Mathematical Physics Guide for Competitive Exams

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fiziks
Forum for CSIR-UGC JRF/NET, GATE, IIT-JAM/IISc,
JEST, TIFR and GRE in
PHYSICS & PHYSICAL SCIENCES
Mathematical Physics
(IIT-JAM/JEST/TIFR/M.Sc Entrance)
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MATHEMATICAL METHODS
1(A). Vector Analysis
1.1(A) Vector Algebra..................................................................................................(1-7)
1.1.1 Vector Operations
1.1.2 Vector Algebra: Component Form
1.1.3 Triple Products
1.1.4 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors
1.2(A) Differential Calculus.....................................................................................(8-16)
1.2.1 “Ordinary” Derivatives
1.2.2 Gradient
1.2.3 The Operator ∇
1.2.4 The Divergence
1.2.5 The Curl
1.2.6 Product Rules
1.2.5 Second Derivatives
1.3(A) Integral Calculus.........................................................................................(16-27)
1.3.1 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
1.3.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
1.3.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients
1.3.4 The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences
1.3.5 The Fundamental Theorem for Curls
1.4(A) Curvilinear Coordinates.............................................................................(28-39)
1.4.1 Spherical Polar Coordinates
1.4.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates
1.5(A) The Dirac Delta Function............................................................................(39-41)
1.5.1 The Divergence of rˆ / r 2
1.5.2 The One- Dimensional Dirac Delta Function
1.5.3 The Three-Dimensional Delta Function
1.6(A) The Theory of Vector Fields............................................................................(42)
1.6.1 The Helmholtz Theorem
1.6.2 Potentials
Questions and Solutions..........................................................................................(43-57) 3





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1. Linear Algebra and Matrices…………………………………………………(58-100)
1.1 Linear Dependence and Dimensionality of a Vector Space
1.2 Properties of Matrices
1.3 Eigen value problem
1.4 Different Types of Matrices and their properties
1.5 Cayley–Hamilton Theorem
1.6 Diagonalisation of Matrix
1.7 Function of Matrix
2. Complex Number…………………………………………………………….(101-147)
2.1 Definition
2.2 Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers
2.3 De Moivre’s Theorem
2.4 Complex Function
2.4.1 Exponential Function of a Complex Variable
2.4.2 Circular Functions of a Complex Variable
2.4.3 Hyperbolic Functions
2.4.4 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
2.4.5 Logarithmic Function of a Complex Variable
2.5 Summation of Series C + iS Method
3. Fourier Series………………………………………………………………..(148-184)
3.1 Half-Range Fourier Series
3.2 Functions defined in two or more sub-ranges
3.3 Complex Notation for Fourier series
4 Calculus of Single and Multiple Variables…………………………………(185-220)
4.1 Limits
4.1.1 Right Hand and Left hand Limits
4.1.2 Theorem of Limits
4.1.3 L’Hospital’s Rule
4.1.4 Continuity
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4.2 Differentiability
4.2.1 Tangents and Normal
4.2.2 Condition for tangent to be parallel or perpendicular to x-axis
4.2.3 Maxima and Minima
4.3 Partial Differentiation
4.3.1 Euler theorem of Homogeneous function
4.3.2 Maxima and Minima (of function of two independent variable)
4.4 Jacobian
4.4.1 Properties of Jacobian
4.5 Taylor’s series and Maclaurine series expansion
4.5.1 Maclaurine’s Development
5. Differential Equations of the first Order and first Degree………………(221-244)
5.1 Linear Differential Equations of First Order
5.1.1 Separation of the variables
5.1.2 Homogeneous Equation
5.1.3 Equations Reducible to homogeneous form
5.1.4 Linear Differential Equations
5.1.5 Equation Reducible to Linear Form
5.1.6 Exact Differential Equation
5.1.7 Equations Reducible to the Exact Form
5.2 Linear Differential Equations of Second Order with constant Coefficients
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1(A).Vector Analysis
1.1 Vector Algebra
Vector quantities have both direction as well as magnitude such as velocity, acceleration, force
and momentum etc. We will use A for any general vector and its magnitude by A . In diagrams
vectors are denoted by arrows: the length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the
vector, and the arrowhead indicates its direction. Minus A ( − A ) is a vector with the same
magnitude as A but of opposite direction.
Α
−Α
1.1.1 Vector Operations

We define four vector operations: addition and three kinds of multiplication.
(i) Addition of two vectors
Place the tail of B at the head of A ; the sum, A + B , is the vector from the tail of A to the head
of B .
Addition is commutative: A + B = B + A
(
Addition is associative: A + B + C = A + B + C ) ( )
To subtract a vector, add its opposite: A − B = A + − B ( )
Β −Β
(Β + Α)
A
(Α + Β) Α (Α − Β) Α
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(ii) Multiplication by scalar
Multiplication of a vector by a positive scalar a, multiplies the magnitude but leaves the direction
unchanged. (If a is negative, the direction is reversed.) Scalar multiplication is distributive:
( )
a A + B = a A + aB
2Α
Α
(iii) Dot product of two vectors

The dot product of two vectors is define by
Α
A.B = AB cos θ θ
Β
where θ is the angle they form when placed tail to tail. Note that A.B is itself a scalar. The dot
product is commutative,
A.B = B. A
and distributive, ( )
A. B + C = A.B + A.C .
Geometrically A.B is the product of A times the projection of B along A (or the product of B
times the projection of A along B ).
If the two vectors are parallel, A.B = AB
If two vectors are perpendicular, then A.B = 0
Law of cosines
Let C = A − B and then calculate dot product of C with itself.
C
Α
( )( )
C.C = A − B . A − B = A. A − A.B − B. A + B.B θ
C 2 = A2 + B 2 − 2 AB cos θ Β
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(iv) Cross Product of Two Vectors
The cross product of two vectors is define by
A × B = AB sin θ nˆ Α
θ
where n̂ is a unit vector( vector of length 1) pointing perpendicular to the plane of A and B .Of
course there are two directions perpendicular to any plane “in” and “out.”
The ambiguity is resolved by the right-hand rule:
let your fingers point in the direction of first vector and curl around (via the smaller angle)
toward the second; then your thumb indicates the direction of n̂ . (In figure A × B points into the
page; B × A points out of the page)
The cross product is distributive,
( ) (
A× B + C = A× B + A× C ) ( )
but not commutative.
( ) (
In fact B × A = − A × B . )
Geometrically, A × B is the area of the parallelogram generated by A and B . If two vectors are
parallel, their cross product is zero.

In particular A × A = 0 for any vector A
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1.1.2 Vector Algebra: Component Form
Let xˆ , yˆ and ẑ be unit vectors parallel to the x, y and z axis, respectively. An arbitrary vector A
can be expanded in terms of these basis vectors
A = Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ
z z
ẑ A
Az zˆ
y Ax xˆ y
x̂ ŷ
x
Ay yˆ
x
The numbers Ax , Ay , and Az are called component of A ; geometrically, they are the projections
of A along the three coordinate axes.

(i) Rule: To add vectors, add like components.
A + B = ( Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ ) + ( Bx xˆ + By yˆ + Bz zˆ ) = ( Ax + Bx ) xˆ + ( Ay + By ) yˆ + ( Az + Bz ) zˆ
(ii) Rule: To multiply by a scalar, multiply each component.

A = ( aAx ) xˆ + ( aAy ) yˆ + ( aAz ) zˆ
Because xˆ , yˆ and ẑ are mutually perpendicular unit vectors

xˆ.xˆ = yˆ . yˆ = zˆ. zˆ = 1; xˆ. yˆ = xˆ.zˆ = yˆ .zˆ = 0
Accordingly, A.B = ( Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ ) . ( Bx xˆ + By yˆ + Bz zˆ ) = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
(iii) Rule: To calculate the dot product, multiply like components, and add.
In particular, A. A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 ⇒ A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2
Similarly, xˆ × xˆ = yˆ × yˆ = zˆ × zˆ = 0,
xˆ × yˆ = − yˆ × xˆ = zˆ
yˆ × zˆ =− zˆ × yˆ = xˆ
zˆ × xˆ = − xˆ × zˆ = yˆ
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(iv) Rule: To calculate the cross product, form the determinant whose first row is xˆ , yˆ , ẑ , whose
second row is A (in component form), and whose third row is B .
xˆ yˆ zˆ
A × B = Ax Ay Az = ( Ay Bz − Az By ) xˆ + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) yˆ + ( Ax By − Ay Bx ) zˆ
Bx By Bz
Example: Find the angle between the face diagonals of a cube. z
Solution: The face diagonals A and B are (0,0,1)

A = 1xˆ + 0 yˆ + 1zˆ; B = 0 xˆ + 1 yˆ + 1zˆ
So, ⇒ A.B = 1 Α
θ Β (0,1,0)
y
1
Also, ⇒ A.B = AB cos θ = 2 2 cos θ ⇒ cos θ = ⇒ θ = 600
2
x
(1,0,0)
z
Example: Find the angle between the body diagonals of a cube. (0,0,1)
Solution: The body diagonals A and B are
Β
A = xˆ + yˆ − zˆ; B = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ θ (0,1,0)
y
So, ⇒ A.B = 1 + 1 − 1 = 1 Α
1 ⎛1⎞
x
(1,0,0)
Also, ⇒ A.B = AB cos θ = 3 3 cos θ ⇒ cos θ = ⇒ θ = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎝3⎠
Example: Find the components of the unit vector n̂ perpendicular z
to the plane shown in the figure. 3 n̂
Solution: The vectors A and B can be defined as

B
A× B
6 xˆ + 3 yˆ + 2 zˆ 2
A = − xˆ + 2 yˆ ; B = − xˆ + 3zˆ ⇒ nˆ = = y
A× B 7 1
A
x
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1.1.3 Triple Products
Since the cross product of two vectors is itself a vector, it can be dotted or crossed with a third
vector to form a triple product.
(i) Scalar triple product: A. B × C ( )

Geometrically A. B × C ( ) is the volume of the parallelepiped
A
n̂ θ
generated by A, B and C , since B × C is the area of the base, C
and A cos θ is the altitude. Evidently, B
( ) (
A. B × C = B. C × A = C. A × B ) ( )
Ax Ay Az
In component form A. B × C = Bx By Bz ( )
Cx C y Cz
Note that the dot and cross can be interchanged: A. B × C = A × B .C ( ) ( )

(ii) Vector triple product: A × B × C ( )
The vector triple product can be simplified by the so-called BAC-CAB rule:
( ) ( ) ( )
A × B × C = B A.C − C A.B
1.1.4 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors

z
source point
r̂
r ( x, y , z ) r′
R
z field point
y
x
x r
y
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The location of a point in three dimensions can be described by listing its Cartesian
coordinates ( x, y, z ) . The vector to that point from the origin is called the position vector:
r = xxˆ + y yˆ + z zˆ .
Its magnitude, r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 is the distance from the origin,
r xxˆ + y yˆ + z zˆ
and rˆ = = is a unit vector pointing radially outward.
r x2 + y 2 + z 2
The infinitesimal displacement vector, from ( x, y, z ) to ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) , is
d l = dxxˆ + dy yˆ + dz zˆ .
Note: In electrodynamics one frequently encounters problems involving two points-typically, a
source point , r ′ , where an electric charge is located, and a field point, r , at which we are
calculating the electric or magnetic field. We can define separation vector from the source
point to the field point by R ;
R = r − r′ .
Its magnitude is R = r − r′ ,
R r − r′
and a unit vector in the direction from r ′ to r is Rˆ = = .
R r − r′
In Cartesian coordinates,
R = ( x − x′ ) xˆ + ( y − y′ ) yˆ + ( z − z′ ) zˆ
R = ( x − x′ ) + ( y − y ′ ) + ( z − z ′ )
2 2 2
Rˆ =
( x − x′ ) xˆ + ( y − y′ ) yˆ + ( z − z′ ) zˆ
( x − x′ ) + ( y − y ′ ) + ( z − z ′ )
2 2 2
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1.2 Differential Calculus
1.2.1 “Ordinary” Derivatives
Suppose we have a function of one variable: f(x) then the derivative, df /dx tells us how rapidly
the function f(x) varies when we change the argument x by a tiny amount, dx:
⎛ df ⎞
df = ⎜ ⎟dx
⎝ dx ⎠
In words: If we change x by an amount dx, then f changes by an amount df; the derivative is the
proportionality factor. For example in figure (a), the function varies slowly with x, and the
derivative is correspondingly small. In figure (b), f increases rapidly with x, and the derivative is
large, as we move away from x = 0.
Geometrical Interpretation: The derivative df / dx is the slope of the graph of f versus x.
f f
(a ) x
(b ) x
1.2.2 Gradient
Suppose that we have a function of three variables-say, V (x, y, z) in a
⎛ ∂V ⎞ ⎛ ∂V ⎞ ⎛ ∂V ⎞
dV = ⎜ ⎟ dx + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ dy + ⎜ ⎟ dz.
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ⎠
This tells us how V changes when we alter all three variables by the infinitesimal amounts dx, dy,
dz. Notice that we do not require an infinite number of derivatives-three will suffice: the partial
derivatives along each of the three coordinate directions.
Thus
⎛ ∂V
dV = ⎜ xˆ +
∂V
yˆ +
∂V ⎞
zˆ ⎟ ⋅ ( dxxˆ + dyyˆ + dzzˆ ) = ∇V ⋅ d l , ( )( )
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
∂V ∂V ∂V
where ∇V = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ is the gradient of V .
∂x ∂y ∂z
∇V is a vector quantity, with three components.

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Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient
Like any vector, the gradient has magnitude and direction. To determine its geometrical
meaning, let’s rewrite
dV = ∇V ⋅ d l = ∇V d l cos θ
where θ is the angle between ∇V and d l . Now, if we fix the magnitude d l and search around
in various directions (that is, vary θ ), the maximum change in V evidently occurs when θ = 0 (for
then cosθ = 1 ). That is, for a fixed distance d l , dT is greatest when one move in the same
direction as ∇V . Thus:
The gradient ∇V points in the direction of maximum increase of the function V.

Moreover:
The magnitude ∇V gives the slope (rate of increase) along this maximal direction.
Example: Find the unit vector normal to the curve y = x2 at the point (2, 4, 1).
Solution: The equation of curve in the form of surface is given by
x2 – y = 0
A constant scalar function V on the surface is given by V (x, y, z) = x2 - y
Taking the gradient
∂ 2 ∂ 2 ∂ 2
(
∇V = ∇ x 2 − y = ) ∂x
(
x − y xˆ +
∂y
)
x − y yˆ +
∂z
( )
x − y zˆ = 2 xxˆ − yˆ ( )
The value of the gradient at point (2, 4, 1), ∇V = 4 xˆ − yˆ
The unit vector, as required
4 xˆ − yˆ
nˆ = ± =±
1
(4 xˆ − yˆ )
4 xˆ − yˆ 17
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3 2
Example: Find the unit vector normal to the surface xy z = 4 at a point (-1, -1, 2).
∂ ∂ ∂
(
Solution: ∇ xy 3 z 2 = ) ∂x
(
xy 3 z 2 xˆ + )
∂y
(
xy 3 z 2 yˆ +
∂z
) ( ) ( ) (
xy 3 z 2 zˆ = y 3 z 2 xˆ + 3xy 2 z 2 yˆ + 2 xy 3 z zˆ ) ( )
At a point (-1, -1, 2), ∇(xy 3 z 2 ) = −4 xˆ − 12 yˆ + 4 zˆ
Unit vector normal to the surface
− 4 xˆ − 12 yˆ + 4 zˆ
nˆ = =−
1
( xˆ + 3 yˆ − zˆ )
(− 4) 2
( )
+ − 12 2 + 4 2 11
1.2.3 The Operator ∇
The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector, ∇ , “multiplying” a scalar V:

⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂⎞
∇V = ⎜⎜ xˆ + yˆ + zˆ ⎟⎟ V
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
The term in parentheses is called “del”:
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
We should say that ∇ is a vector operator that acts upon V, not a vector that multiplies V.
There are three ways the operator ∇ can act:
1. on a scalar function V: ∇V (the gradient);
2. on a vector function A , via the dot product: ∇ ⋅ A (the divergence);
3. on a vector function A , via the cross product: ∇ × A (the curl).

1.2.4 The Divergence
From the definition of ∇ we construct the divergence:

⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂⎞ ∂A ∂Ay ∂Az
∇ ⋅ A = ⎜⎜ xˆ + yˆ + zˆ ⎟⎟ ⋅ (Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ ) = x + +
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂x ∂y ∂z
Observe that the divergence of a vector function A is itself a scalar ∇ ⋅ A . (You can't have the
divergence of a scalar: that’s meaningless.)
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Geometrical Interpretation:
∇ ⋅ A is a measure of how much the vector A spreads out (diverges) from the point in question.
For example, the vector function in figure (a) has a large (positive) divergence (if the arrows
pointed in, it would be a large negative divergence), the function in figure (b) has zero
divergence, and the function in figure (c) again has a positive divergence. (Please understand that
A here is a function-there’s a different vector associated with every point in space.)
(a ) ( b) (c)
Example: Suppose the function sketched in above figure are A = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ , B = zˆ and C = zzˆ .
Calculate their divergences.
∂
Solution: ∇⋅ A = (x ) + ∂ ( y ) + ∂ (z ) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂
∇⋅B = (0) + ∂ (0) + ∂ (1) = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂
∇⋅C = (0) + ∂ (0) + ∂ (z ) = 0 + 0 + 1 = 1
∂x ∂y ∂z
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1.2.5 The Curl
From the definition of ∇ we construct the curl:

xˆ yˆ zˆ
∇ × A = ∂ / ∂x ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂z
Ax Ay Az
⎛ ∂A ∂Ay ⎞ ⎛ ∂A ∂A ⎞ ⎛ ∂A ∂A ⎞
= xˆ ⎜⎜ z − ⎟⎟ + yˆ ⎜ x − z ⎟ + zˆ⎜⎜ y − x ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Notice that the curl of a vector function A is, like any cross product, a vector. (You cannot have
the curl of a scalar; that’s meaningless.)
∇ × A is a measure of how much the vector A “curls around” the point in question. Figure
shown below have a substantial curl, pointing in the z-direction, as the natural right-hand rule
would suggest. z
y
y
x (a ) x ( b)
Example: Suppose the function sketched in above figure are A = − yxˆ + xyˆ and B = xyˆ . Calculate their
curls.
xˆ yˆ zˆ xˆ yˆ zˆ
Solution: ∇ × A = ∂ / ∂x ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂z = 2 zˆ and ∇ × B = ∂ / ∂x ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂z = zˆ
−y x 0 0 x 0
As expected, these curls point in the +z direction. (Incidentally, they both have zero divergence,
as you might guess from the pictures: nothing is “spreading out”…. it just “curls around.”)
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Example: Given a vector function A = ( x + c1 z )xˆ + (c 2 x − 3 z ) yˆ + ( x + c3 y + c 4 z )zˆ .
(a) Calculate the value of constants c1 , c 2 , c3 if A is irrotational.
(b) Determine the constant c 4 if A is also solenoidal.
(c) Determine the scalar potential function V, whose negative gradient equals A .
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∂ ∂ ∂
Solution: If A is irrotational then, ∇ × A = =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
(x + c1 z ) (c 2 x − 3z ) ( x + c3 y + c 4 z )
⇒ ∇ × A = (c3 + 3)xˆ − (1 − c1 ) yˆ + (c 2 − 0 )zˆ = 0 ⇒ c1 = 1, c 2 = 0, c3 = −3
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

(b) If A is solenoidal, ∇ ⋅ A = 0 ⇒ + + = 1 + 0 + c 4 = 0 ⇒ c 4 = −1
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂V ∂V ∂V
(c) A = −∇V = − xˆ − yˆ − zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
A = ( x + z )xˆ + (− 3z ) yˆ + ( x − 3 y − z )zˆ
∂V x2
⇒ = − x − z ⇒ V = - − xz + f 1 ( y, z ) ,
∂x 2
∂V
= 3z ⇒ V = 3yz + f 2 ( x, z ) ,
∂y
∂V z2
= − x + 3 y + z ⇒ V = − xz + 3 yz + + f 3 ( x, y )
∂z 2
Examination of above expressions of V gives a general value of
x2 z2
V =− − xz + 3 yz +
2 2
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1.2.6 Product Rules
The calculation of ordinary derivatives is facilitated by a number of general rules, such as the
sum rule:
d
( f + g ) = df + dg ,
dx dx dx
the rule for multiplying by a constant:

d
(kf ) = k df ,
dx dx
the product rule:

d
( fg ) = f dg + g df ,
dx dx dx
df dg
g − f
d ⎛f ⎞ dx dx .
and the quotient rule: ⎜ ⎟=
dx ⎜⎝ g ⎟⎠ g2
Similar relations hold for the vector derivatives. Thus,
(
) ( ) ( )
∇ ( f + g ) = ∇ f + ∇g , ∇ ⋅ Α + Β = ∇ ⋅ Α + ∇ ⋅ Β ,
∇ × (Α + Β ) = (∇ × Α ) + (∇ × Β ),
and
( ) ( )
∇(kf ) = k ∇ f , ∇ ⋅ k Α = k ∇ ⋅ Α , ( ) (
∇× kΑ = k ∇× Α , )
as you can check for yourself. The product rules are not quite so simple. There are two ways to
construct a scalar as the product of two functions:
f g (product of two scalar functions),
Α ⋅ Β (Dot product of two vectors),

and two ways to make a vector:
f Α (Scalar time’s vector),
Α × Β (Cross product of two vectors),

Accordingly, there are six product rules,
Two for gradients:
(i) ∇( fg ) = f ∇g + g ∇ f ,
( ) ( ) (
(ii) ∇ Α ⋅ Β = Α × ∇ × Β + Β × ∇ × Α + Α ⋅ ∇ Β + Β ⋅ ∇ Α, ) ( ) ( )
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Two for divergences:
( ) ( ) ( )
(iii) ∇ ⋅ f Α = f ∇ ⋅ Α + Α ⋅ ∇ f ,
(iv) ∇ ⋅ (Α × Β ) = Β ⋅ (∇ × Α ) − Α ⋅ (∇ × Β ),
And two for curls:
( ) ( ) ( )
(v) ∇ × f Α = f ∇ × Α − Α × ∇ f ,
(vi) ∇ × (Α × Β ) = (Β ⋅ ∇ )Α − (Α ⋅ ∇ )Β + Α(∇ ⋅ Β ) − Β(∇ ⋅ Α ),

It is also possible to formulate three quotient rules:
⎛ f ⎞ g ∇ f − f ∇g
∇⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = , ∇⋅⎜ ⎟ =
( )
⎛ Α ⎞ g ∇ ⋅ Α − Α ⋅ ∇g
,
( ) ∇×⎜ ⎟ =
(
⎛ Α ⎞ g ∇ × Α + Α × ∇g
.
) ( )
⎝g⎠ g2 ⎜g⎟ g 2 ⎜g⎟ g 2
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1.2.5 Second Derivatives
The gradient, the divergence, and the curl are the only first derivatives we can make with
∇ ; by applying ∇ twice we can construct five species of second derivatives. The gradient ∇V is
a vector, so we can take the divergence and curl of it:
(1) Divergence of gradient: ∇ ⋅ ∇V ( )

( ) ⎛ ∂
∇ ⋅ ∇V = ⎜⎜ xˆ + yˆ
∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂V
+ zˆ ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ xˆ +
∂V
yˆ +
∂V ⎞ ∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
ˆz ⎟⎟ = 2 + 2 + 2 .
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ∂x ∂y ∂z
This object, which we write ∇ 2V for short, is called the Laplacian of V. Notice that the
Laplacian of a scalar V is a scalar.
Occasionally, we shall speak of the Laplacian of a vector, ∇ 2 A . By this we mean a vector

quantity whose x-component is the Laplacian of Ax, and so on:
∇ 2 A ≡ (∇ 2 Ax )xˆ + (∇ 2 Ay )yˆ + (∇ 2 Az )zˆ.
This is nothing more than a convenient extension of the meaning of ∇ 2 .
(2) Curl of gradient: ∇ × ∇V ( )

The divergence ∇ ⋅ A is a scalar-all we can do is taking its gradient.
The curl of a gradient is always zero: ∇ × ∇V = 0. ( )

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(3) Gradient of divergence: ∇ ∇ ⋅ A ( )
The curl ∇ × A is a vector, so we can take its divergence and curl.
( )
Notice that ∇ ∇ ⋅ A is not the same as the Laplacian of a vector: ∇ 2 A = ∇ ⋅ ∇ A ≠ ∇ ∇ ⋅ A . ( ) ( )
(4) Divergence of curl: ∇ ⋅ ∇ × A ( )
The divergence of a curl, like the curl of a gradient, is always zero:
(
∇⋅ ∇× A = 0. )
(5) Curl of curl: ∇ × ∇ × A ( )
As you can check from the definition of ∇ :
( ) ( )
∇ × ∇ × A = ∇ ∇ ⋅ A − ∇2 A .
So curl-of-curl gives nothing new; the first term is just number (3) and the second is the
Laplacian (of a vector).
1.3 Integral Calculus
1.3.1 Line, Surface, and Volume Integrals
(a) Line Integrals
A line integral is an expression of the form z
b
∫a
A ⋅ dl ,
dl
b
where Α is a vector function, d l is the
infinitesimal displacement vector and the integral a
is to be carried out along a prescribed path P y
from point a to point b. If the path in question
x
forms a closed loop (that is, if b = a), put a circle
on the integral sign:
∫ A ⋅ dl .
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At each point on the path we take the dot product of Α (evaluated at that point) with the
displacement d l to the next point on the path. The most familiar example of a line integral is the
work done by a force F :
W = ∫ F ⋅ dl
Ordinarily, the value of a line integral depends critically on the particular path taken from a to b,
but there is an important special class of vector functions for which the line integral is
independent of the path, and is determined entirely by the end points(A force that has this
property is called conservative.)
Example: Calculate the line integral of the function A = y 2 xˆ + 2 x( y + 1) yˆ from the point a = (1, 1, 0) to
the point b = (2, 2, 0), along the paths (1) and (2) as shown in figure. What is ∫ A⋅ dl for the
loop that goes from a to b along (1) and returns to a along (2)?
y
2 b
( 2)
(ii )
1 a
(i ) (1)
1 2 x
Solution: Since d l = dxxˆ + dyyˆ + dzzˆ . Path (1) consists of two parts. Along the “horizontal” segment
dy = dz = 0, so
2
(i) d l = dxxˆ, y = 1, A ⋅ d l = y 2 dx = dx, so ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ dx = 1 1
On the “vertical” stretch dx = dz = 0, so
(ii) d l = dyyˆ , x = 2, A ⋅ d l = 2 x( y + 1)dy = 4( y + 1)dy, so ∫ A ⋅ d l = 4∫ ( y + 1)dy = 10 .

2
By path (1), then,

b
∫ a
A ⋅ d l = 1 + 10 = 11
Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, dx = dy, and dz = 0, so
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d l = dxxˆ + dxyˆ , A ⋅ d l = x dx + 2 x( x + 1)dx = (3 x 2 + 2 x )dx
2
so
∫a
b 2
( )
A ⋅ d l = ∫ 3 x 2 + 2 x dx = x 3 + x 2
1
( ) 2
1
= 10
For the loop that goes out (1) and back (2), then,
∫ A ⋅ d l = 11 − 10 = 1
Example: Find the line integral of the vector A = (x 2 − y 2 )xˆ + 2 xyyˆ around a square of side ‘b’ which
has a corner at the origin, one side on the x axis and the other side on the y axis.
z
(0, 0) (0, b )
O R y
(b, 0)
Q (b, b )
x P
Solution: In a Cartesian coordinate system dlˆ = dxxˆ + dyyˆ + dzzˆ , A = x 2 − y 2 xˆ + 2 xyyˆ ( )
∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ [(x )
− y 2 dx + 2 xydy ]
2
OPQRO OPQRO
b
b3
Along OP, y = 0, dy = 0 ⇒ ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ x dx = 2
OP x =0
3
b
Along PQ , x = b, dx = 0 ⇒ ∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ 2b y dy = b
3
PQ y =0
0
⎛ x2 ⎞
Along QR, y = b, dy = 0 ⇒ ∫ A ⋅d l = ∫ (x − b )dx = ⎜⎜ − b 2 x ⎟⎟
0
2
= b3 2 2
QR x =b ⎝ 3 ⎠ x =b 3
Along RO, x = 0, dx = 0 ⇒ ∫ A ⋅ dl = 0
RO
b3 2 3
∫ A ⋅ d l = OP∫ A ⋅ d l + PQ∫ A ⋅ d l + QR∫ A ⋅ d l + RO∫ A ⋅ d l = 3 + b + 3 b + 0 = 2b
2 3
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Example: Compute the line integral F = 6 xˆ + yz yˆ + (3 y + z )zˆ along the triangular path shown in
2
figure. z
C1 C3
y
C2 1
Solution: Line Integral ∫ F .d l = ∫ F .d l + ∫ F .d l + ∫ F .d l

C1 C2 C3
On path C1, x = 0, y = 0, d l = dzzˆ

0
[ ]
0 0
z2
∫ F ⋅ d l = z∫=2 6 x + yz y + (3 y + z )z ⋅ dzz = z∫=2 zdz = 2
4
ˆ ˆ 2
ˆ ˆ =− = −2
C1 2
2
1
On path C2, x = 0, z = 0, d l = dyyˆ ⇒ ∫ F ⋅ d l = ∫ yz
2
dy = 0
C2 y =0
On path C3 the slope of line is-2 and intercept on z axis is 2 ⇒ z = −2 y + 2 = 2(1 − y )

and the connecting points are (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 2)
On C3, x=0, dx = 0 d l = dyyˆ + dzzˆ
⎡ ⎛2−z⎞ ⎤
∫ (yz )dy + (3 y + z )dz = ∫ y[2(1 − y )] dy + ∫ ⎢⎣3⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ + z ⎥⎦dz
0 2
∫ F ⋅ dl =
2 2
C3 C3 y =1 z =0
0 0 0 2
( ⎛
)z⎞
0 2
y2 4y4 8y3 1 z2
=∫ 4 y + 4 y − 8 y dy + ∫ ⎜ 3 − ⎟dz = 4 + − + 3z 0 −
3 2 2
z =0 ⎝
1
2⎠ 2 1
4 1
3 1
2 2 0
8 14
= −2 − 1 + + 6 −1 =
3 3
14 8
∫ F .d l = ∫ F .d l + ∫ F .d l + ∫ F .d l = −2 + 0 +
C1 C2 C3
=
3 3
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(b) Surface Integrals
A surface integral is an expression of the form z
da
∫ A⋅da
S
where A is again some vector function, and d a is an

infinitesimal patch of area, with direction perpendicular to y
the surface(as shown in figure). There are, of course, two x

directions perpendicular to any surface, so the sign of a surface integral is intrinsically
ambiguous. If the surface is closed then “outward” is positive, but for open surfaces it’s arbitrary.
If A describes the flow of a fluid (mass per unit area per unit time), then ∫ A ⋅ d a represents the
total mass per unit time passing through the surface-hence the alternative name, “flux.”
Ordinarily, the value of a surface integral depends on the particular surface chosen, but there is a
special class of vector functions for which it is independent of the surface, and is determined
entirely by the boundary line.
Example: Calculate the surface integral of A = 2 xzxˆ + ( x + 2 ) yˆ + y (z 2 − 3)zˆ over five sides (excluding
the bottom) of the cubical box (side 2) as shown in figure. Let “upward and outward” be the
positive direction, as indicated by the arrows.
z ( v) (ii )
2
(iv) (i ) (iii )
2 y
2
x
Solution: Taking the sides one at a time:
2 2
(i) x = 2, d a = dydzxˆ , A ⋅ d a = 2 xzdydz = 4 zdydz , so ∫ A ⋅ d a = 4∫ dy ∫ zdz = 16 .
0 0
(ii) x = 0, d a = − dydzxˆ , A ⋅ d a = −2 xzdydz = 0, so ∫ A ⋅ d a = 0 .
(iii) y = 2, d a = dx dz yˆ , A ⋅ d a = ( x + 2 ) dx dz , so ∫ A ⋅ d a = ∫ (x + 2) dx ∫
2 2
dz = 12 .
0 0
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(iv) y = 0, d a = −dx dz yˆ , A ⋅ d a = −( x + 2 ) dx dz , so ∫ A ⋅ d a = − ∫ (x + 2) dx ∫
2 2
dz = −12 .
0 0
(v) z = 2, d a = dx dy zˆ, A ⋅ d a = y (z 2 − 3)dx dy = y dx dy, so ∫ A ⋅ d a =

2 2
∫0
dx ∫ ydy = 4
0
Evidently the total flux is
∫ A ⋅ d a = 16 + 0 + 12 − 12 + 4 = 20
surface
Example: Given a vector A = (x 2 − y 2 )xˆ + 2 xyyˆ + (x 2 − xy )zˆ . Evaluate ∫ A⋅ da over the surface of the
S
cube with the centre at the origin and length of side ‘a’.
z
g f
a d
h o y
e
b c
x
Solution: The surface integral is performed on all faces. The differential surface on the different faces
are ± dy dzxˆ ,± dx dzyˆ , and ± dx dyzˆ
a
Face abcd, x =
2
+a / 2
[( ) ( )] ∫ (x − y 2 )dydz =
a/2
a4
∫ A ⋅ d a = ∫ x 2 − y 2 xˆ + 2 xyyˆ + x 2 − xy zˆ ⋅ [dy dzxˆ ] = ∫
2
abcd S y =− a / 2 z =− a / 2
4
a
Face efgh, x = −
2
− (x 2 − y 2 )dy dz = −
a/2 a/2
a4
⇒ ∫
efgh
A⋅da =
efgh
∫ A ⋅ (− dy dzxˆ ) = ∫
y =− a / 2
∫
z =− a / 2
4
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a
Face cdfe, y =
2
a/2 a/2
⇒ ∫
cdfe
A ⋅ d a = ∫ A ⋅ dx dzyˆ =
S
∫
x=− a / 2
∫ 2 xy dx dz = 0
z =− a / 2
a
Face aghb, y=−
2
a/2 a/2
⇒ ∫
aghb
A⋅da = ∫
x =− a / 2
∫ A ⋅ (− dx dzyˆ ) = 0
z =− a / 2
Similarly for the other two faces adfg and bceh we can find the surface integral with
da = ± dx dyzˆ , respectively. The addition of these two surface integrals will be zero.
In the present case sum of all the surface integral
∫ A.d a = 0
S
(c) Volume Integrals

A volume integral is an expression of the form
∫ T dτ ,
V
where T is a scalar function and dτ is an infinitesimal volume element. In Cartesian coordinates,

dτ = dx dy dz.
For example, if T is the density of a substance (which might vary from point to point) then the
volume integral would give the total mass. Occasionally we shall encounter volume integrals of
vector functions:
∫ A dτ = ∫ (A xˆ + A x y yˆ + Az zˆ )dτ = xˆ ∫ Ax dτ + yˆ ∫ Ay dτ + zˆ ∫ Az dτ ;
because the unit vectors are constants, they come outside the integral.
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1.3.2 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Suppose f (x) is a function of one variable. The fundamental theorem of calculus states:
dx = f (b ) − f (a ) or ∫ F (x ) dx = f (b ) − f (a )
b df b
∫ a dx a
where df /dx = F(x).

Geometrical Interpretation: f ( x)
According to equation df = (df /dx) dx is the infinitesimal
f (b)
change in f when one goes from (x) to (x + dx). The
f (a)
fundamental theorem says that if you chop the interval
from a to b into many tiny pieces, dx, and add up the
increments df from each little piece, the result is equal to
a dx b x
the total change in f: f (b) – f (a).
In other words, there are two ways to determine the total change in the function: either subtract
the values at the ends or go step-by-step, adding up all the tiny increments as you go. You’ll get
the same answer either way.
1.3.3 The Fundamental Theorem for Gradients z
Suppose we have a scalar function of three
variables V(x, y, z). Starting at point a, we moves a
b
small distance d l 1 . Then dl1
( )
a
dV = ∇V ⋅ d l 1 . y
Now we move a little further, by an additional
x
small displacement d l 2 ; the incremental change in
( )
V will be ∇V ⋅ d l 2 . In this manner, proceeding by infinitesimal steps, we make the journey to
point b. At each step we compute the gradient of V (at that point) and dot it into the displacement
d l …this gives us the change in V. Evidently the total change in V in going from a to b along the
path selected is
∫ (∇V )⋅ d l = V (b) − V (a ) .
b
a
P
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This is called the fundamental theorem for gradients; like the “ordinary” fundamental theorem, it
says that the integral (here a line integral) of a derivative (here the gradient) is given by the value
of the function at the boundaries (a and b).
Suppose you wanted to determine the height of the Eiffel Tower. You could climb the stairs,
using a ruler to measure the rise at each step, and adding them all up or you could place
altimeters at the top and the bottom, and subtract the two readings; you should get the same
answer either way (that's the fundamental theorem).
Corollary 1: (∇V )⋅ d l is independent of path taken from a to b.

∫a
b
Corollary 2: ∫ (∇V )⋅ d l = 0 , since the beginning and end points are identical, and hence
V(b) – V(a) = 0.
Example: Let V = xy2, and take point a to be the origin (0, 0, 0) y and b
the point (2, 1, 0). Check the fundamental theorem for
1 b
gradients.
(iii )
Solution: Although the integral is independent of path, we (ii ) must
(i )
pick a specific path in order to evaluate it. Let's go out a x along
1 2
the x axis (step i) and then up (step ii). As always
d l = dx xˆ + dy yˆ + dz zˆ, ∇V = y 2 xˆ + 2 xy yˆ
(i) y = 0; d l = dx xˆ, ∇V ⋅ d l = y 2 dx = 0, so ∫ ∇V ⋅ d l = 0
i
1
∫ ∇V ⋅ d l = ∫ 4 y dy = 2 y
2 1
(ii) x = 2; d l = dy yˆ , ∇V .d l = 2 xydy = 4 y dy, so =2
ii 0 0
Evidently the total line integral is 2.
This consistent with the fundamental theorem: T(b) – T(a) =2 – 0 = 2.
Calculate the same integral along path (iii) (the straight line from a to b):
1 1 3
(iii) y = x, dy = dx, ∇V ⋅ d l = y 2 dx + 2 xy dy = x 2 dx, so
2 2 4
2
2 3 2 1
∫iii
∇V ⋅ d l = ∫
0 4
x dx = x 3
4 0
=2
Thus the integral is independent of path.

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1.3.4 The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences
The fundamental theorem for divergences states that:
∫ (∇ ⋅ A)dτ = ∫ A ⋅ d a
V
S
This theorem has at least three special names: Gauss’s theorem, Green’s theorem, or, simply,
the divergence theorem. Like the other “fundamental theorems,” it says that the integral of a
derivative (in this case the divergence) over a region (in this case a volume) is equal to the value
of the function at the boundary (in this case the surface that bounds the volume). Notice that the
boundary term is itself an integral (specifically, a surface integral). This is reasonable: the
“boundary” of a line is just two end points, but the boundary of a volume is a (closed) surface.
If A represents the flow of an incompressible fluid, then “the flux of A (the right side of
equation) is the total amount of fluid passing out through the surface, per unit time and the left
side of equation shows an equal amount of liquid will be forced out through the boundaries of
the region.
Example: Check the divergence theorem using the function z ( v) (ii )
A = y xˆ + (2 xy + z )yˆ + (2 yz )zˆ
2 2
1
and the unit cube situated at the origin.

(iv) (i ) (iii )
Solution: In this case 1 y
∇ ⋅ A = 2( x + y ),
1
x ( vi)
∫ 2(x + y )dτ = 2∫ ∫ ∫ (x + y ) dx dy dz,

1 1 1
and
V 0 0 0
⎛1 ⎞
∫ (x + y ) dx = 2 + y, ∫ ⎜⎝ 2 + y ⎟⎠ dy = 1, ∫ 1dz = 1.
1 1 1 1
0 0 0
Evidently, ∫ (∇ ⋅ A)dτ = 2
V
To evaluate the surface integral we must consider separately the six sides of the cube:
1 1 1 1 1 1
(i) ∫ A⋅da = ∫ ∫
0 0
y 2 dy dz =
3
(ii) ∫ A ⋅ d a = −∫ 0 0∫ y 2 dy dz = −
3
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1 1
(
(iii) ∫ A ⋅ d a = ∫ ∫ 2 x + z 2 dx dz =
0 0
4
3
) 1 1
(iv) ∫ A ⋅ d a = − ∫ ∫ z 2 dx dz = −
0 0
1
3
1 1 1 1
(v) ∫ A⋅ da = ∫ ∫
0 0
2 y dx dy = 1 (vi) ∫ A ⋅ d a = − ∫ ∫ 0 dx dy = 0
0 0
So the total flux is:

1 1 4 1
∫S
A⋅da = − + − +1+ 0 = 2 .
3 3 3 3
1.3.5 The Fundamental Theorem for Curls
The fundamental theorem for curls, which goes by the special name of Stokes’ theorem,
states that
∫ (∇ × A)⋅ d a = ∫ A ⋅ d l
S P
As always, the integral of a derivative (here, the curl) over a region (here, a patch of surface) is
equal to the value of the function at the boundary (here, the perimeter of the patch). As in the
case of the divergence theorem, the boundary term is itself an integral-specifically, a closed line
integral.
The integral of the curl over some surface (or, more precisely, the flux of the curl through that
surface) represents the “total amount of swirl,” and we can determine that swirl just as well by
going around the edge and finding how much the flow is following the boundary (as shown in
figure).
Corollary 1: ∫ (∇ × A)⋅ d a depends only on the boundary line, not on the particular
surface used.
Corollary 2: ∫ (∇ × A)⋅ d a = 0 for any closed surface, since the boundary line, like the
mouth of a balloon, shrinks down to a point, and hence the right side of
equation vanishes.
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Example: Suppose A = (2 xz + 3 y )yˆ + (4 yz )zˆ . Check Stokes’
2 2 z
(iii ) theorem
1
for the square surface shown in figure.
(iv) (ii )
Solution: Here
( )
∇ × A = 4 z 2 − 2 x xˆ + 2 z zˆ and d a = dy dz xˆ
(i ) 1 y
(In saying that d a points in the x direction, we are x choosen to
a counterclockwise line integral. We could as well write d a = − dy dz xˆ , but then we have to go

clockwise.) Since x = 0 for this surface,
∫ (∇ × A)⋅ d a = ∫ ∫ 4 z
1 1 4
2
dy dz =
0 0 3
Now, what about the line integral? We must break this up into four segments:
1
(i) x = 0, z = 0, A ⋅ d l = 3 y 2 dy, ∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ 3y dy = 1,
2
0
1 4
(ii) x = 0, y = 1, A ⋅ d l = 4 z 2 dz , ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ 4 z 2 dz = ,
0 3
0
(iii) x = 0, z = 1, A ⋅ d l = 3 y 2 dy, ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ 3 y dy = −1,
2
1
0
(iv) x = 0, y = 0, A ⋅ d l = 0, ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ 0dz = 0,
1
4 4
So ∫ A ⋅ d l = 1 + 3 − 1 + 0 = 3.
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1.4 Curvilinear Coordinates
1.4.1 Spherical Polar Coordinates
The spherical polar coordinates (r , θ , φ ) of a point P are defined in figure shown below; r is the
distance from the origin (the magnitude of the position vector), θ (the angle down from the z
axis) is called the polar angle, and φ (the angle around
z
from the x axis) is the azimuthal angle. Their relation to φˆ
r̂
Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) can be read from the r cos θ P
figure: θ r θˆ
x = r sin θ cos φ , y = r sin θ sin φ , z = r cos θ r sin θ
y
φ
z y x
and r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , θ = cos −1 , φ = tan −1
r x
Figure shows three unit vectors r̂ ,θˆ, φˆ , pointing in the direction of increase of the corresponding
coordinates. They constitute an orthogonal (mutually perpendicular) basis set (just like xˆ , yˆ , zˆ ),
and any vector A can be expressed in terms of them in the usual way:
A = Ar rˆ + Aθ θˆ + Aφφˆ
Ar , Aθ , and Aφ are the radial, polar and azimuthal components of A .

An infinitesimal displacement in the r̂ direction is simply dr (figure a), just as an infinitesimal
element of length in the x direction is dx:
dl r = dr
On the other hand, an infinitesimal element of length in the θˆ direction (figure b) is r dθ

dlθ = rdθ
Similarly, an infinitesimal element of length in the φˆ direction (figure c) is r sin θ dφ

dlφ = r sin θ dφ
Thus, the general infinitesimal displacement d l is
d l = dr rˆ + r dθθˆ + r sin θ dφφˆ

The range of r is 0 → ∞ , θ goes from 0 → π , and φ goes from 0 → 2π .
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This plays the role (in line integrals, for example) that d l = dx xˆ + dy yˆ + dz zˆ played in Cartesian
coordinates.
r sin θ dφ
dr
r dθ r
r θ
r
dθ dφ
r sin θ
(a ) ( b) (c)
The infinitesimal volume element dτ , in spherical coordinates, is the product of the three
infinitesimal displacements:
dτ = dl r dlθ dlφ = r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ
If we are integrating over the surface of a sphere, for z instance,

then r is constant, whereas θ and φ change, so
d a 1 = dlθ dlφ rˆ = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ rˆ da1
on the other hand, if the surface lies in the xy plane, then θ is

constant ( θ = π / 2 ) while r and φ vary, then y
x
da2 = dlr dlφθˆ = rdrdφθˆ
da 2
The vector derivatives in spherical coordinates:
∂f 1 ∂f ˆ 1 ∂f ˆ
Gradient: ∇f = rˆ + θ+ φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂Aφ
Divergence: ∇. A =
r ∂r
2 ( r Ar ) +
1
r sin θ ∂θ
( sin θ Aθ ) +
r sin θ ∂φ
⎛ rˆ rθˆ r sin θφˆ ⎞

⎜ ⎟
1 ⎜ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎟
Curl: ∇× A = 2
r sin θ ⎜ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ Ar rAθ r sin θ Aφ ⎟⎠
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂f ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂f ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂2 f ⎞
Laplacian: ∇2 f = ⎜r ⎟+ 2 ⎜ sin θ ⎟+ 2 2 ⎜ 2⎟
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r sin θ ∂θ ⎝
2
∂θ ⎠ r sin θ ⎝ ∂φ ⎠
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We can transform any vector A = Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ in Cartesian coordinates to Spherical polar
coordinates ( A = Ar rˆ + Aθ θˆ + Aφφˆ ) using table given below:
where r̂ θˆ φˆ
Ar = A.rˆ = Ax ( xˆ.rˆ ) + Ay ( yˆ .rˆ ) + Az ( zˆ.rˆ ) x̂. sin θ cos φ cos θ cos φ − sin φ
( ) ( ) ( )
Aθ = A.θˆ = Ax xˆ.θˆ + Ay yˆ .θˆ + Az zˆ.θˆ ŷ. sin θ sin φ cos θ sin φ cos φ
Aφ = A.φˆ = A (xˆ.φˆ ) + A (yˆ .φˆ ) + A (zˆ.φˆ )

x y z ẑ. cos θ − sin θ 0
1.4.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

The cylindrical coordinates r , φ , z of a point P are defined in figure. Notice that φ has the same
meaning as in spherical coordinates, and z is the z same
as Cartesian; r is the distance to P from the z axis, r
ẑ
P
whereas the spherical coordinate r is the distance z φˆ from
the origin. The relation to Cartesian coordinates is r̂
y
x = r cos φ , y = r sin φ , z = z φ
x
The infinitesimal displacements are
dl r = dr , dlφ = rdφ , dl z = dz ,
so d l = dr rˆ + r dφφˆ + dz zˆ
and volume element is dτ = r dr dφ dz .
The range of r is 0 → ∞ , φ goes from 0 → 2π , and z from − ∞ to ∞
The vector derivatives in cylindrical coordinates are:
∂f 1 ∂f ˆ ∂f
Gradient: ∇f = rˆ + φ + zˆ
∂r r ∂φ ∂z
1 ∂ 1 ∂A ∂A
Divergence: ∇. A = ( rAr ) + φ + z
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
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⎛ rˆ rφˆ zˆ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1⎜ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎟
Curl: ∇× A =
r ⎜ ∂r ∂φ ∂z ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Ar rAφ Az ⎠
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂f ⎞ 1 ∂ 2 f ∂ 2 f
Laplacian: ∇2 f = ⎜r ⎟+ +
r ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 ∂φ 2 ∂z 2
We can transform any vector A = Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ in Cartesian coordinates to Cylindrical
coordinates ( A = Ar rˆ + Aφ φˆ + Az zˆ ) using table given below:
where r̂ φˆ ẑ
Ar = A.rˆ = Ax ( xˆ.rˆ ) + Ay ( yˆ .rˆ ) + Az ( zˆ.rˆ ) x̂. cos φ − sin φ 0
( ) ( )
Aφ = A.φˆ = Ax xˆ.φˆ + Ay yˆ .φˆ + Az zˆ.φˆ ( ) ŷ. sin φ cos φ 0
Az = A.zˆ = Ax ( xˆ.zˆ ) + Ay ( yˆ .zˆ ) + Az ( zˆ.zˆ ) ẑ. 0 0 1
Example: Find the gradient of a scalar function of position V where V ( x, y, z ) = x 2 y + e z . Calculate the
magnitude of gradient at point P (1, 5, −2 ) .
∂V ∂V ∂V
Solution: V ( x, y, z ) = x 2 y + e z ; ∇V = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ = 2 xyxˆ + x 2 yˆ + e z zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
At P (1, 5, −2 ) ⇒ ∇V = 10 xˆ + yˆ + 0.1353 zˆ ⇒ ∇V = 10 2 + 12 + 0.1353 2 = 10.056
Example: In electrostatic field problems, the electric field is given by E = −∇V , where V is the scalar
field potential. If V = r 2φ − 2θ in spherical coordinates, find E .

