:
¿rrc:lt¿-t,eological cr:uld easily change this '

'1,')
 The same di-stributi-on can also be noted f'or the
Protohistoric "Cuscatlln" Phase sites, and a.t least a few ol"
these r./ere probably occupied continousl y from the Guzrzapa Phase
to tfre Concluest. Against the baciidrol: of cotrtinui ty, liere rr¡(l lr¿1)
rrol.e that sorne l{exicarr el-enrents preserrt in tire Guarzapa Phase ¿rre
dr-op1:ed, ancl Lhere is fess ernphasis on monun¡en tal ¿r¡'ch i tec t-ure .

Ir¡ brief', Lhe Ilexicatr intrusi<..:n may be sulltllr¿irized as:

1. Establ-ishment of Tol-tec-r'elated cettLers, lrrr.rl-rtrl-r1

with overlarp, then replacenerlt of "n¿ttive"
1-rhases.
,)
Severing of Toltec t es. Ilex,ic-an sLyle (Pi¡,i1)
..ar)lÉr'.u n'rrlf
¡¡¡qr inlv
e¿l,rJ and toLally r'eplace .locaI plrase's

3 . Entering into the Protc¡historic period, LIre Pi¡-ri I

drop sone previous traits , but remain e-sselttial l- .v
ilexican.

i'lodelirrg tire Mexicat-i Intrusi-on to El Salr'ador

llodeling socia-I and economic inLeracti-or¡ bett"eett ltlt:hisforic

groups is currently a niajor concern irr archa,:olog)', atrd is Ilow
\.er..y colnllo¡t in )lesoalnerican s Ludies. Th ls sectiou ex¿ltttilres Llte
applicaLion of interacLion rnodels to tire problem of llexic¿rrr
intrusion in El Salvador.

Fro¡n t[e very onset nost i"nteractit-rrr ¡rioc1e1s nia.5. be rejer:ted

as irrappropriate for the probleni at irand. f ire Salvador¿u case
invc.r1r'es the replacement of di verse loc¡rl cul t-uraI pliases bl' a
sirrgLe lion-Iocal phase. Ilodels th¿r'b describe gradual. chatrge
tlirough dif f'usic¡rr and ¡rrost fornrs of Lrade (recil:rr:cit¡., dotrn the
1i¡e, celttral place red j.stribution or tnar'het cxchange ) Ital.e lro
desLlri¡tLive por'/er- for t-he rapi.d ¿rnd coiuplete replilcetnent., l'at.her'
th¿rn Lr¿insfornrat,i<.rn, of' n¿rtj-r'e cuftr,¡re er.irfetrced at Tazunr¿¡f allrl
Lt.¡nra C,-h i rr¿r .

lihrit. j.s needed is a nrodel tlr.ri, addresses t.lte poi nts outl i ned
rri-¡ovt:. The two l,iostulated stages ilrt-rst be expl rritred, tvhet'e at

JJ
firsL "Toltec-" centers are established, overlapping r'rith -Local
phases ancl rvith active Iinhs to l"lexico, and second tvhere a
¡lt'rre¡al flexican phase completely repiaces the naLi'r'e p[ase, b¡t
ltori without several "TolLec" el-e¡rrents or direcL interacLiorr ttitli
I'1exico.

O¡ce this is rea,L 1_zecl the ap¡-rl icable lltodel-s 'bt)colhÉr \¡t='r y f err
i.n number. Orre of these invc.rlr'es the concept of col otrial
L,nclaves (Rerrfrew Lg75i42-43), 1'his describes ri sit.u¿rLic,.rr t'ltt:l't-'
orle group "sends I j-ts] eniissaries...Lo establ.isir a. colc¡r¡iaf
e.cl-ave. . . Lo excirangl e goods r^¡iLh l¡rnother groull] " . Tl¡is tltc,tle of
trad.e, Itenf rerv f'ee1s, nlay "traltsl:ort goods over' \/ery gre¿1t
<J.ist.ances", and suggest these ruay be dj-r'ected by ittrper.iaL
capiLals. A colotrial enclal'e also creates a situation \''llerre a
great, f Iorv of inf ormation is Lo be expected betx'een tlie rr¿it ivc:
pollr.llation atrcl the colonists, witlr sollle i't¡efer:eucc in
di¡ectiorrality, presurrably because the co.l-9nial cull-ur-e is as
bei¡lg lnor{-' l)}'rjs LiSious.