∂V 1 ∂V ˆ 1 ∂V ˆ
Solution: V = r 2φ − 2θ , In spherical coordinate, ∇V = rˆ + θ+ φ
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
2 ˆ r2 ˆ
Substituting the suitable values, ∇V = 2rφ rˆ − θ + φ
r r sin θ
2 r ˆ
⇒ E = −∇V = −2rφ rˆ + θˆ − φ
r sin θ
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Example: Given
(i) A = 2 xyxˆ + zyˆ + yz 2 zˆ , find ∇ ⋅ A at (2, -1, 3)
(ii) A = 2r cos 2 φ rˆ + 3r 2 sin zφˆ + 4 z sin 2 φ zˆ , find ∇ ⋅ A
(iii) A = 10rˆ + 5 sin θθˆ, Find ∇ ⋅ A
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

Solution: (i) In Cartesian coordinates ∇ ⋅ A = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ax = 2 xy, Ay = z , Az = yz 2 ⇒ ∇ ⋅ A = 2 y + 0 + 2 yz , At (2, -1, 3), ∇ ⋅ A = −2 − 6 = −8
∂A
(ii) In cylindrical coordinates ∇ ⋅ A =
1 ∂
(rAr ) + 1 φ + ∂Az
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
Ar = 2r cos 2 φ , Aφ = 3r 2 sin z , Az = 4 z sin 2 φ
⇒ ∇⋅ A =
1
r
(
4r cos 2 φ + 0 + 4 sin 2 φ = 4 cos 2 φ + sin 2 φ = 4 )
1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂Aφ
(iii) In spherical coordinates, ∇ ⋅ A = r Ar +( 1
)
r sin θ ∂θ
(sin θAθ ) + 1
r sin θ ∂φ
r ∂r
2
Ar = 10, Aθ = 5 sin θ , Aφ = 0
10 sin θ cos θ = (2 + cos θ )(10 / r )

1 1
⇒ ∇⋅ A = 20r +
r 2
r sin θ
Example: Find the curl of the vector A = ( e − r / r ) θˆ
rˆ rθˆ r sin θφˆ

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
Solution: ∇ × A = 2
r sin θ ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
Ar rAθ r sin θAφ
( )
A = e − r / r θˆ ⇒ Ar = 0, Aθ = e − r / r , Aφ = 0 ( )
e −r ˆ
Substitute and solve the determinant ∇ × A = − φ
r
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Example: Find the nature of the following fields by determining divergence and curl.
(i) F 1 = 30 xˆ + 2 xyyˆ + 5 xz 2 zˆ
⎛ 150 ⎞
(ii) F 2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟rˆ + 10φˆ (Cylindrical coordinates)
⎝ r ⎠
Solution: (i) F 1 = 30 xˆ + 2 xyyˆ + 5 xz 2 zˆ
∂F1x ∂F1 y ∂F1z

Divergence in Cartesian coordinates ∇ ⋅ F 1 = + + = 2 x(1 + 5 z )
∂x ∂y ∂z
Divergence exists, so the field is non-solenoidal.
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × F1 = = −5 z 2 yˆ + 2 yzˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
30 2 xy 5 xz 2
The field has a curl so it is rotational.

⎛ 150 ⎞
(ii) F 2 = ⎜ 2 ⎟rˆ + 10φˆ in cylindrical coordinates.
⎝ r ⎠
∂F
In cylindrical coordinates, Divergence ∇ ⋅ F 2 =
1 ∂
(rF2 r ) + 1 2φ + ∂F2 z = − 150
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z r3
The field is non-solenoid.
rˆ rφˆ zˆ
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ 10
∇× F2 = = zˆ
r ∂r ∂φ ∂z r
⎛ 150 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟ 10r 0
⎝ r ⎠
The vector field F 2 has non-zero curl so it is rotational.
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Example: Given A = 2r cos φ rˆ + rφˆ in cylindrical coordinates. Find ∫ A ⋅ d l + ∫ A ⋅ d l where c1 and c 2
C1 C2
are contours shown in figure.

y
c1
c2
a x
b
Solution: In cylindrical coordinate system d l = drrˆ + rdφφˆ + dzzˆ , A = 2r cos φ rˆ + rφˆ
A ⋅ d l = 2r cos φdr + r 2 dφ
In figure on curve c1 , φ varies from 0 to 2π , r = b and dr = 0
2π
∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫r dφ = 2πb 2
2
c1 φ =0
r =b
−2π
On curve c2 , r = a, φ varies from 0 to − 2π , and dr = 0 ⇒ ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫r
2
dφ = −2πa 2
c2 φ =0
r =a
∫ A ⋅ d l + ∫ A ⋅ d l = 2π (b − a2 )
2
So,
c1 c2
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Example: Use the cylindrical coordinate system to find the area of a curved surface on the right circular
cylinder having radius = 3 m and height = 6 m and 30 0 ≤ φ ≤ 120 0 .
x
3m
6m
φ = π /6 φ=
2π
z 3
Solution: From figure, surface area is required for a cylinder when r = 3m, z = 0 to 6m,
π 2π
30 0 ≤ φ ≤ 120 0 or ≤φ ≤
6 3
In cylindrical coordinate system, the elemental surface area as scalar is d a = r dφ dzrˆ

Taking the magnitude only
2π / 3
⎛ 2π π ⎞
6
A = ∫ da = ∫ ∫ r dφ dz = 3⎜⎝ − ⎟6 = 9π m 2
S φ π
= /6 z =0
3 6⎠
Example: Use spherical coordinate system to find the area of the strip α ≤ θ ≤ β on the spherical shell
of radius ‘a’. Calculate the area when α = 0 and β = π . z
Solution: Sphere has radius ‘a’ and θ varies between α and β . θ
For fixed radius the elemental surface is

α
da = (r sin θ dφ )(r dθ ) = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ β
Area y
β 2π β
A= ∫ ∫r sin θ dθ dφ = 2π a ∫ sin θ dθ
2 2
θ =α φ = 0 θ =α x
= 2π a (cos α − cos β )
2
For α = 0, β = π , Area = 2π a 2 (1 + 1) = 4π a 2 , is surface area of the sphere.
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⎛ 5r ⎞
2
Example: A vector field A = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟rˆ is given in spherical coordinates. Evaluate both sides of
⎝ 4 ⎠
Divergence Theorem for the volume enclosed between
(i) r = 1 and r = 2, and
π
(ii) θ = 0 to θ = and r = 4.
4
Solution: Divergence theorem states that ∫ (∇ ⋅ A)dτ = ∫ A ⋅ d a

V S
1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂Aφ
Since ∇ ⋅ A = r A (
+
1
r sin θ ∂θ
)
(sin θ Aθ ) +
r sin θ ∂φ
r 2 ∂r
r
5r 2 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 5 2⎞
Ar = , Aθ = 0, Aφ = 0 ⇒ ∇ ⋅ A = ⎜ r r ⎟ = 5r
4 r 2 ∂r ⎝ 4 ⎠
z
d a at P
(i) r̂
Q r dθ
r =1 P r sin θ dφ
r=2
y d a at Q
r dθ
− r̂
x r sin θ dφ
( )
2 π 2π
L.H .S = ∫ ∇ ⋅ A dτ = ∫ (5r )r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ = ∫ ∫ ∫φ 5r
3
sin θ dr dθ dφ = 75π
V v r =1 θ=0 =0
π 2π π 2π
⎛ 5r 2 ⎞ 2 ⎛ 5r 2 ⎞
R.H.S ∫ A⋅da = ∫ ∫ ⎜⎜ rˆ ⎟⎟ ⋅ (r sin θ dθ dφ rˆ ) + ∫ ∫ ⎜⎜ (
rˆ ⎟⎟ ⋅ − r 2 sin θ dθ dφ rˆ )
S θ =0 φ =0 ⎝ 4 ⎠ θ =0 φ =0 ⎝ 4 ⎠
π 2π π 2π
∫φ =0 4 (2) sin θ dθ dφ − θ∫=0 ∫φ 4 (1)

5 4 5
= ∫ sin θ dθ dφ = 75π
4
θ =0 =0
So L.H.S. = R.H.S. = 75π

Divergence theorem proved.
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(ii) L.H.S. of Divergence Theorem
∫ (∇ ⋅ A)dτ = ∫ θ∫ φ∫ (5r ) ⋅ r
4 π / 4 2π
2
sin θ dr dθ dφ = 588.91 d a1 = r 2 sin θdθ dφ rˆ
V r =0 =0 =0 1
R.H.S. of Divergence Theorem

d a 2 = r sin θdr dφθˆ
∫ A⋅da = ∫ A⋅da + ∫ A⋅da 2
S S1 S2
θ =π /4
⎛5 ⎞
( ⎛5 ⎞
)
= ∫ ⎜ r 2 rˆ ⎟ ⋅ r 2 sin θ dθ dφ rˆ + ∫ ⎜ r 2 rˆ ⎟ ⋅ r sin θ dr dφ θˆ ( )
S1 ⎝ ⎠ S2 ⎝ ⎠
4 4
π / 4 2π
∫θ φ∫ 4 (4)
5
= sin θ dθ dφ + 0 = 588.91
4
=0 =0
L.H.S. = R.H.S. = 588.91

Divergence theorem proved.
Example: Given A = 2r cos φ rˆ + rφˆ in cylindrical coordinates. For the contour shown in figure, verify
the Stokes’ Theorem.
y z
ẑ
1 y
φ
x 1
1 da
x
Solution: Stokes’ Theorem ∫ ∇ × A ⋅ d a = ∫ A ⋅ d l ( )

S
rˆ rφˆ zˆ
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
In cylindrical coordinates, ∇ × A =
r ∂r ∂φ ∂z
Ar rAφ Az
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Ar = 2r cos φ , Aφ = r , Az = 0
1 ⎡− ∂ 2 ⎤ ⎡ ∂ 1⎡ ∂ ∂ ⎤
∇× A = ⎢
r ⎣ ∂z
(r )⎥ rˆ + ⎢ (2r cos φ )⎥φˆ + ⎢ (r 2 ) (2r cos φ )⎥ zˆ = (2 + 2 sin φ )ẑ
⎤
∂φ
⎦ ⎣ ∂z ⎦ r ⎣ ∂r ⎦
∫ (∇ × A)⋅ d a = ∫ φ∫ (2 + 2 sin φ )zˆ ⋅ (r dr dφzˆ ) = 2 + 1

π /2
1
π
L.H.S.=
S r =0 =0
R.H.S. = ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ A ⋅ d l + φ ∫π A ⋅ d l + ∫ A ⋅ d l
r = 0 ,1 =0, / 2 r =1, 0
( )(
A ⋅ d l = 2r cos φrˆ + rφˆ ⋅ drrˆ + rdφφˆ + dzzˆ = 2r cos φ dr + r 2 dφ )
π
1 2 0
π π
∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ 2r cos φ dr + ∫r dφ + ∫ 2r cos φ dr = 1+ + 0 = 1+
2
r =0 φ=0 r =1
2 2
at φ = 0 at r =1 at φ =π / 2
π
L.H.S. = R.H.S. = 1 +
2
Example: Given a vector field A = xyxˆ − 2 xyˆ . Verify stokes,’ theorem over the path shown in figure.
Solution: Stokes’ theorem ∫ ∇ × A ⋅ d a = ∫ A ⋅ d l ( ) y

S
b
xˆ yˆ zˆ 3
∂ ∂ ∂
∇× A = = −(2 + x )zˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
da = dx dy
xy − 2x 0
ẑ
a x
( ) ∫ ∫( )
3 9− y 2 0 3
L.H.S. = ∫ ∇ × A ⋅ d a = ∇ × A ⋅ (dx dyzˆ ) , since r 2 = x 2 + y 2 or x = 9 − y 2
S y =0 x =0
3⎡ 9− y 2 ⎤ 3⎡ 2 9− y 2 ⎤ 3 ⎡
⎛ 9 − y2 ⎞⎤
= ∫⎢ ∫0 ( ) ⎢ − 2x − x dy ⎥ = ∫ − ⎢+ 2 9 − y 2 + ⎜⎜
⎥ ∫0 ⎢
− 2 + x dx dy ⎥ = ⎟⎟⎥dy
0 ⎢
2 ⎥ 0 ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0
⎦
3
⎡ y 9 y3 ⎤ ⎛ π⎞
= − ⎢ y 9 − y 2 + 9 sin −1 + y − ⎥ = −9⎜1 + ⎟
⎣ 3 2 6 ⎦0 ⎝ 2⎠
R.H.S. = ∫ A ⋅ dl = ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl + ∫ A ⋅ dl
0,a a ,b b,0
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On 0a, y = 0; ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ − 2 x dy = 0
0 3
∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ (xy dx − 2 x dy ) = ∫ x 9 − x dx − 2∫ 9 − y dy
2 2
On ab;
3 0
(Equation of quarter circle x 2 + y 2 = 9; 0 ≤ x, y ≤ 3 )
⎛ π⎞
3
1
∫ A⋅ dl = − 3 9 − x
2
( )3/ 2 0 ⎡ y⎤
− ⎢ y 9 − y 2 + 9 sin −1 ⎥ = −9⎜1 + ⎟
3 ⎣ 3 ⎦0 ⎝ 2⎠
On b0, x = 0; ∫ A ⋅ dl = 0
⎛ π⎞
⇒ ∫ A ⋅ d l = −9⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ π⎞
L.H.S. = R.H.S = −9⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 2⎠
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1.5 The Dirac Delta Function
1.5.1 The Divergence of rˆ / r 2
1
Consider the vector function A = rˆ
r2
At every location, A is directed radially outward. When we

calculate the divergence we get precisely zero:
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞ 1 ∂
∇⋅ A = ⎜r ⎟= (1) = 0
r 2 ∂r ⎝ r 2 ⎠ r 2 ∂r
The plot thickens if you apply the divergence theorem to this function. Suppose we integrate
over a sphere of radius R, centered at the origin; the surface integral is
⎛π ⎞⎛ 2π ⎞
∫ A ⋅ d a =
⎛ 1 ⎞
∫ ⎝ R2 ⎠
⎜ rˆ ⎟ ⋅ R 2
sin θ d(
θ dφ ˆ
r = ⎜∫
⎜ sin θ dθ ⎟⎜ )
⎟⎜ ∫ dφ ⎟ = 4π
⎟
⎝0 ⎠⎝ 0 ⎠
( )
But the volume integral, ∫ ∇ ⋅ A dτ , is zero. Does this mean that the divergence theorem is false?
The source of the problem is the point r = 0, where A blows up. It is quite true that ∇ ⋅ A = 0
everywhere except the origin, but right at the origin the situation is more complicated.
Notice that the surface integral is independent of R; if the divergence theorem is right (and it is),
we should get ∫ ∇ ⋅ A dτ = 4π( ) for any sphere centered at the origin, no matter how small.
Evidently the entire contribution must be coming from the point r = 0!
Thus, ∇ ⋅ A has the bizarre property that it vanishes everywhere except at one point, and yet its
integral (over any volume containing that point) is 4π . No ordinary function behaves like that.
(On the other hand, a physical example does come to mind: the density (mass per unit volume) of
a point particle. It's zero except at the exact location of the particle, and yet its integral is finite
namely, the mass of the particle.) What we have stumbled on is a mathematical object known to
physicists as the Dirac delta function.
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1.5.2 The One- Dimensional Dirac Delta Function
The one dimensional Dirac delta function, δ ( x ) , can be
pictured as an infinitely high, infinitesimally narrow δ (x )
"spike," with area 1 (as shown in figure). Area 1

That is to say:
⎧ 0 if x ≠ 0⎫
δ (x ) = ⎨ ⎬
⎩∞, if x = 0⎭ x
∞
and ∫ δ (x )dx = 1
−∞
If f(x) is some “ordinary” function then the product f ( x )δ ( x ) is zero everywhere except at x = 0.
It follows that
f ( x )δ (x ) = f (0 )δ ( x )
Of course, we can shift the spike from x = 0 to some other point, x = a:
⎧ 0, if x ≠ a ⎫ ∞
δ (x − a ) = ⎨ ⎬ with ∫ δ (x - a )dx = 1 δ (x − a )
⎩∞, if x = a ⎭ −∞
also
Area 1
f ( x )δ (x − a ) = f (a )δ ( x − a )
and
∞
∫ f (x )δ (x − a )dx = f (a )
−∞
a x
1.5.3 The Three-Dimensional Delta Function

It is an easy matter to generalize the delta function to three dimensions:
()
δ 3 r = δ ( x )δ ( y )δ ( z )
(As always, r = x xˆ + y yˆ + z zˆ is the position vector, extending from the origin to the point (x, y,
z)). This three-dimensional delta function is zero everywhere except at (0, 0, 0), where it
blows up. Its volume integral is 1
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()
∞ ∞ ∞
∫ δ r dτ = ∫ ∫ ∫ δ (x )δ ( y )δ (z )dx dy dz = 1
3
all space − ∞− ∞− ∞
and
∫ f (r )δ (r − a )dτ = f (a )
3
all space
Since the divergence of rˆ / r 2 is zero everywhere except at the origin, and yet its integral over
any volume containing the origin is a constant ( 4π ). These are precisely the defining conditions
for the Dirac delta function; evidently
⎛ rˆ
∇ ⋅⎜ 2
⎝r
⎞
⎟ = 4πδ r
⎠
3
()
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1.6 The Theory of Vector Fields
1.6.1 The Helmholtz Theorem
1.6.2 Potentials
If the curl of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be written as the gradient of
a scalar potential (V):
∇ × F = 0 ⇔ F = −∇V
(The minus sign is purely conventional.)
Theorem 1: Curl-less (or "irrotational") fields. The following conditions are equivalent (that is, F
satisfies one if and only if it satisfies all the others):
(a) ∇ × F = 0 everywhere.
b
(b) ∫ F ⋅ dl
a
is independent of path, for any given end points.
(c) ∫ F ⋅ d l = 0 for any closed loop.

(d) F is the gradient of some scalar, F = −∇V .
The scalar potential is not unique-any constant can be added to V with impunity, since this will
not affect its gradient.
If the divergence of a vector field ( F ) vanishes (everywhere), then F can be expressed as the
curl of a vector potential A : ()

∇⋅F = 0 ⇔ F = ∇× A
That’s the main conclusion of the following theorem:
Theorem 2: Divergence-less (or “solenoidal”) fields. The following conditions are equivalent:
(a) ∇ ⋅ F = 0 everywhere.
(b) ∫ F ⋅ d a is independent of surface, for any given boundary line.

(c) ∫ F ⋅ d a = 0 for any closed surface.
(d) F is the curl of some vector, F = ∇ × A .
The vector potential is not unique-the gradient of any scalar function can be added to A without
affecting the curl, since the curl of a gradient is zero.
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MCQ (Multiple Choice Questions)
Q1. Let a and b be two distinct three dimensional vectors. Then the component of b that is
perpendicular to a is given by
(a)
a× b×a( ) (b)
(
b × a×b ) (c)
(a ⋅ b )b (d)
(b ⋅ a )a
a2 b2 b 2
a2
Q2. The components of the unit vector n̂ perpendicular to the plane shown in the figure given below
is:
6 xˆ + 3 yˆ + 2 zˆ
(a) nˆ = z
7
3 n̂
3 xˆ + 6 yˆ + 2 zˆ
(b) nˆ =
7
6 xˆ + 2 yˆ + 3 zˆ 2
(c) nˆ = y
7 1
2 xˆ + 3 yˆ + 6 zˆ
(d) nˆ = x
7
Q3. The equation of the plane that is tangent to the surface xyz = 8 at the point (1, 2, 4 ) is
(a) x + 2 y + 4 z = 12 (b) 4 x + 2 y + z = 12
(c) x + 4 y + 2 = 0 (d) x + y + z = 7
Q4. A vector perpendicular to any vector that lies on the plane defined by x + y + z = 5 , is
(a) iˆ + ˆj (b) ˆj + kˆ (c) iˆ + ˆj + kˆ (d) 2iˆ + 3 ˆj + 5kˆ
⎡ a b c ⎤
Q5. The unit normal vector of the point ⎢ , , ⎥ on the surface of the ellipsoid
⎣ 3 3 3⎦
x2 y 2 z 2
+ + = 1 is
a2 b2 c2
bciˆ + cajˆ + abkˆ aiˆ + bˆj + ckˆ

(a) (b)
b 2 c 2 + c 2 a 2 + a 2b 2 a2 + b2 + c2
biˆ + cˆj + akˆ iˆ + ˆj + kˆ

(c) (d)
a2 + b2 + c2 3
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3 2 3 2
Q6. The equation of a surface of revolution is z = ± x + y . The unit normal to the surface at
2 2
⎛ 2 ⎞
the point A⎜⎜ ,0,1⎟⎟ is
⎝ 3 ⎠
3ˆ 2 ˆ 3ˆ 2 ˆ
(a) i+ k (b) i− k
5 10 5 10
3ˆ 2 ˆ 3ˆ 2 ˆ
(c) i+ k (d) i+ k
5 5 10 10
Q7. Let r denote the position vector of any point in three-dimensional space, and r = r . Then
(a) ∇ ⋅ r = 0 and ∇ × r = r / r (b) ∇ ⋅ r = 0 and ∇ 2 r = 0
(c) ∇ ⋅ r = 3 and ∇ 2 r = r / r 2 (d) ∇ ⋅ r = 3 and ∇ × r = 0
Q8. For vector function A = 10rˆ + 5sin θθˆ (in spherical polar coordinate) the value of ∇. A is:
(a) (1 + sin θ )(10 / r ) (b) (1 + cos θ )(10 / r )
(c) ( 2 + sin θ )(10 / r ) (d) ( 2 + cos θ )(10 / r )
⎛ 150 ⎞
Q9. For vector function F = ⎜ 2 ⎟ rˆ + 10φˆ (in cylindrical coordinate) then ∇.F is
⎝ r ⎠
−150 150 −150 150
(a) (b) (c) (d)
r3 r3 r2 r2
Q10. For vector function A = ( e − r / r ) θˆ (in spherical polar coordinate) then ∇ × A is
e− r ˆ e− r ˆ e− r ˆ e− r ˆ
(a) φ (b) − φ (c) θ (d) − θ
r r r r
Q11. A vector A = kφˆ is given (where k is a constant), in cylindrical coordinates. Then the
(
value of ∇ × ∇ × A is: )
k k ˆ k k ˆ
(a) zˆ (b) φ (c) zˆ (d) φ
r r r2 r2
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Q12. If a force F is derivable from a potential function V ( r ) , where r is the distance from the origin
of the coordinate system, it follows that
(a) ∇ × F = 0 (b) ∇ ⋅ F = 0 (c) ∇V = 0 (d) ∇ 2 V = 0
Q13. If F is a constant vector and r is the position vector then ∇ F ⋅ r would be ( )

(
(a) ∇ ⋅ r F ) (b) F (
(c) ∇ ⋅ F r ) (d) r F
Q14. If A and B are constant vectors, then ∇ A ⋅ B × r ( ( )) is

(a) A ⋅ B (b) A × B (c) r (d) zero
Q15. If A = iˆyz + ˆjxz + kˆxy , then the integral ∫ A ⋅ dl

C
(where C is along the perimeter of a rectangular
area bounded by x = 0, x = a and y = 0, y = b ) is
(a)
1 3
2
(
a + b3 ) (
(b) π ab 2 + a 2 b ) (
(c) π a 3 + b 3 ) (d) 0
Q16. If the surface integral of the field A ( x, y, z ) = 2 k x iˆ + l y ˆj − 3 m z kˆ over the closed surface of an
arbitrary unit sphere is to be zero, then the relationship between k , l and m is

(a) 6k + l − 6m = 0 (b) 2k + l − 3m = 0
(c) 3k + 6l − 2m = 0 (d) 2 / k + 1/ l − 3 / m = 0
Q17. ( )
For the vector field A = xz 2iˆ − yz 2 ˆj + z x 2 − y 2 kˆ , the volume integral of the divergence of A
out of the region defined by − a ≤ x ≤ a , −b ≤ y ≤ b and 0 ≤ z ≤ c

is:
4 2
(a) abc ⎡⎣ a 2 − b 2 ⎤⎦ (b) abc ⎡⎣ a 2 − b 2 ⎤⎦
3 3
1
(c) abc ⎡⎣ a 2 − b 2 ⎤⎦ (d) abc ⎡⎣ a 2 − b 2 ⎤⎦
3
Q18. Consider a constant vector field v = v 0 kˆ . If v = ∇ × u then one of the many possible vectors u is
(a) v0 xiˆ (b) v0 x ˆj (c) v0 iˆ (d) v0 ˆj
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Q19. Consider a vector field v = v 0 kˆ and u = v0 x ˆj where v = ∇ × u . Then the flux associated with the
field v through the curved hemispherical surface defined by x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2 ; z > 0 is
(a) 0 (b) π v0 r 2 (c) 2π v0 r 2 (d) 3π v0 r 2
Q20. [( ) ]
Consider a vector force F ( x, y ) = k x 2 + y 2 iˆ + 2 xy ˆj . Here 1Fm −2 . The work done by this force
in moving a particle from the origin O ( 0, 0, 0 ) to the point D (1,1, 0 ) on the z = 0 plane along the
path OABD as shown in the figure is: (where the coordinates are measured in meters)
1 y
(a)
3 B D(1,1,0)
2
(b)
3
4
(c)
3 A
O (0.5,0,0) x
(d) 0
Q21. Consider force field F ( x, y ) = (x 2 − y 2 )iˆ + 2 xy ˆj . Then the work done when an object moves
from O → P → Q → R → O along the rectangular path as shown in figure is:
y
(a) −2ab 2
(b) +2ab 2 Q (a , b )
P
(c) − ab 2
(d) + ab 2
O ( 0, 0 ) x
R
Q22. Which of the following is correct expression for δ ( kx ) , where k is any (nonzero constant) (In
particular δ ( − x ) = δ ( x ) ).
(a) δ (kx ) = δ (x )
1
(b) δ ( kx ) = k δ ( x )
k
1
(c) δ ( kx ) = − δ ( x) (d) δ ( kx ) = − k δ ( x )
k
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1
∫ x δ ( x − 2 ) dx
3
Q. 23. Evaluate the integral
0
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 12

⎛ rˆ ⎞
Q24. Evaluate the integral J = ∫ ( r 2 + 2 ) ∇ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ dτ where v is a sphere of radius R centered at the
v ⎝r ⎠
origin.
(a) 2π (b) 4π (c) 6π (d) 8π
3
∫ x δ (x − 2)dx
3
Q25. Evaluate the integral
0
(a) 0 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 12
NAT (Numerical Answer Type)

B
y
The line integral ∫ F ⋅ dl , where F =
x
Q26. xˆ + yˆ , along the semi-circular path as shown
A x +y2 2
x + y2
2
in the figure below is................ y
x
Α(− 1,0) Β(1,0)
Q27. Consider a cylinder of height h and radius a, closed at both ends, centered at the origin. Let
r = iˆx + ˆjy + kˆz be the position vector and n̂ a unit vector normal to the surface. The surface
integral ∫ r ⋅ nˆ ds over the closed surface of the cylinder is απ a 2 h . Then the value of α is.......
S
z
O y
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Q28. For vector function A = 2r cos φ rˆ + 3r sin zφˆ + 4 z sin 2 φ zˆ the value of ∇. A is........
2 2
Q29. A unit vector n̂ on the xy -plane is at an angle of 120 o with respect to iˆ . The angle between the
vectors u = a iˆ + b nˆ and v = anˆ + b iˆ will be 60 o if b = α a . Then the value of α is......

Q30. If S is the closed surface enclosing a volume V and n̂ is the unit normal vector to the surface and
r is the position vector, then the value of the following integral ∫ ∫ r.nˆdS
S
is αV . Then the value
of α is …………
MSQ (Multiple Select Questions)
Q31. A vector function A = y 2 xˆ + 2 x( y + 1) yˆ is given and two specified paths from a to b are shown
in the figure given below. Coordinates of point a is (1,1, 0 ) and that of point b is ( 2, 2, 0 ) . Then
which of the following statements are

y
b
(a) ∫ a
A ⋅ dl = 11 along path 1. 2 b
( 2)
b (ii )
(b) ∫ a
A ⋅ dl = 10 along path 2.
1 a
(i ) (1)
(c) ∫ A ⋅ dl = −1 for the loop that goes from a to b
1 2 x
along (1) and returns to a along (2).
(d) ∫ A ⋅ dl = 1 for the loop that goes from a to b along (1) and returns to a along (2).
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Solutions
Ans. 1: (a)
Solution: a × b = ab sin θ nˆ where n̂ is perpendicular to plane containing
a and b and pointing upwards.

b sin θ kˆ
( )
b
a × a × b = ab sin θ (a × nˆ ) = − a b sin θ kˆ 2 θ
b sin θ kˆ =
− a × a ×b ( )
⇒ b sin θ kˆ =
a× b×a
.
( ) a
a 2
a2
Ans. 2: (a)
Solution: The vectors A and B can be defined as
A = − xˆ + 2 yˆ ; B = − xˆ + 3zˆ z
xˆ yˆ zˆ 3 n̂
A × B = −1 2 0 = xˆ ( 6 − 0 ) + yˆ ( −3 + 0 ) + zˆ ( 0 + 2 ) = 6 xˆ + 3 yˆ + 2 zˆ
−1 0 3 B
2
y
A× B 6 xˆ + 3 yˆ + 2 zˆ 1
⇒ nˆ = = A
A× B 7
x
Ans. 3: (b)
Solution: To get a normal at the surface let’s take the gradient
∇ ( xyz ) = yziˆ + zxjˆ + kxy
ˆ = 8iˆ + 4 ˆj + 2kˆ
We want a plane perpendicular to this so: r − r0 ⋅ ( ) (8iˆ64+ +4 16ˆj ++2k4ˆ) = 0 .

[(x −1)iˆ + ( y − 2) ˆj + (z − 4)kˆ]⋅ [8iˆ + 4 ˆj + 2kˆ] = 0 ⇒ 4 x + 2 y + z = 12 .
Ans. 4: (c)
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂⎞
Solution: Let φ = x + y + z − 5 ⇒ ∇φ = ⎜⎜ iˆ + ˆj + kˆ ⎟⎟( x + y + z − 5) = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
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Ans. 5: (a)
x2 y2 z2 ∇φ
Solution: Here φ = 2
+ 2 + 2 − 1 . Unit normal vector is .
a b c ∇φ
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ x2 y 2 z 2 ⎞ 2 xiˆ 2 yˆj 2 zkˆ

So, ∇φ = ⎜ i + j
⎜ ˆ + k ⎟⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 − 1⎟⎟ = 2 + 2 + 2
ˆ
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ a b c ⎠ a b c
2 ˆ 2 ˆ 2 ˆ
∇φ ⎛ a b c ⎞
= i+ j+ k
⎜⎜ , , ⎟⎟ a 3 b 3 c 3
⎝ 3 3 3⎠
4 4 4 2 b 2c 2 + a 2c 2 + a 2c 2
∇φ = + + =
3a 2 3b 2 3c 2 3 a 2b 2 c 2
2 ˆ 2 ˆ 2 ˆ
i+ j+ k
∇φ a 3 b 3 c 3 bciˆ + caˆj + abkˆ
= =
∇φ ⎛ a b c ⎞
2 b 2c 2 + c 2 a 2 + a 2b 2 b 2c 2 + c 2 a 2 + a 2b 2
⎜⎜ , , ⎟⎟
⎝ 3 3 3⎠ 3 abc
Ans. 6: (b)
3 2 3 2 3 3
Solution: z = ± x + y ⇒ z 2 = x 2 + y 2 ⇒ 3x 2 + 3 y 2 − 2 z 2 = 0
2 2 2 2
Let V = 3x 2 + 3 y 2 − 2 z 2 , Taking gradient ⇒ ∇V = 6 xxˆ + 6 yyˆ − 4 zzˆ .
⎛ 2 ⎞ ∇V
The unit normal to the surface at the point A⎜⎜ ,0,1⎟⎟ is nˆ = . Thus
⎝ 3 ⎠ ∇V
2 2
6 xˆ + 6 × 0 yˆ − 4 ×1zˆ 6 xˆ − 4 zˆ
3 3 3 2
nˆ = = = xˆ − zˆ
2 40 5 10
36 × + 16
3
Ans. 7: (d)
Solution: r = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ
∂x ∂y ∂z
∇⋅r = + + = 1+1+1 = 3
∂x ∂y ∂z
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xˆ yˆ zˆ
⎛ ∂z ∂y ⎞ ⎛ ∂x ∂z ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ∂x ⎞
∇ × r = ∂ / ∂x ∂ / ∂y ∂ / ∂z = xˆ ⎜ − ⎟ + yˆ ⎜ − ⎟ + zˆ ⎜ − ⎟ = 0
x y z ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Ans. 8: (d)
1 ∂ 2 ∂ ∂Aφ
Solution: ∇ ⋅ A =
r ∂r
2
(
r Ar +
1
)
r sin θ ∂θ
(sin θAθ ) + 1
r sin θ ∂φ
∵ Ar = 10, Aθ = 5sin θ , Aφ = 0
1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ( 0)
⇒ ∇⋅ A =
r ∂r
2 ( r × 10 ) +
1
r sin θ ∂θ
( sin θ × 5sin θ ) +
r sin θ ∂φ
10 sin θ cos θ = (2 + cos θ )(10 / r )

1 1
⇒ ∇⋅ A = 20r +
r 2
r sin θ
Ans. 9: (a)
1 ∂ 1 ∂F ∂F 1 ∂ ⎛ 150 ⎞ 1 ∂ (10 ) ∂ ( 0 ) −150
Solution: ∇ ⋅ F = ( rFr ) + φ + z ⇒ ∇ ⋅ F = ⎜r ⎟+ + = 3
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z r ∂r ⎝ r 2 ⎠ r ∂φ ∂z r
Ans. 10: (b)

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
Solution: ∇ × A = 2
Ar rAθ r sin θAφ

∂ ∂ ∂
∵ Ar = 0, Aθ = ( e − r / r ) , Aφ = 0
1
⇒ ∇× A = 2
0 e− r 0
1 ⎛ ∂e − r ⎞ e− r ˆ
⇒ ∇× A = 2 × r sin θφ ⎜
ˆ
⎟=− φ
r sin θ ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r
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Ans. 11: (d)
⎛ rˆ rφˆ zˆ ⎞ ⎛ rˆ rφˆ zˆ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1⎜ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎟ k 1⎜ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎟ rφˆ ⎛ k ⎞ k
Solution: ∇ × A =
r ⎜ ∂r ∂φ ∂z ⎟ r
= zˆ ⇒ ∇ × ∇ × A = (
r ⎜ ∂r
) ∂φ ∂z ⎟
= − ⎜ − 2 ⎟ = 2 φˆ
r ⎝ r ⎠ r
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0 rk 0⎠ ⎝ 0 0 k /r⎠
Ans. 12: (a)
Solution: Since F is derivative from potential V(r) and F = −∇V (r )
⇒ ∇ × F = −∇ × ∇V = 0 . ( )
Ans. 13: (b)
Solution: Let F = F0 ( xˆ + yˆ + zˆ ) and r = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ ⇒ F .r = F0 ( x + y + z ) .
( )
Thus ∇ F ⋅ r = F0 ( xˆ + yˆ + zˆ ) = F
Ans. 14: (d)
Solution: Let A = Ax xˆ + Ay yˆ + Az zˆ , B = Bx xˆ + By yˆ + Bz zˆ and r = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ .
B × r = ( By z − yBz ) xˆ + ( Bz x − zBx ) yˆ + ( Bx y − xBy ) zˆ
( )
⇒ ⎡ A ⋅ B × r ⎤ = Ax ( By z − yBz ) + Ay ( Bz x − zBx ) + Az ( Bx y − xBy )
⎣ ⎦
( )
⇒ ∇ ⎡ A ⋅ B × r ⎤ = ( Ay Bz − Az By ) xˆ + ( Az Bx − Ax Bz ) yˆ + ( Ax By − Ay Bx ) zˆ = A × B
⎣ ⎦
Ans. 15: (d)
Solution: ∫ A ⋅ d l = ∫ (∇ × A).d a = 0
C S
∵∇ × A = 0
Ans. 16: (b)
Solution: It is given that ∫ A.d a = 0 ⇒ ∫ ( ∇.A)dτ = 0 (From Divergence Theorem)

S V
∫ ( ∇.A)dτ = 0 ⇒ 2 k + l − 3 m = 0
V
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Ans. 17: (a)
Solution: Since A = xz 2iˆ − yz 2 ˆj + z ( x 2 − y 2 ) kˆ ⇒ ∇. A = z 2 − z 2 + x 2 − y 2 = x 2 − y 2 ( )
Thus
x =+ a y =+ b z = c y =+ b z = c +a y =+ b z = c
⎡ x3 ⎤
∫ ( ∇.A)dτ = ∫ ∫ ∫ (
⎡2 ⎤
2 2
)
x − y dxdydz = ∫ ∫ ⎢ − y 2 x ⎥ dydz = ∫ ∫ ⎢⎣ 3 a
3
− 2ay 2 ⎥ dydz
⎦
y =− b z = 0 ⎣ ⎦−a
V x =− a y =− b z = 0
3 y =− b z = 0
z =c +b z =c
⎡2 y ⎤
( ) ⎡4 3 4 3⎤
3
4
⇒ ∫ ∇. A dτ = ∫ ⎣⎢ 3 a
3
y − 2a ⎥ dz = ∫ ⎢ a b − ab ⎥ dz = abc ⎡⎣ a − b ⎤⎦
2 2
z =0 ⎣ ⎦
V z =0
3 ⎦ −b 3 3 3
Ans. 18: (b)

⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂u y ∂u x ⎞
Solution: v = ∇ × u ⇒ ⎜ z − y ⎟ = 0, ⎜ x − z ⎟ = 0, ⎜ − ⎟ = v0
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Let u x = 0, u z = 0 ⇒ u = v0 xjˆ
Ans. 19: (b)
Solution: Thus ∫ v .d a = ∫ ∇ × u .d a = ( ) ∫ u.dl

S S line
We have to take line integral around circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 in z = 0 plane. Let use cylindrical
coordinate and use x = r cos φ , y = r sin φ ⇒ dy = r cos φ dφ .
2π
⇒ ∫ u.dl = ∫ v xdy = ∫
line line
0 0
v0 × r cos φ × r cos φ dφ
2π 2π ⎡ 1 + cos 2φ ⎤
⇒ ∫ u.dl = v r ∫ cos 2 φ dφ = v0 r 2 ∫ ⎢ ⎥ dφ = π v0 r
2 2
0
line
0 0
⎣ 2 ⎦
(
⇒ ∫ v .d a = ∫ ∇ × u .d a = ) ∫ u.dl = π v r 0
2
S S line
Ans. 20: (c)

⎛ iˆ ˆj kˆ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
∂ ∂ ∂ ⎟
Solution: ∇ × F = ⎜ =0
⎜ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝x + y
2
2 xy 0 ⎟⎠
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[( ) ]
Thus the force F ( x, y ) = k x + y i + 2 xy ˆj is conservative. So work done is independent of
2 2 ˆ
paths.
Along line OD , y = x ⇒ dy = dx
Since dl = dxiˆ + dyjˆ ⇒ F .dl = ⎡⎣( x 2 + y 2 ) dx + 2 xy dy ⎤⎦ = ⎡⎣( x 2 + x 2 ) dx + 2 x 2 dx ⎤⎦ = 4 x 2 dx
1
4
∫ F .dl = ∫ 4 x dx = 3
2
OD x =0
Ans. 21: (a)

⎛ iˆ ˆj kˆ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
∂ ∂ ∂ ⎟ ˆ
Solution: Since ∇ × F = ⎜ =i ( 0 − 0 ) − ˆj ( 0 − 0 ) + kˆ ( 2 y + 2 y ) = 4 ykˆ
⎜ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎟
⎜⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝x − y
2
2 xy 0 ⎟⎠
Using the Stokes’ theorem
( ) ( )( )
a b a b b
∫
OPQRO
F .dl = ∫ ∇ × F .d a = ∫ ∫ 4 ykˆ . − dxdykˆ = −4∫ ∫ ydxdy = −4a ∫ ydy = −2ab 2
S 0 0 0 0 0
Ans. 22: (a)

∞
Solution: For an arbitrary test function f ( x ) , consider the integral
−∞
∫ f (x )δ (kx )dx .
1
Changing variables, we let y = kx , so that x = y / k x, and dx = dy . If k is positive, the
k
integration still runs from − ∞ to + ∞ , but if k is negative, then x = ∞ implies y = −∞ , and vice
versa, so the order of limit is reversed. Restoring the "proper" order costs a minus sign. Thus
∞ ∞
f ( x )δ (kx )dx = ± ∫ f ( y / k )δ ( y ) = ± f (0 ) = f (0 )
dy 1 1
∫
−∞ −∞
k k k
(The lower signs apply when k is negative, and we account for this neatly by putting absolute
value bars around the final k, as indicated.) Under the integral sign, then, δ (kx ) serves the same
purpose as (1 / k )δ ( x ) :
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∞ ∞
⎡1 ⎤
∫ f ( x )δ (kx )dx = ∫ ⎢ k ⎥⎥dx ⇒ δ ( kx ) = (1/ k ) δ ( x )
f ( x )⎢ δ ( x )
−∞ −∞ ⎣ ⎦
Ans. 23: (a)
Solution: Answer would be 0, because the spike would then be outside the domain of integration.
Ans. 24: (d)
⎛ rˆ ⎞
Solution: J = ∫ ( r 2 + 2 ) ∇ ⋅ ⎜ 2 ⎟ dτ = ∫ ( r 2 + 2 ) 4πδ 3 ( r ) dτ = 4π ( 0 + 2 ) = 8π
v ⎝r ⎠ v
Ans. 25: (c)

Solution: The delta function picks out the value of x 3 at the point x = 2 so the integral is 23 = 8 .

Ans. 26: 0
Solution: x 2 + y 2 = 1 ⇒ xdx = − ydy and dl = dxxˆ + dyyˆ
B
xdx ydy
⇒ F .dl = + =0 (∵ xdx = − ydy ) ⇒ ∫ F ⋅ dl = 0
x2 + y2 x2 + y2 A
Ans. 27: 3
( )
Solution: ∫ r.nˆ ds = ∫ ∇.r dτ = 3∫ dτ = 3πa 2 h
S V V
Ans. 28: 4
∂A
Solution: In cylindrical coordinates ∇ ⋅ A =
1 ∂
(rAr ) + 1 φ + ∂Az
r ∂r r ∂φ ∂z
∵ Ar = 2r cos φ , Aφ = 3r sin z , Az = 4 z sin φ
2 2 2
1 ∂ ( 3r sin z ) ∂ ( 4 z sin φ )
2 2
1 ∂
∇⋅ A =
r ∂r
( r × 2r cos φ ) + r ∂φ + ∂z
2
⇒ ∇⋅ A =
1
r
(
4r cos 2 φ + 0 + 4 sin 2 φ = 4 cos 2 φ + sin 2 φ = 4 )
Ans. 29: 0.5
Solution: u = aiˆ + bnˆ , v = anˆ + biˆ
( )( )
⇒ u ⋅ v = aiˆ + bnˆ ⋅ anˆ + biˆ ⇒ u v cos 60 = a 2 iˆ ⋅ nˆ + ab + ba + b 2 nˆ.iˆ
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(a 2
+ b 2 + 2ab cos120 ) ⋅ cos 60 = a
2
2
cos120 + 2ab + b 2 cos120
⎛ 2 1⎞ 1 2 1 2
⎜ a + b − 2ab × ⎟ ⋅ cos 60 = − a + b + 2ab = a + b −
2 2 2 ab 1
(
= − a 2 + b 2 + 2ab) ( ) ( )
⎝ 2⎠ 2 2 2 2
5ab a
⇒ a2 + b2 = ⇒b=
2 2
Ans. 30 : 3
Solution : Since ∫ A.d a = ∫ ( ∇.A)dτ ⇒ ∫ ( ∇.r )dτ = 3V

S V V

Ans. 31: (a), (b) and (d)
Solution: Since d l = dxxˆ + dyyˆ + dzzˆ . Path (1) consists of two parts. Along the “horizontal” segment
dy = dz = 0, so
2
(i) d l = dxxˆ, y = 1, A ⋅ d l = y 2 dx = dx, so ∫ A⋅ dl = ∫ 1
dx = 1
On the “vertical” stretch dx = dz = 0, so
(ii) d l = dyyˆ , x = 2, A ⋅ d l = 2 x( y + 1)dy = 4( y + 1)dy, so ∫ A ⋅ d l = 4∫ ( y + 1)dy = 10 .

2
b
By path (1), then, ∫ a
A ⋅ d l = 1 + 10 = 11
Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, dx = dy, and dz = 0, so
d l = dxxˆ + dxyˆ , A ⋅ d l = x 2 dx + 2 x( x + 1)dx = 3 x 2 + 2 x dx ( )

so ∫a
b 2
( )
A ⋅ d l = ∫ 3 x 2 + 2 x dx = x 3 + x 2
1
( ) 2
1
= 10
For the loop that goes out (1) and back (2), then, ∫ A ⋅ d l = 11 − 10 = 1
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1. Linear Algebra and Matrices
The main structures of linear algebra are vector spaces. A vector space over a field F is a set V ,
together with two binary operation. Elements of V are called vectors and elements of F are
called scalars.
The first operation is vector addition; take any two vectors φ andψ and output iss a third
vector φ + ψ . The second operation; take any scalar a and any vector φ and output is a new
vector vector aφ . In view of the first example, where the multiplication is done by rescaling the
vector φ by a scalar a , the multiplication is called scalar multiplication of φ by a . The
operations of addition and multiplication in a vector space satisfy the following axioms. In the
list below, let φ ,ψ and χ be arbitrary vectors in V , and a and b scalars in F .
The linear vector space consists of two sets of elements and two algebraic rules.
• A set of vectors ψ ,φ , χ ,.... and set of scalars a, b, c
• A rule for vector addition and rule for scalar multiplication
(i) Addition rule
• If ψ and φ are vectors of elements of a space, their sum ψ + φ is also vector of the
same space.
Commutativity: ψ + φ = φ + ψ
Associativity: (ψ + φ ) + χ = ψ + (φ + χ )
Existance of a symmetric and inverse vector: ψ + (−ψ ) = (−ψ ) +ψ = 0

(ii) Multiplication rule
• The product of scalar with a vector gives another vector, If ψ and φ are two vectors
of the space, any linear combination aψ + bφ is also a vector of the space, where
a and b being scalars.
• Distributivity with respect to addition:
a (ψ + φ ) = aψ + aφ ; ( a + b )ψ = aψ + bψ
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• Associativity with respect to multiplication of scalars.
a(bψ ) = (ab)ψ
• For each element ψ there must exist a unitary element I and a no. zero scalar such
that I ⋅ψ = ψ ⋅ I = ψ O ⋅ψ = ψ ⋅ O = O
1.1 Linear Dependence and Dimensionality of a Vector Space
• A set of N vectors φ1 , φ2 ,..., φN is said to be linearly independent if and only if the
N
solution of the equation. ∑a φi =1
i i = 0 if a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 = 0 otherwise φ1 , φ2 ,...., φN is
said to be linear dependent.

• The dimension of a space vector is given by the maximum number of linearly
independent vectors the space can have.
• The maximum number of linearly independent vectors a space has is
N (φ1 , φ2 ,...., φN ) , this space is said to be N dimensional. In this case any vector ψ
of the vector space can be expressed as linear combination.

N
ψ = ∑ aiφi
i =1
Inner product
ψ i ( x, y, z )ψ j ( x, y, z )
• The inner product of two function is 3 dimensional is defined or
(ψ ,ψ ) = ∫ (ψ ψ
i j
*
i j dxdydz )
• Property of inner product
(a) (ψ ,φ ) = (φ ,ψ )*
(ψ , aφ2 + bφ2 ) = a(ψ ,φ1 ) + b(ψ ,φ2 )
(ψ ,ψ ) = ψ
2
≥0
1
The norm (length of vector) is defined (ψ ,ψ ) 2
If (ψ i ,ψ j ) = δ i , j then vectors are said to form an orthonormal set

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1.2 Properties of Matrices
a matrix (plural matrices) is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions, arranged
in rows and columns. The individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries
⎡ a11 a12 a1n ⎤
⎢a a22 a2 n ⎥⎥
A = ⎢ 21
⎢ aij ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ am1 am 2 amn ⎦⎥
In matrix A has m rows and n column aij is the element of i th row and j th column. The matrix A
has m rows and n column, so the matrix is said to m × n ( m by n ) .
If number of row and number of column in matrix is equal then matrix is said to be square
matrix.
Operation of matrix
(a) Summation of matrices
In mathematics, matrix addition is the operation of adding two matrices by adding the
corresponding entries together. The usual matrix addition is defined for two matrices of the
same dimensions. The sum of two m × n (pronounced “ m by n ”) matrices A and B , denoted
by A + B , is again an m × n matrix computed by adding corresponding elements.
⎡ a11 a12 a1n ⎤ ⎡ b11 b12 b1n ⎤
⎢a a22 ⎥
a2 n ⎥ ⎢b b22 b2 n ⎥⎥
If A = ⎢ 21 and B = ⎢ 21 then
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ am1 am 2 amn ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢bm1 bm 2 bmn ⎦⎥
⎡ a11 a12 a1n ⎤ ⎡ b11 b12 b1n ⎤ ⎡ a11 + b11 a12 + b12 a1n + b1n ⎤
⎢a a22 a2 n ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ b21 b22 b2 n ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a2 n + b2 n ⎥⎥
A + B = ⎢ 21 + =
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ am1 am 2 amn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣bm1 bm 2 bmn ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ am1 + bm1 am 2 + bm 2 amn + bmn ⎥⎦
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(a) Direct sum
Another operation, which is used less often, is the direct sum (denoted by ⊕ ). Note the also
denoted ⊕ ; the context should make the usage clear. The direct sum of any pair of matrices A of
size m × n and B of size p × q is a matrix of size ( m + p ) × ( n + q ) . The direct sum of matrices is
⎛A 0⎞
a special type of block matrix A ⊕ B = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 B⎠
Multiplication of Matrix
(a) Scalar multiplication
The left multiplication of a matrix A with a scalar λ gives another matrix λ A of the same size
⎡ λ a11 λ a12 λ a1n ⎤
⎢ λa λ a22 λ a2 n ⎥⎥
as A . The entries of λ A are given by λ (aij ) = (λ aij ) ⇒ λ A = ⎢ 21
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ λ am1 λ am 2 λ amn ⎥⎦
Right Scalar Multiplication

Similarly, the right multiplication of a matrix A with a scalar λ is defined to be ( aij )λ = (λ aij )
(b) Multiplication of two matrix

Assume two matrices are to be multiplied (the generalization to any number is discussed
below).If A is an n × m matrix, and B is an m × p matrix, the result AB of their multiplication
is an n × p matrix defined only if the number of columns m in A is equal to the number rows
m in B .
⎡ a11 a12 a1m ⎤ ⎡ b11 b12 b1 p ⎤
⎢a ⎢b b2 p ⎥⎥
a22 a2 m ⎥⎥ b22
A = ⎢ 21 B=⎢
21
,
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ an1 an 2 anm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣bm1 bm 2 bmp ⎥⎦
(where necessarily the number of columns in A equals the number of rows in B equals m ) the
matrix product AB is defined by
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⎡ ( AB)11 ( AB)12 ( AB)1 p ⎤
⎢( AB) ( AB) 22 ( AB) 2 p ⎥⎥ m
AB = ⎢ 21
where ( AB )ij = ∑ aik bkj
⎢ ⎥ k =1
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ( AB) n1 ( AB) n 2 ( AB) np ⎥⎦
(c) Direct product (tensor product)
The direct product is defined for general matrices .if A is n × n square matrix and B is m × m
square matrix .then direct product A ⊗ B is nm × nm matrix.
C = A ⊗ B where matrix element of C is given by cik , jl = aij bkl
⎛a a12 ⎞ ⎛ b11 b12 ⎞ ⎛ a11 B a12 B ⎞

where A = ⎜ 11 ⎟ and B = ⎜ ⎟ then C = A ⊗ B = = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ a21 a22 ⎠ ⎝ b21 b22 ⎠ ⎝ a21 B a22 B ⎠
⎡ a11b11 a11b12 a12b11 a12b12 ⎤

⎢a b a11b22 a12b21 a12b22 ⎥⎥
C = A ⊗ B = ⎢ 11 21
⎢ a21b11 a21b12 a22b11 a22b12 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ a21b21 a21b22 a22b21 a22b22 ⎥⎦
Derivative of matrix
The derivative of a matrix with respect to a variable is equal to derivative of each element with
respect to x separately.
Integral of matrix
The integral of matrix with respect to a variable x is equal to the integration of each element with
respect to x separately.
Transpose of matrix ( AT )
The transpose of an arbitrary A is written as AT is obtained by interchanging corresponding

rows into column of A i.e. if element of A is aij then element of AT is a ji .
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Complex –conjugate matrix ( A )*
The complex conjugate of an matrix A is formed by taking the complex conjugate of each
element .hence matrix element of A* is aij* .
Hermitian conjugate ( A† )
The hermitian conjugate of matrix A is obtain by taking the complex conjugate of the matrix and
then the transpose of the complex conjugate matrix.
If matrix element of A is aij then matrix element of A† is a*ji
⎡ 2 + 3i 4 − 5i ⎤
Example: A = ⎢
⎣ 3 4i ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 − 3i 4 + 5i ⎤ ⎡ 2 − 3i 3 ⎤
A* = ⎢ ⎥ , A† = ( A* )T = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 −4i ⎦ ⎣ 4 + 5i −4i ⎦
Cofactor matrix ( Ac )
The cofactor matrix A is matrix constructed by cofactor element aij which is denoted by Aij
which can be defined as (−1)i + j M ij where M ij are minor of element aij .
⎡ A11 A12 A13 ⎤

⎢ ⎥
So Ac = ⎢ A21 A22 A23 ⎥
⎢ A31 A32 A33 ⎥⎦
⎣
Adjoint of matrix
Transpose of cofactor matrix Ac is adjoint of matrix
adj ( A) = ( Ac )T if adj ( A) = A then it is said to be self adjoint matrix .
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Inverse of matrix A −1
( )
If A is matrix and A−1 A = I then A−1 is said to inverse of matrix A (where I ) is identity
matrix.
adjA
A−1 = where A is determinant of matrix A . Inverse of A exist if A ≠ 0 .
A
⎡0 0 1 ⎤
Example: Find the inverse of A = ⎢⎢0 1 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣1 0 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 0 −1⎤
Solution: A = −1 , adj ( A) = ( A ) = ⎢⎢ 0 −1 0 ⎥⎥ c T
⎢⎣ −1 0 0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0 0 −1⎤
⎢ 0 −1 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎡0 0 1 ⎤
adjA ⎢⎣ −1 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢
−1
A = = = ⎢0 1 0 ⎥⎥
A −1
⎢⎣1 0 0 ⎥⎦
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
one can check A A = ⎢⎢0 1 0 ⎥⎥
−1
⎢⎣0 0 1 ⎥⎦
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1.3 Eigen value problem
Let A be n × n square matrix. Consider the equation AX i = λi X i where λi is scalar and X i is
vector. For every λi there corresponds X i ≠ 0 which satisfies the equation AX i = λi X i .
Then X i is said to be Eigen vector corresponding to Eigen value λi of matrix A .
Characteristic Equation is given by determinant A − λ I = 0 i.e. A − λ I = 0
a11 − λ a12 a1n

a21 a22 − λ a2 n
= 0 which is polynomial of λ of order n which can be
an1 an 2 ann − λ
• Represented by D (λ ) = 0 and Solution (roots) of characteristic equation is known as

Eigen value.
• For an n × n matrix has at least one Eigen value and at most n numerically different
Eigen values
• A repeated Eigen value is said to degenerate Eigen value. For degenerate Eigen value
there is different Eigen vectors for same Eigen value
• Non repeated Eigen values are non degenerate Eigen values. For non degenerate
Eigen value there is different Eigen vectors for different Eigen value .
n
• Sum of Eigen values are equal to trace of matrix ∑ λi = trace( A) = ∑ aii trace of
i i
matrix is sum of diagonal element

n
• Product of Eigen values are equal to determinant of matrix ∏λ i
i = A
• Eigen vectors correspond to different Eigen value will always independent.
• Eigen vectors correspond to same Eigen value may or may not be independent.
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⎡2 0 0⎤
Example: Find the Eigen value and Eigen vector of matrix A = ⎢⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦
2−λ 0 0
For Eigen value ( A − λ I ) = 0 0 −λ 1 =0
0 1 −λ
( 2 − λ ) {λ 2 − 1} = 0 ⇒ λ = 2, λ 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ λ = ±1
Eigen value is given by λ1 = −1 λ2 = 1, λ3 = 2, . where λ1 = −1 is non degenerate Eigen value

all Eigen values are different so it is non degenerate .
Eigen vector can be determined by the equation AX i = λi X i .
⎡ 2 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢0 0 1⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = λ ⎢ x ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ i ⎢ 2⎥
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
• For λ1 = −1 ⎢ ⎥
⇒ ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = −1 ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
which will give equation 2 x1 = − x1 and x2 = − x3 so x1 = 0 and x2 = − x3
⎡ 0 ⎤
X 1 = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ , Normalized Eigen value can be determined by relation X 1T X 1 = 1 which will give
⎢⎣ − x2 ⎥⎦
⎡0⎤
1 1 ⎢ ⎥
x2 = so normalized Eigen vector corresponds to λ1 = −1 is X 1 = 1
2 2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
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⎡ 2 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
• ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
For λ2 = 1 ⇒ ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = 1 ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ which will give equation x1 = 0 and x2 = x3 so
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡0⎤
Eigen vector is given by ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ for any value of x2 one can find Eigen vector
⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎦
⎡0⎤
1 ⎢ ⎥
corresponds to λ2 = 1 From orthogonal relation X 2 X 2 = 1 so X 2 = 1T
2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
⎡ 2 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
• For λ2 = 2 ⇒ ⎢ 0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = 2 ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ which will give x1 = x1 and x3 = 2 x2 and
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤
x2 = 2 x3 so x2 = x2 = 0 Eigen vector will be X 3 = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ value of x1 can be determine
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎡1 ⎤
from orthogonal condition X X 3 = 1 3
T
x1 = 1 so X 3 = ⎢⎢0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣0 ⎥⎦
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⎡1 0 0 ⎤
Example: Find The Eigen value and normalized Eigen vector of matrix A = ⎢⎢0 0 1 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣0 1 0 ⎥⎦
1− λ 0 0
For Eigen value ( A − λ I ) = 0 ⇒ 0 −λ 1 =0
0 1 −λ
(1 − λ ) {λ 2 − 1} = 0 ⇒ λ = 1, λ 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ λ = ±1
Eigen value is given by λ1 = −1 λ2 = 1, λ3 = 1 where λ1 = −1 is non degenerate Eigen value

λ2 = λ3 = 1 is doubly degenerate Eigen value.
Eigen vector can be determined by the equation AX i = λi X i .
⎡1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = λ ⎢ x ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ i ⎢ 2⎥
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
• For λ1 = −1 ⇒ ⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = −1 ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
Which will give equation x1 = − x1 and x2 = − x3 So x1 = 0 and x2 = − x3
⎡ 0 ⎤
X 1 = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ normalized Eigen value can be determined by relation X 1T X 1 = 1
⎢⎣ − x2 ⎥⎦
1
which will give x2 = so normalized
2
⎡0⎤
1 ⎢ ⎥
Eigen vector corresponds to λ1 = −1 is X 1 = 1
2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
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⎡1 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
• For λ2 = λ3 = 1 ⇒ ⎢0 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = 1 ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ which will give equation x1 = x1 and x2 = x3
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤
So, Eigen vector is given by ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ for any value of x1 and x2 one can find Eigen vector
⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎦
corresponds to λ2 = λ3 = 1 but we need to find orthogonal Eigen vectors.
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
Let x1 = x1 and x2 = 0 so X 2 = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ X2 X2 =1
T
will give x1 = 1 so X 2 = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Now we must find third Eigen vector which will satisfied equation x1 = x1 and x2 = x3
and orthogonal to X 2 .so X 2T X 3 = 0 . Which will give relation x1 = 0 and x2 = x3
⎡0⎤
So X 3 = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ and value of x2 can be find with orthogonal relation X 3T X 3 = 1 which will give
⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎦
⎡0⎤
1 1 ⎢ ⎥
x2 = so X3 = 1
2 2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
1.4 Different Types of Matrices and their properties

Unit matrix
A unit matrix is a diagonal matrix whose all diagonal elements is 1 .
δ i , j = 1 if i = j
= 0 if i ≠ j
⎛1 0⎞
Example: I = ⎜ ⎟ , Eigen value of unit matrix is 1 and it is degenerate. The independent and
⎝0 1⎠
⎛1⎞ ⎛0⎞
orthonormal Eigen vector are ⎜ ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟
⎝0⎠ ⎝1⎠
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Symmetric matrix
A square matrix A is defined such that AT = A . The matrix element of Symmetric matrix is
given by aij = a ji .The Eigen value of symmetric matrix is always real.
⎛ 2 4⎞
Example: A = ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 4 3⎠
5 + 65 5 − 65
The Eigen value of A matrix is given by λ1 = and λ2 = which is real.
2 2
Anti-symmetric (skew) matrix
If a square matrix A is defined such that AT = − A . The matrix element of antisymetric is given
by aij = − a ji . The Eigen value of skew symmetric matrix is purely imaginary or zero. The
diagonal element of skew symmetric matrix is always zero.

⎛ 0 −4 ⎞
Example: A = ⎜ ⎟
⎝4 0 ⎠
The Eigen value of λ1 = 4i and λ1 = −4i
Orthogonal matrix
If a square matrix A is defined such that AT = A−1 . The matrix element of an orthogonal matrix
has value +1 and −1 . The eigen value of an orthogonal matrix A are real or complex in pair
and have absolute value 1.
⎛ cos θ sin θ ⎞
Example: A = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ − sin θ cos θ ⎠
The determinant of matrix A i.e. A = 1 and the eigen value of matrix is λ1 = cos θ + i sin θ and
λ2 = cos θ − i sin θ which have absolute value 1 i.e. λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 1 .
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Hermitian matrix
A square matrix A is said to be Hermitian matrix if A† = A where A† = ( A* )T that means matrix
element is given by aij = a*ji .Eigen value of Hermitian matrix is real.
⎡ 2 0 0⎤
Example: A = ⎢⎢ 0 0 i ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 −i 0 ⎥⎦
The Eigen value of hermitian matrix A is −1,1, 2 which is real.

Skew Hermitian matrix
A square matrix A is said to be Hermitian matrix if A† = − A where A† = ( A* )T that means
matrix element is given by aij = −a*ji . Eigen value of Hermitian matrix is purely imaginary or
zero diagonal matrix of skew hermitian matrix is zero.

⎡0 0 0⎤
Example: A = ⎢⎢0 0 i ⎥⎥
⎢⎣0 i 0 ⎥⎦
The Eigen value of matrix A is i, 0, −i .

Unitary matrix
If a square matrix A is defined such that A† = A−1 . The matrix element an unitary matrix has
absolute value 1 ie A = 1 . The Eigen value of an unitary matrix A are real or complex in pair
and have absolute value 1.

⎛ i 3⎞
⎜ ⎟
Example: A = ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎜ 3 i ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
The absolute determinant of matrix A is 1 ie. A = 1 the Eigen value of given matrix is given by
3 i 3 i
λ1 = + and λ1 = − + which have absolute value 1 ie λ1 = 1 and λ2 = 1 .
2 2 2 2
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1.5 Cayley–Hamilton Theorem
Every square matrix satisfied its own characteristic equation. The characteristic equation of
n × n square matrix A given by A − λ I = 0 which is polynomial of order n (let say φ (λ ) )
φ (λ ) = φ0 I + φ1λ + ...... + φn −1λ n −1 + φn λ n = 0 is characteristic equation .
From Cayley-Hamilton theorem φ ( A) = φ0 I + φ1 A + ...... + φn −1 An −1 + φn An = 0
⎛1 2 0⎞
⎜ ⎟
Example: illustrate the Cayley – Hamilton theorem for the matrix A = ⎜ 2 −1 0 ⎟
⎜0 0 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
1− λ 2 0
Solution: the characteristic equation is 2 −1 − λ 0 = −5 + 5λ + λ 2 − λ 3
0 0 1− λ
φ (λ ) = −5 + 5λ + λ 2 − λ 3 = 0 the matrix A will satisfied the same equation

φ ( A) = −5 + 5 A + A2 − A3
⎛ −5 0 0 ⎞ ⎛ 5 10 0 ⎞ ⎛ 5 0 0 ⎞ ⎛ −5 −10 0 ⎞ ⎛ 0 0 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⇒ ⎜ 0 −5 0 ⎟ + ⎜10 −5 0 ⎟ + ⎜ 0 5 0 ⎟ + ⎜ −10 5 0 ⎟ = ⎜ 0 0 0⎟
⎜ 0 0 −5 ⎟ ⎜ 0 0 5 ⎟ ⎜ 0 0 1 ⎟ ⎜ 0 0 −1⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0 0 0 ⎟⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝
⎛0 0 1⎞
⎜ ⎟
Example: find the inverse of matrix A = ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ from Cayley -Hamilton theorem.
⎜1 0 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
0−λ 0 1
Solution: The characteristic equation is given by 0 1− λ 0 =0
1 0 0−λ
λ 3 − λ 2 − λ + 1 = 0 from Cayley–Hamilton theorem A will satisfied characteristic equation .

A3 − A 2 − A + I = 0 .
⎛0 0 1⎞
−1 ⎜ ⎟ −1 −1
Multiply equation by A one can get A − A − I + A = 0 ⇒ A = A − A − I = ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟
2 1 2 1
⎜1 0 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
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⎛0 0 1⎞
−1 ⎜ ⎟
So for matrix A = A = ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟
⎜1 0 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
1.6 Diagonalisation of Matrix
A square matrix A is called diagonalizable if it is similar to a diagonal matrix, i.e., if there
exists an invertible matrix P such that P −1 AP = D is a diagonal matrix. If V is a finite-
dimensional vector space( one can find independent Eigen vector corresponds to Eigen value ) ,
then a linear map T : V → V ; T is called diagonalizable if there exists a basis of V with
respect to which T is represented by a diagonal matrix. Diagonalization is the process of finding
a corresponding diagonal matrix for a diagonalizable matrix or linear map. A square matrix
which is not diagonalizable is called defective.
⎡1 2 0 ⎤
Example: Consider a matrix A = ⎢⎢ 0 3 0 ⎥⎥ . This matrix has eigenvalues λ1 = 3, λ2 = 2, λ1 = 1
⎢⎣ 2 −4 2 ⎥⎦
A is a 3 × 3 matrix with 3 different eigenvalues; therefore one can find basis in which , it is
diagonalizable.( Note that if there are exactly n distinct eigenvalues in an n × n matrix then this
matrix is diagonalizable.)
These eigenvalues are the values that will appear in the diagonalized form of matrix A , so by
finding the eigenvalues of A we have diagonalized it.
The eigenvectors of A corresponds to eigen value respectively λ1 = 3, λ2 = 2, λ1 = 1 are
⎡ −1⎤ ⎡0 ⎤ ⎡ −1⎤
X 1 = ⎢⎢ −1⎥⎥ ⎢ ⎥
X 2 = ⎢0 ⎥ X 3 = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ −1 0 −1⎤
Now, let P be the matrix with these eigenvectors as its columns: P = ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 2 1 2 ⎥⎦
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Note: There is no preferred order of the eigenvectors in P ; changing the order of
the eigenvectors in P just changes the order of the eigenvalues in the diagonalzed form of A.
Then P diagonalizes A , as a simple computation confirms, having calculated P −1 using

any suitable method:
⎡ 0 −1 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1 2 0 ⎤ ⎡ −1 0 −1⎤ ⎡ 3 0 0 ⎤
P −1 AP = ⎢⎢ 2 0 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ 0 3 0 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ −1 0 0 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 2 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ −1 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 −4 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 1 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 1 ⎥⎦
Note that the eigenvalues λ1 = 3, λ2 = 2, λ1 = 1 appear in the diagonal matrix.
Diagonalization can be used to compute the powers of a matrix A efficiently, provided the matrix
is diagonalizable. Suppose we have found that
P −1 AP = D
is a diagonal matrix. Then, as the matrix product is associative,
AK = ( PDP −1 ) K = ( PDP −1 )( PDP −1 )( PDP −1 )( PDP −1 )..........( PDP −1 )
PD K P −1 and the latter is easy to calculate since it only involves the powers of a diagonal matrix.
1.7 Function of Matrix
If the matrix A is diagonalizable, then we can find a matrix P and a diagonal matrix D such
that A = PDP −1 . Applying the power series definition to this decomposition, we find
that f ( A) is defined by
⎡ f (d1 ) 0 0 ⎤
⎢ 0 f (d 2 ) 0 ⎥⎥ −1
f ( A) = P ⎢ P
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 f (d n ) ⎥⎦
where d1 , d 2 ....d n denote the diagonal entries of D .
⎡λ 0 ⎤
Example: If matrix A = ⎢ 1 ⎥ then find e A .
⎣ 0 λ2 ⎦
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⎡1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
Solution: For matrix A Eigen value is λ1 , λ2 and Eigen vectors are respective ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦
⎡1 0 ⎤ ⎡1 0 ⎤
P=⎢ ⎥ and P −1 = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣0 1 ⎦
⎡1 0⎤ ⎡ eλ1 0⎤ ⎡1 0⎤ ⎡ eλ1 0⎤
e A = Pf ( A) P −1 = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 1 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 eλ2 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣0 eλ2 ⎦
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Multiple Choice Questions
⎛1 0 1⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q1. The eigen value of matrix A = ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ is
⎜1 0 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) λ = 1, 0, 2 (b) λ = −1, 2, 2 (c) λ = 0, 0, 3 (d) λ = 1, 1, 1
⎛ 1 8 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 8 1 ⎟⎠
(a) λ = 1, 0, 2 (b) λ = −1, 2, 2 (c) λ = −3, 1, 5 (d) λ = 1, 1, 1
⎛ 0 1 0⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 1 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) λ = −1, 0, 1 (b) λ = 0, −2, 2 (c) λ = 0, 0, 0 (d) λ = − 2 , 0, 2
⎛0 1 1⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜1 1 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) λ = −1, − 1, 2 (b) λ = 0, −2, 2 (c) λ = 0, 0, 0 (d) λ = − 2 , 0, 2
⎛ 1 1 1⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q5. The degenerate eigen value of matrix A = ⎜1 1 1⎟ is
⎜ 1 1 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 3
⎛1 0 1⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q6. The eigen vector of matrix A = ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ corresponding to eigen value 0 is
⎜1 0 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
(a) ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ (b) ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ (c) ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ (d) ⎢⎢ −1⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
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⎛ 1 8 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q7. The eigen vector of matrix A = ⎜ 8 1 8 ⎟ corresponding to eigen value 5 is
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 8 1 ⎟⎠
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 2⎤ ⎡− 2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
(a) ⎢ 2 ⎥ (b) ⎢ − 2 ⎥ (c) ⎢ 1 ⎥ (d) ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎛ 0 1 0⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q8. The eigen vectors of matrix A = ⎜ 1 0 1 ⎟ corresponding to eigen values − 2, 0, 2 are
⎜ 0 1 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
respectively
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥, ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
(a) ⎢ − 2 ⎥ , ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ (b) ⎢ 2 ⎥ , ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ , ⎢− 2 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ −1⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
(c) ⎢ − 2 ⎥ , ⎢ 2 ⎥ , ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ (d) ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ , ⎢ − 2 ⎥ , ⎢ 2⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ −1⎥ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦ ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎛0 1 1⎞ ⎡ −2 ⎤
⎜ ⎟
Q9. If one of the eigen vector of matrix A = ⎜ 1 0 1 ⎟ corresponding to eigen value −1 is ⎢⎢ 1 ⎥⎥ then
⎜1 1 0⎟ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
⎝ ⎠
other orthogonal eigen vector for same eigen value is
⎡0⎤ ⎡ −4 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
(a) ⎢⎢ 1 ⎥⎥ (b) ⎢⎢ 2 ⎥⎥ (c) ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ (d) ⎢⎢ −1⎥⎥
⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
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⎛1 1 1⎞ ⎡0⎤
⎜ ⎟
Q10. If one of the eigen vector of matrix A = ⎜1 1 1⎟ corresponding to eigen value 0 is ⎢⎢ 1 ⎥⎥ then
⎜1 1 1⎟ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
⎝ ⎠
other orthogonal eigen vector for same eigen value is
⎡ −2 ⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
(a) ⎢⎢ 1 ⎥⎥ (b) ⎢⎢ 2 ⎥⎥ (c) ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ (d) ⎢⎢ −1⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎡2 0 0⎤
Q11. A square matrix 3 × 3 is given by A = ⎢⎢ 0 1 1 ⎥⎥ is diagonalized in eigenvector of
⎢⎣ 0 1 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
⎢1 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 1 ⎥
matrix S = ⎢0 ⎥ . Which one of the following is matrix A in the diagonal form in the
⎢ 2 2⎥
⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢0 − ⎥
⎣ 2 2⎦
basis of S ?
⎡ 2 0 0⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡2 0 0⎤ ⎡1 0 2 ⎤
⎢
(a) ⎢ 0 2 0 ⎥ ⎥ ⎢
(b) ⎢ 0 2 0 ⎥ ⎥ ⎢
(c) ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥ ⎥ (d) ⎢⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 0 2 ⎥⎦
⎛1 1 1⎞
Q12. Consider the matrix M = ⎜1 1 1⎟ . The eigenvalues of M are
⎜1 1 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) 0, 1, 2 (b) 0, 0, 3 (c) 1, 1, 1 (d) – 1, 1, 3
⎛ 1 1 1⎞
Q13. Consider the matrix M = ⎜1 1 1⎟ . The exponential of M simplifies to (I is the 3 × 3 identity
⎜ 1 1 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
matrix)
⎛ e3 − 1 ⎞ M2
(a) e M = I + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ M (b) e M = I + M +
⎝ 3 ⎠ 2!
(c) e M = I + 33 M (d) e M = (e − 1)M

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⎛2 3 0⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q14. The eigenvalues of the matrix ⎜ 3 2 0 ⎟ are
⎜0 1 ⎟⎠
⎝ 0
(a) 5, 2, -2 (b) -5, -1, -1 (c) 5, 1, -1 (d) -5, 1, 1

⎛1 2 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q15. The eigen values of the matrix A = ⎜ 2 4 6 ⎟ are
⎜3 6 9 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) (1, 4, 9 ) (b) (0, 7, 7 ) (c) (0,1,13) (d) (0, 0,14 )
⎛ 0 − n3 n2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q16. The eigenvalues of the antisymmetric matrix, A = ⎜ n3 0 − n1 ⎟ where n1 , n 2 and n3 are
⎜ − n2 n1 0 ⎟⎠
⎝
the components of a unit vector, are
(a) 0, i, − i (b) 0,1, − 1 (c) 0,1 + i, − 1, − i (d) 0, 0, 0
⎛ 0 2i 3i ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q17. Consider the matrix M = ⎜ − 2i 0 6i ⎟ .The eigenvalues of M are
⎜ − 3i − 6i 0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) − 5, − 2, 7 (b) − 7, 0, 7 (c) − 4i, 2i, 2i (d) 2, 3, 6
⎛a⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q18. The column vector ⎜ b ⎟ is a simultaneous eigenvector of
⎜a⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛0 0 1⎞ ⎛0 1 1⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ and B = ⎜ 1 0 1 ⎟ , if
⎜1 0 0⎟ ⎜1 1 0⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(a) b = 0 or a = 0 (b) b = a or b = −2a
(c) b = 2a or b = −a (d) b = a / 2 or b = −a / 2
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Q19. Let α and β be complex numbers. Which of the following sets of matrices forms a group under
matrix multiplication?
⎛α β⎞ ⎛1 α⎞
(a) ⎜⎜ ⎟ (b) ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , where αβ ≠ 1
⎝0 0 ⎟⎠ ⎝β 1 ⎠
⎛α α* ⎞ ⎛ α β⎞
(c) ⎜⎜ ⎟ , where αβ * is real (d) ⎜⎜ ⎟ , where α + β =1
2 2
*⎟ *⎟
⎝β β ⎠ ⎝− β α ⎠
*
Q20. [ ]
A 3 × 3 matrix M has Tr [M ] = 6, Tr M 2 = 26 and Tr M 3 = 90 . Which of the following can be [ ]
a possible set of eigenvalues of M ?
(a) {1,1, 4} (b) {− 1, 0, 7} (c) {− 1, 3, 4} (d) {2, 2, 2}
1 ⎡ 1 1 + i⎤
Q21. The matrix A = ⎢ ⎥ is
3 ⎣1 − i − 1 ⎦
(a) Orthogonal (b) symmetric (c) anti-symmetric (d) Unitary
Q22. If H is Hermitian matrix then matrix A = exp(iH ) is
(a) Hermitian (b) Unitary (c) Skew Hermitian (d) Identity
⎛0 1 0⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q23. The matrix A = ⎜ 1 0 0 ⎟ is diagonalize in the basis of unitary matrices U and get the
⎜0 0 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛2 0 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
diagonalise matrix ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ then matrix U is
⎜ 0 0 −1⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 0 0 1⎟ ⎜ 0 0 1⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ 1 1 ⎟
(a) ⎜ 0⎟ (b) ⎜ 0⎟
⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ 1 1 ⎟
⎜ − 0⎟ ⎜− 0⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
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⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜0 0 0 ⎟ ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ 1 1 ⎟
(c) ⎜ 0 ⎟ (d) ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎜ 1 1 ⎟ ⎜ 1 1 ⎟
⎜1 − ⎟ ⎜ 0 − ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠
Q24. Given a 2 × 2 unitary matrix U satisfying U †U = UU † = 1 with det U = e iϕ , one can construct a
unitary matrix V (V †V = VV † = 1) with det V = 1 from it by
(a) multiplying U by e −iϕ / 2

(b) multiplying any single element of U by e − iϕ
(c) multiplying any row or column of U by e −iϕ / 2
(d) multiplying U by e − iϕ
Q25. Consider an n × n(n > 1) matrix A , in which Aij is the product of the indices i and j
(namely Aij = ij ). The matrix A
(a) has one degenerate eigevalue with degeneracy (n − 1)

(b) has two degenerate eigenvalues with degeneracies 2 and (n − 2 )
(c) has one degenerate eigenvalue with degeneracy n
(d) does not have any degenerate eigenvalue
Q26. Two matrices A and B are said to be similar if B = P-1AP for some invertible matrix P. Which of
the following statements is NOT TRUE?
(a) DetA = DetB (b) Trace of A = Trace of B
(c) A and B have the same eigenvectors (d) A and B have the same eigenvalues
Q27. A 3×3 matrix has elements such that its trace is 11 and its determinant is 36. The eigenvalues of
the matrix are all known to be positive integers. The largest eigenvalues of the matrix is
(a) 18 (b) 12 (c) 9 (d) 6
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⎛0 1 1⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q28. The inverse of matrix M = ⎜ 0 0 1 ⎟ is
⎜1 0 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) M − 1 (b) M − 1
2
(c) I − M 2 (d) I − M

⎛ 5 0 2⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q29. For matrix A = ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ , which of the following statements are true?
⎜ 2 0 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) The degenerate eigen value is 1
⎡1⎤
(b) One of the eigen vector corresponding to degenerate eigen value is ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ −2 ⎥⎦
⎡2⎤
(c) The eigen vector corresponding to nondegenerate eigen value is ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
⎡0⎤
(d) The eigen vector corresponding to nondegenerate eigen value is ⎢⎢ 2 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
⎛1 1 0⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 0 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) The degenerate eigen value is 0
⎡1⎤
(b) One of the eigen vector corresponding to degenerate eigen value is ⎢⎢ −1⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎡0 ⎤
(c) One of the eigen vector corresponding to degenerate eigen value is ⎢⎢0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
⎡1 ⎤
(d) The eigen vector corresponding to nondegenerate eigen value is ⎢⎢1 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
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⎛ 5 0 3⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 3 0 3 ⎠
(a) The eigen value are 2, 3, 6
(b) The eigen value are 2, 4, 5
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
(c) Eigen vector corresponding eigen value 2 is ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢− 3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 3⎤
⎢ ⎥
(d) Eigen vector corresponding eigen value 2 is ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢1⎥
⎣ ⎦
Q32. Which one of following is correct
(a) If A† = A and B † = − B Then AB + BA is skew Hermitian
(b) If A† = A and B † = − B Then AB + BA is Hermitian
(c) If A† = A and B † = − B i ( AB + BA) is skew Hermitian
(d) A = A and B = − B i ( AB + BA) is Hermitian

† †
⎛1 0 0⎞
⎜ ⎟
Q33. Which of the following is correct for matrix A = ⎜ 0 0 1 ⎟
⎜0 1 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
(a) It is its own inverse
(b) It is its own transpose
(c) It has eigen value ±1
(d) It is orthogonal matrix.
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⎡ 4 − 1 − 1⎤
Q34. The degenerate eigenvalue of the matrix ⎢⎢− 1 4 − 1⎥⎥ is (your answer should be an integer)
⎢⎣− 1 − 1 4 ⎥⎦
____________
⎛0 1 0⎞
Q35. The minimum eigenvalues of the matrix ⎜1 0 1 ⎟ is………
⎜0
⎝ 1 0 ⎟⎠
⎡0 0 1 ⎤
Q36. The degenerate eigen value of matrix A = ⎢⎢0 1 0 ⎥⎥ is given by ……………
⎢⎣1 0 0 ⎥⎦
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Solutions
Multiple Choice Questions
Ans. 1: (a)
Solution: For eigen value A − λ I = 0
1− λ 0 1− λ
1− λ = (1 − λ ) ⎡(1 − λ ) − 0 ⎤ + 0 + 1 ⎡⎣ − (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦ = 0
2
0 0
⎣ ⎦
1 0 1− λ
⇒ −λ 3 + 3λ 2 − 2λ = 0 ⇒ λ = 0,1, 2
Ans. 2: (c) λ = −3, 1, 5
1− λ 8 0
(1 − λ ) = (1 − λ ) ⎡(1 − λ ) − 8⎤ + 8 ⎡⎣ 8 (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦
2
8 8
⎣ ⎦
0 8 (1 − λ )
−λ 3 + 3λ 2 − 3λ + 1 = 0 ⇒ λ = −3,1,5
Ans. 3: (d) λ = − 2 , 0, 2
−λ 1 0
1 −λ ( )
1 = 0 ⇒ −λ λ 2 − 1 + 1 ⎡⎣( λ ) ⎤⎦ = 0 ⇒ − λ 3 + 2λ = 0
0 1 −λ
eigenvalue λ = 0, 2, − 2
Ans. 4: (a) λ = −1, − 1, 2
−λ 1 1
1 −λ ( )
1 = 0 ⇒ −λ ⎡⎣ λ 2 − 1 ⎤⎦ + 1(1 + λ ) + 1(1 + λ ) = 0
1 1 −λ
⇒ −λ 3 + 3λ + 2 = 0 ⇒ λ = −1, −1, 2
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Ans. 5: (a)
1− λ 1 1
1 1− λ 1 ( )
= 0 ⇒ (1 − λ ) ⎡⎣ 1 − λ 2 − 1⎤⎦ + 1 ⎡⎣1 − (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦ + 1 ⎡⎣1 − (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦ = 0
1 1 1− λ
⇒ −λ 3 + 3λ 2 = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, 0,3
Ans. 6: (b)
1− λ 0 1− λ
1− λ = (1 − λ ) ⎡(1 − λ ) − 0 ⎤ + 0 + 1 ⎡⎣ − (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦ = 0
2
0 0
⎣ ⎦
1 0 1− λ
⇒ −λ 3 + 3λ 2 − 2λ = 0 ⇒ λ = 0,1, 2
⎡1 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
Eigen vector can be determine by AX 1 = λ X 1 ⇒ ⎢0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = λ ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
For λ = 0 ,
⎡1 0 1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = 0 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ x + x = 0, x = x , x + x = 0 ⇒ x = − x and x = 0
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 1 3 2 2 1 3 1 3 2
⎢⎣1 0 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
X 1 = ⎢ 0 ⎥ = x1 ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ − x1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
⎡1⎤
From orthogonal relation X 1T X 1 = 1 ⇒ x1 =
1
⇒ X1 =
1 ⎢0⎥
2 2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
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Ans. 7: (a)
1− λ 8 0
(1 − λ ) = (1 − λ ) ⎡(1 − λ ) − 8⎤ + 8 ⎡⎣ 8 (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦
2
8 8
⎣ ⎦
0 8 (1 − λ )
−λ 3 + 3λ 2 − 3λ + 1 = 0 ⇒ λ = −3,1,5
eigen vector can be determine by AX 1 = λ1 X 1
For λ = 5 ,
⎡1 8 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ 8 1 8 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = 5 ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 8 1 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
x1 + 8 x2 = 5 x1 , 8 x1 + x2 + 8 x3 = 5 x2 , 8 x2 + x3 = 5 x3
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⇒ x1 = x3 , x2 = 2 x1 X 1 = ⎢ 2 x1 ⎥ ⇒ X 1 = x1 ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎢ x ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 1 ⎤
1 1⎢ ⎥
Form orthogonality condition x1 = , X 1 = ⎢ 2 ⎥
2 2⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
Ans. 8: (a)
−λ 1 0
1 −λ ( )
1 = 0 ⇒ −λ λ 2 − 1 + 1 ⎡⎣( λ ) ⎤⎦ = 0 ⇒ − λ 3 + 2λ = 0
0 1 −λ
eigenvalue λ = 0, 2, − 2
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For λ = − 2
⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = − 2 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ x = − 2 x , x + x = − 2 x , x = − 2 x
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 2 1 1 3 2 2 3
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⇒ x1 = x3 , x2 = − 2 x1
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1 1⎢ ⎥
X 1 = ⎢ − 2 x1 ⎥ . From orthogonality condition, X 1T X 1 = 1 ⇒ x1 = ⇒ X 1 = ⎢ − 2 ⎥
⎢ x ⎥ 2 2⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
For λ = 0
⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = 0 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ x = 0, x + x = 0, ⇒ x = − x ⇒ X = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 2 1 3 1 3 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − x1 ⎥⎦
⎡1⎤
From orthogonality condition X 2T X 2 = 1 ⇒ x1 =
1
⇒ X2 =
1 ⎢0⎥
2 2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
For λ = 2 ,
⎡ 0 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = 2 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ x = 2 x , x + x = 2 x , x = 2 x ⇒ x = x
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 2 1 1 3 2 2 3 1 3
⎢⎣ 0 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1 1⎢ ⎥
⇒ X 3 = ⎢ 2 x1 ⎥ . From orthogonality condition X 3 X 3 = 1 ⇒ x1 = ⇒ X 3 = ⎢ 2 ⎥
T
⎢ x ⎥ 2 2⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦ ⎣ 1 ⎦
Ans. 9: (a)
⎡ −2 ⎤
1⎢ ⎥
Solution: For eigen value A − λ I = 0 X1 = ⎢ 1 ⎥
2
⎣⎢ 1 ⎦⎥
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−λ 1 1
1 −λ 1 = 0 ⇒ −λ ⎡⎣( λ 2 − 1) ⎤⎦ + 1(1 + λ ) + 1(1 + λ ) = 0
1 1 −λ
⇒ −λ 3 + 3λ + 2 = 0 ⇒ λ = −1, −1, 2
Eigen vector can be determine by AX 1 = λ1 X 1
For λ = −1 ,
⎡ 0 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢1 0 1 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = −1 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ x + x = − x , x + x = − x , x + x = − x ⇒ x + x + x = 0 ,
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 2 3 1 1 3 2 1 2 3 1 2 3
⎢⎣1 1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡ − ( x2 + x3 ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
if X 1 = ⎢ x2 ⎥ if ⇒ x2 = k1 x3 = k2
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡ − ( k1 + k2 ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
X1 = ⎢ k1 ⎥ if k1 = k2
⎢⎣ k2 ⎥⎦
⎡ −2 ⎤
X 1 = k1 ⎢⎢ 1 ⎥⎥ from orthogonality condition X 1T X 1 = 1 ⇒ k1 =
1
2
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
⎡ −2 ⎤
1⎢ ⎥
X1 = ⎢ 1 ⎥
2
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
For λ = −1 similarly if k1 = 1, k2 = −1
⎡0⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ⎥
Then X 2 = ⎢ 1 ⎥ X 2 =
1 ⎢ ⎥
1
2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
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Ans. 10: (a)
1− λ 1 1
1 1− λ 1 ( )
= 0 ⇒ (1 − λ ) ⎡⎣ 1 − λ 2 − 1⎤⎦ + 1 ⎡⎣1 − (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦ + 1 ⎡⎣1 − (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦ = 0
1 1 1− λ
⇒ −λ 3 + 3λ 2 = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, 0,3
For λ = 0 ,
⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢1 1 1⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = 0 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ x + x + x = 0 , x + x + x = 0 , x + x + x = 0
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
⎢⎣1 1 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
Now x1 = − x2 − x3 , if x2 = −1, x3 = 1 ⇒ x1 = 0
⎡ − x2 − x3 ⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
X 1 = ⎢ x2 ⎥ ⇒ X 1 = ⎢ 1 ⎥ = X 1 =
1 ⎢ ⎥
1
2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −1⎥⎦
⎡ − x2 − x3 ⎤
For λ = 0 , X 2 = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ is orthogonal to X 1 .
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎡ − x2 − x3 ⎤ ⎡ −2 x2 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
( 0 1 −1) ⎢ x2 ⎥ = 0 ⇒ x2 = x3 ⇒ X 2 = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥
1
2
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x2 ⎥⎦
⎡ −2 ⎤
1 1 ⎢ ⎥
From orthogonality condition, X X 2 = 1 ⇒ x2 = ⇒ X2 = T
1
6⎢ ⎥
2
6
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
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Ans. 11: (c)
Solution: A diagonalised = S −1 A S ….(i)
⎡ ⎤
⎢1 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 1 ⎥ −1
S = ⎢0 ⎥ , and finding S and putting in (i), we get
⎢ 2 2⎥
⎢ 1 1 ⎥
⎢0 − ⎥
⎣ 2 2⎦
⎡2 0 0⎤
A diagonalized = ⎢⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 2 ⎥⎦
Ans12: (b)
⎡1 − λ 1 1 ⎤
⎢
Solution: For eigen values ⎢ 1 1− λ 1 ⎥⎥ = 0
⎢⎣ 1 1 1 − λ ⎥⎦
(1 − λ )((1 − λ )2 − 1) − (1 − λ − 1) + 1(1 − (1 − λ )) = 0
(1 − λ )(1 + λ2 − 2λ − 1) + λ + λ = 0 ⇒ λ2 − 2λ − λ3 + 2λ2 + 2λ = 0
λ3 − 3λ2 = 0 ⇒ λ2 (λ − 3) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, 0, 3
For any n × n matrix having all elements unity eigenvalues are 0, 0, 0,..., n .
Ans. 13: (a)
Solution: For e M let us try to diagonalize matrix M using similarity transformation.
⎡− 2 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
For λ = 3 , ⎢ 1 − 2 1 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢0⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 1 1 − 2⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦
⇒ − 2 x1 + x2 + x 3 = 0 , x1 − 2 x 2 + x3 = 0 , x1 + x 2 − 2 x3 = 0
⇒ −3x 2 + 3x3 = 0 or x2 = x3 ⇒ x1 = x 2 = x3 = k .
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⎡1⎤
Eigen vector is 1 3 ⎢1⎥ where k = 1 .
⎢⎣1⎥⎦
For λ = 0 ,
⎡1 1 1⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢1 1 1⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⇒ x + x + x = 0
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2 ⎥⎢ ⎥ 1 2 3
⎢⎣1 1 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦
⎡ k1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
Let x1 = k1 , x 2 = k 2 and x3 = k1 + k 2 . Eigen vector is ⎢ k 2 ⎥ = 1 / 2 ⎢⎢− 1⎥⎥ where k1 = k 2 = 1 .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣(k 1+ k 2 )⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
⎡1⎤
Let x1 = k1 , x 2 = k 2 and x3 = −(k1 + k 2 ) . Other Eigen vector 1 / 2 ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ where k1 = 1, k 2 = −1 .
⎣⎢− 1⎦⎥
⎡ 0 1 1⎤ ⎡1 − 2 1 ⎤
S = ⎢− 1 0 1⎥ ⇒ S −1 = ⎢⎢2 − 1 − 1⎥⎥ ⇒ D = S −1 MS , M = SDS −1 .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 − 1 1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 − 1 1 ⎥⎦
⎡1 0 0 ⎤
e M −1⎢ ⎥
= Se S ⇒ e = ⎢0 1 0 ⎥ ⇒ e = 1 +
D D M e3 − 1 M ( )
3
⎢⎣0 0 e 3 ⎥⎦
Ans. 14: (c)

Solution: The characteristic equation of the matrix A , A − λI = 0
2−λ 3 0
⇒ A − λI = 3 2−λ 0 = 0 ⇒ λ3 − 5λ2 − λ + 5 = 0 ⇒ λ = 5,1, − 1
0 0 1− λ
Ans. 15: (d)

⎡1 − λ 2 3 ⎤
Solution: For eigenvalues A − λI = 0 ⇒ ⎢⎢ 2 4−λ 6 ⎥⎥ = 0
⎢⎣ 3 6 9 − λ ⎥⎦
(1 − λ )[(4 − λ )(9 − λ ) − 36] − 2[2(9 − λ ) − 18] + 3[12 − 3(4 − λ )] = 0

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(1 − λ )(4 − λ )(9 − λ ) − 36(1 − λ ) − 4(9 − λ ) + 36 + 9λ = 0
λ3 − 14λ2 = 0 ⇒ λ2 (λ − 14) = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, 0, 14 .
Ans. 16: (a)
⎡ 0 − n3 n2 ⎤ ⎡ 0 − n3 n2 ⎤
Solution: A = ⎢⎢ n3 0 − n1 ⎥ ⇒ − A = ⎢⎢ n3
⎥ T
0 − n1 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣− n 2 n1 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− n 2 n1 0 ⎥⎦
⇒ λ1 = 0 ⇒ λ2 = − − n12 − n22 − n32 ⇒ λ3 = −n12 − n22 − n32
but n12 + n22 + n32 = 1 so, λ1 = 0 , λ2 = L , λ3 = − L
A = − AT (Antisymmetric). Eigenvalues are either zero or purely imaginary.