Rerrf'rerl argues tiiat r.ro assutnptions should be ¡tr¿,rdc r.c'garciitrEl

rvha!- w:rs beinEi transportedr or how lnucir. The values illact-'d olr
objects ¿¿nd Lheir cluarrtities are, of course, c-ul turally
deterntirred.

J¡ appl ),i¡g this to t.he Salvadoran probl-ettl , T¿rzunrai" would be

seer¡ as a prirrcipal coloni¿rl enclave. Its l-ocatiotr in tlit' heart
of a rnaj¡r n¿rtive ce¡ter suggests coilersion, bul- if true, iLs
¡ature could range from nrilitary-bacired usurpatiotr to co-lusiotr
r.vit-ir loc¿rl chiefs. It seenis to ll'le, however, that usul'l)atiotr is
tlie only ¿ction that could account f or the contpl.ete replat-:emertt
of TazurnaI, s previc.,us a.sseurblage, the presence of we¿lpons r ¿'i¡rd
sLlggest¿rtio¡s of wh¿rt I hesitat.irrgly refer- to as "Tc¡l-tec warrior
cul.ts"; chacrriools, representating Mexican warl'i.ols errrayed bt-'fc.,r'e
tenrple's as servanLs to d.ieties. The usurpation of Tazunral seems
val-iclatecl on alI levels - fr'on mundane"l-y dornesti c Lo tlrtr
i.deological. The other s,Lte under consicleration, Lonl¿r China,
would tSen be seen as a very inferior satellite of tlie colorrial
e¡rclave of Tazumal r or perhaps sorre otlrer u¡tlittorvn e¡rclar"e
situaLecl rnore torvarcls central El Salvaclor'. Its local-io¡i away
from arl)¡ principal native center could be seen as aI-I eff'ort to
¡uai¡1 tairr a rlegree of neutrality by avoiding confllcts oI'
alignntetrts wiLh native groups. It coufd be ar') exaniple of what
nay be a f¿iir.1y conr¡uon Lype c,f small ceut-er dedic.ited large-lv'to

J¿I
brad.e. Just what r^Jas being extreicted frorn E1 Salvador f tlr this
short-1iyed. foreign trade definately incfuded the T'ohi-i. Plu¡lrb¿tte
and Nicoya Polychrorne vessels. Probabl.y cacao l{as alsc¡ of' !lre¿rl
ir¡ter.est. Circao nray liave been f lourishi llg ars e¿rr:ly as AD 650 in
rveste¡¡ E1 Salvador, arrd by the Cotrquest, under Pi pil lna¡iag; erllcnt '
t¡is irad becr:nre tIe clensest and nrost producLj.r'e regiorr of'c¿i(rao
procluctic.rr-i in all l"lesoamerica (A¡naroli 19?B), per'htrps beu¿ruse
S&l\,¿Idor.¿,rrr cacao !¡'il.s irighly esteenled f'or its flavor duri,rrg tire
ear.1¡'col.o¡ia1 period (Ilacl,eod i973). lviret-hel it lia.s tltrongit
free exch¿)rige of coercion, Ltre rreh' t-lccup¿rnts of' T¿rzunt¿rl }i¿d t.lris
I'es()u¡ce ¿rt 1-hei.r disposal. Ar¡clLht:r' ecottottiic ¿rt.Lt'¿¡ct-itr¡t l-ui.t.Lci
have beetr Liie people Lhemsel.ves. Sonre of the r.eplilcetrellt oi'
¡aLiyes by l"Iexicans could be facj-litated b)- a iucr¿rtjv(j ti'iriie irr
local slaves.