Ans. 17: (b)
⎛ 0 2i 3i ⎞ ⎛ 0 2i 3i ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
Solution: M = ⎜ −2i 0 6i ⎟ , M = ⎜ −2i 0 6i ⎟
⎜ −3i −6i 0 ⎟ ⎜ −3i −6i 0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
M+ = M
Matrix is Hermitian so roots are real and trace = 0.
λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = 0, λ1 ⋅ λ2 ⋅ λ3 = 0 ⇒ λ = −7, 0, 7
Ans. 18: (b)
Solution: Let b = a
⎛ 0 0 1 ⎞⎛ a ⎞ ⎛ a ⎞ ⎛0 1 1⎞⎛ a⎞ ⎛ a⎞ ⎛ a⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟⎜ a ⎟ = ⎜ a ⎟ and ⎜ 1 0 1 ⎟ ⎜ a ⎟ = ⎜ a ⎟ = ⎜ a ⎟
⎜ 1 0 0 ⎟⎜ a ⎟ ⎜ a ⎟ ⎜1 1 0⎟⎜ a ⎟ ⎜ a ⎟ ⎜ a ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Let b = −2a
⎛0 0 1⎞⎛ a ⎞ ⎛ a ⎞ ⎛ 0 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ a ⎞ ⎛ −a ⎞ ⎛ a ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ ⎜ −2a ⎟ = ⎜ −2a ⎟ and ⎜ 1 0 1 ⎟ ⎜ −2a ⎟ = ⎜ 2a ⎟ = −1⎜ −2a ⎟
⎜1 0 0⎟⎜ a ⎟ ⎜ a ⎟ ⎜ 1 1 0 ⎟ ⎜ a ⎟ ⎜ −a ⎟ ⎜ a ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
For other combination above relation is not possible.
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Ans. 19: (d)
α β
= α + β =1
2 2
Solution: ∵
−β α
* *
Ans. 20: (c)

[ ]
Solution: Tr M 2 = (− 1) + (3) + (4) also Tr M 3 = (− 1) + (3) + (4) = 90 .
2 2 2
[ ] 3 3 3
Ans. 21: (d)

Solution: Unitary A† A = I
Ans. 22: (b)
Solution: A† = exp( −iH ) = (exp iH ) −1 = A−1
Ans. 23: (c)
⎛0 1 0⎞
⎜ ⎟
Solution: Eigen value of matrix A = ⎜ 1 0 0 ⎟ is λ = 2,1, −1 .
⎜0 0 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎛0⎞ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟
corresponding eigen vectors are ⎜ 0 ⎟ , ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
, ⎜− 2 ⎟
⎜1⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎜ 0 ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎜0 0 0 ⎟
⎛2 0 0 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1 1 ⎟
diagonalise matrix ⎜ 0 1 0 ⎟ so U is ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ 0 0 −1⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ 1 1 ⎟
⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠
Ans. 24: (a)
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Ans. 25: (a)
⎛ 1 2⎞
Solution: If matrix is 2 × 2 let ⎜ ⎟ then eigen value is given by
⎝ 2 4⎠
⎛1 − λ 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0 ⇒ (1 − λ )(4 − λ ) − 4 = 0 ⇒ λ = 0,5
⎝ 2 4−λ⎠
⎛ 1 2 3⎞
⎜ ⎟
If matrix is 3 × 3 , let ⎜ 2 4 6 ⎟ then eigen value is given by
⎜ 3 6 9⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛1 − λ 2 3 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 4−λ 6 ⎟=0
⎜ 3 9 − λ ⎟⎠
⎝ 6
(1 − λ )[(4 − λ )(9 − λ ) − 36] + 2[18 − 2(9 − λ )] + 3[12 − 3(4 − λ )]

(1 − λ )[λ2 − 13λ + 36 − 36] + 2[18 − 18 + 2λ ] + 3[12 − 12 + 3λ ] = 0
λ2 − 13λ − λ3 + 13λ2 + 13λ = 0 ⇒ λ3 − 14λ2 = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, 0, λ = 14
i.e. has one degenerate eigenvalue with degeneracy 2.
Thus one can generalized that for n dimensional matrix has one degenerate eigevalue with
degeneracy (n − 1) .
Ans. 26: (c)
Solution: If A and P be square matrices of the same type and if P be invertible then matrices A and B =
P-1AP have the same characteristic roots
Then B − λI = P −1 AP − P −1λIP = P −1 ( A − λI )P where I is identity matrix.
B − λI = P −1 ( A − λI )P = P −1 A − λI P = A − λI P −1 P = A − λI PP −1 = A − λI
Thus the matrices A and B (= P-1AP) have the same characteristic equation and hence
characteristic roots of eigen values. Since the sum of the eigen values of a matrix and product of
eigen values of a matrix is equal to the determinant of matrix hence third alternative is incorrect.
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Ans. 27: (c)
Solution: We know that for any matrix
1. The product of eigenvalues is equal to determinant of that matrix.
2. λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 + ....... = Trace of matrix
λ1 + λ2 + λ3 = 11 and λ1λ2 λ3 = 36 . Hence the largest eigen value of the matrix is 9.
Ans. 28: (b)
⎛0−λ 1 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Solution: the characteristic equation is given by ⎜ 0 0−λ 1 ⎟=0
⎜ 1 0 − λ ⎟⎠
⎝ 0
( )
−λ (−λ )2 − 0 − 1(1) + 1(0 − (−λ ) = λ 3 − λ − 1 = 0
So from calley hemilton’s theorem M 3 − M − I = 0 multiply both side by M −1

M 2 − I − M −1 = 0 so M −1 = M 2 − I .

Ans. 29: (a), (b) and (c)
5−λ 0 2
0 1− λ 0 = 0 ⇒ ( 5 − λ ) ⎡⎣(1 − λ )( 2 − λ ) ⎤⎦ + 2 ( −2 )(1 − λ ) = 0
2 0 2−λ
⇒ −λ 3 + 8λ 2 − 13λ + 6 = 0 , eigenvalue λ = 1,1, 6

For λ = 1 ,
⎡ 5 0 2 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ 0 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ 5 x + 2 x = x , x = x , 2 x + 2 x = x ⇒ x = 0, x = −2 x
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 1 3 1 2 2 1 3 3 2 3 1
⎢⎣ 2 0 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
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⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
⎢ ⎥
X 1 = ⎢ 0 ⎥ from orthogonality condition X 1 X 1 = 1 ⇒ x1 =
T 1
⇒ X1 =
1 ⎢ ⎥
0
5 5⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ −2 x1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ −2 ⎥⎦
⎡ x1 ⎤
Hence λ = 1 is degenerate its eigen vector will X 2 = ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ will orthogonal to X 1 so
⎢⎣ −2 x1 ⎥⎦
⎡0⎤
X X 2 = 0 ⇒ 4 x1 = 0 so X 2 = ⎢⎢1 ⎥⎥
1
T
⎣⎢ 0 ⎦⎥
For λ = 6
⎡ 5 0 2 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢0 1 0⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = 6 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ 5x + 2 x = 6 x , x = 6 x , 2 x + 2 x = 6 x ⇒ x = 2 x , x = 0 ,
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 1 3 1 2 2 1 3 3 1 3 2
⎣⎢ 2 0 2 ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ x3 ⎦⎥
⎡ 2 x3 ⎤ ⎡ 2⎤ ⎡ 2⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
X 3 = ⎢ 0 ⎥ = x3 ⎢ 0 ⎥ . From orthogonality condition, x3 =
1
⇒ X3 =
1 ⎢ ⎥
0
5 5⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
Ans. 30: (a), (b), (c) and (d)

1− λ 1 0
1 1− λ 0 = 0 ⇒ (1 − λ ) ⎡⎣ −λ (1 − λ ) ⎤⎦ + λ = 0 ⇒ −λ 3 + 2λ 2 = 0
0 0 −λ
eigenvalue λ = 0, 0, 2
For λ = 0 ,
⎡1 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = 0 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ x + x = 0, x = 0 ⇒ x = − x
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 1 2 3 1 2
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
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⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡1⎤
⎢ ⎥
X 1 = ⎢ − x1 ⎥ . From orthogonality condition, X 1 X 1 = 1 ⇒ x1 =
T 1
⇒ X1 =
1 ⎢ ⎥
−1
2 2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
One can not find independent vector directly so we can find it from block diagonal method so
⎡1⎤
1 ⎢ ⎥
another eigen vector which is independent to ⇒ X 1 = −1 and also eigenvector corresponds
2⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎡0⎤
to λ = 0 is ⇒ X 2 = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
For λ = 2 ,
⎡1 1 0 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x2 ⎤
⎢1 1 0 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ = 2 ⎢ x ⎥ ⇒ x + x = 2 x , x = 0 ⇒ x = x ⇒ X = ⎢ x ⎥
⎢ ⎥⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ 2⎥ 1 2 1 3 1 2 3 ⎢ 2⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎡1 ⎤
1 1 ⎢ ⎥
From orthogonality condition X X 3 = 1 ⇒ x2 = ⇒ X3 = T
1
2⎢ ⎥
3
2
⎢⎣0 ⎥⎦
Ans. 31: (a) and (c)

5−λ 0 3
3−λ 0 = 0 ⇒ ( 5 − λ ) ⎡( 3 − λ ) − 0 ⎤ + 3 ⎡⎣ − 3 ( 3 − λ ) ⎤⎦ = 0
2
0
⎣ ⎦
3 0 3−λ
⇒ −λ 3 + 11λ 2 − 36λ + 36 = 0 ⇒ λ = 2,3, 6

For λ = 2 ,
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⎡5 0 3 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 3 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = 2 ⎢ x2 ⎥
⎢ 3 0 3 ⎥ ⎢x ⎥ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦⎣ 3⎦
5 x1 + 3 x3 = 2 x1 , 3 x2 = 2 x2 , 3 x1 + 3 x3 = 2 x3 ⇒ x2 = 0, x3 = − 3 x1
⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1 1⎢ ⎥
X 1 = ⎢ 0 ⎥ . From orthogonality condition X 1 X 1 = 1 ⇒ x1 = ⇒ X 1 = ⎢ 0 ⎥
T
⎢ 3x ⎥ 2 2⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1⎦ ⎣− 3 ⎦
For λ = 3 ,
⎡5 0 3 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢0 3 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = 3 ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ ⇒ 5 x1 + 3 x3 = 3 x1 ,3 x2 = 3 x2 , 3 x1 + 3 x3 = 3 x3 ⇒ x1 = 0
⎢ 3 0 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡0 ⎤
X 2 = ⎢⎢1 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣0 ⎥⎦
For λ = 6 ,
⎡5 0 3 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢0 3 0 ⎥ ⎢ x2 ⎥ = 6 ⎢⎢ x2 ⎥⎥ ⇒ 5 x1 + 3 x3 = 6 x1 ,3 x2 = 6 x2 ⇒ x1 = 3 x3 , x2 = 0
⎢ 3 0 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x3 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ 3 x3 ⎤ ⎡ 3⎤
⎢ ⎥ 1 1 ⎢ ⎥
X 3 = ⎢ 0 ⎥ . From orthogonality condition X 3T X 3 = 1 ⇒ x3 = ⇒ X 3 = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ x ⎥ 2 2⎢ ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
Ans. 32: (a) and (d)
Solution: ( AB + BA) = B† A† + A† B† ⇒ − BA − AB = − ( AB + BA)

†
−i ( AB + BA) = −i( B† A† + A† B† ) ⇒ −i(− BA − AB) = i ( AB + BA)

†
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Ans. 33: (a), (b), (c) and (d)
⎛1 − λ 0 0 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 0−λ 1 ⎟=0
⎜ 0 0 − λ ⎟⎠
⎝ 1
(1 − λ ) (λ 2 − 1) = 0 ⇒ λ 3 − λ 2 − λ + 1 = 0
A3 − A2 − A + I = 0 ⇒ A2 − A − I + A−1 = 0
A2 = I ⇒ A2 − A − I + A−1 = 0 ⇒ I − A − I − A−1 = 0 ⇒ A−1 = A

Ans. 34: 5
⎡4 − λ −1 −1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 −1 −1 ⎤
⎢ −1 4−λ ⎥ ⎢
−1 ⎥ ⇒ (4 − λ ) ⎢0 5 − λ 0 ⎥⎥ = (4 − λ )(5 − λ )2 = 0 ⇒ λ = 2,5,5 .
⎢
⎢⎣ −1 −1 4 − λ ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢0 0 5 − λ ⎦⎥
Ans35: 0
−λ 1 0
Solution: A − λI = 0 ⇒ 1 −λ ( )
1 = 0 ⇒ −λ λ2 − 1 + λ = 0 ⇒ λ = 0, + 2 , − 2
0 1 −λ
Ans. 36: 1
⎡ −λ 0 1 ⎤
⎢ 0 ⎥⎥ = 0
Solution: A = ⎢ 0 1 − λ
⎢⎣ 1 0 0 − λ ⎥⎦
⇒ ( −λ )(1 − λ )( −λ ) + (−(1 − λ ) = 0
( ) (
⇒ (1 − λ ) λ 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ (1 − λ ) λ 2 − 1 = 0 λ = 1,1, −1 )
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2. Complex Numbers
2.1 Definition
A number of the form x + iy , where x and y are real numbers and i = ( −1) is called complex
number. x is called the real part of x + iy and is written as R ( x + iy ) and y is called the
imaginary part and is written as I ( x + iy ) .
A pair of complex numbers x + iy and x − iy are said to be conjugate of each other.

Properties
(1) If x1 + iy1 = x2 + iy2 , then x1 − iy1 = x2 − iy2
(2) Two complex numbers x1 + iy1 = and x2 + iy2 are said to be equal when
R ( x1 + iy1 ) = R ( x2 + iy2 ) , i.e x1 = x2 and I ( x1 + iy1 ) = I ( x2 + iy2 ) , i.e., y1 = y2
(3) Sum, difference product and quotient of any of two complex number is itself a complex
number. If x1 + iy1 and x2 + iy2 be two given complex numbers, then
(i) Their sum = ( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y2 )
(ii) Their difference = ( x1 + iy1 ) − ( x2 + iy2 ) = ( x1 − x2 ) + i ( y1 − y2 )
(iii) Their product = ( x1 + iy1 ) × ( x2 + iy2 ) = x1 x2 − y1 y2 + i ( x1 y2 + x2 y2 )
x1 + iy1 ( x1 + iy1 )( x2 − iy2 ) x1 x2 + y1 y2 x y −x y

(iv) Quotient = = = + i 2 21 12 2
x2 + iy2 ( x2 + iy2 )( x2 − iy2 ) x2 + y2
2 2
x2 + y2
(4) Every complex number x + iy can always be expressed in the form r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) .
Put R ( x + iy ) , i.e. x = r cos θ (i)
and I ( x + iy ) i.e. y = r sin θ (ii)
Squaring and adding, we get x 2 + y 2 = r 2 i.e. r = (x 2

)
+ y 2 (taking positive square root only)
y ⎛ y⎞
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get = tan θ i.e. θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
x ⎝ x⎠
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⎛ y⎞
Thus x + iy = r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) where r = x 2 + y 2 and θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝x⎠
( )
The number r = + (x 2
)
+ y 2 is called the modulus of x + iy and is written as mod x + iy .
The angle θ is called the amplitude or argument of x + iy and is written as amp ( x + iy ) or

arg ( x + iy ) . Evidently the amplitude θ has an infinite number of values. The value of θ which
lies between −π and π is called the principal value of the amplitude. Unless otherwise
specified, we shall take amp ( z ) to mean the principal value.
Note: cos θ + i sin θ is briefly written as cisθ (pronounced as sisθ )

(5) If the conjugate of z = x + iy be z , then
1 1
(i) R ( z ) = ( z + z ), I ( z) = = ( z − z ) (ii) z = R 2 ( z ) + I 2 ( z ) = z
2 2i
(iii) zz = z (iv) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
2
⎛z ⎞ z
(v) z1 z2 = z1.z2 (vi) ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 1 where z2 ≠ 0
⎝ z2 ⎠ z2
Example: Reduce 1 − cos α + i sin α to the modulus amplitude form.
Solution: Put 1 − cos α = r cos θ and sin α = r sin θ
α
∴ r 2 = (1 − cos α ) + sin 2 α = 2 − 2 cos α = 4sin 2
2
2
α α
2sin cos
α sin α 2 = cot α = tan ⎛ π − α ⎞ ⇒ θ = π − α
⇒ r = 2 sin and tan θ = = 2
⎜ ⎟
2 1 − cos α α 2 ⎝2 2⎠ 2
2sin 2
2
α⎡ ⎛ π −α ⎞ ⎛ π −α ⎞⎤
⇒ 1 − cos α + i sin α = 2sin ⎢ cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ ⎟⎥
2⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
α⎡ ⎛α ⎞ ⎛ α ⎞⎤
⇒ 1 − cos α + i sin α = 2sin ⎢ sin ⎜ ⎟ + i cos ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
2⎣ ⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
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π 2π
Example: Find the complex number z if arg ( z + 1) = and arg ( z − 1) =
6 3
Solution: Let z = x + iy so that z + 1 = ( x + 1) + iy and ( z − 1) = ( x − 1) + iy
π ⎛ y ⎞
arg ( z + 1) = , ∴ tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 30
0
6 ⎝ x + 1 ⎠
y 1
i.e. = tan 300 = ⇒ 3y = x +1 (i)
x +1 3
2π ⎛ y ⎞
Also since arg ( z − 1) = ∴ tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ = 120
0
3 ⎝ x −1 ⎠
y
i.e = tan1200 = − 3 ⇒ y = − 3 x + 3
x −1
⇒ 3 y = −3x + 3 (ii)
1 1 3 1 3
From above equations; 4x − 2 = 0 ⇒ x = ⇒ 3y = +1 ⇒ y = ⇒z= + i
2 2 2 2 2
Example: Find the real values of x, y so that −3 + ix 2 y and x 2 + y + 4i may represent complex
conjugate numbers.
Solution: If z = −3 + ix 2 y , then z = x 2 + y + 4i
So that z = ( x 2 + y ) − 4i
∴ −3 + ix 2 y = x 2 + y − 4i
Equating real and imaginary parts from both sides. we get
−3 = x 2 + y, x 2 y = −4
Eliminating x, ( y + 3) y = −4
or y 2 + 3 y − 4 = 0 i.e. y = 1 or −4
when y = 1 , x 2 = −3 − 1 or x + 2i which is not feasible
when y = −4 , x 2 = 1 or x = ±1
Hence x = 1 , y − 4 or x = −1 , y = −4
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2.2 Geometric representation of complex numbers
Consider two lines X ′OX , Y ′OY at right angles to each other.
Let all the real numbers be represented by points on the line Y
X ′OX (called the real axis) positive real numbers being along
P ( z = x + iy )
OX and negative ones along OX ′ . Let the point L on OX M
iy r y
represent the real number x .
θ
Since the multiplication of a real number by i is equivalent to the
X′ O x L ( x) X
rotation of its direction through a right angle. Therefore, let all Y′
the imaginary numbers be represented by points on the line Y ′OY (called the imaginary axis) the
positive ones along OY and negative ones along OY ′ . Let the point M on OY represent the
imaginary number iy .
Complete the rectangle OLPM. Then the point whose Cartesian coordinates are ( x, y ) uniquely
represents the complex number z = x + iy on the complex plane z . The diagram in which this
representation is carried out is called the Argand’s diagram.
If ( r ,θ ) be the polar coordinates of P , then r is the modulus of z and θ is its amplitude.
Example: The centre of a regular hexagon is a origin and on vertex is given by 3 + i on the
Argand diagram. Determine the other vertices.
Y
Solution: Let OA = 3 + i so that B
OA = 2 and ∠XOA = tan −1 1/ 3 = 300
C 0
A
Being a regular hexagon, OB = OC = 2 60
0
60
300
∠XOB = 300 + 600 = 900
O X
and ∠XOC = 300 + 1200 = 1500
D F
∴ (
OB = 2 cos 90 + i sin 90 0 0
) = 2i
E
(
OC = 2 cos1500 + i sin1500 = − 3 + i )
since AD, BE , CF are bisected at O , ∴ OD = −OA = − 3 − i
OE = −OB = −2i and OF = −OC = 3 − i .

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Geometric Representation of z1 + z2
Y
Let P1 , P2 represent the complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and P
P2
z2 = x2 + iy2 . Complete the parallelogram OP1 PP2 . Draw z1 + z 2
z2
P1 L, P2 M and PN ⊥ s to OX . Also draw P1 K ⊥ PN . z2 P1
K
Since z1
O
ON = OL + LN = OL + OM = x1 + x2 [∵ LN = PK 1 = OM ] M L N
X
and NP = NK + KP = LP1 + MP2 = y1 + y2
The coordinates of P are ( x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) and it represents the complex number
z = x1 + x2 + i ( y1 + y2 ) = ( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy2 ) = z1 + z2
Thus the point P which is the extremity of the diagonal of the parallelogram having OP1 and
OP2 as adjacent sides, represents the sum of the complex numbers P1 ( z1 ) and P2 ( z2 ) such that
z1 + z2 = OP and amp ( z1 + z2 ) = ∠XOP
Corollary, we have OP1 + PP

1 = OP .
(2) Geometric representation of z1 − z2 Y

P2 z − z
1 2
Let P1 , P2 represent the complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and
P1
z2 = x2 + iy2 . Then the subtraction of z2 from z1 may be z2
z1
taken as addition of z1 to − z2 . X′
O X
Produce P2O backwards to R such that OR = OP2 . Then − z2
coordinates of R are evidently ( − x2 , − y2 ) and so it
R
corresponds to the complex number − x2 − iy2 = − z2
Y′
Complete the parallelogram ORQP1 . Then sum of z1 and ( − z2 ) is represented by OQ i.e.,
z1 − z2 = OQ = P2 P1
Hence the complex number z1 − z2 is represented by the vector P2 P1
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Corollary, By means of the relation P2 P1 = OP1 − OP2 , any vector P2 P1 may be referred to the
origin.
Example: Find the locus of P ( z ) when
(i) z − a = k ;
(ii) amp ( z − a ) = α , where k and α are constants
Solution: Let a, z be represented by A and P in the complex plane, O being the origin.
Then z − a = OP − OA = AP P( z)
(i) z − a = k means that AP = k
Thus the locus of P ( z ) is a circle whose centre is A (α ) and radius k .

A( a)
( )
(ii) amp ( z − a ) , i.e., amp AP = α , means that AP always makes a
O X
constant angle with the X -axis.
Thus the locus of P ( z ) is a straight line through A (α ) making an ∠α with OX .
Example: Determine the region in the z -plane represented by

π π
(i) 1 < z + 2i ≤ 3 (ii) R ( z ) > 3 (iii) ≤ amp ( z ) ≤
6 3
Solution: (i) z + 2i = 1 is a circle with centre ( −2i ) and radius 1 and Y
z + 2i = 3 is a circle with the same centre and radius 3 . X

O
Hence 1 < z + 2i ≤ 3 represents the region outside the circle z + 2i = 1 1
2 3
and inside (including circumference of) the circle z + 2i = 3 .
(ii) R ( z ) > 3 , define all points ( z ) whose real part is greater than 3 .
Y′
Hence it represents the region of the complex plane to the right of the line x = 3 .
Y
x=3
O X
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(iii) If z = r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) , then amp ( z ) = θ
Y
π π
∴ ≤ amp ( z ) ≤ defines the region bounded by and including the θ = π /3
6 3
π π
lines θ = and θ = θ =π /6
6 3
O X
Example: If z1 , z2 be any two complex numbers prove that
(i) z1 + z2 ≤ z1 + z2 i.e., [the modulus of the sum of two complex numbers is less than or at the
most equal to the sum of their moduli]

(ii) z1 − z2 ≥ z1 − z2 i.e., [the modulus of the difference of two complex number is greater than
or at the most equal to the difference of their moduli]. P2 P

Solution: (i) Let P1 , P2 represent the complex numbers z1 , z2 .
z1 + z2
Complete the parallelogram OP1 PP2 , so that z2 z1
z1 = OP1 , z2 OP2 = P1 P , z1
O P1
and z1 + z2 = OP
Now from ΔOP1 P, OP ≤ OP1 + P1 P , the sign of equality corresponding to the case when O, P1 , P
are collinear.
Hence z1 + z2 ≤ z1 + z2 (i)
Again z1 = ( z1 − z2 ) + z2 ≤ z1 − z2 + z2
Thus z1 − z2 ≥ z1 − z2 (ii)
Corollary, z1 + z2 + z3 ≤ z1 + z2 + z3
In general, z1 + z2 + ... + zn ≤ z1 + z2 + ... + zn .
π
Example: If z1 + z2 = z1 − z2 , prove that the difference of amplitude of z1 and z2 is .
2
Solution: Let z1 + z2 = r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) and z1 − z2 = r ( cos φ + i sin φ )
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Then 2 z1 = r ⎡⎣( cos θ + cos φ ) + i ( sin θ + sin φ ) ⎤⎦
⎧ θ +φ θ −φ θ +φ θ −φ ⎫
= r ⎨ 2 cos cos + 2i sin cos ⎬
⎩ 2 2 2 2 ⎭
θ −φ ⎛ θ +φ θ +φ ⎞ θ +φ
or z1 = r cos ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ i.e., amp ( z1 ) = (i)
2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠ 2
θ −φ ⎛ θ +φ θ +φ ⎞
Also 2 z2 = r ( cos θ − cos φ ) + i ( sin θ − sin φ ) = 2r sin ⎜ − sin + i cos ⎟
2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
θ −φ ⎧ ⎛ π θ +φ ⎞ ⎛ π θ + φ ⎞⎫
or z2 = r sin ⎨cos ⎜ + ⎟ + i sin ⎜ + ⎟⎬
2 ⎩ ⎝2 2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 ⎠⎭
π θ +φ
i.e., amp ( z2 ) = + (ii)
2 2
π
Hence [(ii) – (i), gives amp ( z2 ) − amp ( z1 ) =
2
z−a
Example: Find the locus of the point z , when =k
z −b
Solution: Let A ( a ) and B ( b ) be any two fixed points on the complex

P
plane and let P ( z ) be any variable point.
(i) Since z − a = AP and z − b = BP

A B
z−a z − a AP z
∴ The point P moves so that = = =k
z −b z − b BP a b
i.e., P moves so that its distance from two fixed points are in a constant
O
ratio, which is obviously the Appollonius circle.
When k = 1, BP = AP i.e., P moves so that its distance from two fixed points are always equal
and thus the locus of P is the right bisector of AB
Hence the locus of P ( z ) is a circle (unless k = 1 , when the locus is the right bisector of AB )
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Example: If z1 z2 be two complex numbers, show that ( z1 + z2 ) + ( z1 − z2 ) = 2 ⎡ z1 + z2 ⎤
2 2 2 2
⎣ ⎦
Solution: Let z1 = r1 c i s θ1 and z2 = r2 cisθ 2 so that
z1 + z2 = ( r1 cos θ1 + r2 cos θ 2 ) + ( r1 sin θ1 + r2 sin θ 2 ) = r12 + r22 + 2r1r2 cos (θ 2 − θ1 )

2 2 2
z1 − z2 = ( r1 cos θ1 − r2 cos θ 2 ) + ( r1 sin θ1 − r2 sin θ 2 ) = r12 + r22 − 2r1r2 cos (θ 2 − θ1 )

2 2 2
2 2
∴ z1 + z2 + z1 − z2 = 2 r12 + r22 = 2 z1 ( ) { 2
z2
2
}
Example: If z1 , z2 , z3 be the vertices of an isosceles triangle, right angled at z2 prove that
C ( z3 )
z12 + z32 + 2 z22 = 2 z2 ( z1 + z3 )
Solution: Let A ( z1 ) , B ( z2 ) , C ( z3 ) be the vertices of ΔABC such that:

r
π
AB = BC and ∠ABC = . Then z1 − z2 = z3 − z2 = r (say) θ X
2 B ( z2 )
π
If amp ( z1 − z2 ) = θ then amp ( z3 − z2 ) = +θ r
2 A ( z1 )
∴ z1 − z2 = r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) ,
⎡ ⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞⎤
z3 − z2 = r ⎢cos ⎜ + θ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ + θ ⎟ ⎥ = r ( − sin θ + i cos θ )
⎣ ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠⎦
z3 − z2 = ir ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = i ( z1 − z2 )
( z3 − z 2 ) = − ( z1 − z2 ) or z12 + z32 + 2 z22 = 2 z3 ( z1 + z2 ) .

2 2
A ( z1 )
Example: If z1 , z2 , z3 be the vertices of an equilateral triangle, prove that
z12 + z22 + z32 = z1 z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1
Solution: Since ΔABC is equilateral, therefore, BC when rotated through 600

coincides with BA . But to turn the direction of a complex number
600
through an ∠θ , we multiply it by θ + i sin θ B ( z2 ) C ( z3 )
⎛ π π⎞ ⎛ 1+ i 3 ⎞
∴ BC ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ = BA ⇒ ( z3 − z2 ) ⎜
⎝ 3 3⎠ ⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ = z1 − z2 ⇒ i 3 ( z3 − z2 ) = 2 z1 − z2 − z3
⎝ ⎠
2 2
(
⇒ −3 ( z3 − z2 ) = ( 2 z1 − z2 − z3 ) ⇒ 4 z12 + z22 + z32 − z1 z2 − z2 z3 − z3 z1 = 0 ) 114





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2.3 De Moivre’s Theorem
Statement: If n be
(i) an integer, positive or negative ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ ;

n
(ii) a fraction, positive or negative, one of the values of ( cos θ + i sin θ ) is cos nθ + i sin nθ
n
Proof: (i) When n is a positive integer.

By actual multiplication
cisθ1cisθ 2 = ( cos θ1 cos θ 2 − sin θ1 sin θ 2 ) + i ( sin θ1 cos θ 2 + cos θ1 sin θ 2 )
= cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ 2 ) i.e. cis (θ1 + θ 2 )
Similarly cisθ1cisθ 2cisθ3 = cis (θ1 + θ 2 ) cisθ3 = cis (θ1 + θ 2 + θ3 )
Proceeding in this way

cisθ1cisθ 2cisθ3 ...cisθ n = cis (θ1 + θ 2 + θ3 + ... + θ n )
Now putting θ1 = θ 2 = θ3 = ...θ n = θ , we obtain ( cisθ ) = cisnθ

n
(ii) When n is a negative integer.

Let n = −m , where m is a +ve integer.
1 cos mθ − i sin mθ
( cisθ ) = ( cisθ )
−m
=
n
=
cismθ ( cos mθ + i sin mθ )( cos mθ − i sin mθ )
cos mθ − i sin mθ
= = cos mθ − i sin mθ
cos 2 mθ + sin 2 mθ
= cos ( −mθ ) + i sin ( −mθ ) = cis ( −mθ ) = cisnθ (∵ − m = n )
( cos 3θ + i sin θ ) ( cos 4θ − i sin 4θ )

4 5
Example: Simplify
( cos 4θ + i sin 4θ ) ( cos 5θ + +i sin 5θ )
3 −4
Solution: We have ( cos 3θ + i sin 3θ ) = cos12θ + i sin12θ = ( cos θ + i sin θ )

4 12
( cos 4θ − i sin 4θ ) = ( cos 20θ − i sin 20θ ) = ( cos θ + i sin θ )

5 −20
( cos 4θ + i sin 4θ ) = cos12θ + i sin12θ = ( cos θ + i sin θ )

3 12
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( cos 5θ + i sin 5θ ) = cos 20θ − i sin 20θ = ( cos θ + i sin θ )
−4 −20
( cos θ + i sin θ ) ( cos θ + i sin θ )

12 −20
The given expression = =1

( cos θ + i sin θ ) ( cos θ + i sin θ )
12 −20
⎛θ ⎞ ⎛ nθ ⎞
Example: Prove that (1 + cos θ + i sin θ ) + (1 + cos θ − i sin θ ) = 2n +1 cos n ⎜ ⎟ . ⎜ cos ⎟
n n
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Solution: 1 + cos θ = r cos α , sin θ = r sin α
θ θ
r 2 = (1 + cos θ ) + sin 2 θ = 2 + 2 cos θ = 4 cos 2
2
⇒ r = 2 cos
2 2
θ θ
2sin .cos
sin θ 2 = tan θ ⇒ α = θ
tan α = = 2
1 + cos θ θ 2 2
2 cos 2
2
⎣⎡ r ( cos α + i sin α ) ⎦⎤ + ⎣⎡ r ( cos α − i sin α ) ⎦⎤ = r ⎣( cos α + i sin α ) + ( cos α − i sin α ) ⎦

n n n ⎡ n n
⎤
= r n ( cos nα + i sin nα + cos nα − i sin nα ) = r 2 .2 cos nα [Substituting the values of r and α ]
⎛θ ⎞ ⎛ nθ ⎞
= 2 n +1 cos n ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
1
Example: If 2 cos θ = x + , prove that
x
1 x2n + 1 cos nθ
(i) cos rθ = x 2 + 2, (ii) =
xr x 2 n −1
+ x cos ( n − 1) θ
1
Solution: Since x + = 2 cos θ ∴ x 2 − 2 x cos θ + 1 = 0
x
Hence x =
2 cos θ ± ( 4 cos θ − 4 ) = cosθ ± i sin θ
2
(i) Taking the +ve sign, x r = ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = cos rθ + i sin rθ

r
and x − r = ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = cos rθ − i sin rθ

−r
1
Adding x r + = 2 cos rθ .
xr
Similarly with the –ve sign the same result follows 116





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( cos θ + i sin θ ) + 1
2n
x2n + 1 cos 2nθ + i sin 2nθ + 1
(ii) 2 n −1 = =
x + x ( cos θ + i sin θ ) + cos θ + i sin θ cos ( 2n − 1) θ + i sin ( 2n − 1) θ + cos θ + i sin θ
2 n −1
(1 + cos 2nθ ) + i sin 2nθ 2 cos 2 nθ + 2i sin nθ cos nθ

= =
( cos ( 2n − 1)θ + cos θ ) + i ( sin ( 2n − 1)θ + sin θ ) 2 cos nθ cos ( n − 1) θ + 2i sin nθ cos ( n − 1) θ
cos nθ ( 2 cos nθ + 2i sin nθ ) cos nθ
= =
cos ( n − 1) θ ( 2 cos nθ + 2i sin nθ ) cos ( n − 1)θ
Example: If sin α + sin β + sin γ = cos α + cos β + cos γ = 0

Prove that
(i) sin 2α + sin 2 β + sin γ = 0
(ii) sin 3α + sin 3β + sin 3γ = 3sin (α + β + γ )
(iii) sin 4α + sin 4β + sin 4γ = 2∑ sin 2 (α + β )
(iv) sin (α + β ) + sin ( β + γ ) + sin ( γ + α ) = 0
Solution: Let a = cisα , b = cis β and c = cisγ
Then a + b + c = ( cos α + cos β + cos γ ) + i ( sin α + sin β + sin γ ) = 0
1 1 1
+ + = ( cos α + cos β + cos γ ) + ( cos β + i sin β ) + ( cos γ + i sin γ )
−1 −1 −1
a b c
cos α − i sin α 1
=∑ . = ∑ ( cos α − i sin α )
cos α − i sin α cos α + i sin α
= ( cos α + cos β + cos γ ) − i ( sin α + sin β + sin γ ) = 0
or bc + ca + ab = 0
∴ a 2 + b 2 + c 2 = ( a + b + c ) − 2 ( bc + ca + ab ) = 0
2
or ( cisα ) + ( cis β ) + ( cisγ ) = cis 2α + cis 2 β + cis 2γ = 0

2 2 2
Equating imaginary parts from both sides, we get sin 2α + sin 2 β + sin 2γ = 0
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(ii) Since a + b + c = 0 , ∴ a + b + c = 3abc
3 3 3
( cisα ) + ( cisβ ) + ( cisγ ) = 3cisα cis β cisγ

3 3 3
cis3α + cis3β + cis3γ = 3cis (α + β + γ )
Equating imaginary parts from both sides, we get sin 3α + sin 3β + sin 3γ = 3sin (α + β + γ )
(iii) a + b = −c or ( a + b ) = c 2 or a 2 + b 2 − c 2 = −2ab
2
Again squaring, a 4 + b 4 + c 4 + 2a 2b 2 − 2b 2 c 2 − 2c 2 a 2 = 4a 2b 2
i.e., a 4 + b 4 + c 4 = 2 ( a 2b 2 + b 2 c 2 + c 2 a 2 )
or ( cis 4α ) + ( cis β ) + ( cisγ ) = 2∑ ( cos α ) ( cis β )

4 4 4 2 2
or cis 4α + cis 4β + cis 4γ = 2∑ cis 2α cis 2β = 2∑ cis 2 (α + β )
Equating imaginary parts from both sides, we get sin 4α + sin 4β + sin 4γ = 2∑ sin 2 (α + β )
(iv) ab + bc + ca = 0 or cisα cis β + cis β cisγ + cisγ cisα = 0
or cis (α + β ) + cis ( β + γ ) + cis ( γ + α ) = 0
Equating imaginary parts from both sides, we get sin (α + β ) + sin ( β + γ ) + sin ( γ + α ) = 0
Example: Find the cube roots of unity and show that they form an equilateral triangle in the
Argand diagram.
Solution: If x be a cube root of unity, then
Y
1 1 1 1
2nπ
x = (1) = ( cos 0 + i sin 0 ) = ( cis0 ) = cis ( 2nπ ) = cis
3 3 3 3 B
3
where n = 0,1, 2
∴ the three values of x are cis0 = 1 O A
X
2π 1 3
cis = cos1200 + i sin1200 = − + i ,
3 2 2
C
4π 1 3
and cis = cos 2400 + i sin 2400 = − − i
3 2 2
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These three cube roots are represented by the points, A, B, C on the Argand diagram such that
OA = OB = OC and ∠AOB = 1200 , ∠AOC = 2400 .

∴ These points lie on a circle with centre O and unit radius such that
∠AOB = ∠BOC = ∠COA = 1200 i.e., AB = BC = CA
Hence A, B, C form an equilateral triangle.
3
⎛1 3 i ⎞4
Example: Find all the values of ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ . Also show that the continued product of these
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
values is 1.
1 3 π
Solution: Put = r cos θ and = r sin θ so that r = 1 θ =
2 2 3
3 1
⎛1 3i ⎞ 4 ⎡⎛ π π ⎞ ⎤4
3 1
∴ ⎜⎜ + ⎟ = ⎢⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ ⎥ = ( cisπ ) 4
⎝2 2 ⎟⎠ ⎣⎢⎝ 3 3 ⎠ ⎦⎥
1
π
= ⎡⎣cis ( 2n + 1) π ⎤⎦ 4 = cis ( 2n + 1)
where n = 0,1, 2, 3
4
π 3π 5π 7π
Hence the required values are cis , cis , cis and cis .
4 4 4 4
⎛ π 3π 5π 7π ⎞
∴ Their continued product = cis ⎜ + + + ⎟ = cis 4π = 1
⎝4 4 4 4 ⎠
Example: Use De Moivre’s theorem to solve the equation x 4 − x 3 + x 2 − x + 1 = 0 .
Solution: x 4 − x 3 + x 2 − x + 1 is a G.P. with common ratio ( − x )
1− (−x)
5
= 0, x ≠ −1 or x 5 + 1 = 0
1− (−x)
x5 = −1 = cisπ = cis ( 2n + 1) π
1
π
∴ x = ⎡⎣cis ( 2n + 1) π ⎤⎦ 5 = cis ( 2n + 1) , where n = 0,1, 2, 3, 4
5
π 3π 7π 9π
Hence the values are cis , cis , cisπ , cis , cis
5 5 5 5
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π π 3π 3π 3π 3π π π
cos + i sin , cos + i sin , −1, cos − i sin , cos − i sin
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Rejecting the value −1 which corresponds to the factor x + 1 , the required roots are:
π π 3π 3π
cos ± i sin , cos ± i sin
5 5 5 5
( x − 1)
n
Example: Show that the roots of the equation = x n , n being a positive integer are
1⎛ rπ ⎞
⎜ 1 + i cot ⎟ where r has values 1, 2, 3,..., n − 1 .
2⎝ n ⎠
⎛ x −1 ⎞ 1 n
1
Solution: Given equation is ⎜ ⎟ = 1 or 1 − = (1) n
⎝ x ⎠ x
1 1
2r π
or = 1 − (1) n = 1 − cis , r = 0,1, 2,... ( n − 1)
x n
1 ⎛ 2 rπ ⎞ 2rπ rπ rπ rπ
or = ⎜1 − cos ⎟ − i sin = 2sin 2 − 2i sin cos
x ⎝ n ⎠ n n n n
rπ rπ
sin + i cos
x=
1 1
= n n = 1 ⎛1 + i cot rπ ⎞ , r = 1, 2,... ( n − 1)
.
rπ ⎛ rπ rπ ⎞ rπ ⎜ ⎟
2⎝ n ⎠
2sin − i cos ⎟ 2sin
n ⎜⎝
sin
n n ⎠ n
1⎛ rπ ⎞
Hence the roots of the given equation are ⎜1 + i cot ⎟ r = 1, 2,3...(n − 1)
2⎝ n ⎠
Example: Find the 7th roots of unity and prove that the sum of their nth power always vanishes
unless n be a multiple number of 7, n being an integer, and then the sum is 7 .
2rπ ⎛ 2π ⎞
1 1 r
Solution: we have (1) = ( co 2rπ + i sin 2rπ )

7 7 = cis = cis ⎜ ⎟
7 ⎝ 7 ⎠
Putting r = 0,1, 3, 4, 5, 6 , we find that 7th roots of unity are 1, ρ , ρ 2 , ρ 3 , ρ 4 , ρ 5 , ρ 6 where
2π
ρ = cos
7
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1 − ρ 7n
∴ Sum S of the nth powers of these roots = 1 + ρ n + ρ 2n + ... + ρ 6 n = , being a G.P. with
1− ρ n
common ratio ρ
when n is not a multiple of 7, ρ 7 n = ( ρ 7 ) = ( cis 2π ) = 1

n n
1 − ρ 7 n = 0 and 1 − ρ n ≠ 0 , as n is not a multiple of 7 . Thus S = 0

When n is a multiple of 7 = 7 p (say)
( ) + (ρ ) ( )
p 7 2p 6p
S = 1+ ρ 7 + ... + ρ 7 = 1+1+1+1+1+ 1+1 = 7
π 3π 5π
Example: Find the equation whose roots are 2 cos , 2 cos , 2 cos
7 7 7
π 3π 13π
Solution: Let y = cos θ + i sin θ , where θ = , ,...
7 7 7
Then y 7 = ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = cos 7θ + i sin 7θ = −1 or y 7 + 1 = 0

7
or ( y + 1) ( y 6 − y 5 + y 4 − y 3 + y 2 − y + 1) = 0
Leaving the factor y + 1 which corresponds to θ = π ,
We get y6 − y5 + y 4 − y3 + y 2 − y + 1 = 0 (i)
π 3π 5π 9π 11π 13π
Its roots are y = cisθ where θ = , , , , ,
7 7 7 7 7 7
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
Dividing (i) by y 3 ; ⎜ y 3 + 3 ⎟ − ⎜ y 2 + 2 ⎟ + ⎜ y + ⎟ − 1 = 0
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y⎠
⎧⎪⎛ 1⎞
3
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎫⎪ ⎧⎪⎛ 1⎞
2
⎫⎪ ⎛ 1⎞
or ⎨⎜ y + ⎟ − 3 ⎜ y + ⎟ ⎬ − ⎨⎜ y + ⎟ − 2 ⎬ ⎜ y + ⎟ − 1 = 0
⎪⎩⎝ y⎠ ⎝ y ⎠ ⎪ ⎪⎝
⎭ ⎩
y⎠ ⎪⎭ ⎝ y⎠
1
or x 3 − x 2 − 2 x + 1 = 0 where x = y + = 2 cos θ
y
13π π 11π 3π 9π 5π
Now since cos = cos , cos = cos , cos = cos
7 7 7 7 7 7
π 3π 5π
Hence the roots are 2 cos , 2 cos , 2 cos
7 7 7
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To Expand sin nθ , cos nθ and tan nθ in powers of sin θ , cos θ and tan θ respectively
(n being a positive integer)
We have cos nθ + i sin nθ = ( cos θ + i sin θ )

n
= cos n θ + nC1 cos n −1 θ ( i sin θ ) + nC2 cos n − 2 θ ( i sin θ ) + n C3 cos n −3 θ ( i sin θ ) + ...
2 3
= ( cos n θ − n C2 cos n − 2 θ sin 2 θ + ...) + i ( nC1 cos n −1 θ sin θ − n C3 cos n −3 θ sin 3 θ + ...)
Equating real and imaginary parts h both sides, we get

cos nθ = cos n θ − n C2 cos n − 2 θ sin 2 θ + n C4 cos n − 4 θ sin 4 θ − ... (i)
sin nθ = n C1 cos n −1 θ sin θ − n C3 cos n −3 θ sin 3 θ + n C5 cos n −5 θ sin 5 θ − ... (ii)
Replacing every sin 2 θ by 1 − cos 2 θ in (i) and every cos 2 θ by 1 − sin 2 θ in (ii), we get the
desire expansions of cos nθ and sin nθ
Dividing (ii) by (i)
n
C1 cos n −1 θ sin θ − n C3 cos n −3 θ sin 3 θ + n C5 cos n −5 θ sin 2 θ − ...
tan nθ =
cos n θ − n C2 cos n − 2 θ sin 2 θ + n C4 cos n − 4 θ sin 4 θ − ...
and dividing numerator and denominator by cos n θ .

n
C1 tan θ − n C3 tan 3 θ + n C5 tan 5 θ − ...
We get tan nθ =
1 − n C2 tan 2 θ + n C4 tan 4 θ − ...
Example: Express cos 6θ in terms of cos θ .
Solution: we know that cos nθ = cos n θ − n C2 cos n − 2 θ sin 2 θ + n C4 cos n − 4 θ sin 4 θ − ...
Put n = 6 , then cos 6θ = cos 6 θ − 6 C2 cos 4 θ sin 2 θ + 6 C4 cos 2 θ sin 4 θ − 6 C6 sin 6 θ
( ) ( ) − (1 − cos θ )
2 3
= cos 6 θ − 15 cos 4 θ 1 − cos 2 θ + 15 cos 2 θ 1 − cos 2 θ 2
= 32 cos 6 θ − 48 cos 4 θ + 18 cos 2 θ − 1

Addition formulae for any number of angles
We have, cos (θ1 + θ 2 + ... + θ n ) + i sin (θ1 + θ 2 + ... + θ n )
= ( cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )( cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 ) ... ( cos θ n + i sin θ n )
Now cos θ1 + i sin θ1 = cos θ1 (1 + i tan θ1 ) , cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 = cos θ 2 (1 + i tan θ 2 ) and so on
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cos (θ1 + θ 2 + ... + θ n ) + i sin (θ1 + θ 2 + ...θ n )
= cos θ1 cos θ 2 ...cos θ n (1 + i tan θ1 )(1 + i tan θ 2 ) ... (1 + i tan θ n ) =
= cos θ1 cos θ 2 ...cos θ n [1 + i ( tan θ1 + tan θ 2 + .. + tan θ n ) + i 2 ( tan θ1 tan θ 2 + tan θ 3 + ...)
+i 3 ( tan θ1 tan θ 2 tan θ3 + ...) + ... + ...]

= cos θ1 cos θ 2 ...cos θ n (1 + is1 − s2 − is3 + s4 + ...)
where s1 = tan θ1 + tan θ 2 + ... + tan θ n , s2 = ∑ tan θ1 tan θ 2 , s3 = ∑ tan θ1tanθ 2 tan θ3 etc.
Equating real and imaginary parts, we have

cos (θ1 + θ 2 + .. + θ n ) = cos θ1 cos θ 2 ...cos θ n (1 − s2 + s4 − ...)
sin (θ1 + θ 2 + ... + θ n ) = cos θ1 cos θ 2 ...cos θ n ( s1 − s3 + s5 − ...)
s1 − s3 + s5 − ...
and by division, we get tan (θ1 + θ 2 + ... + θ 3 ) =
1 − s2 + s4 − s6 + ...
π
Example: If tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 y + tan −1 z = , show that xy + yz + zx = 1
2
Solution: Let tan −1 x = α , tan −1 y = β , tan −1 z = γ so that x = tan α , y tan β , z = tan γ
tan α + tan β + tan γ − tan α tan β tan γ
We know that tan (α + β + γ ) =
1 − tan α tan β − tan β tan γ − tan γ tan α
π x + y + z − xyz
tan = ⇒ 1 − xy − yz − zx = 0 ⇒ xy + yz + zx = 1 .
2 1 − xy − yz − zx
Example: If θ1 , θ 2 , θ 3 be three values of θ which satisfy the equation tan 2θ = λ tan (θ + α ) and
no two of the them differ by a multiple of π , show that θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 + α is a multiple of π .
2t t + tan α
Solution: Given equation can be written as =λ where t = tan θ
1− t 2
1 − t tan α
or λt 3 + ( λ − 2 ) tan α .t 2 + ( 2 − λ ) t − λ tan α = 0
∴ tan θ1 , tan θ 2 , tan θ 3 , being its roots, we have
λ −2 2−λ
s1 = ∑ tan θ1 = − tan α , s2 = ∑ tan θ1 tan θ 2 = and s3 = tan α
λ λ
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⎛ 2⎞
⎜ −1 + ⎟ tan α − tan α
s −s λ⎠
tan (θ1 + θ 2 + θ 3 ) = 1 3 = ⎝ = − tan α = tan ( nπ − α )
1 − s2 ⎛2 ⎞
1 − ⎜ − 1⎟
⎝λ ⎠
Thus θ1 + θ 2 + θ3 = nπ − α , whence follows the result
To expand sin m θ , cos n θ or sin m θ cos n θ in a series of sines or cosines of multiples of θ .

1
If z = cos θ + i sin θ then = cos θ − i sin θ
z
1
By De Moivre’s theorem, z p = cos pθ + i sin pθ , = cos pθ − i sin pθ
zp
1 1 1 1
∴ z+ = 2 cos θ , z − = 2i sin θ ; z p + p = 2 cos pθ , z p − p = 2i sin pθ
z z z z
These results are used to expand the powers of sin θ or cos θ or their products in a series of sines
or cosines of multiples of θ .
Example: Expand cos8 θ in a series cosines of multiples of θ .
1 1
Solution: Let z = cos θ + i sin θ , so that z + = 2 cos θ , z p + p = 2 cos pθ
z z
8
⎛ 1⎞
∴ ( 2 cos θ ) = ⎜ z + ⎟
8
⎝ z⎠
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= z 8 + 8 C1 z 7 . + 8 C2 z 6 . 2 + 8 C3 z 5 . 3 + 8 C4 z 4 . 4 + 8 C5 z 3 . 5 + 8 C6 z 2 . 6 + 8 C7 z. 7 + 8
z z z z z z z z
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ z 8 + 8 ⎟ + 8 C1 ⎜ z 6 + 6 ⎟ + 8 C2 ⎜ z 4 + 4 ⎟ + 8 C3 ⎜ z 2 + 2 ⎟ + 8 C4
⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠
= ( 2cos8θ ) + 8 ( 2 cos 6θ ) + 28 ( 2 cos 4θ ) + 56 ( 2 cos 2θ ) + 70
1
Hence cos8 θ = [cos 8θ + 8 cos 6θ + 28 cos 4θ + 56 cos 2θ + 35]
128
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Example: Expand sin θ cos θ in a series of sines of multiples of θ
7 3
Solution: Let z = cos θ + i sin θ

1 1 1
So that z + = 2 cos θ , z − = 2i sin θ and z p − p = 2i sin pθ
z z z
3
⎡⎛ z − 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ ⎛
7 3 4 4 3
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ 1⎞ ⎛ 2 1 ⎞
∴ ( 2i sin θ ) ( 2 cos θ ) =⎜z− ⎟ ⎜z+ ⎟ =⎜z− ⎟ ⎢⎜ z ⎟⎜ z + z ⎟ ⎥ = ⎜ z − z ⎟ ⎜ z − z 2 ⎟
7 3
⎝ z⎠ ⎝ z⎠ ⎝ z⎠ ⎣⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠⎦ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
⎛ 4 1 ⎞⎛ 3 1 ⎞
= ⎜ z 4 − 4 z 2 + 6 − 2 + 4 ⎟ ⎜ z 6 − 3z 2 + 2 − 6 ⎟
⎝ z z ⎠⎝ z z ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= ⎜ z10 − 10 ⎟ − 4 ⎜ z 8 − 8 ⎟ − 3 ⎜ z 6 − 6 ⎟ + 8 ⎜ z 4 − 4 ⎟ − 14 ⎜ z 2 − 2 ⎟
⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎝ z ⎠
= 2i sin10θ − 4 ( 2i sin 8θ ) + 3 ( 2i sin 6θ ) + 8 ( 2i sin 4θ ) − 14 ( 2i sin 2θ )
Since i 7 = −i
1
∴ sin 7 θ cos3 θ = − [sin10θ − 4 sin 8θ + 3sin 6θ + 8sin 4θ − 14 sin 2θ ]
29
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2.4 Complex Function
If for each value of the complex variable z ( = x + iy ) in a given region R , we have one or more
values of ω ( = u + iv ) , then ω is said to be a complex function of z and we write
ω = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) = f ( z ) where u , v are real functions of x and y .

If to each value of z , there corresponds one and only one value of ω , then ω is said to be a
1
single valued function of z , otherwise a multi valued function. For example, ω = is a single
z
valued function and ω = z is a multi-valued function of z . The former is defined at all points
of the z -plane except at z = 0 and the latter assumes two values for each value of z except at
z=0
2.4.1 Exponential Function of a Complex Variable
When x is real, we are already familiar with the exponential function
x x2 xn
ex = 1+ + + ... + + ...∞
1! 2! n!
Properties
I. Exponential form of z = reiθ . Putting x = iy in (i), we get
iy ( iy ) ( iy ) ( iy )
2 3 4
⎛ y2 y4 ⎞ ⎛ y3 y5 ⎞
e = 1+ +
iy
+ + + ...∞ = ⎜1 − + − ... ⎟ + i ⎜ y − + − ... ⎟ = cos y + i sin y
1! 2! 3! 4! ⎝ 2! 4! ⎠ ⎝ 3! 5! ⎠
Thus e z = e x .eiy = e x ( cos y + i sin y )
Also x + iy = r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = reiθ . Thus, z = reiθ
II. e z is periodic function having imaginary period 2π i, ⎡⎣∵ e z + 2 nπ i = e z .e 2 nπ i = e z ⎤⎦
III. e z is not zero for any value of z

Since e z = e x + iy = reiθ or e x .eiy = reiθ ∴ r = e x > 0, y = θ , eiy = 1
Thus e z = e x . eiy = e x ≠ 0
IV. e z = e z . Since e z = e x −iy = e −iy = e x ( cos y − i sin y ) = e x ( cos y + i sin y ) = e z

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2.4.2 Circular Functions of a Complex Variable
Since eiy = cos y + i sin y and e − iy = cos y − i sin y
∴ The circular functions of real angles can be written as
eiy − e− iy eiy + e− iy
sin y = , cos y = and so on
2i 2
It is, therefore, natural to define the circular functions of the complex variable z by the
equations:
eiz − e− iz eiz + e − iz sin z
sin z = , cos z = , tan z =
2i 2 cos z
with cos ecz , sec z and cot z as their respective reciprocals.
Properties
I. Circular functions are periodic sin z , cos z are periodic functions having real period 2π while
tan z cot z have period π .. ⎡⎣α sin ( z + 2nπ ) = sin z , tan ( z + nπ ) = tan z ⎤⎦ etc,
II. Even and odd functions: cos z ,sec z are even functions while sin z , cos ecz are odd functions.
⎡
⎢∵ cos z =
e − iz + eiz
= cos z , and sin ( − z ) =
e − iz − eiz − e − e
=
iz − iz
⎤
= − sin z ⎥
( )
⎢⎣ 2 2i 2i ⎥⎦
III. Zeros of sinz are given by z = ±2nπ and zeros of cos z are given by
1
z=± ( 2n + 1) π , n = 0,1, 2,...
2
IV. All the formulae for real circular functions are valid for complex circular functions
e.g., sin 2 z + cos 2 z = 1,sin ( z1 ± z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 ± cos z1 sin z2
(3) Euler’s theorem eiz = cos z + i sin z

eiz + e − iz eiz − eiz
By definition cos z + i sin z = +i = eiz where z = x + iy
2 2i
Also we have shown that eiy = cos y + i sin y , where y is real.
Thus eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ , where θ is real or complex. This is called the Euler’s theorem.*
Cor. De Moiver’s theorem for complex numbers
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Whether θ is real or complex, we have
( cos θ + i sin θ ) ( )
n
= ei θ = einθ = cos nθ + i sin nθ
n
Thus De Moivre’s theorem is true for all θ (real or complex).

Example: Prove that
(i) ⎡⎣sin (α + θ ) − eiα sin θ ⎤⎦ = sin nα e − inθ

n
(ii) sin (α − nθ ) + e−iα sin nθ = e− nθ sin α
Solution: (i) L.H.S. = ⎡⎣sin α cos θ + cos α sin θ − ( cos α + i sin α ) sin θ ⎤⎦
n
= ( sin α cos θ − i sin α sin θ ) = sin n α ( cos θ − i sin θ ) = sin n α e − iθ ( )

n
= sin n α e − inθ
n n
(ii) L.H.S. = sin α cos nθ − cos α sin nθ + ( cos α − i sin α ) sin nθ
= sin α cos nθ − i sin α sin nθ = sin α ( cos nθ − i sin nθ ) = sin α .e −inθ
2.4.3 Hyperbolic Functions

If x be real or complex,
e x − e− x
(i) is defined as hyperbolic sine of x and is written as sinh x .
2
e x + e− x
(ii) is defined as hyperbolic cosine of x and is written as cosh x
2
e x − e− x e x + e− x
Thus sinh x = , cosh x =
2 2
Also we define,
sinh x e x − e− x 1 e x + e− x
tanh x = = x − x ;coth x = = x −x
cosh x e + e tanh x e − e
1 2 1 2
sec hx = = x − x ; cos echx = = x −x
cosh x e + e sinh x e − e
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Properties
I. Periodic functions: sinh z and cosh z are periodic functions having imaginary period 2π i .
⎡⎣∵ sinh ( z + 2π i ) = sinh z; cosh ( z + 2π i ) = cosh z ⎤⎦
II. Even and odd functions: cosh z is an even function while sinh z is an odd functions
III. sinh 0 = 0, cosh 0 = 1, tanh 0 = 0
IV. Relations between hyperbolic and circular functions.
eiθ − e− iθ eiθ + e− iθ
Since for all values of θ , sin θ = and cos θ =
2i 2
e− x − e x e x − e− x
∴ Putting θ = ix , we have sin ix = =−
2i 2i
e x − e− x e x − e− x
= i2 = i. = i sinh x
2i 2
e− x + e x
and therefore, cos ix = = cosh x
2
thus sin ix = i sinh x
cos ix = cosh x
and ∴ tan ix = i tanh x
Cor. cosh ix = cos x
tanh ix = i tan x
2.4.4 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
If sinh u = z , then u is called the hyperbolic sine inverse of z and is written as u = sinh −1 z .
Similarly we define cosh −1 z, tanh −1 z , etc.
the inverse hyperbolic functions like other inverse functions are many-valued, but we shall
consider only their principal values.
(2) To show that
(i) sinh −1 z = log ⎡ z +

⎣⎢
(z 2
+ 1) ⎤
⎦⎥
1+ z
(ii) cosh −1 z = log ⎡ z + ( z 2 − 1) ⎤ ,
1
(iii) tanh −1 z = log
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ 2 1− z
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(i) Let sinh −1 z = u , then z = sinh u = ( eu − e − u ) or 2 z = eu − u or e 2u − 2 zeu − 1 = 0
1 1
2 e
2z ± (4z 2
+4 ) = z±
This being a quadratic in e , we have e = u u
2
(z 2
+1)
∴ Taking the positive sign only, we have
eu = z + (z 2
+ 1) ⇒ u = log ⎡ z +
⎢⎣ (z 2
+ 1) ⎤
⎥⎦
Similarly we can establish (ii)
eu − e − u
(iii) Let tanh −1 z = u , then z = tanh u ; z =
eu + e − u
1 + z eu
Applying componendo and dividendo, we get = −u = e 2u
1− z e
⎛ 1+ z ⎞
2u = log ⎜ ⎟ whence follows the result
⎝ 1− z ⎠
⎛π θ ⎞
Example: If u = log tan ⎜ + ⎟ , prove that
⎝ 4 2⎠
u θ
(i) tanh = tan
2 2
⎛ π iu ⎞
(ii) θ = −i log tan ⎜ + ⎟ .
⎝4 2⎠
θ
1 + tan
u
⎛π θ ⎞ e 2
2
Solution: we have eu = tan ⎜ + ⎟ or − u =
⎝ 4 2⎠ θ
e 2 1 − tan
2
By componendo and dividendo, we get
u −u
e −e
2 2
θ u θ
u −u
= tan i.e., tanh = tan
2 2 2
e +e
2 2
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iu
1 + tan
1 iu 1 iθ iθ ⎛ iu ⎞ 1 2
tan = tanh or = tanh −1 ⎜ tan ⎟ = log
i 2 i 2 2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2 1 − tan
iu
2
1 ⎛ π iu ⎞ ⎛ π iu ⎞
θ = log tan ⎜ + ⎟ = −i log tan ⎜ + ⎟
i ⎝4 2⎠ ⎝4 2⎠
Example: Show that tanh −1 ( cos θ ) = cosh −1 ( cos ecθ )
Solution: Let tanh −1 ( cos θ ) = φ so that cos θ = tanh φ
or tanh 2 φ = cos 2 θ or 1 − sec h 2φ = cos 2 θ
or sec h 2φ = 1 − cos 2 θ = sin 2 θ or sec hφ = sin θ
or cosh φ = cos ecθ or φ = cosh −1 ( cos ecθ )
Example: Find tanh x , if 5sinh x − cosh x = 5

Solution: 5sinh x − cosh x = 5 (i)
we have 5 ( sinh x − 1) = cosh x
25 ( sinh x − 1) = cosh 2 x = 1 + sinh 2 x

2
24 sinh 2 x − 50 sinh x + 24 = 0 or 12 sinh 2 x − 25sinh x + 12 = 0

4 3
( 3sinh x − 4 )( 4sinh x − 3) = 0 whence sinh x = or
3 4
−5
cosh x = (1 + sinh x ) = 53
2
or
4
[∵ cosh x = −
5
4
doesn’t satisfy (i)]
4 3
Hence tanh x = or −
5 5
Example: If tan (θ + iφ ) = eiα , show that
⎛ 1 ⎞π 1 ⎛π α ⎞
θ = ⎜ n + ⎟ and φ = log tan ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ 4 2 ⎝ ⎠
Solution: Since tan (θ + iφ ) = cos α + i sin α ∴ tan (θ − iφ ) = cos α − i sin α
tan 2θ = tan ⎡⎣(θ + iφ ) + (θ − iφ ) ⎤⎦

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tan (θ + iφ ) + tan (θ − iφ ) 2 cos α 2 cos α
= = = →∞
1 − tan (θ + iφ ) tan (θ − iφ ) 1 − ( cos α + sin α )
2 2
0
π ⎛ 1 ⎞π
i.e., 2θ = nπ + ⇒θ = ⎜n+ ⎟
2 ⎝ 2⎠ 2
tan (θ + iφ ) − tan (θ − iφ )
Also tan 2iφ = tan ⎡⎣(θ + iφ ) − (θ − iφ ) ⎤⎦ =
1 + tan (θ + iφ ) tan (θ − iφ )
2i sin α e 2φ − e−2φ sin α

or i tanh 2φ = = i sin α or =
(
1 + cos 2 α + sin 2 α ) e2φ + e−2φ 1
By componendo and dividendo, we get

α α α α α
cos 2 + sin 2 + 2sin + 2sin cos
e2φ 1 + sin α 2 2 2 2 2
= =
e−2φ 1 − sin α 2 α 2 α α α
cos + sin − 2sin cos
2 2 2 2
α α⎞ ⎛
2
⎛ α ⎞
2
⎜ cos + sin ⎟ ⎜ 1 + tan ⎟

or e4φ = ⎝ ⎠ =
2 2 2
⎜ α ⎟
α α ⎞ ⎜ 1 − tan
2
⎛ ⎟
⎜ cos − sin ⎟ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎝ 2 2⎠
α
1 + tan
or e2φ = 2 = tan ⎛ π + α ⎞ φ = 1 log tan ⎛ π + α ⎞
α ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
1 − tan ⎝4 2⎠ 2 ⎝4 2⎠
2
Example: Separate tan −1 ( x + iy ) into real and imaginary parts.
Solution: Let α + iβ = tan −1 ( x + iy ) . Then α − i β = tan −1 ( x − iy )
Adding, 2α = tan −1 ( x + iy ) + tan −1 ( x − iy ) = tan −1

* ( x + iy ) + ( x − iy )
1 − ( x + iy )( x − iy )
1 2x
α = tan −1
2 1 − x2 − y2
subtracting, 2i β = tan −1 ( x + iy ) − tan −1 ( x − iy ) = tan −1

( x + iy ) − ( x − iy )
1 + ( x + iy )( x − iy )
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2y 2y
= tan −1 i = i tanh −1 ⎡⎣∵ tan −1 iz = i tanh −1 z ⎤⎦
1+ x + y
2 2
1+ x + y
2 2
1 2y
∴ β = tanh −1
2 1 + x2 + y 2
Example: Separate sin −1 ( cos θ + i sin θ ) into real and imaginary parts, where θ is a positive
acute angle
Solution: Let sin −1 ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = x + iy
Then cos θ + i sin θ = sin ( x + iy ) = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
∴ cos θ = sin x cosh y (i) and sin θ = cos x sinh y (ii)

Squaring and adding, we have
(
1 = sin 2 x cosh 2 y + cos 2 x sinh 2 y = sin 2 x 1 + sinh 2 y + cos 2 x sinh 2 y )
= sin 2 x + sinh 2 y ( sin 2 x + cos 2 x )
or 1 − sin 2 x = sinh 2 y , i.e., cos 2 x = sinh 2 y
Hence from (ii), we have sin 2 θ = cos 4 x , i.e., cos 2 x = sin θ because θ being a positive acute
angle , sin θ is positive
−π π
As x is to be between and , therefore, we have
2 2
cos x = + ( sin θ ) or x = cos −1 ( sin θ )

The relation (ii), then, gives sinh y = ( sin θ )
So that y = log ⎡
⎣
( sin θ ) + (1 + sin θ ) ⎤⎦
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2.4.5 Logarithmic Function of a Complex Variable
(1) Definition: If z ( = x + iy ) and ω ( = u + iv ) be so related that eω = z , then ω is said to be a
logarithm of z to the base e and is written as

ω = log e z (i)
⎡∵ e2 = 1⎤
inπ
also eω + 2inπ = eω .e 2inπ = z
⎣ ⎦
∴ log z = ω + 2inπ (ii)
i.e., the logarithm of a complex number has an infinite number of values and is, therefore, a multi
valued function.
The general value of the logarithm of z is written as log z (beginning with capital L ). so as to
distinguish it from its principal value which is written as log z . This principal value is obtained b
taking n = 0 in log z
Thus from (i) and (ii), log ( x + iy ) = 2inπ + log ( x + iy )
Obs. 1. If y = 0 , then Logx = 2inπ + log x

This shows that the logarithm of a real quantity is also multi valued. Its principle value is real
while all other values are imaginary.
2. We know that the logarithm of a negative quantity has no real value. But we can now
evaluate this. e.g.
log e ( −2 ) = log e 2 ( −1) = log e 2 + log e ( −1) = log e 2 + iπ = 0.6931 + i ( 3.1416 )
(2) Real and imaginary parts of L og ( x + iy )
Log ( x + iy ) = 2inπ + log ( x + iy )
= 2inπ + log ⎡⎣ r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) ⎤⎦ put [ x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ so that r = (x 2

+ y2 )
⎛ y ⎞⎤
and θ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ x ⎠⎦
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⎡ ⎛ y ⎞⎤
= 2inπ + log ( reiθ ) = 2inπ + log r + iθ == log x 2 + y 2 + i ⎢ 2nπ + tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ x ⎠⎦
( )
⎣
(3) Real and imaginary parts of (α + i β )

x + iy
( x + iy ){2 inπ + log (α + i β )}

(α + i β ) = e( x +iy ) Log (α +iβ ) = e
x + iy
β
Put [α = r cos θ , β = r sin θ so that r = (α 2
)
+ β 2 and θ = tan −1
α
( x + iy ) ⎡⎣ 2 inπ + log reiθ ⎤⎦ ( x + iy ) ⎣⎡log r + i ( 2 nπ +θ )⎤⎦
=e =e
= e A+iB = e A ( cos B + i sin B )
where A = x log r − y ( 2nπ + θ ) and B = y log r + x ( 2nπ + θ )
∴ the required real part = e A cos B and imaginary part = e A sin B

Example: Find the general value of L og ( −i )
Solution: Log ( −i ) = 2inπ + log ⎡⎣0 + i ( −1) ⎤⎦ put [ 0 = r cos θ , − 1 = r sin θ ⇒ r = 1,
π⎤
θ =− ⎥
2⎦
= 2inπ + log ⎡⎣ r ( cos θ + i sin θ ) ⎤⎦ = 2inπ + log ( reiθ )
⎛ −π ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
= 2inπ + log r + iθ = 2inπ + log1 + i ⎜ ⎟ = i ⎜ 2n − ⎟ π
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
π
−( 4 n +1) ⎛ 1⎞
Example: Prove that (i) i i = e 2
and Logi i = − ⎜ 2n + ⎟ π
⎝ 2⎠
π
( i)
i
(ii) = e −α cisα where α =
4 2
Solution: (i) By definition, we have
⎡ ⎛ iπ ⎞⎤
i ( 2 inπ + log i )
−2 nπ + i log ⎢exp ⎜ ⎟⎥ ⎡ π ⎛ iπ ⎞⎤
i =e
i iL og i
=e =e ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
⎢∵ i = cis 2 = exp ⎜ 2 ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
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⎛ iπ ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
−2 nπ + i ⎜ ⎟ −⎜ 2 n + ⎟π
=e ⎝ 2⎠
=e ⎝ 2⎠
Taking logarithms, we get (ii)
( i)
i
(ii) =e i log i
1
1⎛ π π ⎞2 ⎛ π π⎞
Now i log i = ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ log ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
2⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠
1⎛ π π ⎞ ⎛ i2π ⎞ 1 ⎛ π π ⎞ iπ iπ ⎛ i i ⎞ π π
= ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ log ⎜ e ⎟ = ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ = ⎜ + ⎟ =− +i
2⎝ 4 4 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ 2⎝ 4 4⎠ 2 4⎝ 2 2⎠ 4 2 4 2
π
( i) = e−α .eiα = e−α ( cos α + i sin α )
i
Hence = e −α +iα , where α =
4 2
⎛b⎞
Example: If ( a + ib ) = m x +iy , prove that one of the values of
b y
x
(
is 2 tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ ÷ log a 2 + b 2
⎝a⎠
)
Solution: Taking logarithms, ( a + ib ) = m x +iy gives p log ( a + ib ) = ( x + iy ) log m
p
⎛1 b⎞
p ⎜ log ( a 2 + b 2 ) + i tan −1 ⎟ = x log m + iy log m
⎝2 a⎠
Equating real and imaginary parts from both sides, we get
log ( a 2 + b 2 ) = x log m
p b
(i) p tan −1 = y log m (ii)
2 a
⎛b⎞
⎜ ⎟
y
Division of (ii) by (i) gives = 2 tan −1 ⎝a⎠
x log a 2 + b 2 ( )
i .... ∞ πA B
Example: If i i = A + iB prove that tan = and A2 + B 2 = e − Bπ
2 A
i .... ∞
Solution: i i = A + iB i.e., i A+ iB = A + iB
π π⎞
( A+ iB ) log⎛⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
A + iB = e( A+iB ) log i = e ⎝ 2 2⎠
iπ
⎡ ⎛ iπ2 ⎞ ⎤ ( A+iB )⎛⎜⎝ 2 ⎞⎟⎠ − Bπ iπ A − Bπ
⎛ πA π A⎞
= exp ⎢( A + iB ) log ⎜ e ⎟ ⎥ = e = e .e = e 2 ⎜ cos
2 2
+ i sin ⎟
⎣⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
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Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
− Bπ − Bπ
πA πA
A=e 2
cos (i) B=e 2
sin (ii)
2 2
B πA
division of (ii) by (i) gives = tan
A 2
Squaring and adding (i) and (ii), A2 + B 2 = e − Bπ
⎛ a + ib ⎞ −1 ⎛ b ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ a + ib ⎞ ⎤
Example: Prove that log ⎜ ⎟ = 2i tan ⎜ ⎟ . Hence evaluate cos ⎢i log ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ a − ib ⎠ ⎝a⎠ ⎣ ⎝ a − ib ⎠ ⎦
b
Solution: Putting a = r cos θ , b = r sin θ so that θ = tan −1 , we have
a
⎛ a + ib ⎞ r ( cos θ + i sin θ )
= log ( eiθ + e − iθ ) = log e 2iθ = 2iθ = 2i tan −1
b
log ⎜ ⎟ = log
⎝ a − ib ⎠ r ( cos θ − i sin θ ) a
2
⎛b⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟
⎡ ⎛ a + ib ⎞ ⎤ 1 − tan θ
2
⎝ a ⎠ = a −b
2 2
Thus cos ⎢i log ⎜ ⎟⎥ = cos ⎡
⎣ i ( 2iθ ) ⎤
⎦ = cos 2θ = =
⎣ ⎝ a − ib ⎠ ⎦ 1 + tan 2 θ ⎛b⎞
2
a 2 + b2
1+ ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
Example: Separate into real and imaginary parts log sin ( x + iy )
Solution: log sin ( x + iy ) = log ( sin x cos iy + cos x sin iy )
= log ( sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y ) = log r ( cos θ + i sin θ )
where r cos θ = sin x cosh y and r sin θ = cos x sinh y
so that r = sin 2 x cosh 2 y + cos 2 x sinh 2 y
1 − cos 2 x 1 + cosh 2 y 1 + cos 2 x cosh 2 y − 1 ⎡1 ⎤

= . + + = ⎢ ( cosh 2 y − cos 2 x ) ⎥
2 2 2 2 ⎣2 ⎦
and θ = tan −1 ( cot x tanh y )
thus log sin ( x + iy ) = log ( reiθ ) = log r + iθ
1 ⎡1 ⎤
= log ⎢ ( cosh 2 y − cos 2 x ) ⎥ + i tan −1 ( cot x tanh y )
2 ⎣2 ⎦
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Example: Find all the roots of the equation
(i) sin z = cosh 4 (ii) sinh z = i
⎛π ⎞
Solution: (i) sin z = cosh 4 = cos 4i = sin ⎜ − 4i ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
n ⎛π ⎞
z = nπ + ( −1) ⎜ − 4i ⎟ If sin θ = sin α then θ = nπ + ( −1) α
n
∴ {∵
⎝2 ⎠
e z − e− z
(ii) i = sinh z =
2
(e − i) = 0
2
or e 2 z − 2ie z − 1 = 0 i.e. z
i.e., e z = i
iπ
iπ ⎛ 1⎞
or z = Logi = 2inπ + log i = 2inπ + log e 2 = 2inπ + = i ⎜ 2n + ⎟ π
2 ⎝ 2⎠
2.5 Summation of Series C + iS Method
This is the most general method and is applied to find the sum of a series of the form
a0 sin α + a1 sin (α + β ) + a2 sin (α + 2β ) + ...
a0 cos α + a1 cos (α + β ) + a2 cos (α + 2β ) + ...
Procedure (i) Put the given series S = (or C ) according as it is a series of sines for (or cosines)
Then writ e C (or S ) = a similar series of cosine (or sines)
If S = a0 sin α + a1 sin (α + β ) + a2 sin (α + 2β ) + ..
C = a0 cos α + a1 cos (α + β ) + a2 cos (α + 2β ) ...
(ii) Multiply the series of series by i and add to the series of cosine, so that
C + iS = a0 [ cos α + i sin α ] + a1 ⎡⎣cos (α + β ) + i sin (α + β ) ⎤⎦ + ...
= a0 eia + a1ei(α + β ) + a2ei(α + 2 β ) + ...

(iii) Sum up this last series using any of the following standard series:
x 2 x3
(1) Exponential series i.e., 1 + x + + + ...∞ = e x
2! 3!
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(2) Since, cosine, sinh or cosh series
x3 x5 x2 x4
i.e., x − + − ...∞ = sin x , 1− + − ...∞ = cos x
3! 5! 2! 4!
x3 x5 x2 x4
x+ + + ...∞ = sinh x, 1+ + + ...∞ = cosh x
3! 5! 2! 4!
(3) Logarithmic series
x 2 x3 ⎛ x 2 x3 ⎞
x− + − ...∞ = log (1 + x ) , − ⎜ x + + + ...∞ ⎟ = log (1 − x )
2 3 ⎝ 2 3 ⎠
(4) Gregory’s series
x3 x5 x3 x5 1 1+ x
x− + − ...∞ = tan −1 x, x + + + ...∞ = tanh −1 x = log
3 5 3 5 2 1− x
(5) Binomial series
n ( n − 1) n ( n − 1)( n − 2 )
x 3 + ...∞ = (1 + x )
n
1 + nx + x2 +
1.2 1.2.3
n ( n + 1) n ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
x3 + ...∞ = (1 + x )
−n
1 − nx + x2 −
2! 3!
n ( n + 1) n ( n + 1)( n + 2 )
x 3 + ...∞ = (1 − x )
−n
1 + nx + x2 +
2! 3!
(6) Geometric series
1− rn a
a + ar + ar 3 + ... to n terms = a , a + ar + ar 3 + ...∞ = , r <1
1− r 1− r
(iv) Finally express the sum thus obtained in the form A + iB so that by equating the real and
imaginary parts, we get C = A and S = B
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Series depending on exponential series
x2
Example: Sum the series sin α + x sin (α + β ) + sin (α + 2β ) + ...∞
2!
x2
Solution: Let S = sin α + x sin (α + β ) + sin (α + 2β ) + ...∞
2!
x2
C = cos α + x cos (α + β ) + cos (α + 2β ) + ...∞
2!
x2
C + iS = [ cos α + i sin α ] + x ⎡⎣ cos (α + β ) + i sin (α + β ) ⎤⎦ + ⎡ cos (α + 2β ) + i sin (α + 2β ) + ....∞ ⎤⎦
2! ⎣
iα i (α + β ) x 2 i (α + 2 β ) iα ⎡ xeiβ x 2 e 2iβ ⎤
= e + xe + .e + ...∞ = e ⎢1 + + + ...∞ ⎥
2! ⎣ 1! 2! ⎦
= eiα .e xe = eiα e x( cos β +i sin β ) = e x cos β + i(α + x sin β ) = e x cos β ei(α + x sin β )
iβ
= e x cos β ⎡⎣cos (α + x sin β ) + i sin (α + x sin β ) ⎤⎦
Equating imaginary parts from both sides, we have S = e x cos β sin (α + x sin β )
Series depending on logarithmic series

Example: Sum the series
1 1 1
sin 2 θ − sin 2θ sin 2 θ + sin 3θ sin 3 3θ − sin 4θ sin 4 θ + ...∞
2 3 4
1 1
Solution: Let S = sin θ .sin θ − sin 2θ .sin 2 θ + sin 3θ .sin 3 θ − ...∞
2 3
1 1
C = cos θ .sin θ − cos 2θ .sin 2 θ + cos 3θ .sin 3 θ − ...∞
2 3
e 2iθ sin 2 θ e3iθ sin 3 θ
C + iS = eiθ sin θ − + − ...∞ = log (1 + eiθ sin θ ) = log ⎡⎣1 + ( cos θ + i sin θ ) sin θ ⎤⎦
2 3
= log ⎡⎣1 + cos θ sin θ + i sin 2 θ ⎤⎦ [Put 1 + cos θ sin θ = r cos α ;sin 2 θ = r sin α ] ….(i)
= log r ( cos α + i sin α ) = log reiα = log r + iα
⎛ sin 2 θ ⎞
Equating imaginary parts, we have S = α = tan ⎜ ⎟
−1
⎝ 1 + cos θ sin θ ⎠
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Series depending on binomial series
Example: Find the sum to infinity of the series
1 1.3 1.3.5
1 − cos θ + cos 2θ − cos 3θ + ... ( −π < θ < π )
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1.3 1.3.5
Solution: Let C = 1 − cos θ + cos 2θ − cos 3θ + ...∞
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1.3 1.3.5
S = 0 − sin θ + sin 2θ − sin 3θ + ...∞
2 2.4 2.4.6
1 1.3 2iθ 1.3.5 3iθ
C + iS = 1 − eiθ + e − e − ...
2 2.4 2.4.6
1⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞
− ⎜ − − 1⎟ − ⎜ − − 1⎟⎜ − − 2 ⎟
⎛ 1⎞ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2iθ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ e3iθ + ..
= 1 + ⎜ − ⎟ eiθ + e +
⎝ 2 ⎠ 1.2 1.2.3
−1
−1 −1
⎛ θ θ θ ⎞2
(
= 1 + eiθ ) 2 = (1 + cos θ + i sin θ ) 2 = ⎜ 2 cos 2 + i.2sin cos ⎟
⎝ 2 2 2⎠
−1 −1 −1
⎛ θ ⎞2 ⎛ θ θ ⎞2 ⎛ θ ⎞2 ⎛ θ θ⎞
= ⎜ 2 cos ⎟ ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ = ⎜ 2 cos ⎟ ⎜ cos − i sin ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 4 4⎠
−1
⎛ θ ⎞2 θ
Equating real parts, we have C = ⎜ 2 cos ⎟ cos
⎝ 2⎠ 4
Approximations and Limits
sin θ 599
Example: If = , find an approximate value of θ in radians.
θ 600
sin θ 1
Solutions: Since = 1− which is nearly equal to 1
θ 600
θ3 θ5 sin θ θ2 θ4
We know that sin θ = θ − + + ... ∴ = 1− +
3! 5! θ 6 5!
omitting θ 4 and higher powers, we have
sin θ θ2 1 1
= 1− = 1− or θ 2 = . Hence θ = 0.1 radians.
θ 6 600 100
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⎛π ⎞
Example: Solve approximately sin ⎜ + θ ⎟ = 0.51
⎝6 ⎠
⎛π ⎞ π π 1⎛ θ2 ⎞ 3⎛ θ3 ⎞
Solution: sin ⎜ + θ ⎟ = sin cos θ + cos sin θ = ⎜1 − + ... ⎟ + ⎜ θ − + ... ⎟
⎝6 ⎠ 6 6 2⎝ 2! ⎠ 2 ⎝ 3! ⎠
1 3
= + θ , omitting θ 2 and higher powers of θ
2 2
1 3 1
Hence the given equation becomes, + θ = 0.51 or θ =
2 2 50 3
1 3
θ= radian = × 57.29 degree nearly = 39.70
50 3 150
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1+ i 3
Q1. The amplitude of is
3 +i
π π π π
(a) (b) − (c) (d) −
3 3 6 6
1 − ix
Q2. If = a + ib , then a 2 + b 2 is
1 + ix
(a) 1 (b) −1 (c) 0 (d) none of these
Q3. If z = 1 − cos θ + i sin θ , then z equals
θ θ θ θ
(a) 2sin (b) 2 cos (c) 2 sin (d) 2 cos
2 2 2 2
1
Q4. If z = , then z equals
( 2 + 3i )
2
1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) none of these
13 15 12
⎛π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
Q5. If xn = cos ⎜ n ⎟ + i sin ⎜ n ⎟
⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
Then the value of x1.x2 .x3 ..., up to infinity is
(a) −2 (b) +2 (c) −1 (d) +1
4
Q6. If z − = 2 , then the maximum value of z is
z
(a) 5 (b) 5 +1 (c) 5 −1 (d) none of these

14 ⎧
( 2k + 1) π + i sin ( 2k + 1) π ⎫
Q7. The value of 1 + ∑ ⎨cos ⎬ is
k =0 ⎩ 15 15 ⎭
(a) 0 (b) −1 (c) 1 (d) i
143





fiziks

The point representing complex number for which z + 4 − z − 4 = 8 lie on
2 2
Q8.
(a) a straight line parallel to x -axis

(b) a straight line parallel to y -axis
(c) a circle with centre as origin
(d) a circle with centre other than origin
6i −3i 1
Q9. If 4 3i −1 = x + iy , then
20 3 i
(a) x = 3, y = 1 (b) x = 1, y = 3
(c) x = 0, y = 3 (d) x = 0, y = 0
z −1
Q10. If the number is purely imaginary, then
z +1
(a) z = 1 (b) z > 1 (c) z < 1 (d) z > 2
⎛ 1+ i ⎞
n
Q11. The least positive integer n for which ⎜ ⎟ is real is…

⎝ 1− i ⎠
Q12. The value of i n + i n +1 + i n + 2 + i n + 3 is
( cos 3θ + i sin 3θ ) ( cos 4θ − i sin 4θ )

4 5
Q13. The value of is

( cos 4θ + i sin 4θ ) ( cos 5θ + i sin 5θ )
3 −4
Q14. For n = 6k , k ∈ z ,
n n
⎛ 1 − i 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 − i 3 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ has the value…
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
3 +i
Q15. If z = , then z 69 equals_________.
2
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Q16. If z = 4 + 2i , then
(a) The magnitude of z is 2 5 units
(b)The magnitude of z is 3 5 units

1
(c) The argument or amplitude of z is tan −1
3
1
(d) The argument or amplitude of z is tan −1
2
Q17. Consider a complex number z = 1 − 3 i
(a) The magnitude of z is 2 units
(b) The magnitude of z is 4 units
(c) The complex number z can be represented by a point 1, − 3 in the complex or Argand ( )
plane
(d) The complex number z can be represented by a point − 3, −1 in the complex plane. ( )
Q18. If z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = 1 + 2i then
(a) z1 + z2 is equal to 4 + 6i (b) z1 − z2 is equal to 1 + i
z1 8 1
(c) z1.z2 is equal to −4 + 7i (d) is equal to − i
z2 5 5
Q19. Pick out the correct statement (S)
(a) Addition of two complex number is commutative
(b) For any three complex numbers z1 , z2 and z3 we have ( z1 + z2 ) + z3 = z1 + ( z2 + z3 )
(c) For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 we have z1 ⋅ z2 = z2 ⋅ z1

(d) Multiplication of two complex number are not commutative
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Q20. Pick out the correct statement(s)
(a) Let z and z denote a complex number and its conjugate respectively then, z = z implies z
is purely imaginary
(b) Let z and z denote a complex number and its conjugate respectively then, z + z = 0 implies
z is purely imaginary
(c) In polar form the complex number z = 1 + i can be written as
⎛ π π⎞
2 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 4 4⎠
(d) In polar form the complex number 1 + i can be written as
⎛ π π⎞
2 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 3 3⎠
146





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Solutions
Ans. 1: (c)
Solution:
1+ i 3 1+ i 3
=
( )( )=2
3 −i 3 + 2i
=
3 1
+ i
3 +i 3 +i ( )( 3 − i) 4 2 2
Since both the real and complex parts are greater than zero, hence the argument is the acute angle
1
given by tan −1 2 = tan −1 1 = π
3 3 6
2
Ans. 2: (a)
1 − ix 1 + ix
Solution: a + ib = ⇒ a − ib =
1 + ix 1 − ix
1 − ix 1 + ix 1 + x2
∴ ( a + ib )( a − ib ) = . ⇒ a 2 + b2 = =1
1 + ix 1 − ix 1 + x2
Ans. 3: (c)
θ θ
Solution: z = (1 − cos θ ) + sin 2 θ = 2 − 2 cos θ = 4sin 2
2
= 2 sin
2 2
Ans. 4: (a)
1 1 1
Solution: z = = z =
2 + 3i
( )
2 2
22 + 32 13
Ans. 5: (c)
⎛ π π ⎞⎛ π π ⎞⎛ π π ⎞
Solution: x1.x2 .x3 .... to infinity = ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ ⎜ cos 2 + i sin 2 ⎟ ⎜ cos 3 + i sin 3 ⎟ ...∞
⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎝ 2 2 ⎠⎝ 2 2 ⎠
⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
⎛π π π ⎞ ⎛π π π ⎞ ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
= cos ⎜ + 2 + 3 + ... ⎟ + i sin ⎜ + 2 + 3 + ... ⎟ = cos ⎜ ⎟ + i sin ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝2 2 2 ⎠ 1
⎜ 1− ⎟
1
⎜ 1− ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= cos π + 2i sin π = −1
147





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Ans. 6: (b)
4 4 4 4
Solution: z = z − + ≤ z − +
z z z z
Using triangle in equinity
4 4
⇒ z ≤ 2+ since z − =2
z z
⇒ z − 2 z − 4 ≤ 0 ⇒ z −1 + 5
2
( )( z − 1 − 5 ) ≤ 0 ⇒ (1 − 5 ) ≤ z ≤ 1 + 5
Thus the maximum value of z is 1 + 5
Ans. 7: (c)
⎧ ( 2k + 1) π + i sin ( 2k + 1) π ⎫
14
Solution: 1 + ∑ ⎨cos ⎬
k =0 ⎩ 15 15 ⎭
14 ( 2 k +1)π 14 π
= 1+ ∑ e = 1 + ∑ α 2 k +1 ,
i i
15
where α = e 15
k =0 k =0
⎛ 1 − (α 2 )15 ⎞
= 1 + (α + α 3 + α 5 + ...α 29 ) = 1+ α ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1−α 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
⎛ 1 − α 30 ⎞ ⎛ 1 −1 ⎞
= 1+ α ⎜ 2 ⎟
= 1+ α ⎜ 2 ⎟
=1 ⎡⎣since α 30 = ei 2π = 1⎤⎦
⎝ 1−α ⎠ ⎝ 1−α ⎠
Ans. 8: (b)
Solution: Let z = x + iy , then
z + 4 − z − 4 = 8 ⇒ 4 Re ( 4 z ) = 8
2 2
where Re ( 4z ) is the real part of the complex number 4 z
1 1
⇒ Re ( z ) = ⇒ x = , which is a straight line parallel to the y -axis.
2 2
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Ans. 9: (d)
Solution: we have
6i −3i 1 6i 0 1
4 3i −1 = 4 0 −1 (Applying C2 → C2 + 3iC2 )
20 3 i 20 0 i
= 0 = 0 + 0i
∴ x = 0, y = 0
Ans. 10: (a)
z −1
Solution: we have: is purely imaginary
z +1
z −1 π ⎛ z-1 ⎞ π
⇒ argument of is ± ⇒ arg ⎜ ⎟=±
z +1 2 ⎝ z+1 ⎠ 2
⇒ z lies on a circle having (1, 0 ) and ( −1, 0 ) as the end point of a diameter.
⇒ z lies on a circle with centre at the origin and radius are unit
⇒ z lies on z = 1 ⇒ z = 1

Ans. 11: 2
Solution: we have
n
⎛ 1 + i ⎞ ⎛ (1 + i )(1 + i ) ⎞ ⎛ (1 + i ) ⎞
n n2
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ = i n . Clearly, it is real for n = 2

⎝ − ⎠ ⎝( − )( ) ⎠ ⎝
+ ⎜ − ⎟
2
1 i 1 i 1 i 1 i
⎠
Ans. 12: 0
Solution: i n + i n +1 + i n + 2 + i n + 3 = i n (1 + i + i 2 + i 3 )
= i n [1 + i − 1 − i ] = 0
Ans. 13: 1
Solution: we have

4 12
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( cos 4θ − i sin 4θ ) = cos 20θ − i sin 20θ = ( cos θ + i sin θ )
5 −20

3 12
( cos 5θ + i sin 5θ ) = cos 20θ − i sin 20θ = ( cos θ + i sin θ )

−4 −20
Hence the value of given expression is 1

Ans. 14: 2
1− i 3 −1 − i 3 1− i 3 −1 − i 3
Solution: and are cube roots of unity. If we denote by ω then = ω2
2 3 2 3
n n
⎛ 1 − i 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 − i 3 ⎞
⎟⎟ = ω + (ω ) = ω + ω = (ω ) + (ω ) = 1 + 1 = 2
n 2k 4k
Hence ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜
n 2 6k 12 k 3 3
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Ans. 15: −i
π π⎞ 69π 69π ⎞ 23π 69π

69
⎛ ⎛
Solution: z 69 = ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ = ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟ = cos + i sin
⎝ 6 6⎠ ⎝ 6 6 ⎠ 2 6
23π π
= i sin = −i sin = −i
2 2
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Ans. 16: (a), (d)
Solution: The magnitude of a complex number
z = x + iy is given by z = x 2 + y 2
hence z = 42 + 22 = 20 = 2 5 units
The argument is given by
y
tan −1 , since both x & y > 0
x
2 1
Hence argument or amplitude is z = tan −1 = tan −1
4 2
Ans. 17: (a) and (c)
y
(1) ( )
2 2
Solution: The magnitude is z = + − 3 = 2 units.
(1, − 3 )
A complex number in the complex plane is represent by a point. x
The real part is plotted on the x -axis and imaginary part on the
y -axis. hence z = 1 − 3i can be represented by a point 1, − 3 ( )

in the complex plane.
Ans. 18: (b), (c) and (d)
Solution: z1 + z2 = ( 2 + 3i ) + (1 + 2i ) = 3 + 5i
z1 − z2 = ( 2 + 3i ) − (1 + 2i ) = 1 + i
z1.z2 = ( 2 + 3i ) . (1 + 2i ) = 2 + 4i + 3i − 6 (since i 2 = −1 )
= −4 + 7i
z1 1 1 1 − 2i 1 2
= ( 2 + 3i ) . , but = = − i
z2 (1 + 2i ) 1 + 2i 5 5 5
z1 ⎛1 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 6⎞ ⎛ 4 3⎞ 8 1
hence = ( 2 + 3i ) ⎜ − i ⎟ = ⎜ + ⎟ + i ⎜ − + ⎟ = − i
z2 ⎝5 5 ⎠ ⎝5 5⎠ ⎝ 5 5⎠ 5 5
151





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Ans. 19: (a), (b) and (c)
Solution: The first three options are true. Option (d) is false as multiplication of two complex number is
commutative
Ans. 20: (b) and (c)
y
Solution: Let z = x + iy , then z = x − iy
( x, y ) z
z = z ⇒ x + iy = x − iy ⇒ 2iy = 0 or y = 0
Thus z is purely real
θ
z + z = 0 ⇒ x + iy + x − iy = 0 ⇒ 2 x = 0 ⇒ x = 0 x
Thus z is purely imaginary

Any complex number in the complex plane can be written as
z = r ( cos θ + i sin θ )
where r is the modulus of the complex number and θ is the angle as shown in the figure
r= (1) + (1)
2 2
= 2
Imaginary part 1
tan θ = = =1
real part 1
π
∴ θ=
4
Hence the complex number z = 1 + i can be written as
⎛ π π⎞
z = 2 ⎜ cos + i sin ⎟
⎝ 4 4⎠
152





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Institute for CSIR‐UGC JRF/NET, GATE, IIT‐JAM, GRE in PHYSICAL SCIENCES

3. Fourier Series
Any piecewise smooth function defined on a finite interval has a Fourier series
expansion. A Fourier series is defined as an expansion of a periodic function or
representation of a function in a series of sines and cosines, such as
a0 ∞ ∞
f (x ) = + ∑ a n cos nx + ∑ bn sin nx ……. (1)
2 n =1 n =1
The coefficients a0 , an a and bn are the Fourier coefficients of f (x) defined as
1
∫ f ( x ) dx
2π
a0 =
π 0
2π
1
an =
π
∫ f ( x ) cos nx dx
0
1 2π
bn =
π
∫ f ( x ) sin nx dx
0
This result, of course, is subject to the requirement that the integrals exist. They do if
f ( x ) is piecewise continuous (or square integrable). Notice that a0 is singled out for
special treatment by the inclusion of the factor 1/ 2 . This is done so that equation (2) will
apply to all an , n = 0 as well as n > 0 .
The conditions imposed on f ( x ) to make Eq. (1) valid, and the series convergent, are
that f ( x ) has only a finite number of finite discontinuities and only a finite number of
extreme values, maxima, and minima in the interval [ 0, 2π ] . Functions satisfying these
conditions are called piecewise regular. The conditions are known as the Dirichlet
conditions.