As Re¡fr.ew suggL'sts, a colonial enr:lave does rrot furit:1-iotr in

a vacuuul. lt'haL is tire possi-bte lvidel' cotttext of Lhe Ilexic¿rn
setLlelrents irr EI Salvacl.or'? Its central itft-'xic¿trr source is r¿rLher
1¡rr¿r.nrbigous, and atl i¡rdications point to Tula. 1'lre hoiery
cluestio¡ o1'the li-mit.s of Tula's hegernonJ'arrd ir"rfluence ir¿ive been
¿rdtLressed exLensively by Davies ( 1977 ) , Dieirl ( 1983 ) , Litrr:o1n
( 1986 ) , arrd ntany others . The recen t tende-trcy tLas ber:rr Lo p,l arce
Toltec irrf luence on a short leash. Tfie 'I'ernitrai Class j"c/Early
postcl¿rssic evenLs at Chichdn Itzí, ()ncÉ) tvidely erccepLed ¿rt" face
value as involt,ing Toltec conquest ¿rnd rul-e of a Fiaya cerrter (see
heaver i981 ) , are ltol./ seen by mauy as Inore locaI itr rtatur'e, i:trcl
relatecl to centraf Mexico in v¿rEiue arrd indirecL tvays. I ¡tm trt-¡t
cer Lal n o f rvil)' this reversal- li¿rs been so rvidc'11' eiccellt-ect. 'l'ilose
wir,.¡ lrave atLenrpted Lo chalfan€e a nror'e acLive T'c¡ltec 1'üle in
Cirichclr¡ lristory ¡uust dispute TrJzzer's exliaust-ive s l-ud¡' of 'f t,l- Lt:c:
aud i\laya in that city (1957 ) . Lincoln (1986 ) has tlieti tiris ¿rt¡d
tl¡e p¡eyariIjrrg opirrion is that he f¿'iled (Stepherr !loustotr
1 988 : llersoltal communicaLÍou ) .

'f6e Lont¿r Cliina Phase is inl-erpreted as r-ept'csellLi¡¡g a direcL

nrig't'¿rtion ft-orn Toltec c:errtral }lexico southt.¡¿¡rd to the very edges
of Ileso¿r¡neric¿r. For it period of t irne, tlre i,nrrlti-graut Ilex i-e ¿llI:;
r\rere abl.e to main.tain a.ct-ive 1j-rrks ¡¡itl'r blieir former h()InL-larrd.
Tiris ¡aises a nitmber of questions. Futt-¡re studies r¡i1l irave to
e--.rpltrirr the r¡rechanis¡lr r.'hj.ch enabled t.he establisllnietrt of a
Toltec encl-aVe in Centr¿rl Alneric¿r. But ¿rlso IiL- are collf rorlLe(l
r.,i Ll¡ ¿r nc)r€) f ur¡danrental issue: the n¿rLure c.¡f the Tul-tec stat.t:
i ts;e.l f-. The .i.nvestigation of Tula's re.laLic¡nship triLh'loltec;
enc.l-aves in E1 Salvador and elsewhere rvill hel1r generate rretr!,
l-ess corlstrained, perspectives on tire poli-tics and econorny of
Early Postclerss ic llesoamerica.

l{ith t}re de¡nise of the Toltecs, l-inhs between the Sal-vador'¿rn

encl¿.rves a¡rd centraf Mexico were severed. Public staten¡ent.s of
ToItec heritage (as 1¡r Tazunal-ts mc¡numental cerrLel') r.,efe
discontinued, rvhile other aspects of lle-xican naterial culture
were expanded. I{hether it I{as through a brief episode of
atlditional inmigration, or through a slolver process of
r.'eplication, with displacenent or absorption c.,f' l¡a.tive Iiec,Irl-es,
by AD 1200 a cornpletely }lexicau patterrr ir¿rd replaced. Lirt: nati"ve
cult.ures in cenLral and rveste¡'n El Salvaclor. This si1-ua1-ir-rr¡
continued with f'er"¡ nroclif ications to the Sr:anish Cotrcluest.

36
 REFERENCES

Acost¿r, Jor-ge R.
1g+1 Los ultimos descubrimientos arclueoldgicos en TuIa, Hg.¡.
1g,11. Revista Illexicana de Estuclios Antropolóei 5:239-
2+8.