Head office: Branch office:

fiziks, H.No. 23, G.F, Jia Sarai, Anand Institute of Mathematics, 153



Website: http://www.physicsbyfiziks.com
fiziks

The Fourier series of f ( x ) on the interval ( − L, L ) is
∞
a0 ⎛ ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎞
f ( x) =
2
+ ∑ ⎜ an cos ⎜⎝
n =1⎝ L ⎠
⎟ + bn sin ⎜
⎝ L ⎠⎠
⎟⎟
⎛ nπ x ⎞
L
∫
1
where an = f ( x ) cos ⎜ ⎟ dx , ( n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …)
L −L ⎝ L ⎠
⎛ nπ x ⎞
L
∫
1
and bn = f ( x ) sin ⎜ ⎟ dx , ( n = 1, 2, 3, …)
L −L ⎝ L ⎠
The {an , bn } are the Fourier coefficients of f ( x ) .
Note that the cosine functions (and the function 1) are even, while the sine functions are
odd.
If f ( x ) is even f ( − x ) = + f ( x ) for all x , then bn = 0 for all n , leaving a Fourier
cosine series (and perhaps a constant term) only for f ( x ) .
If f ( x ) is odd f ( − x ) = − f ( x ) for all x , then an = 0 for all n , leaving a Fourier sine
series only for f ( x ) .
3.1 Half-Range Fourier Series

A Fourier series for f ( x ) , valid on [ 0, L ] , may be constructed by extension of the
domain to [ − L, L ] .
∞
An odd extension leads to a Fourier sine series: f ( x ) =
∑ b sin ⎛⎜⎝ nπLx ⎞⎟⎠
n =1
n
∫
2 ⎛ nπ x ⎞
where bn = f ( x ) sin ⎜ ⎟ dx , ( n = 1, 2, 3, …)
L ⎝ L ⎠
0





fiziks

An even extension leads to a Fourier cosine series:
∞
a
f ( x) = 0 +
2 ∑ a cos ⎛⎜⎝ nπLx ⎞⎟⎠
n =1
n
∫
2 ⎛ nπ x ⎞
where an = f ( x ) cos ⎜ ⎟ dx , ( n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …)
L ⎝ L ⎠
0
and there is automatic continuity of the Fourier cosine series at x = 0 and at x = ± L .

The Fourier series of a periodic function f ( t ) of period T can be written as a sum of
sines and cosines as
∞
⎛ 2πnt ⎞ ∞ ⎛ 2πnt ⎞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos⎜ ⎟ + ∑ bn sin ⎜ ⎟
n =1 ⎝ T ⎠ n =1 ⎝ T ⎠
Where, a0 represents the average value of the function, and is calculated by:
1 T
a0 =
T ∫ f ( t ) dt
0
T
⎛ 2π nt ⎞
∫ f (t ) cos ⎜⎝
2
The an coefficients can be calculated by the formula: an = dt
T T ⎟⎠
0
T
⎛ 2π nt ⎞
∫ f (t )sin ⎜⎝
2
The bn coefficients can be calculated by the formula: bn = dt
T T ⎟⎠
0





fiziks

Example: Find the Fourier series representing
f ( x ) = x, 0 < x < 2π
and sketch its graph from x = −4π to x = −4π
a0
Solution: Let f ( x ) = + a1 cos x + a 2 cos 2 x + b1 sin x + b2 sin 2 x + .....
2
2π
2π 2π 1 ⎡ x2 ⎤
f ( x )dx =
1 1
π ∫0 π ∫0
Hence a 0 = x dx = ⎢ ⎥ = 2π
π ⎣ 2 ⎦0
1 2π 1 2π
f ( x ) cos nx dx =
π∫ π∫
an = x cos nx dx
0 0
2π
1 ⎡ sin nx ⎛ cos nx ⎞⎤ 1 ⎡ cos 2n π 1 ⎤
− 2 ⎥ = 2 (1 − 1) = 0
1
= ⎢x − 1⎜ − ⎟⎥ = ⎢
π⎣ n ⎝ n ⎠⎦ 0
2
π⎣ n 2
n ⎦ n π
1 2π 1 2π
f ( x ) sin nx dx =
π∫ π∫
bn = x sin nxdx
0 0
2π
1 ⎡ ⎛ cos nx ⎞ ⎛ sin nx ⎞⎤ 1 ⎡ 2π cos 2n π ⎤ 2
= ⎢ x⎜ − ⎟ − 1⎜ − 2 ⎟⎥ = ⎢− ⎥ =−
π⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠⎦ 0 π⎣ n ⎦ n
Substituting the values of a 0 , a n , bn in (1), we get
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
x = π − 2⎢sin x + sin 2 x + sin 3 x + .....⎥
⎣ 2 3 ⎦
f (t )
X
− 4π − 2π 0 2π 4π





fiziks

Example: Given that f ( x ) = x + x for − π < x < π , find the Fourier expression of f(x).
2
π2 1 1 1
Deduce that = 1+ 2
+ 2 + 2 + .....
6 2 3 4
a0
Solution: Let x + x 2 = + a1 cos x + a 2 cos 2 x + .... + b1 sin x + b2 sin 2 x + ... ---(1)
2
f ( x ) dx = ∫ (x + x )dx
1 π 1 π
a0 = ∫
2
π π − π π −
π
1 ⎡ x2 x3 ⎤ 1 ⎡ π 2 π 3 π 2 π 3 ⎤ 2π 2
= ⎢ + ⎥ = ⎢ + − + ⎥=
π⎣2 3 ⎦ −π π ⎣ 2 3 2 3⎦ 3
( x + x ) cos nx
1 π 1 π
f ( x ) cos nx
π ∫π π∫π
an = dx = 2
dx
− −
π
1⎡ sin nx ⎛ cos nx ⎛ sin nx ⎞ ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢( x + x 2 ) − ( 2 x + 1) ⎜ − + ( 2) ⎜ − 3 ⎟ ⎟⎥
π⎣ n ⎝ n 2
⎝ n ⎠ ⎠ ⎦ −π
cos ( −nπ ) ⎤ 1 ⎡ cos nπ ⎤ 4 ( −1)

n
1⎡ cos nπ
= ⎢( 2π + 1) − ( −2π + 1) ⎥= ⎢⎣ 4π n 2 ⎥⎦ = n 2
π⎣ n 2
n2 ⎦ π
f (x )sin nx dx = ∫ (x + x )sin nx dx
1 π 1 π
bn = ∫
2
π π − π π −
π
1⎡ cos nx ⎤
(⎛ cos nx ⎞
= ⎢ x + x2 ⎜−
π⎣ n ⎠
) ⎛ sin nx ⎞
⎟ − (2 x + 1)⎜ − ⎟+2 3 ⎥
⎝ ⎝ n ⎠
2
n ⎦ −π
cos n π cos n π cos n π cos n π ⎤

=
1⎡
⎢ − π +π2 ( +2 ) + −π + π2 −2 ( )
π⎣ n n 3
n n 3 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ 2π ⎤
cos n π ⎥ = − (− 1)
2 n
= ⎢ −
π⎣ n ⎦ n





fiziks

π2 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
x + x2 = + 4 ⎢ − cos x + 2 cos 2 x − 2 cos 3x + ....⎥
3 ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
− 2⎢− sin x + sin 2 x − sin 3x + ....⎥ ---(2)
⎣ 2 3 ⎦
π2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
Put x = π in (2), π +π 2 = + 4 ⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥ ……………….(3)
3 ⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
π2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
Put x = −π , −π + π 2 = + 4 ⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥ …………..….(4)
3 ⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
2π 2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
Adding (3) and (4) 2π 2 = + 8⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥
3 ⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
4π 2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
= 8⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥
3 ⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
π2 1 1 1 ∞
1
6
= 1+ 2
+
2 3 42
+ 2
+ .... = ∑
n =1 n
2
.





fiziks

3.2 Functions defined in two or more sub-ranges
⎛ π
⎜ −1 for − π < x < −
2
⎜
π π
Example: Find the Fourier series of the function f ( x ) = ⎜ 0 for − <x<
⎜ 2 2
⎜
⎜⎜ +1 π
for < x<π
⎝ 2
f(x)
Solution:
1
π
−
−π 2
X′ π π
X
O
2
-1
a0
Let f ( x ) = + a1 cos x + a 2 cos 2 x + ..... + b1 sin x + b2 sin 2 x + .... ---(1)
2
π
−π π
2
1 ⎡ ⎛ −π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎤
a0 =
1
∫ (− 1)dx + 1 ∫ 0dx + 1 ∫ (1)dx
2 ⇒ a0 = ⎢ −⎜ + π ⎟ + ⎜ π − ⎟⎥ = 0
π −π π −π ππ π⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
2 2
−π
−π π
1 1 π −1 sin nx 2 1 sin nx
an =
π ∫ −π
2 − cos nxdx + ∫ cos nxdx ⇒ an =
π 2
π
π n −π π n
+
π
2
− 1 ⎛ − 1 ⎞ 1 (− 1)
an = ⎜ ⎟+ =0
π ⎝ n ⎠ π n
−π
−π π
1 1 π −1 ⎡ − cos nx ⎤ 2 1 ⎡ − cos nx ⎤
bn =
π ∫−π
2 − sin nxdx + ∫ sin nxdx ⇒ bn =
π 2
π +
π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ −π π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ π
2
−2 ( −1)
n
1 ⎡ 1
− ( −1) ⎤ − ( −1) =
n n
bn =
nπ ⎣ ⎦ nπ nπ





fiziks

⎡− π −π < x < 0
Example: Find the Fourier series for f(x), if f ( x ) = ⎢
⎣ x, 0< x<π
1 1 1 π2
Deduce that + + + ...... =
12 3 2 5 2 8
a0
Solution: Let f(x) f ( x ) = + a1 cos x + a 2 cos 2 x + .... + a n cos nx + ....
2
+ b1 sin x + b2 sin 2 x + .... + bn sin nx + .... ---(1)
π
∫ π f (x ) dx
1
a0 =
π −
Then a 0 =
1⎡ 0
∫
π ⎢⎣ −π
(
π
0
1
⎥⎦ π
0
[ π 1
π
( π
2
)
− π ) dx + ∫ x dx ⎤ = − π ( x )−π + x 2 / 2 0 = − π 2 + π 2 / 2 = − ; ] ( )
π
∫ π f (x )cos nx dx
1
an =
π −
π ⎡ ⎛ sin nx ⎞0 ⎛ x sin nx cos nx ⎞π ⎤

an = ⎡ ∫ ( −π ) cos nx dx + ∫ x cos nx dx ⎤ =
1 0 1
⎢ −π ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ + ⎟ ⎥
π ⎣⎢ −π 0 ⎥⎦ π ⎢⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ −π ⎝ n n 2 ⎠0 ⎥⎦
1⎡ 1⎤
= 0 +
1
cos nπ − =
1
(cos nπ − 1);
π ⎢⎣ n 2
n ⎥⎦ πn 2
2
π
f ( x )sin nx dx
1
π ∫π
bn =
−
1⎡ 0 π ⎡⎛ π cos nx ⎞0 ⎛ cos nx sin nx ⎞π ⎤

−π ) sin nx dx + ∫ x sin nx dx ⎤ =
1
bn =
⎢
⎣ ∫ ( ⎥
⎦
⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ −x + 2 ⎟ ⎥
π − π 0 π ⎢⎣⎝ n ⎠ −π ⎝ n n ⎠0 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡π π ⎤ 1
= (1 − cos n π ) − cos n π ⎥⎦ = π (1 − 2 cos nπ )
π ⎢⎣ n n
π 2⎛ cos 3 x cos 5 x ⎞ sin 2 x 3 sin 3x sin 4 x
f (x ) = − − ⎜ cos x + + + ...⎟ + 3 sin x − + − ---(2)
4 π⎝ 3 2
5 2
⎠ 2 3 4
π 2⎛ ⎞
Putting x = 0 in (2), we get f (0) = −
1 1
− ⎜1 + 2 + 2 + ....∞ ⎟
4 π⎝ 3 5 ⎠





fiziks

Now f(x) is discontinuous at x = 0.
But f (0 − 0) = −π and f (0 + 0 ) = 0 ∴ f (0) =

1
[ f (0 − 0) + f (0 + 0)] = −π / 2
2
π π 2⎡1 1 1 ⎤ π2 1 1 1
From (3), − =− − ⎢ + 2 + 2 + ....⎥ or = + 2 + 2 + ....
2 4 π ⎣1 3 5
2
⎦ 8 12
3 5
Example: Find the Fourier series expansion of the periodic function of period 2π
f (x ) = x 2 , −π ≤ x ≤ π
1 1 1 1
Hence, find the sum of the series 2
− 2 + 2 − 2 + ....
1 2 3 4
Solution: f (x ) = x 2 , −π ≤ x ≤ π
This is an even function bn = 0
π
π π 2 ⎡ x3 ⎤ 2π 2
∫ f (x ) dx = π ∫
2 2
a0 = x dx = ⎢ ⎥ =
2
π 0 0 π ⎣ 3 ⎦0 3
π 2 π
f (x ) cos nx dx = ∫ x
2
an = ∫ cos nx dx
2
π 0 π 0
2 ⎡ 2 ⎛ sin nx ⎞ ⎛ cos nx ⎞ ⎛ sin nx ⎞⎤

= ⎢ x ⎜ ⎟ − (2 x )⎜ − ⎟ + (2)⎜ − ⎟
π⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠
2
⎝ n 3 ⎠⎥⎦
2 ⎡ π 2 sin nπ 2π cos nπ 2innπ ⎤ 4(− 1)

n
= + − ⎥=
π ⎢⎣ n n2 n3 ⎦ n2
f (x )
− 3π −π π 3π
X
O





fiziks

a0
Fourier series is f ( x ) = + a1 cos x + a 2 cos 2 x + a3 cos 3 x + .... + a n cos nx + ....
2
π2 ⎡ cos x cos 2 x cos 3 x cos 4 x ⎤
x2 = − 4⎢ 2 − + − + ....⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
2 2 2
3 2 3 4
π2 ⎡1 1 1 1 ⎤
on putting x = 0, we have 0 = − 4 ⎢ 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 ....⎥
3 ⎣1 2 3 4 ⎦
1 1 1 1 π2
− + − .... =
12 2 2 32 4 2 12
Example: Find the Fourier sine series for the function
f ( x ) = e ax for − π ≤ x ≤ π
where a is constant.
e ax
Solution: ∫ e sin bx dx =
ax
[a sin bx − b cos bx]
a2 + b2
2
π∫
bn = e ax
sin nx dx
π
2 ⎡ e ax ⎤
= ⎢ 2 (a sin nx − n cos nx )⎥
π ⎣a + n 2
⎦0
2 ⎡ e aπ n ⎤
= ⎢ 2 + 2 ( a sin nπ − n cos nπ ) + 2 + 2 ⎥
π ⎣a n a n ⎦
2 ⎛ n ⎞⎡ 2n
2 ⎟⎣ (
− −1) e aπ + 1⎤ = 2 ⎡1 − ( −1)n e aπ ⎤
n
= ⎜ 2
π ⎝a +n ⎠ ⎦ ( a + n )π ⎣
2 ⎦
2(1 + e aπ ) 2.2.(1 − e aπ )
b1 = b2 =
(a 2 + 12 )π , (a 2 + 2 2 )π
2 ⎡ 1 + e aπ 2(1 − e aπ ) ⎤
e ax = ⎢ 2 2 sin x + sin 2 x + ....⎥
π ⎣ a +1 a +2
2 2
⎦





fiziks

Example: A periodic function of period 4 is defined as
f ( x) = x , −2< x< 2 f (x )
Find its Fourier series expansion −2
Solution: f (x ) = x −2 < x < 2
f ( x) = −x −2 < x < 0 X' X

−2 O 2
=x 0< x<2
1 c 1 0 1 2
a0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ ( − x ) dx + ∫ xdx
c −c 2 −2 2 0
2 0
1 ⎡ x2 ⎤ 1 ⎡ − x2 ⎤
⎥ = (4 − 0) + (0 + 4) = 2
1 1
= ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢
2 ⎣ 2 ⎦ 0 2 ⎣ 2 ⎦ −2 4 4
nπ x nπ x nπ x
f ( x ) cos dx + ∫ (− x ) cos
1 c 1 2 1 0
an = ∫
c −c c
dx = ∫ x cos
2 0 2 2 −2 2
dx
2
1⎡ ⎛ 2 nπ x ⎞ ⎛ nπ x ⎞⎤
⎟ − (1)⎜ − 2 2 cos
4
= ⎢ x⎜ ⎟
2 ⎠⎥⎦ 0
sin
2 ⎣ ⎝ nπ 2 ⎠ ⎝ nπ
0
1⎡ ⎛ 2 nπ x ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ nπ x ⎤
+ ⎢(− x )⎜ ⎟ − (− 1)⎜ − 2 2 ⎟ cos
2 ⎥⎦ − 2
sin
2⎣ ⎝ nπ 2 ⎠ ⎝ nπ ⎠
4 ⎤ 1⎡
=
1⎡
⎢ 0 +
4
(− 1) n
− ⎥ + ⎢ 0 −
4
+
4
(− 1)n ⎤⎥
2⎣ nπ
2 2
n π ⎦ 2⎣
2 2
nπ
2 2
nπ
2 2
⎦
=
1 4
2n π
2 2
[
(− 1)n − 1 − 1 + (− 1)n = 24 2 (− 1)n − 1
nπ
] [ ]
8
=− if n is odd
n π22
=0 if n is even





fiziks

bn = 0 since f ( x ) is even function
Fourier series is
a0 πx 2π x πx 2π x
f (x ) = + a1 cos + a 2 cos + .... + b1 sin + b2 sin + ....
2 c c c c
⎡ πx 3π x 5π x ⎤
cos cos cos
8 ⎢ 2 ⎥
f (x ) = 1 − 2 ⎢ 2 + 2 +
⎥
π ⎢ 1 2
3 2
5 2
⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
Example: Find the Fourier half-range cosine series of the function
f (t ) = 2t 0 < t <1
= 2(2 − t ) 1< t < 2
Solution: f ( t ) = 2t 0 < t <1
= 2(2 − t ) 1< t < 2
a0 πt 2π t 3π t
Let f (t ) = + a1 cos + a 2 cos + a 3 cos + ....
2 c c c
πt 2π t 3π t
+ b1 sin + b2 + b3 sin + .... ----(1)
c c c
Hence c = 2 , because it is half range series.
f (t )dt = ∫ 2t dt + ∫ 2(2 − t )dt

2 c 2 1 1 2
Hence a 0 = ∫
c 0 2 0 2 1
2
⎡ ⎛ t 2 ⎞⎤
= ⎡⎣t ⎤⎦ + ⎢ 2 ⎜ 2 t − ⎟ ⎥ = 1 + ( 8 − 4 − 4 + 1) = 2
2 1
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦1
0
2 c nπ t 2 1 nπ t 2 2 nπ t
an = ∫ f ( t ) cos dt = ∫ 2t cos dt + ∫ 2 ( 2 − t ) cos dt
c 0 2 2 0 2 2 1 2
1
⎡ ⎛ 2 nπ t ⎞ ⎛ n π t ⎞⎤
⎟ − (2)⎜ − 2 2 cos
4
= ⎢2t ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎠⎥⎦ 0
sin
⎣ ⎝ nπ 2 ⎠ ⎝ nπ





fiziks

2
⎡ ⎛ 2 nπ t ⎞ ⎛ n π t ⎞⎤
+ ⎢(4 − 2 t )⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − (− 2 )⎜ − 2 2 cos
4
sin ⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ nπ 2 ⎠ ⎝ nπ 2 ⎠⎦ 1
⎡ 4 nπ 8 nπ 8 ⎤ ⎡ 8 nπ 4 nπ 8 nπ ⎤
=⎢ sin + 2 2 cos − 2 2 ⎥ + ⎢0 − 2 2 cos − sin + 2 2 cos ⎥
⎣ nπ 2 nπ 2 nπ ⎦ ⎣ nπ 2 nπ 2 n π 2 ⎦
8 nπ 8 4 nπ 8 ⎡ nπ nπ nπ ⎤
= cos − 2 2 − sin = 2 2 ⎢cos 2 − 1 − sin 2 sin 2 ⎥
n π
2 2
2 nπ nπ 2 nπ ⎣ ⎦
8 ⎡ π⎤ 8 4
If n = 1 , a1 = 2 ⎢
0 −1− ⎥ = − 2 −
π ⎣ 2⎦ π π
If n = 2 , a2 =
8
[− 1 − 1] = − 16 4
=− 2
4π 2
4π 2
π
8 ⎡ 3π ⎤ 8 4
If n = 3 , a3 = 2 ⎢
0 −1− ⎥ = − 2 −
9π ⎣ 2⎦ 9π 3π
Putting the values of a 0 , a1 , a 2 , a3 ... in (1) we get
⎛ 8 4⎞ πt 4 2π t ⎛ 8 ⎞ 3π t
f (t ) = 1 − ⎜ 2 + ⎟ cos
4
− 2 cos + ⎜− 2 + ⎟ cos + ....
⎝π π⎠ 2 π 2 ⎝ 9π 3π ⎠ 2
Example: Find the Fourier series expansion of the periodic function of period 1.
f (x ) =
1 1
+ x, − < x ≤ 0
2 2
1 1
= − x, 0< x<
2 2
a0 πx 2π x
Solution: Let f (x ) = + a1 cos + a 2 cos + ....
2 c c
πx 2π x
+ b1 sin + b2 sin + .... ---(1)
c c
1
Here 2c = 1 or c=
2





fiziks

1 0 ⎛1 ⎞ 1/ 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
a 0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx =
1 c 1
c − c 1/ 2 ∫−1 / 2
⎜
⎝2
+ x ⎟dx +
⎠ 1/ 2 ∫ 0
⎜ − x ⎟dx
⎝2 ⎠
0 1/ 2
⎡ x x2 ⎤ ⎡ x x2 ⎤ ⎡1 1⎤ ⎡1 1⎤ 1
= 2⎢ + ⎥ + 2⎢ − ⎥ = 2⎢ − ⎥ + 2⎢ − ⎥ =
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ −1/ 2 ⎣ 2 2 ⎦0 ⎣4 8⎦ ⎣ 4 8⎦ 2
nπ x
f ( x ) cos
1 c
an = ∫
c −c c
dx
1 0 ⎛1 ⎞ nπ x 1 1/ 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ nπ x
=
1/ 2 ∫−1 / 2
⎜ + x ⎟ cos
⎝2 ⎠ 1/ 2
dx +
1/ 2 ∫0
⎜ − x ⎟ cos
⎝2 ⎠ 1/ 2
dx
0 ⎛1 ⎞ 1/ 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 2∫ ⎜ + x ⎟ cos 2n πx dx + 2∫ ⎜ − x ⎟ cos 2 n πx dx
⎝
−1 / 2 2
⎠ 0
⎝2 ⎠
0
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ sin 2n π x ⎛ cos 2n π x ⎞⎤
= 2⎢⎜ + x ⎟ − (1)⎜ − ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ 2n π ⎝ 4n 2π 2 ⎠⎦ −1 / 2
1/ 2
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ sin 2n π x ⎛ − cos 2 n π x ⎞⎤
+ 2 ⎢⎜ − x ⎟ − (− 1)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 nπ ⎝ 4n π
2 2
⎠⎦ 0
⎡ 1 (− 1) ⎤
n
⎡ (− 1)
n
1 ⎤ 1
= 2 ⎢0 + 2 2 − 2 2 ⎥ + 2 ⎢0 − 2 2 + 2 2 ⎥ = 2
⎡ 1 (− 1)n ⎤
⎢ 2 − 2 ⎥
⎣ 4n π 4n π ⎦ ⎣ 4n π 4n π ⎦ π ⎣n n ⎦
2
= if n is odd
n π2
2
=0 if n is even
nπ x
f ( x )sin
1 c
bn = ∫
c −c c
dx
1 0 ⎛1 ⎞ nπ x 1 1/ 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ nπ x
= ∫ ⎜
1 / 2 −1 / 2 ⎝ 2
+ x ⎟ sin
⎠ c
dx + ∫ ⎜
1/ 2 0 ⎝ 2
− x ⎟ sin
⎠ 1/ 2
dx
0 ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛1 ⎞
= 2∫ ⎜ + x ⎟ sin 2 n π x dx + 2 ∫ ⎜ − x ⎟ sin 2nπ x dx
⎝
−1 / 2 2
⎠ ⎝2 ⎠





fiziks

0
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ − cos 2 n π x⎞ ⎛ sin 2n π x ⎞⎤
= 2⎢⎜ + x ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − (− 1)⎜ − ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2n π ⎠ ⎝ 4n 2π 2 ⎠⎦ −1 / 2
1/ 2
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ − cos 2 n π x⎞ ⎛ sin 2n π x ⎞⎤
+ 2⎢⎜ − x ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − (− 1)⎜ − ⎟⎥
⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2n π ⎠ ⎝ 4n 2π 2 ⎠⎦ 0
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
= 2 ⎢− ⎥ + 2⎢ ⎥=0
⎣ 4n π ⎦ ⎣ 4n π ⎦
Substituting the values of a 0 , a1 , a 2 , a3 ...b1 , b2 , b3 .... in (1) we have
⎡ cos 2 π x cos 6 π x cos10 π x ⎤

f (x ) =
1 2
+ ⎢ 12 + + + ....⎥
4 π2 ⎣ 3 2
5 2
⎦
Example: Find the Fourier series corresponding to the function f(x) defined in (- 2, 2) as
follows
f ( x ) = 2 in − 2 ≤ x ≤ 0
= x in 0< x<2 f (x )
Solution: Here the interval is ( - 2, 2) and c = 2 2

1⎡ 0
( ) ∫0 x . dx⎤⎥⎦
1 c 2
c ∫−c 2 ⎢⎣ ∫− 2
a0 = f x dx = 2 . dx +
X′ X
1⎡ ⎛x ⎞ ⎤ 1
2
2
−2 O 2
= ⎢[2 x ]− 2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = [4 + 2] = 3
0
2⎢ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 0 ⎥⎦ 2
⎣
⎛ nπ x ⎞ 1⎡ 0 nπ x nπ x ⎤
f ( x ) cos⎜
1 c 2
an = ∫
c −c ⎝ c ⎠
⎟ dx = ⎢ ∫ 2 cos
2 ⎣ −2 2
dx + ∫ x cos
0 2
dx ⎥
⎦
1⎡ 4 ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎤
2
nπ x ⎞ ⎛ 2 nπ x
0
4
= ⎢ ⎜ sin ⎟ + x⎜ sin + 2 2 cos ⎟ ⎥
2 ⎢ nπ ⎝ 2 ⎠ − 2 ⎜⎝ n π 2 nπ 2 ⎟⎠ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦





fiziks

1⎡ 4 4 ⎤
= ⎢ 2 2 cos n π − 2 2 ⎥ = 2 2 (− 1) − 1
2 ⎣n π nπ ⎦ nπ
2 n
[ ]
4
=− when n is odd
n π2
2
=0 when n is even
nπ x nπ x nπ x
f ( x )sin
1 c 1 0 1 2
bn = ∫
c −c c
dx = ∫ 2 sin
2 −2 c
dx + ∫ x sin
2 0 2
dx
0 2
1⎡ ⎛ 2 n π x ⎞⎤ 1⎡ ⎛ 2 nπ x ⎞ nπ x ⎤
⎟⎟ + (1) 2 2 sin
4
= ⎢2⎜⎜ − cos ⎟⎟⎥ + ⎢ x⎜⎜ − cos ⎥
2 ⎣ ⎝ nπ 2 ⎠⎦ − 2 2 ⎣ ⎝ n π 2 ⎠ nπ 2 ⎦0
1⎡ 4 4 ⎤ 1⎡ 4 4 ⎤ 1⎡ 4 ⎤ 2
= ⎢− + cos nπ ⎥ + ⎢− cos nπ + 2 2 sin nπ ⎥ = ⎢− ⎥=−
2 ⎣ nπ nπ ⎦ 2 ⎣ nπ n π ⎦ 2 ⎣ nπ ⎦ nπ
a0 πx 2π x 3π x
f (x ) = + a1 cos + a 2 cos + a3 cos + ...
2 2 c c
πx 2π x 3π x
+ b1 sin + b2 sin + b3 sin + ...
c c c
3 4 ⎧1 πx 1 3π x ⎫
= − 2 ⎨ 2 cos + 2 cos + ....⎬
2 π ⎩1 2 3 2 ⎭
2 ⎧1 π x 1 2π x 1 3π x ⎫
− ⎨ sin + sin + sin + ...⎬
π ⎩1 2 2 2 3 2 ⎭
Example: Expand f(x) = ex in a cosine series over (0, 1).
Solution: f ( x ) = ex and c =1
2 c 2 1 x
( ) e dx = 2 ( e − 1)
c ∫0 1 ∫0
a0 = f x dx =
nπ x nπ x
f ( x ) cos
2 c 2 1
an = ∫
c 0 c
dx = ∫ e x cos
1 0 1
dx





fiziks

1
⎡ ex ⎤ ⎡ x
⎤
= 2⎢ 2 2 (n π sin n π x + cos n π x )⎥ = 2⎢ 2 e2 (n π sin n π + cos n π ) − 2 12 ⎥
⎣n π +1 ⎦0 ⎣n π +1 n π + 1⎦
=
n π
2
2
2
+1
[(− 1) e − 1]n
a0
f (x ) = + a1 cos π x + a 2 cos 2π x + a3 cos 3π x + .....
2
⎡ − e −1 e −1 − e −1 ⎤
e x = e − 1 + 2⎢ 2 cos π x + 2 cos 2π x + 2 cos 3π x + ......⎥
⎣π +1 4π + 1 9π + 1 ⎦
Example: By using the sine series for f(x) = 1 in 0 < x < π show that
π2 1 1 1
= 1+ 2
+ 2 + 2 + ....
8 3 5 7
Solution: sine series is f ( x ) = Σbn sin nx
π
∫ f (x )sin nx dx
2
bn =
π 0
π
2 − cos nx ⎞ −2 −2
(1) sin nx dx = ⎛⎜
2 π
∫ [cos nπ − 1] = ⎡⎣( −1) − 1⎤⎦
n
= ⎟ =
π 0 π ⎝ n ⎠0 nπ nπ
4
= if n is odd
nπ
=0 if n is even
Then, the sine series is
4 4 4 4
1= sin x + sin 3 x + sin 5 x + sin 7 x + ....
π 3π 5π 7π
∫ [ f (x )] dx = 2 [b ]
c c
+ b22 + b32 + b42 + b52 + ....
2 2
1
0
π ⎡⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎛ 4 ⎞ ⎤
2 2 2 2
π
∫ (1) dx = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ....⎥
2
0 2 ⎢⎣⎝ π ⎠ ⎝ 3π ⎠ ⎝ 5π ⎠ ⎝ 7π ⎠ ⎥⎦





fiziks

π
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞⎡ ⎤
[x]π0 16 1 1 1
= ⎜ ⎟⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + .....⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ π ⎠ ⎣ 3 5 7 ⎦
π ⎛ 16 ⎞ ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
π= ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + .....⎥
2 ⎝ π ⎠⎣ 3 5 7 ⎦
π2 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + .....
8 32 5 2 7 2
Example: Expand
⎧⎪ 0 ( −π < x < 0 )
f ( x) = ⎨ in a Fourier series.
⎪⎩ π − x ( 0 ≤ x < +π )
π π
f (x ) dx = ∫ (π − x ) dx
1 1 0 1
Solution: a0 =
π ∫π
− π ∫−π
0 dx +
π 0
π
1 ⎡ (π − x ) ⎤ π
2
= 0+ ⎢ ⎥ =
π ⎣ − 2 ⎦0 2
π π
f ( x ) cos nxdx (π − x ) cos nx dx
1 1
π ∫π ∫
an = = 0+
− π 0
1 ⎡ n(π − x )sin nx − cos nx ⎤ 1 − (− 1)

π n
= ⎢ ⎥ =
π⎣ n 2
⎦0 n 2π
π π
f ( x )sin nxdx (π − x )sin nx dx
1 1
π ∫π ∫
bn = = 0+
− π 0
1 ⎡ n(π − x ) cos nx − sin nx ⎤

π
1
= =
π ⎢⎣ −n 2 ⎥⎦
0 n
Therefore the Fourier series for f (x) is
⎛ 1 − (− 1)n
π ∞ ⎞
f ( x) = + ∑ ⎜⎜ cos nx +
1
sin nx ⎟
⎟ (− π < x < +π )
4 n =1 ⎝ n 2π n ⎠





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3.3 Complex Notation for Fourier series
a0 ∞ ∞
The Fourier series f (x ) = + ∑ a n cos nx + ∑ bn sin nx
2 n =1 n =1
can be written in complex form as

∞ π
f (x ) =
1
∑ cn e inx
n = −∞
where c n =
2π ∫π f ( x)e
−inx
dx
−
and
c0 =
1
a0 cn =
1
(a n − ibn ) c−n =
1
(a n + ibn ) n = 1, 2,3,...
2 2 2
a 0 = 2c0 a n = (c n + c − n ) bn = i(c n − c − n ) n = 1, 2,3,...
Properties of Fourier Series

Convergence
It might be noted, first that our Fourier series should not be expected to be uniformly
convergent if it represents a discontinuous function. A uniformly convergent series of
continuous function ( sin nx, cos nx ) always yields a continuous function. If, however,
(a) f ( x ) is continuous, − π ≤ x ≤ π ;
(b) f (−π ) = f (π ) ;
(c) f ′( x) is sectionally continuous,
The Fourier series for f ( x ) will converge uniformly. These restrictions do not demand
that f ( x ) be periodic, but they will satisfied by continuous, differentiable, periodic
function (period of 2π ).





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Integration
Term-by-term integration of the series
a0 ∞
f ( x) = + ∑ (a n cos nx + bn sin nx). ................ (a)
2 n =1
x ∞ ∞ x x
x a x a b
yields ∫ f ( x)dx = 0 + ∑ n sin nx − ∑ n cos nx .
n =1 n n =1 n
x0 2 x0 x0 x0
Clearly, the effect of integration is to place an additional power of n in the denominator

of each coefficient. This results in more rapid convergence than before. Consequently, a
convergent Fourier series may always be integrated term by term, the resulting series
converging uniformly to the integral of the original function. Indeed, term-by-term
integration may be valid even if the original series is not itself convergent! The function
f ( x ) need only be integrable.
Strictly speaking, Eq. (a) may be a Fourier series; that is , if a0 ≠ 0 , there will be a term
1 x
2
a0 x . However, ∫
x0
f ( x) − 12 a0 x will still be a Fourier series.
Differentiation
The situation regarding differentiation is quite different from that of integration. Consider
the series for
f ( x ) = x, −π < x < π .
We readily find that the Fourier series is
∞
sin nx
x = 2∑ (−1) n +1 , −π < x < π .
n =1 n
∞
Differentiating term by term, we obtain 1 = 2∑ (−1) n +1 cos nx, which is not convergent.
n =1





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For a triangular wave which the convergence is more rapid (and uniform),
π 4 ∞
cos nx
f ( x) =
2
− ∑
π n =1, odd n 2
.
Differentiating term by term

∞
4 sin nx
f ′( x) = ∑
π n =1, odd n
.
which is the Fourier expansion of a square wave

⎧ 1, 0 < x <π,
f ′( x) = ⎨
⎩− 1, − π < x < 0.
As the inverse of integration, the operation of differentiation has placed an additional
factor n in the numerator of each term. This reduces the rate of convergence and may, as
in the first case mentioned, render the differentiated series divergent.
In general, term-by-term differentiation is permissible under the same conditions listed
for uniform convergence.





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Q1. A Fourier series is defined as an expansion of a function in a series of sines and cosines,
a0 ∞ ∞
such as f (x ) = + ∑ a n cos nx + ∑ bn sin nx
2 n =1 n =1
Consider a function f ( x ) = x + x 2 for − π < x < π . Which of the following is correct

statement?
π2 1 1 1 π2 1 1 1
(a) = 1 − 2 + 2 − 2 + ..... (b) = −1 + 2
− 2 + 2 − .....
6 2 3 4 6 2 3 4
π2 1 1 1 π2 1⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
(c) = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ..... (d) = ⎜1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + .... ⎟.
6 2 3 4 6 2⎝ 2 3 4 ⎠
⎧ −k − π < x ≤ 0,
Q2. Consider the function f (x) = ⎨ and f ( x + 2π ) = f ( x )
⎩+k 0 < x < π
The Fourier series which represents the above function has
(a) Sine terms only (b) Cosine terms only
(c) Sine terms and constant (d) Cosine terms and constant.
Q3. The function f ( x) = x 2 ; − π < x < π has a Fourier series representation
x =2 π2
+4∑
(− 1)
∞
n
cos nx .
3 n =1 n2
∞
1
Using this one obtain the value of value of ∑n
n =1
2
as
π2 π2
(a) 2π 2 (b) π 2 (c) (d)
3 6





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( −1)
n
l 2 4l 2 ∞
⎛ nπ x ⎞
Q4. The Fourier series expansion of x = + 2
3 π
2
∑
n =1 n 2
cos ⎜
⎝ l ⎠
⎟
1 1 1 1
Then − + − + .... =
12 22 32 42
π2 π2 π2 π2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
8 4 3 12
a0 ∞
Q5. For the Fourier series + ∑ an ( cos nx + bn sin nx ) of the function
2 n =1
⎧1 −1 ≤ x < 0
⎪1
⎪
f ( x) = ⎨ x=0 on [ −1,1]
⎪2
⎪⎩ x 0 < x ≤1
The value of a0 is
3 1
(a) (b) 0 (c) (d) 1
2 2
a0 ∞
Q6. For the Fourier series + ∑ an ( cos nx + bn sin nx ) of the function
2 n =1
⎧− k for − π < x < 0

f (x ) = ⎨
⎩k for 0 < x < π
π
then the value of is
4
1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) 1 + − + − .... (b) 1 − + − + ....
3 5 7 3 5 7
1 1 1 1 1 1
(c) 1 − + − + .... (d) 1 + − + − ....
2 4 6 2 4 6





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⎧ −π
⎪ −1 −π < x <
2
⎪
⎪ − π π
Q7. The Fourier coefficients bn of the function f ( x ) = ⎨0 <x< is,
⎪ 2 2
⎪ π
⎪1 < x<π
⎩ 2
2(− 1) (− 1)n 2(− 1) − 2(− 1)

n n n
(a) (b) (c) (d)
n nπ nπ nπ
Q8. Find the Fourier Series for f ( x ) = sin x for − π < x < π .
1 1 ⎡ sin x sin 3x sin 5 x ⎤ 2 4 ⎡1 1 ⎤

(a) − ⎢ + + + .....⎥ (b) − ⎢ cos 2 x + cos 4 x + ...⎥
2 π⎣ 1 3 5 ⎦ π π ⎣3 15 ⎦
4k ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ 4 ⎡1 1 ⎤
(c) ⎢ sin x + sin 3x + sin 5 x + ....⎥ (d) − ⎢ cos 2 x + cos 4 x + ...⎥
π ⎣1 3 5 ⎦ π ⎣3 15 ⎦
Q9. The function f(x) = x2, −π < x < π has a Fourier series representation
x = 2 π2
+4∑
(− 1)
∞
n
cos nx .
3 n =1 n2
1
Using this one obtain the value of value of ∑ as
(2n − 1) 2
π2 π2 π2 π2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 12 4 3
Q10. The Fourier coefficient bn of the function f ( x ) = x 3 ; − π < x < π is
π ⎡ 6 π2⎤
(b) (− 1) 2⎢ 3 − ⎥
n 2
(a) (c) (d) 0
n ⎣n n ⎦ n





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⎧2 −2 < x < 0
Q11. Consider a periodic function f ( x ) = ⎨ . The Fourier coefficient a0 is
⎩x 0< x<2
_________.
ax
Q12. Consider a periodic function f ( x ) = , where 0 < x < 2π . The Fourier coefficient a n is
2π
_________.
Q13. A periodic function is defined as f ( x ) = 1 + x for the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 . The Fourier
coefficient a0 is ___________.
Q14. Consider a periodic function f ( x ) = x + 1 0 < x < π and Fourier series of f(x) is
a0 nπx nπx
represented by + ∑ (an cos + bn sin ) then b2 is ______________
2 l l
a0 ∞ ax
Q15. Fourier coefficient a n in the Fourier series + ∑( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) of f ( x ) = ,
2 n=1 2π
where 0 < x < 2π is __________.





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⎧ −π
⎪ −1 −π < x <
2
⎪
⎪ −π π
Q16. Consider the function f ( x ) = ⎨0 <x< .
⎪ 2 2
⎪ π
⎪1 < x<π
⎩ 2
which of the following is true for the Fourier coefficients
2 ( −1) 2 ( −1)
n n
(a) a0 = π (b) a n = 0 (c) bn = − (d) bn =

nπ nπ
a0
Q17. Fourier series of f ( x ) is represented by + ∑ (an cos nx + bn sin nx) . Which of the
2
⎧ π
⎪1 0 < x < 2
following is true for the Fourier coefficients of period function f ( x ) = ⎨ .
π
⎪0 < x<π
⎩ 2
2 2
(a) a0 = 1 (b) a n = (c) bn = (d) bn = 0
πn πn
Q18. Fourier series expansion of x = 2 π2

+4∑
(− 1)
∞
n
cos nx then
3 n =1 n2
π2 1 1 1 1 π2 ⎡1 1 1 1 ⎤
(a) = − + − + ............... (b) = ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥
12 12 22 32 42 6 ⎣1 2 3 4 ⎦
π2 1 1 1 1 π2 1 1 1
(c) = − + − + ............... (d) = − − + ...............
48 2 2 4 2 6 2 82 3 12 32 52





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⎧ 2 −2 < x < 0
Q19. Consider a periodic function f ( x ) = ⎨ . The Fourier series of f(x) is
⎩x 0 < x < 2
a0 nπx nπx
represented by + ∑ (an cos + bn sin ) then
2 l l
−4 −2 4
(a) a 0 = 3 (b) a n = (b) bn = (b) a n = −
nπ nπ n π2
2
⎧ 1, − 1 ≤ x < 0
Q20. If f ( x ) = ⎨ , and Fourier series of f(x) is represented
⎩− 2, 0 ≤ x < 1
a0 nπx nπx
by + ∑ (an cos + bn sin ) then which are true for Fourier coefficients?
2 l l
2
(a) a 0 = 0 (b) a n = 0 (b) a0 = −3 (b) bn =
nπ





fiziks

Solution
Ans. 1: (c)
a0
Solution: Let x + x 2 = + a1 cos x + a 2 cos 2 x + .... + b1 sin x + b2 sin 2 x + ... ---(1)
2
f ( x ) dx = ∫ (x + x )dx
1 π 1 π
a0 = ∫
2
π π − π π −
π
1 ⎡ x2 x3 ⎤ 1 ⎡ π 2 π 3 π 2 π 3 ⎤ 2π 2
= ⎢ + ⎥ = ⎢ + − + ⎥=
π⎣2 3 ⎦ −π π ⎣ 2 3 2 3⎦ 3
( x + x ) cos nx
1 π 1 π
f ( x ) cos nx dx =
π ∫π π∫π
an = 2
dx
− −
π
1⎡ sin nx ⎛ cos nx ⎛ sin nx ⎞ ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢( x + x 2 ) − ( 2 x + 1) ⎜ − + ( 2) ⎜ − 3 ⎟ ⎟⎥
π⎣ n ⎝ n 2
⎝ n ⎠ ⎠ ⎦ −π
cos ( −nπ ) ⎤ 1 ⎡ cos nπ ⎤ 4 ( −1)

n
1⎡ cos nπ
= ⎢( 2π + 1) − ( −2π + 1) ⎥= ⎢⎣ 4π n 2 ⎥⎦ = n 2
π⎣ n 2
n2 ⎦ π
bn =
1
π∫π −
π
f (x )sin nx dx =
1
π∫π
(x + x )sin nx dx
−
π
2
π
1⎡ cos nx ⎤
= ⎢(x + x 2 )⎜ −
⎛ cos nx ⎞ ⎛ sin nx ⎞
⎟ − (2 x + 1)⎜ − ⎟+2 3 ⎥
π⎣ ⎝ n ⎠ ⎝ n ⎠
2
n ⎦ −π
cos n π cos n π cos n π cos n π ⎤

− (π + π 2 ) + (− π + π 2 )
1⎡
= ⎢ +2 −2
π⎣ n n 3
n n 3 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡ 2π ⎤
cos n π ⎥ = − (− 1)
2 n
= ⎢ −
π⎣ n ⎦ n





fiziks

π 2
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
x + x2 = + 4 ⎢ − cos x + 2 cos 2 x − 2 cos 3x + ....⎥
3 ⎣ 2 3 ⎦
⎡ 1 1 ⎤
− 2⎢− sin x + sin 2 x − sin 3x + ....⎥ ---(2)
⎣ 2 3 ⎦
π2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
Put x = π in (2), π +π 2 = + 4 ⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥ ---(3)
3 ⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
π2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
Put x = −π , −π + π 2 = + 4 ⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥ ---(4)
3 ⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
2π 2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
Adding (3) and (4) 2π 2 = + 8⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥
3 ⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦
4π 2 ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤ π2 1 1 1 ∞
1
= 8⎢1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥ ⇒ = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + .... = ∑ 2 .
3 ⎣ 2 3 4 ⎦ 6 2 3 4 n =1 n
Ans. 2: (a)
[− k (π ) + k (π )] = 0 ,
π
1
(− k )dx + ∫ 1
0
π ∫π
Solution: a 0 = kdx = an = 0
− 0 π
− k (− cos nx ) k (− cos nx )
0 π
1 1 π
( −k ) sin nxdx +
0
bn =
π ∫π
− π ∫
0
k sin nxdx =
π n −π
+
π n 0
k ⎛ 1 − ( −1) ⎞ k ⎛ ( −1)n − 1 ⎞ 2k
n
⎜
π ⎜⎝ n
⎟−
⎟ π
⎜
⎜ n
⎟=
⎟ nπ
1 − ( −1)
n
( )
⎠ ⎝ ⎠
f (x ) =
2k
∑
(1 − (− 1) ) sin nx = 2k ⎡ 2 sin x + 2 sin 3x + 2 sin 5x + .....⎤
∞ n
π n =1 n π ⎢⎣ 1 3 5 ⎥⎦
4k ⎡1 ⎤
f (x ) =
1 1
⎢ sin x + sin 3x + sin 5 x + ....⎥
π ⎣1 3 5 ⎦
Ans. 3: (d)





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Solution: f ( x ) =
π 2 ∞
(− 1)
+ 4∑ 2 cos nx
n
3 n =1 n
π2 ⎡−1 1 −1 1 ⎤
x =
2
+ 4⎢ cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 4 x + ....⎥
3 ⎣ 12 2 3 4 ⎦
π2 ⎡ −1 1 −1 1 ⎤
x2 = + 4 ⎢ 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x + 2 cos 4 x − ...⎥
3 ⎣1 2 3 4 ⎦
π2
⎡1 1 1 1 ⎤ 2π 2 ∞
1 ∞
1 π2
at x = π , π −2
= 4 ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥ ⇒ =∑ 2 ⇒ ∑ =
⎣1 ⎦ 3.4 n =1 n n =1 n
2
3 2 3 4 6
Ans. 4: (d)
Solution: The given Fourier series expansion is
( −1)
n
l 2 4l 2 ∞
⎛ nπ x ⎞
x = + 2
2
3 π
∑
n =1 n 2
cos ⎜
⎝ l ⎠
⎟
( −1)
n
∞
l 2 4l 2
Substitute x = 0 in above equation 0 = + 2
3 π
∑n =1 n2
cos 0
( −1)
n
∞
l 2 4l 2
⇒0= + 2
3 π
∑
n =1 n2
1 4 ⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤
⇒0= + ⎢⎣ − 12 + 22 − 32 + 42 − ......⎥⎦
3 π2
1 4 ⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤ 1 1 1 1 π2
⇒= + 2 − + − +
⎢ 12 2 2 3 2 4 2 − ...... ⎥ ⇒ 12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + ...... = 12
3 π ⎣ ⎦
Ans. 5: (a)
Solution: The general Fourier series on [ − L, L ] is
+L
a0 ∞ ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎛ nπ x ⎞
f ( x) = + ∑ an cos ⎜ ⎟ + bn sin ⎜ ⎟ where a0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx
2 n −1 ⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ −L





fiziks

+1 0 1 0 1
1 3
∴ a0 = ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ 1dx + ∫ xdx =
L −1 −1 0 −1 0
2
Ans. 6: (b)
∫−π (− k )dx + ∫0 kdx = [− k (π ) + k (π )] = 0 ,

1 0 π1
Solution: a 0 = an = 0
π π
− k (− cos nx ) k (− cos nx )
0 π
1 1 π
∫ π ( −k ) sin nxdx + π ∫
0
bn = k sin nxdx = +
π − 0 π n −π π n 0
k ⎛ 1 − ( −1) ⎞ k ⎛ ( −1)n − 1 ⎞ 2k
n
⎜
π ⎜⎝ n
⎟−
⎟ π
⎜
⎜ n
⎟=
⎟ nπ
1 − ( −1)(n
)
⎠ ⎝ ⎠
f (x ) =
2k
∑
(1 − (− 1) ) sin nx = 2k ⎡ 2 sin x + 2 sin 3x + 2 sin 5x + .....⎤
∞ n
π n =1 n π ⎢⎣ 1 3 5 ⎥⎦
4k ⎡1 ⎤
f (x ) =
1 1
⎢ sin x + sin 3x + sin 5 x + ....⎥
π ⎣1 3 5 ⎦
f (x ) π =k
x=
2
4k ⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤ π ⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞
k= ⎢1 − + − + .....⎥ ⇒ = ⎜1 − + − + .....⎟
π ⎣ 3 5 7 ⎦ 4 ⎝ 3 5 7 9 ⎠
Ans. 7: (d)
π
−π π
2
1 ⎡ ⎛ −π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎤
Solution: a 0 =
1
∫ (− 1)dx + 1 ∫ 0dx + 1 ∫ (1)dx
2 ⇒ a0 = ⎢ −⎜ + π ⎟ + ⎜ π − ⎟⎥ = 0
π −π π −π ππ π⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
2 2
−π
−π π
an =
π ∫ −π
π 2
π
π n −π π n
+
π
2
− 1 ⎛ − 1 ⎞ 1 (− 1)
an = ⎜ ⎟+ =0
π ⎝ n ⎠ π n





fiziks

−π
−π π
1 1 π −1 ⎡ − cos nx ⎤ 2 1 ⎡ − cos nx ⎤
bn =
π ∫
−π
π 2
π +
π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ −π π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ π
2
−2 ( −1)
n
1 ⎡ 1
− ( −1) ⎤ − ( −1) =
n n
bn =
nπ ⎣ ⎦ nπ nπ
Ans. 8: (b)
[− cos x ]+ [− cos x ]
π
−1
0
1 1 1 π 4
∫π − sin xdx + π ∫ sin xdx =
0
Solution: a 0 = = , bn = 0
π π π −π
π
0
− 0
0 π
1 1
an =
π ∫ − sin x cos nx dx + π ∫ sinx cos nxdx
−π 0
π
−1
0
= ∫ [sin (1 + n )x + sin (1 − n )x]dx + 1 ∫ [sin (1 + n )x + sin (1 − n )x]dx
2π −π 2π 0
− 1 ⎡ − cos(1 + n )x cos(1 − n )x ⎤ 1 ⎡ − cos(1 + n )x cos(1 − n )x π ⎤

0
= ⎢ − ⎥+ ⎢ − ⎥
2π ⎢⎣ (1 + n ) (1 − n ) −π ⎥
⎦ 2π ⎢
⎣
(1 + n ) (1 − n ) 0 ⎥⎦
+ 1 ⎡ cos(1 + n )x cos(1 − n )x ⎧ cos(1 + n )x cos(1 − n )x ⎫ ⎤

0 π
= ⎢ + −⎨ + ⎬ ⎥
2π ⎢⎣ (1 + n ) (1 − n ) −π ⎩ (1 + n ) 1 − n ⎭ 0 ⎥⎦
=
1 ⎡ 1
+
1
−
(− 1)1+ n − (− 1)1−n − ⎧ (− 1)1+ n + (− 1)1−n − 1 − 1 ⎫⎤
⎢ ⎨ ⎬⎥
2π ⎢⎣1 + n 1 − n 1 + n 1− n ⎩ 1+ n 1 − n 1 + n 1 − n ⎭⎥⎦
⎡ 2 2(− 1) 2(− 1) ⎤ 1 ⎡1 − (− 1) 1 − (− 1) ⎤
1− n 1− n 1+ n 1− n
1 2
= ⎢ + − − ⎥ = ⎢ + ⎥
2π ⎣1 + n 1 − n 1+ n 1− n ⎦ π ⎣ 1+ n 1− n ⎦
n = 1, 3, 5, 9, ....
1 ⎡1 − (− 1) − n + n(− 1) + 1 − (− 1) + n − n(− 1) ⎤
1+ n 1+ n 1− n 1− n
= ⎢ ⎥
π⎣ 1− n2 ⎦





fiziks

=
1
(
π 1− n 2
)
[
2 + (− 1) (n − 1) − (− 1) (n + 1)
1+ n 1− n
]
n = 1 not exist
n=2=
1
[2 + −(1) + 3] = − 4 , n = 3 1 [2 + 2 − 4] = 0 ,
π (1 − 4) 3π π (1 − 9)
n=4=
1
[2 + −(3) + (5)] = − 4
π (1 − 16) 15π
4 ⎡1 ⎤
f (x ) =
2 1
− ⎢ cos 2 x + cos 4 x + ...⎥
π π ⎣3 15 ⎦
Ans. 9: (b)
Solution: f ( x ) =
π2
+ 4∑
∞
(− 1)n cos nx
3 n =1 n2
π2 ⎡−1 1 −1 1 ⎤
x2 = + 4⎢ cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 4 x + ....⎥
3 ⎣ 12 2 3 4 ⎦
π2 ⎡ −1 1 −1 1 ⎤
x2 = + 4 ⎢ 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x + 2 cos 4 x − ...⎥
3 ⎣1 2 3 4 ⎦
at x = 0
−π 2 ⎡ −1 1 1 1 ⎤
= ⎢ 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 ......⎥
12 ⎣ 1 2 3 4 ⎦
π2 ⎛1 1 1 1 ⎞ 1
⇒ = ⎜ 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 .....⎟ = ∑
12 ⎝ 1 2 3 4 ⎠ (2n − 1) 2
Ans. 10: (b)
π
1 x3 ( − cos nx )
π π ( − cos nx ) dx
Solution: bn = ∫ x sin nx dx = 3
− ∫ 3x 2
π −π πn −π
−π πn
=
−1 3
n
[ 3 π
π (− 1)n + π 3 (− 1)n + ∫ x 2 cos nxdx
n −π
]





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1 ⎡ −2π ( −1) ⎤ 1 ⎡12π ( −1) ⎤ ⎡12(− 1) π 2 2(− 1) ⎤
3 n n n n
= ⎢ ⎥+ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ − ⎥
π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ π ⎢⎣ n3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ n
3
n ⎦
⎡ 6 π2⎤
= (− 1)n 2⎢ 3 − ⎥
⎣n n ⎦
Ans. 11: 3
1 0 12 14
Solution: a 0 = ∫ 2dx + ∫ xdx = 2 + =3
2 −2 20 22
Ans. 12: 0
2π 2π
a ⎡ x sin nx ⎤
2π
1 a cos nx a
Solution: a n = ∫0 x cos nxdx = ⎢ + ⎥= [0] = 0
π 2π 2π 2 ⎣⎢ n 0 n2 0 ⎦⎥ 2π
2
Ans. 13: 4
2
Solution: a 0 =
2
∫ (1 + x )dx = 2 + 4 = 4
20 2
Ans. 14: −1
2 ⎡ (− cos nx ) ⎤ 2 (− cos nx ) π
π π
sin nx
Solution: bn = ⎢x + ⎥+
π ⎢⎣ n 0 n2 ⎦ π
0 ⎥ n 0
=−
2π
π n π⎝ n ⎠
[ ]
(− 1)n + 2 ⎛⎜ − 1 ⎞⎟ (− 1)n − 1 = − ( −1)n 2 − 2
n nπ
(( −1) − 1)
n
2⎡ 2⎤
= 1+ n is odd
n ⎢⎣ π ⎥⎦
2
bn = − n is even
n
Ans. 15: 0





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2π 2π
a ⎡ x sin nx cos nx ⎤
2π
1 a a
Solution: a n = ∫ x cos nxdx = 2 ⎢
+ ⎥= [0] = 0
π 2π 0 2π ⎢⎣ n 0 n 2
0 ⎥⎦ 2π 2
Ans. 16: (b) and (c)

π
−π π 1 ⎡ ⎛ −π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞⎤
1
(− 1)dx + 1 1
∫ (1)dx ⇒ a 0 =
2
Solution: a0 = ∫−π2 ∫ 0dx + ⎢ −⎜ + π ⎟ + ⎜ π − ⎟⎥ = 0
π π −π π π π⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦
2 2
−π
−π π
an =
π ∫−π
π 2
π
π n −π π n
+
π
2
− 1 ⎛ − 1 ⎞ 1 (− 1)
an = ⎜ ⎟+ =0
π ⎝ n ⎠ π n
−π
−π π
1 1 π −1 ⎡ − cos nx ⎤ 2 1 ⎡ − cos nx ⎤
bn =
π ∫−π
π 2
π +
π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ −π π ⎢⎣ n ⎥⎦ π
2
−2 ( −1)
n
1 ⎡ 1
− ( −1) ⎤ − ( −1) =
n n
bn =
nπ ⎣ ⎦ nπ nπ
Ans. 17: (a), (b) and (c)
π
2
2
Solution: a 0 =
π ∫ 1dx = 1
0
π π
2 2
2 sin nx 2 2
a n = ∫ cos nxdx = = for n is odd
π 0 π n 0 πn
π
2 cos nx 2 2
bn = − =
π n 0 πn
Ans. 18: (a), (b) and (c)





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∞ (− 1)
n
π 2
Solution: f ( x ) = + 4 ∑ 2 cos nx
3 n =1 n
π2 ⎡ −1 1 −1 1 ⎤
x2 = + 4 ⎢ cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x + 2 cos 4 x + ....⎥
3 ⎣ 12 2 3 4 ⎦
π2 ⎡ −1 1 −1 1 ⎤
x =
2
+ 4 ⎢ 2 cos x + 2 cos 2 x + 2 cos 3 x + 2 cos 4 x − ...⎥
3 ⎣1 2 3 4 ⎦
For x = π
π2 ⎡1 1 1 1 ⎤ 2π 2 ∞
1 ∞
1 π2
π2 − = 4 ⎢ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ....⎥ ⇒ =∑ 2 ⇒ ∑ =
⎣1 ⎦ 3.4 n =1 n n =1 n
2
3 2 3 4 6
−π 2 ⎡ −1 1 1 1 ⎤ π2 ⎛ 1 1 1 1 ⎞
For x = 0 , = ⎢ 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 ......⎥ ⇒ = ⎜ 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 ..... ⎟
12 ⎣ 1 2 3 4 ⎦ 12 ⎝ 1 2 3 4 ⎠
π2 π2 ⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤
For x = π / 2 , − = 4⎢− 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 + ....⎥
4 3 ⎣ 2 4 6 8 ⎦
π2 1 1 1 1
= − + − + ...............
48 2 2 4 2 6 2 82
Ans. 19: (a), (c) and (d)
1 0 12 14
Solution: a 0 = ∫ 2dx + ∫ xdx = 2 + =3
2 −2 20 22
⎛ nπx ⎞ ⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎛ nπ x ⎞
2 0 2
f ( x ) cos⎜
1 1 1
an = ∫
2 −2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟dx = ∫ 2 cos ⎜
2 −2 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟ dx + ∫ x cos ⎜
20 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟ dx
2
nπ x nπ x nπ x
0 2
x sin
[ ]
sin cos
−4
= (− 1) − 1 2 2 = 2 2
2 1 2 + 1 2 1 n 4
= + for odd n
nπ 2 nπ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2
2 nπ nπ
2 2 ⎜ ⎟
−2 0 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 0





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2
nπ x ⎛ nπ x ⎞ nπ x
0
− cos x ⎜ − cos ⎟ 1 sin

nπx nπ
0 2
1
bn = ∫ 2 sin
1
dx + ∫ x sin dx = 2 +
1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ + 2
2 −2 2 20 2 nπ 2 nπ 2 ⎛ nπ ⎞ 2
2 2 ⎜ ⎟
−2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ 0
−2 2 ( −1) 2 ( −1)
n n
−2 ⎡ 1 −2
1 − ( −1) ⎤ + ( −2 )( −1) =
n n
= + − =
nπ ⎣ ⎦ nπ nπ nπ nπ nπ
Ans. 20: (b), (c) and (d)
1 0 1
1
f ( x ) dx = ∫ 1dx + ∫ − 2dx = −3
1 −∫1
Solution: a0 =
−1 0
nπx 2 sin nπx

0 1 0 1
an = ∫ 1cos nπ xdx + ∫ −2 cos nπ xdx = sin + =

1
[0 − 0] + 2 [0] = 0
−1 0
nπ −1 nπ 0 nπ nπ
− cos nπx − 2 cos nπ −1

[ ] [ ]
0 1
1 − (− 1) − (− 1)n − 1
n 2
bn = + =
nπ −1 nπ 0 nπ nπ
=
1
nπ
[ ] [
(− 1)n − 1 − 2 (− 1)n − 1 = − 1 (− 1)n − 1 = 2
nπ nπ nπ
] [ ]





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4. Calculus of Single and Multiple Variables
4.1 Limits
Definition:
The number A is said to be the limit of f ( x ) at x = a if for any arbitrary chosen positive
number ε , however small but not zero, there exists a corresponding number δ greater than zero
such that f ( x) − A < ε
For all values of x for which 0 < x − a < δ .
4.1.1 Right Hand and Left hand Limits

If x approaches a from larger values of x than a , then lim f ( x ) or f ( a + 0 ) .
x →a + 0
“Put a + h for x in f ( x ) and make h approaches zero”. In short, we have
f ( a + 0 ) = lim f ( a + h ) .
h→0
If x approaches a from smaller values of x than a , then lim f ( x ) or f ( a − 0 ) .

x→a −0
In this case f ( a − 0 ) = lim f ( a − h )

h →0
If both right hand and left hand limits of f ( x ) , as x → a , exist and are equal in value, their
common value, evidently, will be the limit of f ( x ) , as x → a .
4.1.2 Theorem of Limits

If f(x) and g(x) are two functions then
1. lim[ f ( x ) + g ( x )] = lim f ( x ) + lim g ( x ) 2. lim[ f (x ) − g ( x )] = lim f ( x ) − lim g ( x )
x →a x →a x→a x→a x→a x→a
f (x )
x →a
(x →a
)(
3. lim[ f ( x ).g ( x )] = lim f ( x ) . lim g ( x ) 4. lim
x→a
) x→a
f ( x ) lim
= x→a
g ( x ) lim g ( x )
x→a
( )
5. lim[kf ( x )] = k lim f ( x ) where k is constant
x →a x→a
6. lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x )
x→a x→a
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7. lim[ f ( x )] = lim f ( x )
x→a
p/q
[
p/q
x→a
]
: where p & q are integers
Some Important Expansions

x3 x5 x3 x5
1. sin x = x − + − ......... 2. sinh x = x + + + .........
3! 5! 3! 5!
x2 x4 x2 x4
3. cos x = 1 − + − ......... 4. cosh x = 1 + + + .........
2! 4! 2! 4!
1 2 x 2 x3
5. tan x = x + x 3 + x 5 + ......... 6. e x = 1 + x + + + .........
3 15 2! 3!
x 2 x3 x 2 x3 x 4
7. e − x = 1 − x + − + ......... 8. log e (1 + x ) = x − + − ....., if x < 1
2! 3! 2 3 4
⎧ x 2 x3 x 4 ⎫
9. log e (1 − x ) = − ⎨ x + + + .....⎬
⎩ 2 3 4 ⎭
4.1.3 L’Hospital’s Rule
0
If a function f ( x ) takes the form at x = a , then we say that f ( x ) is indeterminate at x = a .
0
If φ ( x ) and ψ ( x ) are functions of x such that φ ( a ) = 0 and ψ ( a ) = 0 , then
φ ( x) φ′( x)
lim = lim .
x→a ψ ( x ) x→a ψ ′ ( x )
Some Important Standard Limits

1. lim x = a 2. lim c = c : where c is constant c ∈ R
x→a x→a
xn − an
3. lim x n = a n ; n∈R 4. lim = na n −1 ; n ∈ N,a > 0
x→a x→a x−a
sin θ θ
5. lim =1 6. lim =1
θ →0 θ θ →0 sin θ
tan θ θ
7. lim =1 8. lim =1
θ →0 θ θ →0 tan θ
sin kθ tan kθ
9. lim =k 10. lim =k
θ →0 θ θ →0 θ
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1 − cos x 1 x2
11. lim = 12. lim =2
x →0 x2 2 x →0 1 − cos x
sin mx 0 m 1 − cos kx k 2
13. lim = 14. lim =
x →0 sin nx 0 n x →0 x2 2
15. lim cos x = 1; lim cos x = 0 16. lim sin x = 0; lim sin π / 2 = 1
x →0 x →π / 2 x →0 x →π / 2
a x −1 ex −1
17. lim = log a where a > 0 18. lim =1
x→a x x →a x
log(1 + x ) log a (1 + x )
19. lim = 1; lim = log a e a>0
x→a x x→a x
20. lim(1 + x ) = e; lim(1 + kx ) = ek
1/ x 1/ x
x →0 x →0
log(1 + kx ) cos ax − cos bx a 2 − b 2

21. lim =k 22. lim = 2
x →0 x x →0 cos cx − cos dx c −d2
⎛ cos ax − cos bx ⎞ b − a ⎛ 1 + ax ⎞
2 2 1/ x
23. lim⎜ ⎟ = 24. lim⎜ ⎟ = e a −b

x → 0 1 + bx
x →0
⎝ x ⎠ 2 ⎝ ⎠
b −c
⎛ a + bx ⎞
1/ x
1 1
25. lim⎜ ⎟ =e a
26. lim = 0; lim = 0
x → 0 a + cx
⎝ ⎠ x →∞ x x → −∞ x
1 1 1
27. lim 2
= 0; lim 2 = 0 28. lim = 0 where k >0
x →∞ x x → −∞ x x →∞ x k
29. lim k = k ; lim k = k where k is constant

x →∞ x → −∞
30. lim sin x = sin a 31. lim cos x = cos a

x→a x→a
x + x 2 + x 3 + ...x n − n n(n + 1) ax − bx ⎛a⎞

32. lim = 33. lim = log⎜ ⎟; a, b > 0
x →1 x −1 2 x →0 x ⎝b⎠
sec x − 1 1 cos ecx − 1

x n
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
34. lim = ; lim =1 35. lim⎜1 + 2 ⎟ = e x ; lim⎜1 + ⎟ = e
⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ n⎠
2
x →0 x 2 x → 0 x2 x →∞ n → ∞
h
⎛ a⎞
36. lim⎜1 + ⎟ = e a
h→∞
⎝ h⎠
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4.1.4 Continuity
Definition
f ( x ) is said to be continuous at x = a if R = L = V i.e.,
lim f ( a + h ) = lim f ( a − h ) = f ( a )
h→0 h →0
In case a function is not defined at x = a , i.e. f ( a ) does not exist or in case the R.H .L ≠ L.H .L ,
then we say that the function is discontinuous at x = a . Its graph will show a break at x = a .
Example:
x2 − a2
(i) f ( x ) = is discontinuous at x = a as f ( a ) does not exist.
x−a
1
(ii) f ( x ) = is discontinuous at x = 0 because
1 + 21/ x
1 1
R.H .L = lim = 0 and L.H .L = lim = 1 ⇒ R.H .L ≠ L.H .L
h →0 1 + 21/ h h → 0 1 + 21/ − h
(iii) f ( x ) = 1 − cos e1/ x is discontinuous at x = 0 as f ( 0 ) = 1 − cos e1/ 0 is undefined. It is
oscillating.
1 − cox
Example: Find the limits lim
x →0 x2
2
⎛x⎞ ⎛ ⎛ x⎞⎞
2sin 2 ⎜ ⎟
1 ⎜ ⎝⎜ 2 ⎠⎟ ⎟
sin
1 − cox ⎝ 2⎠ 1
Solution: lim ⇒ lim = lim ⎜ ⎟ =
x →0 x 2 x → 0 x 2 x → 0 2⎜ x ⎟ 2
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ln(1 + x)
Example: Find the limit lim
x →∞ 3x − 1
⎡ ln(1 + x) x ⎤ 1
Solution: ⇒ lim ⎢ . x ⎥=
x →∞ ⎣ x 3 − 1 ⎦ ln 3
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x
⎛ 1 ⎞
Example: Find the limit lim ⎜1 + 2 ⎟
x→∞ ⎝ x ⎠
1
⎡⎛x
1 ⎞ ⎤
x2 x
⎛ 1 ⎞
lim ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ⇒ lim ⎢⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ⎥ = e0 = 1
x→∞ ⎝ x ⎠ x→∞ ⎢⎝ x ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Example: Let the function f ( x ) be defined by
⎪⎧e , x is rational ⎪⎫
x
f ( x ) = ⎨ 1− x ⎬
⎩⎪e , x is irrational ⎭⎪
for x in ( 0,1) . Then
(a) f is continuous at every point in ( 0,1)
(b) f is discontinuous at every point in ( 0,1)
(c) f is discontinuous only at one point in ( 0,1)
(d) f is continuous only at one point in ( 0,1)
Ans. (d)
Solution: f ( x ) will be continuous at those points only where rational and irrational values
coincide
e
i.e. e x = e1− x ⇒ e x = . So f ( x ) is continuous at x = 1/ 2 only.
ex
n 1
Example Find the value of lim ∑ is
n →∞ k =1
n + kn
2
n 1 1 n 1
Solution: lim ∑ = lim ∑
n →∞ k =1 n 2 + kn n→∞ n k =1 1 + k
n
1
1+ x
= ∫0
1 1
1+ x
dx =
1/ 2 0
=2 ( 2 −1 )
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4.2 Differentiability
Definition
f ( x ) is said to be differentiable at x = a if R′ = L′ i.e,
f (a + h) − f (a) f (a − h) − f (a)
lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 −h
Example: If f ( x ) = e − x and g ( x ) = x e − x , then

2 2
(a) f and g are differentiable everywhere

(b) f is differentiable everywhere but g is not
(c) g is differentiable everywhere but f is not
(d) g is discontinuous at x = 0
Ans: (b)
Solution: f ( x) = e − x is differentiable but g ( x) = x e − x is not differentiable.

2 2
⎧⎪− xe − x ; x < 0
2
g ( x) = ⎨
− x2
⎪⎩ xe ; x > 0
2
( x −h)
Left hand Limit lim g ( x − h ) = − ( x − h ) e
h→0
2
( x+h)
Right hand Limit lim g ( x + h ) = ( x + h ) e ⇒ lim g ( x − h ) ≠ lim g ( x + h )
h→0 h →0 h →o
x
Example: Differentiate y =
1+ x
dx d (1 + x)
(1 + x) −x
dy dx dx = 1
Solution: =
dx (1 + x) 2
(1 + x)2
Example: Differentiate y = sin x
( )
d sin x d sin x d sin x d x 1 −1/ 2 1 −1/ 2
Solution: = . . ⇒ sin x cos x x
dx d sin x d x dx 2 2
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4.2.1 Tangents and Normal
Tangent at ( x, y ) to y = f ( x )
Let y = f ( x ) be a given curve and P ( x, y ) and Q( x + δx, y + δy ) be two
neighbouring points on it. Equation of the line PQ is
y + δy − y
Y−y= ( X − x ) or Y − y = δy ( X − x ) (x + δx, y + δy )
Q
x + δx − x δx
This line will be tangent to the given curve at P if Q → P which in tern
δy dy P ( x, y )
means that δx → 0 and we know that lim δx →0 =
δx dx
Therefore the equation of the tangent is Y − y =

dy
(X − x)
dx
Normal at ( x, y )
The normal at ( x, y ) being perpendicular to tangent will have its slope as − 1 and hence its
dy
dx
−1
equation is Y − y = (X − x)
dy dx
Geometrical meaning of dy dx
dy dx represents the slope of the tangent to the given curve y = f ( x ) at any point ( x, y )
dy
∴ = tanψ
dx
where ψ is the angle which the tangent to the curve makes with +ve direction of x-axis. In case
⎛ dy ⎞
we are to find the tangent at any point (x1 , y1 ) then ⎜ ⎟ at (x1 , y1 ) will
dy
i.e. the value of
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 ) dx
represent the slope of the tangent and hence its equation in this case will be
⎛ dy ⎞
y − y1 = ⎜ ⎟ (x − x1 )
⎝ dx ⎠ ( x1 , y1 )
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−1
Normal y − y1 = (x − x1 )
(dy dx )( x1 , y1 )
4.2.2 Condition for tangent to be parallel or perpendicular to x-axis
dy
If tangent is parallel to x-axis or normal is perpendicular to x-axis then =0
dx
If tangent is perpendicular to x-axis or normal is parallel to x-axis then
dy dx
= ∞ or =0
dx dy
4.2.3 Maxima and Minima
For the function y = f ( x ) at the maximum as well as minimum point the tangent is parallel to x-
axis so that its slope is zero.
dy dy
Calculate = 0 and solve for x. Suppose one root of = 0 is at x = a .
dx dx
d2y
If 2 = −ve for x = a , then maximum at x = a .
d x
d2y
If = + ve for x = a , then minimum at x = a .
d 2x
d2y d3y
If = 0 at x = a , then find .
d 2x d 3x
d3y
If ≠ 0 at x = a , neither maximum nor minimum at x = a .
d 3x
d3y d4y
If = 0 at x = a , then find .
d 3x d 4x
d4y d4y
If > 0 i.e +ve at x = a , then y is minimum at x = a and if < 0 i.e -ve at x = a , then y is
d 4x d 4x
maximum at x = a and so on.
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4.3 Partial Differentiation
If a derivative of function of several independent variable be found with respect to any one of
them, keeping the others as constants it is said to be partial derivative .the operation of finding
the partial derivative of function of more than one independent variable is called partial
differentiation.
∂u ∂u
If u = f ( x, y ) then ≡ f x and ≡ fy
∂x ∂y
∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂ 2u ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂ 2u
We call ⎜ ⎟ ≡ ≡ f and ⎜ ⎟≡ ≡ f yy ,
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x 2 ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂y 2
xx
∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂ 2u ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞ ∂ 2u
⎜ ⎟ ≡ ≡ f and ⎜ ⎟≡ ≡ f yx it is given that f xy = f yx
∂x ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂x∂y ∂y ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y∂x
xy
4.3.1 Euler Theorem of Homogeneous Function

∂u ∂u
If u is homogeneous function of x, and y of degree n then x +y = nu
∂x ∂y
∂f ∂f ∂f
For n variable function f = f ( x1 , x2 , x3 ......xn ) of degree n then x1 + x2 .......xn = nu
∂x ∂x2 ∂xn
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
Total derivative u = f ( x, y ) x = φ (t ) and y = ψ (t ) then = . + .
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
Differentiation of implicit functions f ( x, y ) = c be an implicit relation between x and y which
defines as a differential function of x then
∂f
df ∂f ∂f dy dy
0= = + . ⇒ = − ∂x
dx ∂x ∂x dx dx ∂f
∂y
Change in variable u = f ( x, y ) x = φ ( s, t ) y = φ ( s, t )
∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y
= . + . and = . + .
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s ∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t
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4.3.2 Maxima and Minima (of function of two independent variables)
The necessary condition that f ( x, y ) should have maximum or minimum at x = a, y = b is that
∂f ∂f
= 0, and =0
∂x x=a ∂y x=a
y =b y =b
Sufficient condition for maxima and minima

⎛ ∂2 f ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 f ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 f ⎞
Let r = ⎜ 2 ⎟ s=⎜ ⎟ t =⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ∂x ⎠ xy==ab ⎝ ∂x∂y ⎠ xy==ab ⎝ ∂y ⎠ xy==ab
Case 1-if f ( x, y ) will have maximum or minimum at x = a, y = b if rt > s 2 further f ( x, y ) is

maximum or minimum according as r in negative or positive.
Case 2-if f ( x, y ) will have maximum or minimum at x = a, y = b if rt < s 2 further f ( x, y ) is
saddle point .
Case 3 – if rt = s 2 this case is doubtful case and further advanced investigation is needed to
determined whether f ( x, y ) a maximum or minimum at or not .
(
Example: For what values of x and y , does the integral ∫x 6 − t − t 2 dt attain its maximum?
y
)
(
Solution: I ( x, y ) orf ( x, y ) = ∫x 6 − t − t 2 dt
y
)
( )
f x = − 6 − x − x 2 = x 2 + x − 6 = ( x + 3)( x − 2 ) , f y = 6 − y − y 2 = − ( y + 3)( y − 2 )
f x = 0 ⇒ x = 2, − 3 , f y = 0 ⇒ y = 2, − 3
so, stationary points are ( 2, 2 ) , ( 2, − 3) , ( −3, 2 ) & ( −3, −3)
f xx = 2 x + 1 , f yy = −2 y − 1 , f xy = 0
f xx f yy − ( f xy ) = − ( 2 x + 1)( 2 y + 1)
2
At x = −3 and y = 2 and f xx f yy − ( f xy ) > 0

2
so maximum value of f ( x, y ) is obtained at x = −3 and y = 2
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⎛ ∂x ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ⎞ ⎛ ∂z ⎞
Example: If z = z ( x, y ) then prove that ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = −1
⎝ ∂y ⎠ z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ y
⎛ ∂z ⎞ ⎛ ∂z ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ⎞
Solution: dz = ⎜ ⎟ dx + ⎜ ⎟ dy , dy = ⎜ ⎟ dx + ⎜ ⎟ dz
⎝ ∂x ⎠ y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ x
⎛ ∂z ⎞ ⎛ ∂z ⎞ ⎧⎛ ∂y ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ⎞ ⎫
dz = ⎜ ⎟ dx + ⎜ ⎟ ⎨⎜ ⎟ dx + ⎜ ⎟ dz ⎬
⎝ ∂x ⎠ y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ x ⎩⎝ ∂x ⎠ z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ x ⎭
⎛ ∂z ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ⎞ ⎛ ∂z ⎞ ⎛ ∂z ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ⎞
I = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ and ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝ ∂y ⎠ x ⎝ ∂z ⎠ y ⎝ ∂x ⎠ y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ z
⎛ ∂x ⎞ ⎛ ∂y ⎞ ⎛ ∂z ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = −1
⎝ ∂y ⎠ z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ y
Example: Find the first and second partial derivatives of z = x 3 + y 3 − 3axy and prove that
∂2 z ∂2 z
=
∂x∂y ∂x∂y
Solution: We have z = x3 + y 3 − 3axy

∂z ∂z
∴ = 3x 2 + 0 − 3ay (1) = 3x 2 − 3ay , and = 0 + 3 y 2 − 3ax (1) = 3 y 2 − 3ax
∂x ∂y
∂2 z ∂ ∂2 z ∂
Also = ( 3 x 2
− 3ay ) = 6 x , and = ( 3 x 2 − 3ay ) = −3a
∂x 2
∂x ∂x∂y ∂y
∂2 z ∂ ∂2 z ∂
∂y 2
=
∂y
( 3 y 2
− 3ax ) = 6 x and = ( 3 y 2 − 3ax ) = −3a
∂x∂y ∂x
∂2 z ∂2 z
We observe that =
∂x∂y ∂x∂y
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y x
Example: If u = x 2 tan −1 − y 2 tan −1 ,
x y
∂ 2u x2 − y2 ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
Show that = 2 and =
∂x∂y x + y 2 ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
∂u 1 1 ⎧⎪ −1 x 1 ⎛ − x ⎞ ⎫⎪
Solution: We have = x2 ⋅ − ⎨ 2 y tan + y 2
⋅ 2 ⎜ ⎟⎬
∂y 1 + ( y / x ) x ⎪⎩ 1 + ( x / y ) ⎝ y ⎠ ⎪⎭
2
y
x2 −1 x xy 2 x
= 3 − 2 y tan + = x − 2 y tan −1
x +y 3
y x +y 2 2
y
∂ 2u ∂ ⎧ x⎫ 1 1 2 y2 x2 − y2
∴ = ⎨ x − 2 y tan −1 ⎬ = 1− 2 y ⋅ = 1− 2 =
∂x∂y ∂x ⎩ 1+ ( x / y) y x + y 2 x2 + y 2
2
y⎭
∂u y
Similarly, = 2 x tan −1 − y
∂x x
∂ 2u ∂ ⎧ −1 y ⎫ x −y
2 2
and = ⎨2 x tan − y⎬ = 2 . Hence the result
∂y∂x ∂y ⎩ x ⎭ x +y
2
Example: If z = f ( x + ct ) + φ ( x − ct ) , prove that
∂2 z 2 ∂ z
2
= c
∂t 2 ∂x 2
Solution: We have
∂z ∂ ∂
= f ′ ( x + ct ) ⋅ ( x + ct ) + φ ′ ( x − ct ) ( x − ct ) = f ′ ( x + ct ) + φ ′ ( x − ct )
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂2 z
and = f ′′ ( x + ct ) + φ ′′ ( x − ct ) (i)
∂x 2
∂z ∂ ∂
Again = f ′ ( x + ct ) ( x + ct ) + φ ′ ( x − ct ) ( x − ct ) = cf ′ ( x − ct ) − cφ ′ ( x − ct )
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂2 z
and = c 2 f ′′ ( x + ct ) + c 2φ ′′ ( x − ct ) = c 2 ⎡⎣ f ′′ ( x + ct ) + φ ′′ ( x − ct ) ⎤⎦ (ii)
∂t 2
∂2 z 2 ∂ z
2
From (i) and (ii), it follows that = c .
∂t 2 ∂x 2
This is an important partial differential equation, known as wave equation.
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2
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ −9
(
Example: If u = log x + y + z − 3xyz , show that ⎜ + + ⎟ u =
3 3 3
)
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ( x + y + z)
2
∂u 3 x 2 − 3 yz ∂u 3 y 2 − 3 zx ∂u 3z 2 − 3xy
Solution: we have = 3 , = , =
∂x x + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz ∂y x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz ∂z x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3 xyz
∂u ∂u ∂u 3 ( x + y + z − xy − yz − zx )
2 2 2
∴ + + =
∂x ∂y ∂z x 3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz
=
(
3 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx ) =
3
( x + y + z)( x 2
+ y + z − xy − yz − zx )
2 2
x+ y+ z
2
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞⎛ ∂u ∂u ∂u ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
Now ⎜ + + ⎟ u = ⎜ + + ⎟⎜ + + ⎟=⎜ + + ⎟=⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ x + y + z ⎠
3 3 3 9
=− − − =−
( x + y + z)
2
( x + y + z)
2
( x + y + z ) ( x + y + z )2
Example: If u = f ( r ) and x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ , prove that
∂ 2u ∂ 2u 1
+ 2 = f ′′ ( r ) + f ′ ( r )
∂x 2
∂y r
∂u ∂r ∂ 2u ⎛ ∂r ⎞ ∂2r
2
Solution: we have = f ′ ( r ). and = f ′′ ( r ) . ⎜ ⎟ + f ′ ( r ) .

∂x ∂x ∂x 2 ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂x 2
2
∂ 2u ⎛ ∂r ⎞ ∂2r
Similarly, 2 = f ′′ ( r ) . ⎜ ⎟ + f ′ ( r ) . 2
∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂y
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎡⎛ ∂r ⎞ 2 ⎛ ∂r ⎞2 ⎤ ⎡ ∂2r ∂2r ⎤
∴ + = f ′′ ( r ) . ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ + ⎥ + f ′ ( r ) ⎢ 2 + 2⎥
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ⎢⎣⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦
∂r ∂r 1
now to find , etc, we write r = ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2
∂x ∂y
∂r x2
−1 r.1 − x. r−
∂r 1 2 ∂r 2 2
= (x + y ) ∂x = r = y
x
2 2
.2 x = and =
∂x 2 r ∂x 2 r2 r2 r3
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∂r y ∂ r x
2 2
Similarly, = and 2 = 3
∂y x ∂y r
∂r
Substituting the values of etc. in (i), we get
∂x
∂ 2u ∂ 2u ⎡ x2 y 2 ⎤ ⎡ y2 x2 ⎤ 1
+ = f ′′ ( ) ⎢ 2 2 ⎥ ( ) ⎢ 3 + 3 ⎥ = f ′′ ( r ) + f ′ ( r )
r + + f ′ r
∂x 2
∂y 2
⎣r r ⎦ ⎣r r ⎦ r
∂u
Example: Show that x + y
∂u
= 2u log u where log u =
( x3 + y 3 )
∂x ∂y ( 3x + 4 y )
3
⎛ y⎞
1+ ⎜ ⎟
x +y
3 3
⎝x⎠
Solution: Since z = log u = = x2 .
3x + 4 y ⎛ y⎞
3 + 4⎜ ⎟
⎝x⎠
∴ z is a homogeneous function of degree 2 in x and y .
By Euler’s theorem, we get
∂z ∂z
x +y = 2z (i)
∂x ∂y
∂z 1 ∂u ∂z 1 ∂u
But = and =
∂x u ∂x ∂y u ∂y
Hence (i) becomes
1 ∂u 1 ∂u ∂u ∂u
x. + y. = 2 log u or x +y = 2u log u
u ∂x u ∂y ∂x ∂y
Example: If z is a homogeneous function of degree n in x and y , show that
∂2 z ∂2 z 2 ∂ z
2
x2 + 2 xy + y = n ( n − 1) z
∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂z 2
∂z ∂z
Solution: By Euler’s theorem, x + y = nz (i)
∂x ∂y
∂ 2 z ∂z ∂2 z ∂z
Differentiating (i) partially w.r.t. x , we get x 2 + + y =n
∂x ∂x ∂x∂y ∂x
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∂ z
2
∂ z
2
∂z
x 2+y = ( n − 1) (ii)
∂y ∂x∂y ∂y
∂ 2 z ∂z ∂2 z ∂z
Again differentiating (i) partially w.r.t. y , we get x + +y 2 =n
∂y∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂2 z ∂2 z ∂z
x + y 2 = ( n − 1) (iii)
∂x∂y ∂y ∂y
Multiplying (ii) by x and (iii) by y and adding, we get
∂2 z ∂2 z 2 ∂ z
2
⎛ ∂z ∂z ⎞
x2 + 2 xy + y = ( n − 1) ⎜ x + y ⎟ = n ( n − 1) z (By (i))
∂x 2
∂x∂y ∂y 2
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
⎛x⎞ du
Example: Given u = sin ⎜ ⎟ , x = et and y = t 2 , find as a function of t. verify your result by
⎝ y⎠ dt
direct substitution.
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ⎛ x⎞1 t ⎛ x ⎞⎛ x ⎞
Solution: We have = . + . = ⎜ cos ⎟ .e + ⎜ cos ⎟⎜ − ⎟ 2t
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ⎝ y⎠ y ⎝ y ⎠⎝ y 2 ⎠
⎛ et ⎞ et ⎛ et ⎞ e t ⎧ ( t − 2 ) ⎫ t ⎛ et ⎞
= cos ⎜ 2 ⎟ 2
. − 2 cos . =
⎜ 2⎟ 3 ⎨ 3 ⎬ e cos ⎜ 2⎟
⎝t ⎠ t ⎝t ⎠ t ⎩ t ⎭ ⎝t ⎠
⎛x⎞ ⎛ et ⎞
Also u = sin ⎜ ⎟ = sin ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ y⎠ ⎝t ⎠
du ⎛ et ⎞ t 2 et − et .2t t − 2 t ⎛ et ⎞
∴ = cos ⎜ 2 ⎟ . 4
= 3
e cos ⎜ 2 ⎟ as before
dt ⎝t ⎠ t t ⎝t ⎠
Example: If x increases at the rate of 2 cm / sec at the instant when x = 3 cm . and .., at what
rate must y be changing in order that the function 2 xy − 3x 2 y shall be neither increasing nor
decreasing?
Solution: Let u = 2 xy − 3x 2 y , so that
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
= . + . = ( 2 y − 6 xy ) + ( 2 x − 3 x 2 )
dx dy
(i)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt dt dt
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dx du
when x = 3 and y = 1, = 2 , and u is neither increasing nor decreasing ,i.e., =0
dt dt
dy
∴ (i) becomes 0 = ( 2 − 6 × 3) 2 + ( 2 × 3 − 3 × 9 )
dt
dy 32 32
or =− cm / sec . Thus y is decresing at the rate of cm / sec .
dt 21 21
Example: If u = F ( x − y, y − z , z − x ) prove that
∂u ∂u ∂u
+ + =0
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution: Put x − y = r , y − z = s and z − x = t , so that u = f ( r , s, t ) .
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂t
∴ = . + . + .
∂x ∂r ∂x ∂s ∂x ∂t ∂x
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂u ∂u
= . (1) + . ( 0 ) + . ( −1) = − (i)
∂r ∂s ∂t ∂r ∂t
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂t ∂u ∂u
Similarly, = . + . + . =− + (ii0
∂y ∂r ∂y ∂s ∂y ∂t ∂y ∂r ∂s
∂u ∂u ∂r ∂u ∂s ∂u ∂t ∂u ∂u
= . + . + . =− + (iii)
∂z ∂r ∂z ∂s ∂z ∂t ∂z ∂s ∂t
Adding (i), (ii) and (iii), we get the required result.
4.4 Jacobian
If u and v are two function of two independent variable x and y then the determinant
∂u ∂u
∂x ∂v
J= is called the Jacobian of u and v with respect to of x and y which is written as
∂v ∂v
∂x ∂y
∂ (u, v) ⎛ u, v ⎞
or J ⎜ ⎟ similarly for
∂ ( x, y ) ⎝ x, y ⎠
: If u v and w are two function of two independent variable x , y and z then the determinant
205




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∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂v ∂v ∂v
J= is called the Jacobian of u , v and w with respect to of x , y z which is
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ (u, v, w) ⎛ u , v, w ⎞
written as or J ⎜ ⎟
∂ ( x, y , z ) ⎝ x, y , z ⎠
4.4.1 Properties of Jacobian
∂ (u, v, w) ∂ ( x, y , z )
1. If J = and J ' = then J .J ' = 1
∂ ( x, y , z ) ∂ (u, v, w)
2. Chain rule for Jacobian if u , v are function of r , s are function of x, y then
∂ ( u, v ) ∂ ( u, v ) ∂ ( r , s )
= .
∂ ( x, y ) ∂ ( r , s ) ∂ ( x, y )
3. If u1 , u2 , u3 instead of being given explicitly in terms x1 , x2 , x3 be connected with them
equations such as
f1 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0 f 2 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0 f3 (u1 , u2 , u3 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 0 then
∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ∂ ( f1 , f 2 , f3 ) ∂ ( f1 , f 2 , f3 )
= ( −1)3 /
∂ ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∂ ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∂ (u1 , u2 , u3 )
( (−1)3 is for three variable system )

4. If u1 , u2 , u3 be functions of x1 , x2 , x3 then the necessary and sufficient condition for
⎡ ∂ (u , u , u ) ⎤
existence of a functional relationship of the form f1 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = 0 is J ⎢ 1 2 3 ⎥ = 0
⎣ ∂ ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ⎦
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⎛ ∂ ( x, y ) ⎞
Example: In a polar coordinates x = r cos θ y = r cos θ then find J ⎜ ⎟ ,
⎝ ∂ (r , θ ) ⎠
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
= cos θ , = sin θ , = − r sin θ , = r cos θ
∂r ∂r ∂θ ∂θ
∂x ∂x
∂r ∂θ cos θ −r sin θ
J= ⇒ =r
∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
x2 x3 xx xx ⎡ ∂( y , y , y ) ⎤
Example: y1 = , y2 = 3 1 , y3 = 1 2 find the J ⎢ 1 2 3 ⎥
x1 x2 x3 ⎣ ∂ ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ⎦
∂y1 ∂y1 ∂y1 − x2 x3 x3 x2

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 x12 x1 x1
∂z1 ∂z2 ∂z3 x3 − x1 x3 x1
Solution: J = = =
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 x2 x22 x1
∂w ∂w ∂w x3 x1 − x1 x2
∂x ∂y ∂z x2 x3 x32
− x2 x3 x3 x1 x1 x3 −1 1 1
1 x12 x22 x32
x2 x3 − x3 x1 x1 x2 = − 2 2 2 1 −1 1 = 4
x12 x22 x32 x1 x2 x3
x2 x3 x3 x1 − x1 x2 1 1 −1
∂ (u, v)
Example: u = x 2 − y 2 , v = 2 xy x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ find
∂ (r ,θ )
∂ (u , v) ∂ (u, v) ∂ ( x, y )
Solution: Use the formula = ×
∂ ( r , θ ) ∂ ( x, y ) ∂ ( r , θ )
∂u ∂u
∂ ( u , v ) ∂x ∂v 2 x −2 y
= = = 4( x 2 + y 2 )
∂ ( x, y ) ∂v ∂v 2 y 2 x
∂x ∂y
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fiziks

∂x ∂x
∂r ∂θ cos θ −r sin θ
J= ⇒ =r
∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
∂ (u , v) ∂ (u, v) ∂ ( x, y )
= × = ( x 2 + y 2 ) × r = 4r 3 (where x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ )
∂ ( r , θ ) ∂ ( x, y ) ∂ ( r , θ )
∂ ( x, y , z )
Example: u = xyz , v = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , w = x + y + z find
∂ (u, v, w)
Solution: We are using property three
f1 = u − xyz, f 2 = v − x 2 − y 2 − z 2 , f3 = w − x − y − z
∂ ( x, y , z ) ∂ ( f1 , f 2 , f3 ) ∂ ( f1 , f 2 , f3 )
= (−1)3 /
∂ (u, v, w) ∂ (u, v, z ) ∂ ( x, y , z )
∂f1 ∂f1 ∂f1
∂x ∂y ∂z
− yz − xz − xy
∂ ( f1 , f 2 , f3 ) ∂f 2 ∂f 2 ∂f 2
=J= = −2 x −2 y −2 z ⇒ −2( x − y )( y − z )( z − x )
∂ ( x, y , z ) ∂x ∂y ∂z
−1 −1 −1
∂f3 ∂f3 ∂f3
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 0 0
∂ ( f1 , f 2 , f3 )
= 0 1 0 =1
∂ (u, v, w)
0 0 1
∂ ( f1 , f 2 , f3 )
= (−1)3 .1/ 2( x − y )( y − z )( z − x)
∂ ( x, y , z )
4.5 Taylor’s Series and Maclaurine Series Expansion
If a function f is such that f n −1 is continuous in [ a, a + h ] and derivative in ]a, a + h[ then their
exist a number θ ∈ ]0,1[ such that
h 2 '' h n −1 n −1 hn
f ( a + h) = f (a ) + hf ' ( a ) + f ( a )...... + f (a) + (1 − θ ) n −1 f n ( a + θ h)
2 n n −1
One can also write Taylor expansion by putting a + h = x
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fiziks

( x − a ) ''
2
( x − a ) n −1 n −1
f ( x) = f (a) + ( x − a) f ' (a) + f ( a )...... + f (a)
2 n
( x − a )n n−1 ( x − a)n
+ f (a) + f n (ξ )
n −1 n
where f n (ξ ) is identified as reminder term ξ = a + θ ( x − a ) and 0 < θ < 1
hn
The ( n + 1)th term of the expansion is (1 − θ )n −1 f n (a + θ h)
n −1
4.5.1 Maclaurine’s Development
Changing a to 0 and h to x one will get
x 2 '' x n −1 n −1 xn
f ( x) = f (0) + xf ' (0) + f (0)....... + f (0) + f n (ξ )
2 n −1 n
Where f n (ξ ) is identified as reminder term ξ = θ x and 0 < θ < 1
Example: In the Taylor series expansion of exp x + sin( x ) about x = π then what is coefficient
of ( x − π ) 2 .
Solution: Taylor series about x = π
( x − π ) 2 '' ( x − π ) n −1 n−1 ( x − π )n n−1
f ( x) = f (π ) + ( x − π ) f ' (π ) + f (π )...... + f (π ) + f (π )
2 n n −1
f ( x ) = exp x + sin( x )
f (π ) = exp π + sin(π ) = exp π
f ' ( x ) = exp x + cos x ⇒ f ' (π ) = exp π + cos π = exp π − 1
f '' ( x) = exp x − sin x ⇒ f '' (π ) = exp π − sin π ⇒ f '' (π ) = exp π

1 '' exp π
The coefficient of ( x − π ) 2 is f (π ) =
2 2
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fiziks

Example: Expand Maclaurin’s series expand of tan x up to x 3
Solution: f ( x) = tan x ⇒ f (0) = 0
f ' ( x ) = sec 2 x ⇒ f ' (0) = 1
f '' ( x ) = 2 tan x sec 2 x ⇒ f '' (0) = 0
f ''' ( x ) = 2 sec 2 x + 6 tan 2 x sec 2 x ⇒ f ''' (0) = 2
x 2 '' x3 ''' x n −1 n −1 xn
f ( x) = f (0) + xf ' (0) + f (0) + f (0)....... + f (0) + f n (ξ )
2 3 n −1 n
x2 x3 x3
tan x = 0 + x.1 + 0. +2 ⇒ x+
2 3 3
Some Important Maclaurin’s Expansions
x3 x5 x3 x5
1. sin x = x − + − ......... 2. sinh x = x + + + .........
3! 5! 3! 5!
x2 x4 x2 x4
3. cos x = 1 − + − ......... 4. cosh x = 1 + + + .........
2! 4! 2! 4!
1 2
5. tan x = x + x 3 + x 5 + .........
3 15
2
x x3 x 2 x3
6. ex = 1+ x + + + ......... 7. e − x = 1 − x + − + .........
2! 3! 2! 3!
x 2 x3 x 4
8. log e (1 + x ) = x − + − ....., if x < 1
2 3 4
⎧ x 2 x3 x 4 ⎫
9. log e (1 − x ) = − ⎨ x + + + .....⎬
⎩ 2 3 4 ⎭
Example: Expand exp(sin x ) by maclaurin series upto the term containing x 4
(sin x) 2 (sin x) 2 (sin x)2

Solution: exp sin x = 1 + + +
2 3 4
2 3
⎛ x3 ⎞ 1⎛ x3 ⎞ 1⎛ x3 ⎞
= 1 + ⎜ x − + .... ⎟ + ⎜ x − + .... ⎟ + ⎜ x − + .... ⎟ ……
⎝ 3 ⎠ 2⎝ 3 ⎠ 3⎝ 3 ⎠
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fiziks

⎛ ⎞ 1⎛ 2 x ⎞ 1 3
( )
3 3
x 1 4 x2 x4
= 1 + ⎜ x − + .... ⎟ + ⎜ x − + .... ⎟ + x − ... + x = 1+ x + −
⎝ 6 ⎠ 2⎝ 3 ⎠ 6 24 2 8
Taylor ‘s theorem for function in two variable .