1945 Lil cuarta y quirrta tetuporada de exc¿f,\'aciories t:li Tula,

Hidalgo, 1943-1944. Revista llericana de Estudioq
Arrtropol-ógicos i : 23-61,

1956 Resumetr cle las exploraciones ar-queol6gicas erI 'luIa,

Hid.al-go, clurarrte los VI, \'II y VIII Tent¡oratlas 1916-1950.
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Amtrroli, Paul
19?B The Cacao of Izalco. Paper read aL t|e }I¿r¡cfr 1978
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1gB6 En b(sclueda rLe Cuscatlán: un proyeclo ¿rrciutiolú.e j-co )

er-¡ohistdrico. llanuscri¡-it oIt f ile at che Direcciiír del
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the Anrerican Anthropol-ogical- AssociaLion, chicagt-¡
INovelttber, 198?].
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prep.

37
Ander:sc¡n, Dana
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Andrews, E. Wyllys, V
19?6 The Archaeology of Quelei-ra, E1 S¿rLr'¿¡do¡'. IIicidIe ;Utrgg-ie^-4¡-
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Boggs, StanJ-ey 11.

19.1 3a Obsr)r'\.ac:i¡:nes r-espect.o a la i nporti¡rre ia de "'l'az.uru¿¡i- " eL
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1943b 'lazulltal- elt la arclueología sarlvacl<¡reñt'. SV,I¿IS-$e--i-rtt-¡-ü.' la

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l9{-la Arch¿reological Survey. In: Long}'e¿rr 19++,

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Lc;ngyear 1944.

194.1c A Hum¿rn Ef f igy Pottery Figure f ¡orrr C|¿tlcltu:ipa, El

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19.1 5 Itrfornie sobre l-a Lercera Leutporada de exc¿t\¡aciorres ell las

ruinas de "Tatzumal". Tzunila¡ne 5(14):33-45. Sa¡r
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19rt9 Tf.rloc Irrcensarios in the Baratta cc.'llecLiotr, El

Sa,Lv¿rdor. No.Les on 11 i-dd1e Aurerican Arcliqlgc., lp€l-4¡ü-
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I'i¿rsh ington, Washing Lon, D . C

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ot!-h-Lr--Ej€} ty:-!il¡!]¡-*L iI t hday. Ilohokatn |Ius cl¡lls
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38
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1g63 E-xcavations at l'azumal , El Salvador. 4'!Lg-Ir!é!-

.@oc ietv Yqaf-b-qg-[, Phi larlel¡;hia'

lgi2 Figurill.rs cot-I ruedas tle Ciiruertán y e1 Orie¡rLe de lll

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i9?6 Dos Xipe Totecs del Lago de Cüiia. ¡\uaIes (lel lluse'-''-
@J. Guzmáir" 49:109-116' Dirc-cciótr dt:
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1^n-
NIzrya lletalwork ar-rd its Ext.er.rr¿¡I Cotlne:cLlc¡¡rs. Soc, ial-
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pl-ocess in Ma5'a Pr:ellistor).: Studies i rr [io¡tor' r Eric
It1_q-¡np¡-g¡1 tN. Halrtnonti, ed. .l . ,\caderuic Press, Lt-rtrt'l orl

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1 gB 5 Tr¡_e_-li pi

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7982 \'ucaLec .t¡rfluelrce in Terrninal Classic No¡'Lhertr BeIi''e
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Cortés y Larraz, Pedro

lgbB Descripciórr geográfico-moral de 1a d.iócesis de Goathe¡nala
(1?68-1??O).8]b-].]-sl-e-s-4.''G<>athemala.'v.r].20(l"olnoS1y
Zl, Societlad de Geografía (j llistoria, Gu¿rLeural-a.

'iq
Cr'ane, li,i clrard
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'
Dentarest, Arlhur A.
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1g84 Lar-e P¡eclassic Mortuary P¿r'LLerlrrs arici Evicience for llu¡na¡r

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i9B5 Etirtrohistoric Sources on the Pipil-Nicarao of'LlerrLlal

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1702 .{ Survey of l-ite Spanish West Indies, ge:r,g-A-&-Uf:r1q1l of -
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40
 , C. V.
lltrrttttarrtt
I 90 1 Etnografiska undersoku itrgar of ver aztehelr¡¿i
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,7rA
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190? llythoLo*v of the Aztecs of Salvador' Jour'¡r¿il o f Arre Ll-c-tilt-

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1950 Qttr:as iristdricas It-omo I, publ-is]red ¿tntl trlrlloL¿tLet.l ]'''r

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.Toyce, RosentarY
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11

Litrc:olri, Char'l-es E.
1986 The chronology of chichen Itza: A Review of 1-ht¿
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1
'1
Lorig)'ear, Joltn |l ., ITI
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196ü .\rcllaeologicel Survey of El Safvador. Iri: lt¿rrrd,!r-oc-.¡li of

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19 3I 1'he Soutireastern Frontie¡' of' the I'lar'¿r. AtlSr::.!g-!l-

.\nLhropol-ogisL'11 : 42-5'1,

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1980 TIe Irrrplications of ]'ia]rua (Aztecarr) Lerical Divel siL.v I'or
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I t)
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tgiT ll_ilpS-_f_leyendas de- los__¿!pi les de f zalqo I trarrsl¿rtiori by
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1.)
a9
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 if .iB An Arciraeological Itecot-ltiaissal-ice in tile Cotzulrr¿¡lli''ra1la
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I"rrrl i¡rtrq ttt r\llluI'l L.'i:ll'I
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Calneg; ie Ilrstit.r-rticrtr of'

I¡¡-!-i:-fo-p.ol-9g¿ ar-rd Histcrri', tr'r ''1 '
-l
\r'ashitrgtort, \iaslritrgton, D'C'

ll¿r)'¿r IIist.or)' ¿rnd R'el-ig-1-a!' urrivers,it¡' of Oh-i ¿rlrt-¡ru¿t Pl'i:ss,

i9;0
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Tozr.cl', Al f'r'eci Il .
195? c, liic--lrerr ILza ¿rncl i 1-s Q¡¡¡¡<ll-e c,f
s¿r,-'t.'i f i ctr: A c('rltpal'iIt iVe
St.uri¡, of C6¡te.nrpor¿rnÉroLls iltr¡':i and T'oI iec. Ilenr-t21r'9 -!'}1---!h9---
9
-ll,L1i¡rql'sr:{I "'oi-s '
F*i¿]:-q-d¡-UgS-gt!t!-of Arcbaeol-qg)' arid ¿-IrreL

\2 . Ilar-r'aril. Urri vc'rs i Ly, C alnl¡r idge '

'lsuli¿rcla, )latstto, and Eclwirrd S' Dect't--'r' Jr'

1g6T pollen A¡ral-yses f¡.c¡t¡r Ilt-¡ur L¿rhes in Lirt: SouLht'r'rr lli'¡'ai -{¡-ei\
o1l Gu¡rt-eurala i¡rid El Salvador'. In: QuLttg:l'_U{LL--
P¿t.l.eoeco]ogyt.lj.J.Cr'lslrirrgi¿rnc1H.E.hr.ight,ec|s.l.fa]e
L, rri-versity Press, lrlet'¿ Have¡r '

lluriel Porter
l{t'r¿1.\'€iJ',
1I 8 1 t Lg-.}a!s!t-r--M AJrL* a ¡:[¡--T¡-!t. r.J,' -Pgp qle.l:t¡:lQ-t!q I s er' < I ¡r
'l
ecliLrortl . i\c¿rclemic Press ' Nerv Yor'k '

, Ilr';rltt: i sco
i. i rrreirrez
lgZg H i s!gI-ia--.lq-L-.I r')r'o1i¡¡c-l:1-d::-,94IL- \l-i l:q:,lt-!.t-,rls Q,!ri4u4- -)--
Gr¡¡r Lern.ila LZ Vc-, Ls . .l . f ipog¡'¿.f'la \¿rc iotrirl , Cua Lellr¿LI¿r

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