2
∂f ∂f 1 ⎛ ∂ ∂ ⎞
f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x, y ) + h + k + ⎜ h + k ⎟ f ........
∂x ∂y 2 ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
Put h = x − a , k = y − b
f ( x, y ) = f ( a, b) + ⎡⎣ ( x − a ) f x (a, b) + ( y − b) f y ( a, b) ⎤⎦
1⎡
( x − a ) f xx ( a, b) + 2( x − a )( y − b) f xy ( a, b) + ( y − b) 2 f yy (a, b) ⎤ + ....
2
+
2⎣ ⎦
1 2
f ( x, y ) = f (0, 0) + ⎡⎣ xf x (0, 0) + yf y (0, 0) ⎤⎦ + ⎡ x f xx (0, 0) + 2 xybf xy (0, 0) + y 2 f yy (0, 0) ⎤ + ....
2⎣ ⎦
Example: Expand e x log(1 + y ) upto powers of x and y upto term of two degree.
Solution: f ( x, y ) = e x log(1 + y ) ⇒ f (0, 0) = 0
ex
f x ( x, y ) = e x log(1 + y ) ⇒ f x (0, 0) = 0, f y ( x, y ) = ⇒ f y (0, 0) = 1
1+ y
ex
f xx ( x, y ) = e x log(1 + y ) ⇒ f xx (0, 0) = 0, f xy ( x, y ) = ⇒ f xy (0, 0) = 1
1+ y
ex
f yy ( x, y ) = − ⇒ f yy (0, 0) = −1
(1 + y ) 2
1 2 1 2
e x log(1 + y ) = y + xy − y + ( x y − xy 2 )......
2 2
211




fiziks

1
Q1. f ( x) = (1 + 3 x) 3 when ≠ 0 f (0) = e3 is continuous for x = 0
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) e3 (d) e −3

1 x −1
Q2. The limit lim ∫ sin t dt is equals to
x → 0 sin 2 x x / 2
1 1 3
(a) 0 (b) (c) (d)
8 4 8
⎪⎧ x ⎪⎫
Q3. If Y = ⎨ x ∈ R ⎬ , then the set of all limit points of Y is
⎩⎪1 + x ⎭⎪
(a) ( −1,1) (b) (−1,1] (c) [ 0,1] (d) [1,1]
⎧ m ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎪ x sin ⎜ n ⎟, x≠0
Q4. For m, n ∈ N , define f m, n ( x ) = ⎨ ⎝x ⎠
⎪0, x=0
⎩
Then, at x = 0, f m ,n is
(a) differentiable for each pair m , n with m > n

(b) differentiable for each pair m , n with m < n
(c) not differentiable for each pair m , n with m > n
(d) not differentiable for each pair m , n with m < n
Q5. Let a be a non-zero real number. Then lim

x →a
1 x
2 ∫
x −a a
2 ( )
sin t 2 dt equals
(a)
1
2a
sin a 2( ) (b)
1
2a
( )
cos a 2
(c) −
1
2a
( )
sin a 2 (d) −
1
2a
( )
cos a 2
x
x
Q6. Let f : R → R be a continuous function. If ∫ f ( 2t ) dt = sin (π x ) for all x ∈ R , then f ( 2 ) is
0 π
equal to
(a) −1 (b) 0 (c) 1 (d)
212




fiziks

Let f ( x ) = ( x − 2 ) ( x + 5 ) . Then
17 24
Q7.
(a) f does not have a critical point at 2

(b) f has a minimum at 2
(c) f has a maximum at 2
(d) f has neither a minimum nor a maximum at 2
Q8. If f ( x, y ) is defined by
⎧ x3
⎪ if ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0, 0 )
f ( x, y ) = ⎨ x 2 + y 4
⎪ 0 if ( x, y ) = ( 0, 0 )
⎩
then
(a) f x ( 0, 0 ) = 0 and f y ( 0, 0 ) = 0 (b) f x ( 0, 0 ) = 1 and f y ( 0, 0 ) = 0
(c) f x ( 0, 0 ) = 0 and f y ( 0, 0 ) = 1 (d) f x ( 0, 0 ) = 1 and f y ( 0, 0 ) = 1
Q9. Which of the following statements holds regarding the continuity and the existence of partial
derivatives of f at ( 0, 0 ) ?
(a) Both partial derivatives of f exist at ( 0, 0 ) and f is continuous at ( 0, 0 )
(b) Both partial derivatives of f exist at ( 0, 0 ) and f is NOT continuous at ( 0, 0 )
(c) One partial derivatives of f does NOT exist at ( 0, 0 ) and f is continuous at ( 0, 0 )
(d) One partial derivatives of f does NOT exist at ( 0, 0 ) and f is NOT continuous at ( 0, 0 )
∂2 f
Q10. Let f = y x then the value of at x = 2, y = 1 is
∂x∂y
1
(a) 0 (b) ln 2 (c) 1 (d)
ln 2
213




fiziks

Q11. If z = xy ln( xy ) then which of the following is correct

∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
(a) x +y =0 (b) y +x =0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z
(c) x −y =0 (d) y −x =0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Let f ( x, y ) = ∑ ( x 2 − y 2 ) for all ( x, y ) . Then for all ( x, y )

10 K
Q12.
K =1
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
(a) x ( x , y ) − y ( x, y ) = 0 (b) x ( x, y ) + y ( x, y ) = 0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
(c) y ( x, y ) − x ( x, y ) = 0 (d) y ( x , y ) + x ( x, y ) = 0
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
Q13. The work done by the force in moving a particle over the circular path x 2 + y 2 = 1 , z = 0 from
(1, 0, 0) to ( 0,1, 0 ) is
(a) π + 1 (b) π − 1 (c) −π + 1 (d) −π − 1

1 z y
Q14. The value of ∫z =0 ∫y =0 ∫x =0 xy 2 z 3 dxdydz is
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
90 50 45 10
(
ln x 2 + y 2 )dx dy , where G =
Q15. The value of ∫∫
G x +y2 2 {( x, y ) ∈ R 2
}
:1 ≤ x 2 + y 2 ≤ e 2 , is
(a) π (b) 2π (c) 3π (d) 4π

Q16. In a cylindrical coordinates x = r cos θ y = r cos θ and z = z
⎛ ∂ ( x, y , z ) ⎞
J⎜ ⎟ is given by
⎝ ∂ (r ,θ , z ) ⎠
(a) r (b) z (c) − r (d) − z
⎛ ∂ ( x, y ) ⎞
Q17. If x = u (1 − v) , y = uv then J ⎜ ⎟ is given by
⎝ ∂ (u , v) ⎠
214




fiziks

(a) u (b) v (c) −u (1 − 2v) (d) u (1 − 2v)
⎛ ∂ (u, v) ⎞
Q18. If u = x 2 − 2 y 2 v = 2 x 2 − y 2 x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ J ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂(r ,θ ) ⎠
(a) 6r 3 sin 2θ (b) 12r 3 sin 2θ (c) 6r 3 sin θ (d) 12r 3 sin θ
Q19. In the Taylor series expansion of e x about x = 2 the coefficient of ( x − 2) 2
1 24 e2 e4
(a) (b) (c) (d)
4 4 4 4
Q20. Which of the following is expansion f ( x, y ) = tan −1 ( y / x ) in powers of ( x − 1) and ( y − 1) up to

second degree term .
π 1 1
(a) − [( x − 1) − ( y − 1)] + ⎡⎣( x − 1)2 − ( y − 1)2 ⎤⎦
4 2 4
π 1 1
(b) + [( x − 1) − ( y − 1)] + ⎡⎣( x − 1)2 − ( y − 1)2 ⎤⎦
4 2 4
π 1 1
(c) + [( x − 1) − ( y − 1)] − ⎡⎣( x − 1)2 − ( y − 1)2 ⎤⎦
4 2 4
π 1 1
(d) − [( x − 1) − ( y − 1)] − ⎡⎣( x − 1)2 − ( y − 1)2 ⎤⎦
4 2 4
sin x
Q21. The Taylor series expansion of at x = π
π −x
(x −π ) (x −π )
2 2
(a) 1+ ..... (b) −1 − .....

3 3
(x −π ) (x −π )
2 2
(c) 1 − ..... d) −1 + .....
3 3
The coefficient of ( x − 1) in the Taylor series expansion of f ( x ) = xe x ( x ∈ R ) about the point

2
Q22.
x = 1 is
e 3e
(a) (b) 2e (c) (d) 3e
2 2
215




fiziks


Q23. The maximum value of f ( x) = ln(1 + x) − x where ( x > −1) occur at x = ________
Q24. Let A ( t ) denote the area bounded by the curve y = e − x , the x -axis and the straight lines x = −t
and x = t . Then lim A ( t ) is equal to ________

t →∞
Q25. Value of the countour on the plane ,where the partial derivative of x 2 + y 2 with respect to y is
equal to the partial derivative of 6 y + 4 x with respect to x is y = _________
∂u ∂u
Q26. If u = x 3 + y 3 + 3 xy 2 and x +y = nu then value of n = __________.
∂x ∂y
⎧x
⎪x x2 + y 2 if x ≠ 0
Q27. For all ( x, y ) , let f ( x, y ) = ⎨ .
⎪ if x = 0
⎩ 0
∂f ∂f
Then ( 0, 0 ) + ( 0, 0 ) equals ___________.
∂x ∂y
⎛ y⎞ ∂f ∂f
Q28. Let f has a maximum at f ( x, y ) = x5 y 2 tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ . Then x + = nf then value of n is
⎝x⎠ ∂x ∂y
………..
1 x2 y
Q29. The value of integration ∫ ∫ ∫ ( y + 2 z ) dz dy dx is ___________.
x =0 y =0 z =0
∂ (u , v, w)
Q30. If u = x + 3 y 2 − z 2 , v = 4 x 2 yz , w = 2 z 2 − xy then value of J = at (1, −1, 0 ) is _______.
∂ ( x, y , z )
Q31. In a spherical coordinates x = r sin θ cos φ y = r sin θ sin φ and z = r cos θ
⎛ ∂ ( x, y , z ) ⎞ α
J⎜ ⎟ is given by r sin θ then value α is given by __________.
⎝ ∂ ( r , θ , z ) ⎠
Q32. For the function e− x the linear approximation around x = 2 is ( 3 − α x ) e−2 then the value of α is
given by _____________.
216




fiziks

Solutions
Ans. 1: (c)
3
Solution: Lt x → 0 ⎡⎢(1 + 3 x) 3 x ⎤⎥ = e3
1
⎣ ⎦
Ans. 2: (d)
1
sin −1t dt = L
x
Solution: lim 2 ∫x
x →0 sin x /2
sin −1 t dt ⎡ 0
x
lim
∫ x/2 ⎤
x → 0+ 2
sin x ⎢ case ⎥
⎣0 ⎦
By L Hospital’s rule and using differentiation of integration, we get
⎛ −1 1 −1 x ⎞ 1
⎜ sin x − sin ⎟ / x 1−
L = lim+ ⎝ ⎠ = 4 =3
2 2
x →0 ⎛ sin x ⎞ 2 8
2⎜ ⎟ cos x
⎝ x ⎠
Ans. 3: (d)
⎪⎧ x ⎪⎫
Solution: Y = ⎨ x ∈ R ⎬ ⇒ Y ( −1,1)
⎩⎪1 + x ⎭⎪
x x
Because lim = −1 and lim = 1 . Hence Y = Y ′ = [ −1, 1]
x →−∞ 1+ x x →∞ 1+ x
Ans. 4: (a)
⎛ 1 ⎞
x m sin ⎜ n ⎟ − 0
⎝x ⎠ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Solution: lt = lt x m−1 sin ⎜ n ⎟ = 0 if m − 1 > 0
x →0 x−0 x → 0
⎝x ⎠
⇒ m > 1 if m > 1 then f m,n ( x ) is differentiable which holds if m > n
217




fiziks

Ans. 5: (a)
∫a sin ( t )dt ⎡ 0
2 x
⎤
Solution: lim ⎢ case ⎥ . By L’ Hospital’s rule, we get
x→a x −a
2 2
⎣0 ⎦
lim
( ) (by Leibnitz Theorem)
sin x 2
x→a 2x
sin a 2 ( )=
=
2a
1
2a
sin a 2 ( )
Ans. 6: (a)
x
Solution: ∫0 f ( 2t ) dt = sin (π x )
x
π
1
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x , we get f ( 2 x ) = sin π x + x cos π x
π
Putting x = 1 , we get f ( 2 ) = −1
Ans. 7: (d)
Solution: f ( x ) = ( x − 2 ) ( x + 5)
17 24
⇒ for x < 2, f ( x ) < 0 and for x > 2 f ( x ) > 0
so, x = 2 is neither maxima nor minima point.

Ans. 8: (b)
f ( h, 0 ) − f ( 0, 0 ) h3
Solution: f x ( 0, 0 ) = Lt = Lt =1
h →0 h h→0 h3
Let f : R 2 → R be defined by
⎧ x2 y
⎪ if ( x, y ) ≠ ( 0, 0 )
f ( x, y ) = ⎨ x 4 + y 2
⎪0 if ( x, y ) = ( 0, 0 )
⎩
218




fiziks

Ans. 9: (b)
Solution: y = x 2
x4 1
lim f ( x, y ) = lim 4 = . So, f is not continuous at ( 0, 0 )
( x , y )→( 0,0 ) x →0 x + x 4 2
∂f 0
= lim =0
∂x ( 0,0 )
x→0 x4
∂f 0
= lim =0
∂y ( 0,0 )
y →0 y2
so, both partial derivatives exist.

Ans. 10: (c)
∂f x −1 ∂ f ∂ x −1
( )
2
Solution: f = y , = xy , x
= y x = y x −1 + xy x −1 ln y
∂y ∂x∂y ∂x
∂2 f
=1
∂x∂y x = 2, y =1
Ans. 11: (c)

∂z xy ∂z
Solution: = y ln( xy ) + y ⇒ y (ln xy + 1) ⇒ x = xy (ln( xy + 1)
∂x xy ∂x
∂z xy ∂z
= x ln( xy ) + x ⇒ x(ln xy + 1) ⇒ y = xy (ln( xy + 1)
∂y xy ∂y
∂z ∂z
x −y =0
∂x ∂y
Ans. 12: (d)
∂f
Solution: f ( x, y ) = ∑ ( x 2 − y 2 ) ⇒ ( ) ( 2x)
10 10 K −1
( x, y ) = ∑ K x 2 − y 2
K
(i)
K =1 ∂x K =1
∂f
( x, y ) = ∑ K ( x 2 − y 2 ) ( −2 y )
10 K −1
and (ii)
∂y K =1
∂f ∂f
⇒y ( x, y ) + x ( x, y ) = 0
∂x ∂y
219




fiziks

Ans. 13: (d)
G
Solution: dr = dxiˆ + dyjˆ
x 2 + y 2 = 1 ⇒ 2 xdx + 2 ydy = 0
G G
F ⋅ dr = 4 ydx − 3 xydy = 4 1 − x 2 dx + 3x 2 dx
G G
Work done w = ∫ F .dr
0
⎛ x 1 − x 2 1 −1 ⎞ 3
(
= ∫1 4 1 − x 2 + 3 x 2 dx = 4 ⎜
0
⎜
⎝
) 2
+ sin x ⎟ + x = −π − 1
2 ⎟
⎠ 1
Ans. 14: (a)

y4 3 1 z
8
1
Solution: ∫z =0 ∫z =0 ∫x =0 xy 2 z 3dxdydz = ∫z =0 ∫y =0 z dydz = ∫z =0 =
1 z y 1 z
2 10 90
Ans. 15: (b)
Solution: G = {( x, y ) ∈ R 2 :1 ≤ x 2 + y 2 ≤ e 2 }
{( r ,θ ) :1 ≤ r ≤ e and 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π }
Also dxdy = rdθ dr
(
ln x 2 + y 2 )dx dy = 2π e ln ( r 2 ) e
2 ln r 2π e 2π
∫∫ x 2 + y 2 ∫ ∫ 2
rdθ dr = ∫ dr ∫ dθ = (ln r ) 2 .θ 0
= 2π
G θ = 0 r =1 r r =1 r θ =0
1
Ans. 16: (a)

∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂z
Solution: = cos θ , = sin θ , = − r sin θ , = r cos θ and = 0, = 0, = 1,
∂r ∂r ∂θ ∂θ ∂r ∂θ ∂z
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂r ∂θ ∂z cos θ − r sin θ 0
∂y ∂y ∂y
J= = sin θ cos θ 0 =r
∂r ∂θ ∂z
0 0 1
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂r ∂θ ∂θ
220




fiziks

Ans. 17: (a)
⎛ ∂x ∂x ⎞
⎛ ∂ ( x, y ) ⎞ ⎜ ∂u ∂v ⎟ 1 − v −u
Solution: J ⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟= = (u − uv) − (−uv) = u
⎝ ∂ (u, v) ⎠ ⎜ ∂y ∂y ⎟ v u
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂u ∂v ⎠
Ans. 18: (c)
∂ (u , v) ∂ (u, v) ∂ ( x, y )
Solution: = ×
∂ ( r , θ ) ∂ ( x, y ) ∂ ( r , θ )
∂u ∂u
∂ (u, v) ∂x ∂v 2 x −4 y
= = = −4 xy + 16 xy = 12 xy put x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ
∂ ( x, y ) ∂v ∂v 4 x −2 y
∂x ∂y
∂x ∂x
∂ ( x, y ) ∂r ∂θ cos θ −r sin θ
J= = ⇒ =r
∂ (r ,θ ) ∂y ∂y sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
∂ (u , v) ∂ (u, v) ∂ ( x, y )
= × = 12 xy.r = 6r 3 sin 2θ
∂ ( r , θ ) ∂ ( x, y ) ∂ ( r , θ )
Ans. 19: (c)
f 4 (2) e 2
Solution: coefficient of ( x − 2 ) =
4
=
4 4
Ans. 20: (a)
π
Solution: f ( x, y ) = tan −1 ( y / x ) f (1,1) = tan −1 (1) =
4
−y 1 x 1
fx = ⇒ f x (1,1) = − , fy = ⇒ f x (1,1) =
x +y
2 2
2 x +y
2 2
2
2 xy 1 y 2 − x2
f xx = ⇒ f xx (1,1) = , f xy = ⇒ f xy (1,1) = 0
(x + y )
2 2 2
2 x2 + y 2
−2 xy 1
f yy = ⇒ f xx (1,1) = −
(x + y )
2 2 2
2
221




fiziks

f ( x, y ) = f (1,1) + ⎡⎣ ( x − 1) f x (1,1) + ( y − 1) f y (1,1) ⎤⎦ +
1⎡
( x − 1) f xx (1,1) + 2( x − 1)( y − 1) f xy (1,1) + ( y − 1)2 f yy (1,1) ⎤ + ....
2
2⎣ ⎦
π 1 1
− [( x − 1) − ( y − 1)] + ⎡⎣( x − 1)2 − ( y − 1)2 ⎤⎦
4 2 4
Ans. 21: (b)
x −π ' ( x − π ) 2 ''
Solution: f ( x) = f (π ) + f (π ) + f (π )
1 2
sin x 0 cos x
f (π ) = Lt ( x →π ) = using L’ hospitals rule Lt ( x → π ) = −1
x −π 0 1
( x − π ) .....
2
1
f (π ) = 0
'
f (π ) = −
''
f ( x) = −1 −
6 3
Correct choice is (b)
Ans. 22: (c)
Solution: f ( x ) = xe x = ( x − 1 + 1) e x −1+1 = ⎡⎣1 + ( x − 1) ⎤⎦ e( x −1) ⋅ e
⎡ ( x − 1) ⎤
2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 3e
e ⎡⎣1 + ( x − 1) ⎤⎦ ⎢1 + ( x − 1) + + ....⎥ = e ⎜1 + ⎟ =
⎢⎣ 2! ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2! ⎠ 2
⎛ 1 ⎞ 3e
Hence, coefficient of ( x − 1) will be e ⎜ 1 + ⎟ =
2
⎝ 2! ⎠ 2

Ans. 23: 0
1
Solution: f ' ( x) = −1 = 0
1+ x
1−1− x x
=0⇒ = 0 ⇒ x = 0 f '' (0) = −1 < 0
1+ x 1+ x
222




fiziks

Ans. 24: 2
Solution: A ( t ) = ∫− t ydx = ∫− t e − x dx
t t
−x
= 2 ∫0 e − x dx ; as e
t
is even function.
( ) ( )
t
= 2 −e − x = 2 1 − e−t
0
lim A ( t ) = lim 2 (1 − e− t ) = 2
t →∞ t →∞
Ans. 25: 2
∂( x2 + y 2 ) ∂ (6 y + 4 x)
Solution: = 2 y and = 4 2y = 4 ⇒ y = 2
∂y ∂x
Ans. 26: 3
∂u ∂u
Solution: u = x 3 + y 3 + 3 xy 2 is homogeneous function of degree 3 so x +y = 3u
∂x ∂y
Ans. 27: 1
h
h2
∂f h
Solution: ( 0, 0 ) = hlt→0 =1
∂x h
∂f 0−0
( 0, 0 ) = lim =0
∂y k → 0 k
∂f ∂f
( 0, 0 ) + ( 0, 0 ) = 1 + 0 = 1
∂x ∂y
Ans. 28: 7
Solution: f ( x, y ) = x5 y 2 tan −1 ( y / x )
∂f 1 ⎛ −y ⎞
⇒ = 5 x 4 y 2 tan −1 ( y / x ) + x5 y 2 ⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎛ y2 ⎞ ⎝ x2 ⎠
1+ ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝x ⎠
∂f x5 y 3
⇒ = 5 x 4 y 2 tan −1 ( y / x ) − 2 (i)
∂x x + y2
223




fiziks

∂f y 1 1
= 2 x 5 y tan −1 + x 5 y 2 ×
∂y x ⎛ y ⎞ x
2
⎜1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ x ⎠
∂f y x6 y 2
⇒ = 2 x 5 y tan −1 + 2 (ii)
∂y x x + y2
∂f ∂f
x +y = 7 x5 y 2 tan −1 ( y / x ) = 7 f
∂x ∂y
Ans. 29: 0.095
Solution: ∫x =0 ∫y =0 ∫z =0 ( y + 2 z )dzdydx = ∫x =0 ∫y =0 yz + z 2 dydx

1 x2 y 1 x2 y
x2 1
x2 2 y3 2 x6 2 x7 2
= ∫x =0 ∫y =0 2 y 2 dy dx = ∫x =0
1 1
= ∫x =0 dx = =
1
3 0
3 21 0
21
Ans. 30: 20
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z 6 y −3 z 2
1 1 −6 0
∂v ∂v ∂v
Solution: J = ⇒ 8 xy 4 x z 4 x y at (1, −1, 0 ) J = 0 0 −4 = 20
2 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
−y −x 4z 1 −1 0
∂w ∂w ∂w
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ans. 31: 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
Solution: = sin θ cos φ , = sin θ sin φ , = cos θ
∂r ∂r ∂r
∂x ∂y ∂z
= r cos θ cos φ , = r cos θ sin φ and , = − r sin θ
∂θ ∂θ ∂θ
∂x ∂y ∂z
= −r cos θ sin φ = r cos θ cos φ , =0
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
224




fiziks

∂x ∂x ∂x
∂r ∂θ ∂z sin θ cos φ r cos θ cos φ − r cos θ sin φ
∂y ∂y ∂y
J= = sin θ sin φ r cos θ sin φ r cos θ sin φ = r 2 sin θ
∂r ∂θ ∂z
cos θ − r sin θ 0
∂z ∂z ∂z
∂r ∂θ ∂θ
Ans. 32: 1
Solution: The linear approximation f (2) + ( x − 2) f ' (2) = ( 3 − x ) e −2 so α = 1
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5. Order and Degree of a Differential Equations
The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest differential co-efficient
present in the equation.
d2y dy
Example: 2
+ 2 + 3 y = 0 is a second order differential equation.
dx dx
The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest derivative after
removing the radical sign and fraction.
2
⎛d2y⎞
3
⎛ dy ⎞
Example: ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ + 2⎜ ⎟ + 3 y = 0 has degree of 2.
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠
5.1 Differential Equations of the First Order and First Degree
5.1.1 Separation of the variables
If a differential equation can be written in the form
f ( y )dy = φ ( x )dx
We say that variables are separable, y on the left hand side and x on the right hand side.
We get the solution by integrating both sides.
Example: Solve the differential equation yx 2 + y dy + xy 2 + x dx = 0 . ( ) ( )
Solution: yx 2 + y ( ) dy + (xy 2
+x =0⇒) y dy
=− 2
x
dx
dx y +1
2
x +1
⇒
1
2
( 1
) ( )
log y 2 + 1 = − log x 2 + 1 + c ⇒ y 2 + 1 x 2 + 1 = c
2
( )( )
+ x 3 y = − sec(x y ) .
dy
Example: Solve the differential equation x 4
dx
⎛ dy ⎞
+ x 3 y = − sec(x y ) ⇒ x 3 ⎜ x + y ⎟ = − sec xy
dy
Solution: x 4
dx ⎝ dx ⎠
dv dy dv dv dx
Put v = xy ⇒ = x + y ⇒ x3 = − sec v ⇒ =− 3
dx dx dx sec v x
dx 1 1
⇒ ∫ cos v dv = − ∫ 3
+ c ⇒ sin v = 2 + c ⇒ sin xy = 2 + c
x 2x 2x
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5.1.2 Homogeneous Equation
A differential equation of the form
dy f (x, y )
=
dx φ ( x, y )
is called a homogeneous equation if each term of f ( x, y ) and φ ( x, y ) is of the same
degree.
Example: Find the solution of the differential equation 2 xy + x 2 ( ) dy

dx
= 3y 2
+ 2 xy .
dy 3 y 2 + 2 xy
(
Solution: 2 xy + x 2 ) dy
dx
= 3y 2
+ 2 xy ⇒
dx
=
2 xy + x 2
dy dv dv 3v 2 x 2 + 2vx 2 3v 2 + 2v
Put y = vx ⇒ =v+x ⇒v+x = =
dx dx dx 2vx 2 + x 2 2v + 1
dv 3v 2 + 2v v2 + v ⎛ 2v + 1 ⎞
⇒x =
2v + 1
−v =
2v + 1
⇒⎜ 2
1
⎟dv = dx ⇒ log v + v = log x + log c
2
( )
dx ⎝ v + v ⎠ x
⇒ v 2 + v = cx ⇒ y 2 + xy = cx 3 .
5.1.3 Equations Reducible to homogeneous form
dy ax + by + c
The equations of the form = can be reduced to homogeneous form by
dx Ax + By + C
the substitutions x = X + h, y = Y + k ( h, k being constants)
dy dY aX + bY + ah + bk + c
⇒ = =
dx dX AX + BY + Ah + Bk + C
ah + bk + c = 0 ⎫ dy aX + bY
Choose h, k so that Ah + Bk + C = 0⎬ ⇒ =
⎭ dx AX + BY
a b 1 dy ax + by + c
Case of failure: = = ⇒ =
A B m dx m(ax + by ) + C
Now put ax + by = z and apply the method of separation of variables.
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dy x + 2 y − 3
Example: Solve =
dx 2 x + y − 3
Solution: Put x = X + h, y = Y + k ( h, k being constants)
dY ( X + h ) + 2(Y + k ) − 3 X + 2Y + (h + 2k − 3)
The given equation reduces to = =
dX 2( X + h ) + (Y + k ) − 3 2 X + Y + (2h + k − 3)
h + 2k − 3 = 0⎫
Now choose h, k so that ⎬ ⇒ h = k = 1.
2h + k − 3 = 0⎭
dY X + 2Y
=
dX 2 X + Y
dY dv dv X + 2vX 1 + 2v
Put Y = vX so that =v+ X ⇒v+ X = =
dX dX dX 2 X + vX 2+v
dv 1 + 2v 1− v2 ⎛ 2+v ⎞ dX 1 1 3 1 dX
⇒X = −v = ⇒⎜ 2 ⎟
dv = ⇒ dv + dv =
dX 2+v 2+v ⎝1− v ⎠ X 2 (1 + v ) 2 1− v X
On integrating we have
1+ v 1+ v
log(1 + v ) − 3 / 2 log(1 − v ) = log X + log C ⇒ log
1
= log C 2 X 2 ⇒ = C2X 2
2 (1 − v )3
(1 − v )3
Y
1+
X = C 2 X 2 ⇒ X + Y = C 2 ⇒ X + Y = C 2 ( X − Y )3
⎛ Y ⎞
3
( X − Y )3
⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ X⎠
Put X = x − 1, Y = y − 1 ⇒ x + y − 2 = a(x − y ) .
3
dy x + 2 y − 1
Example: Solve =
dx x + 2 y + 1
dy dz 1 dz 1 z − 1 z +1
Solution: Put x + 2 y = z ⇒ 1 + 2 = ⇒ − = ⇒ dz = dx
dx dx 2 dx 2 z + 1 3z − 1
⎛1 4 1 ⎞
⎟dz = dx ⇒ + log(3z − 1) = x + C ⇒ 3 z + 4 log(3 z − 1) = 9 x + 9C
z 4
⇒⎜ +
⎝ 3 3 3z − 1 ⎠ 3 9
⇒ 3( x + 2 y ) + 4 log(3 x + 6 y − 1) = 9 x + 9C ⇒ 3 x − 3 y + a = 2 log(3 x + 6 y − 1)
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5.1.4 Linear Differential Equations
A differential equation of the form
dy
+ Py = Q where P and Q are function of x (but not y) or constant
dx
⇒ y × I .F . = ∫ (Q × I .F .)dx + c where I .F . = e ∫
Pdx
.
Example: Solve x( x − 1) − ( x − 2) y = x 2 (2 x − 1)
dy
dx
Solution:
dy ( x − 2 ) x 2 (2 x − 1)
− y=
dx x( x − 1) x( x − 1)
( x−2 ) ( x −1)
(x − 1)
⎡ 1 2⎤
∫ − x ( x −1) dx ∫ ⎢⎣ ( x −1)− x ⎥⎦ dx log
⇒ I .F . = e =e = e log ( x −1)− 2 log x = e x2
=
x2
(x − 1) = ⎛ x 2 (2 x − 1) ( x − 1) ⎞ (2 x − 1)
⇒ y×
x2 ∫ ⎜⎜⎝ x(x − 1) × x 2 ⎟⎟⎠dx + c = ∫ x dx + c = 2 x − log x + c
dy π
Example: Solve + 2 y tan x = sin x when y = 0 for x = .
dx 3
dy
Solution: + 2 y tan x = sin x
dx
I .F . = e ∫
2 tan x dx
= e 2 log sec x = e log sec x = sec 2 x
2
Hence, solution is
y ⋅ sec 2 x = ∫ sec 2 x ⋅ sin x dx + c = ∫ tan x sec x dx + c
⇒ y sec 2 x = sec x + c
π π π
Put x = , y = 0 ⇒ 0 × sec 2 = sec + c ⇒ c = −2 ⇒ y sec 2 x = sec x − 2
3 3 3
⇒ y = cos x − 2 cos 2 x
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5.1.5 Equation Reducible to Linear Form
dy
A differential equation of the form + Py = Qy n
dx
where P and Q are function of x (but not y) or constant can be reduced to the linear
1
form on dividing by y n and substituting = z.
y n −1
1 dy 1
⇒ n
+ P n −1 = Q
y dx y
∵
1
=z⇒
(1 − n ) dy = dz ⇒
1 dz
+ Pz = Q
n −1
y y n
dx dx 1 − n dx
+ P(1 − n )z = Q(1 − n ) which is a linear differential equation.

dz
⇒
dx
dy
Example: x + y log y = xye x
dx
1 dy 1
Solution: Dividing by xy , we get + log y = e x .
y dx x
1 dy dz 1 dy 1 dz z
Put log y = z ⇒ = ⇒ + log y = e x ⇒ + = ex
y dx dx y dx x dx x
1
∫ x dx
I .F . = e = e log x = x ⇒ zx = xe x − e x + c ⇒ x log y = xe x − e x + c .
= (1 + x )e x sec y
dy tan y
Example: Solve −
dx 1 + x
= (1 + x )e x sec y ⇒ cos y − = (1 + x )e x
dy tan y dy sin y
Solution: −
dx 1 + x dx 1 + x
= (1 + x )e x
dy dz dz z
Put sin y = z , so that cos y = ⇒ −
dx dx dx 1 + x
1 1
− ∫ 1+ x dx 1
= e −log (1+ x ) = e
log
I .F . = e 1+ x
=
1+ x
= ∫ (1 + x )e x ⋅
1 1 sin y
⇒z dx + c = ∫ e x dx + c ⇒ = ex + c
1+ x 1+ x 1+ x
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5.1.6 Exact Differential Equation
A differential equation of the form Mdx + Ndy = 0 is said to be an exact differential
equation if it satisfies the following condition
∂M ∂N
= .
∂y ∂x
∫ Mdx + ∫ (terms of N not containing x ) dy = C

y = constant
( )(
Example: Solve y 2 e xy + 4 x 3 dx + 2 xye xy − 3 y 2 dy = 0
2 2
)
Solution: M = y 2 e xy ( 2
+ 4 x ), N = (2 xye
3 xy 2
− 3y 2 )
∂M ∂N
= = 2 xy 3 .e xy + 2 y.e xy
2 2
∂y ∂x
( ) ( )
⇒ e xy + x 4 + − y 3 = C
2
5.1.7 Equations Reducible to the Exact Form

Sometimes a differential equation which is not exact may become so, on multiplication
by a suitable function known as the integrating factor.
∂M ∂N
−
∂y ∂x f ( x ) dx
(a) If is a function of x alone, say f ( x ) then Ι.F. = e ∫ .
N
Example: solve (2 x log x − xy )dy + 2 ydx = 0
Solution: M = 2 y, N = (2 x log x − xy )
∂M ∂N
−
∂M ∂N ∂y ∂x
1
∫ − x dx
= 2(1 + log x ) − y ⇒ = − = f ( x ) then Ι.F . = e
1 1
= 2, = e −log x =
∂y ∂x N x x
dx + (2 log x − y )dy = 0 which is an exact equation.

1 2y
Multiplying by we get
x x
y2
dx + ∫ (− y )dy = C ⇒ 2 y log x −
2y
⇒∫ =C
x 2
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∂N ∂M
−
∂x ∂y f ( y ) dy
(b) If is a function of y alone, say f ( y ) then Ι.F. = e ∫ .
M
( )
Example: solve y 4 + 2 y dx + xy 3 + 2 y 4 − 4 x dy = 0( )
∂M ∂N
( )
Solution: M = y 4 + 2 y , N = xy 3 + 2 y 4 − 4 x ⇒ ( ) ∂y
= 4 y 3 + 2,
∂x
= y3 − 4
∂N ∂M
− 3
∂x ∂y ∫ − y dy
= − = f ( y ) then Ι.F . = e
3 1
⇒ = e −3 log y = 3
M y y
we get 3 ( y 4 + 2 y )dx + 3 (xy 3 + 2 y 4 − 4 x )dy = 0 which is an exact

1 1 1
Multiplying by 3
y y y
equation.
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⇒ ∫ ⎜⎜ y + 2 ⎟⎟dx + ∫ (2 y )dy = C ⇒ x⎜⎜ y + 2 ⎟⎟ + y 2 = C
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠
(c) If M = yf1 ( xy ) and N = xf 2 ( xy ) then Ι.F . =

1
.
Mx − Ny
( )
Example: solve y xy + 2 x 2 y 2 dx + x xy − x 2 y 2 dy = 0 ( )
Solution:
Divide by xy , we get y (1 + 2 xy )dx + x(1 − xy )dy = 0 ⇒ M = yf1 ( xy ) and N = xf 2 ( xy )
1 1 1
Ι.F . = = = 2 2.
Mx − Ny xy(1 + 2 xy ) − xy(1 − xy ) 3x y
Multiplying y (1 + 2 xy )dx + x(1 − xy )dy = 0 by

1
we get an exact equation.
3x 2 y 2
⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎜⎜ 2 + ⎟⎟dx + ⎜⎜ 2
− ⎟⎟dy = 0
⎝ 3x y 3x ⎠ ⎝ 3 xy 3y ⎠
⎛ 1 2⎞ ⎛ 3⎞ 1 2 1
⇒ ∫ ⎜⎜ 2 + ⎟⎟dx + ∫ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟dy = C ⇒ − + log x − log = C
⎝ 3x y 3x ⎠ ⎝ y⎠ 3 xy 3 3
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1
(d) If Mdx + Ndy = 0 be a homogeneous equation in x and y then Ι.F . = .
Mx + Ny
dy x 3 + y 3
Example: solve =
dx xy 2
( )
Solution: x 3 + y 3 dx − xy 2 dy = 0
1 1 1
Here M = x 3 + y 3 , N = − xy 2 , I.F. = = 3 = 4
Mx + Ny (x + y )x + (− xy )y x
3 2
Multiplying by
1
we get
1 3
x4
(x + y 3
)dx −
xy 2
x4
dy = 0
x4
⎛ 1 y3 ⎞ y2
or ⎜⎜ + 4 ⎟⎟dx − 3 dy = 0 which is an exact equation.
⎝x x ⎠ x
⎛ 1 y2 ⎞ y3
∫ ⎜⎝ x + x 4 ⎟⎠dx = C ⇒ log x − 3x 3 = C
⎜ ⎟
5.2 Linear Differential Equations of Second Order with Constant Coefficients

The general form of the linear differential equation of second order is
+ P + Qy = R or (D 2 + PD + Q )y = R
d2y dy
2
dx dx
where P, Q and R are function of x or constant.
Its complete solution = Complementary Function+ Particular Integral
Methods for finding Complementary Function
+ P + Qy = 0 or (D 2 + PD + Q ) = 0
d2y dy
Let 2
dx dx
(a) Roots (m1 , m2 ) , Real and Different.
Then C.F . = C1e m1x + C 2 e m2 x
d2y dy
Example: Find complementary function for 2
− 8 + 15 y = 0 .
dx dx
( )
Solution: D 2 − 8D + 15 = 0 ⇒ D = 3,5 ⇒ C.F . = C1e 3 x + C 2 e 5 x
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(b) Roots (m1 , m2 ) , Real and Equal.
Then C.F . = (C1 + C 2 x )e m1x
d2y dy
Example: Find complementary function for 4 2
− 4 + y = 0.
dx dx
Solution: (4 D − 4 D + 1) = 0 ⇒ D = , ⇒ C.F . = (C1 + C 2 x )e 2

1
2 1 1 x
2 2
(c) Roots (m1 , m2 ) Imaginary
Then C.F . = C1e (α + iβ )x + C 2 e (α −iβ ) x = e [A cos βx + B sin βx ]

αx
d2y dy
Example: Find complementary function for 2
+ 4 + 5y = 0 .
dx dx
( )
Solution: D 2 + 4 D + 5 = 0 ⇒ D = −2 + i, − 2 − i ⇒ C.F . = e −2 x [ A cos x + B sin x]
Methods for finding Particular Integral
e . If f (a ) = 0 then
1 1 ax 1 1
(a) e ax = e ax = x ⋅ ⋅ e ax
f (D ) f (a ) f (D ) f ′(a )
If f ′(a ) = 0 then
1 1
e ax = x 2 ⋅ ⋅ e ax .
f (D ) f (a )
′ ′
d2y dy
Example: Find particular integral for 2
+ 6 + 9 y = 5e 3 x .
dx dx
1 5e3 x 5e3 x
Solution: P.I . = .5e 3x
= =
D2 + 6D + 9 32 + 6.3 + 9 36
d2y dy
Example: Find particular integral for 2
− 6 + 9 y = 7e − 2 x − log 2 .
dx dx
.(− log 2)
1 1
Solution: ⇒ P.I . = .7e − 2 x + 2
D − 6D + 9
2
D − 6D + 9
7e −2 x log 2 × e 0 x 7e −2 x log 2
⇒ P.I . = − = −
4 + 12 + 9 0 − 0 + 9 25 9
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2
d y dy
Example: Find particular integral for 2 − 6 + 9 y = e 3 x .
dx dx
Solution: ∵ f (D ) = D 2 − 6 D + 9 ⇒ f (3) = 9 − 18 + 9 = 0 , f ′(3) = 6 − 6 = 0
1 1
⇒ P.I . = .e 3 x = x 2 e 3 x
D − 6D + 9
2
2
x n = [ f (D )] x n . Expand [ f (D )] and then operate.

1 −1 −1
(b)
f (D )
Example: Find particular integral for D 2 + 5D + 4 y = 3 − 2 x . ( )

−1
( 3 − 2 x ) = ⎡⎢1 + D + D 2 ⎤⎥
−1 1 5 5
Solution: P.I . = ⎡⎣ D 2 + 5D + 4 ⎤⎦ (3 − 2x )
4⎣ 4 4 ⎦
1⎡ 5 ⎤ 1⎡ ⎤ 1
1 − D − D 2 ⎥ (3 − 2 x ) = ⎢3 − 2 x − × −2⎥ = [11 − 4 x ]
5 5
⇒ P.I . = ⎢
4⎣ 4 4 ⎦ 4⎣ 4 ⎦ 8
1 1 1 1
sin ax = cos ax =
f (D ) f (− a ) f (D ) f (− a 2 )
(c) 2 2
sin ax and 2
cos ax
If f (− a 2 ) = 0 then
1 1
sin ax = x.
f (D ) f ′(− a 2 )
2
sin ax .
Example: Find particular integral for D 2 + 4 y = sin 3x . ( )

1 sin 3 x 1
Solution: P.I . = .sin 3 x = = − sin 3 x
D +42
) −3 + 4
2
5 (
Example: Find particular integral for (D + 4)y = cos 2 x . 2
Solution: ∵ f (D ) = (D + 4) ⇒ f (− 2 ) = (− 4 + 4) = 0, f ′(− 2 ) ≠ 0
2 2 2 2
1 1 x⎛1 ⎞ x
⇒ P.I . = . cos 2 x = x . cos 2 x = ⎜ sin 2 x ⎟ = sin 2 x .
D +42
2D 2⎝2 ⎠ 4
Example: Find particular integral for D 2 + D + 1 y = cos 2 x . ( )
1 1 1
Solution: P.I . = .cos 2 x = 2 .cos 2 x = .cos 2 x .
D + D +1
2
−2 + D + 1 D −3
D+3 D+3
. cos 2 x = (2 sin 2 x − 3 cos 2 x )
1
⇒ P.I . = . cos 2 x =
D −9
2
−2 −9
2
13
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(d) f D 2 e φ ( x ) = e f (D + a ) φ ( x )
1 ax ax 1
( )
Example: Find particular integral for D 2 − 4 D + 4 y = x 3 e 2 x .( )
1 1
Solution: P.I . = .x 3 e 2 x = e 2 x .x 3 .
D − 4D + 4 ( D + 2) − 4 ( D + 2) + 4
2 2
2x 1 ⎛ x ⎞
4 5
1 3 2x x
⇒ P.I . = e 2 x . x = e ⎜ ⎟ = e
D2 D ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ 20
(
Example: Find particular integral for D 2 − 5D + 6 y = e x cos 2 x . )
1 1
Solution: P.I . = e x cos 2 x = e x cos 2 x .
D − 5D + 6 ( D + 1) − 5 ( D + 1) + 6
2 2
1 1 1
= ex cos 2 x ⇒ P.I . = e x cos 2 x = −e x cos 2 x
D − 3D + 2
2
−4 − 3D + 2 3D + 2
3D − 2 3D − 2
= −e x cos 2 x = −e x cos 2 x
9D − 4
2
−36 − 4
ex x x
⇒ P.I . = (3D − 2) cos 2 x = e (− 6 sin 2 x − 2 cos 2 x ) = − e (3 sin 2 x + cos 2 x )
40 40 20
Example: Find particular integral for D 2 − 6 D + 13 y = 2 x . ( )
1 1
Solution: ⇒ P.I . = 2x = 2 e x log 2
D − 6 D + 13
2
D − 6 D + 13
1 2x
= e x log 2 ⇒ P.I . =
( log 2 )
2
− 6 ( log 2 ) + 13 (log 2)2 − 6 log 2 + 13
φ (x ) = e − ax ∫ e axφ (x ) dx
1
(e)
D+a
1 1
(f) f (D ) x sin ax = Im e f (D + a ) x
n ax n
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(
Example: Solve D − 5D + 6 y = e cos 2 x
2 x
)
Solution: D 2 − 5D + 6 = 0 ⇒ (D − 2 )(D − 3) = 0 ⇒ D = 2,3 ⇒ C.F . = C1e 2 x + C 2 e 3 x
1 1 1
P.I . = e x cos 2 x = e x cos 2 x = e x 2 cos 2 x
D − 5D + 6
2
(D + 1) − 5(D + 1) + 6
2
D − 3D + 2
1 1 3D − 2
⇒ P.I . = e x cos 2 x = −e x cos 2 x = −e x cos 2 x
− 4 − 3D + 2 3D + 2 9D 2 − 4
3D − 2 ex
⇒ P.I . = −e x
cos 2 x = (3D − 2) cos 2 x
9(− 4 ) − 4 40
ex x
⇒ P.I . = (− 6 sin 2 x − 2 cos 2 x ) = − e (3 sin 2 x + cos 2 x )
40 20
ex
Thus y = C1e 2 x + C 2 e 3 x − (3 sin 2 x + cos 2 x )
20
d2y dy
Example: Solve 2
− 2 + y = e x sin x
dx dx
(
Solution: D 2 − 2 D + 1 y = xe x sin x )
( )
∵ D 2 − 2 D + 1 = 0 ⇒ (D − 1) = 0 D = 1, 1 ⇒ C.F . = (c1 + c 2 x )e x
2
x sin x = e x (− x cos x + sin x )

1 1 1 1
P.I . = e x sin x = e x .x sin x = e x
(D − 1) 2
(D + 1 − 1) 2
D 2
D
P.I . = e x [− ( x sin x + cos x ) − cos x ] = −e x [x sin x + 2 cos x ]
⇒ y = (c1 + c 2 x )e x − e x [x sin x + 2 cos x ]
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Q1. One of the possible solutions of the differential equation
y (1 + x 2 )dy + x (1 + y 2 )dx = 0 (where c is some constant) is
(a) ( 1 + y )( 1 + x ) = c
2 2
(b)
1+ y2
1+ x2
=c
(c) 1 + y + 1 + x = c 1 + y2 − 1 + x2 = c
2 2
(d)
dy
Q2. The solution of the differential equation x + cot y = 0 , subject to the initial condition
dx
π
y= at x = 2 is
4
(a) x = 2 cos y (b) x = 2 sec y
(c) x = 2 sin y (d) x = 2 cos ecy
dy x
Q3. The solutions to the differential equation =− are a family of
dx y +1
(a) Circles with different radii

(b) Circles with different centres
(c) Straight lines with different slopes
(d) Straight lines with different intercepts on the y-axis
dy
Q4. The solution of the differential equation xy = 3 y 2 + x 2 with the initial condition y = 2
dx
when x = 1 is
(a) 2 y 2 + x 2 = 9 x 6 (b) y 2 + 2 x 2 = 9 x 6
(c) 2 y 2 + x 2 = 8 x 6 (d) y 2 + 2 x 2 = 8 x 6
Q5. The solution of the differential equation
(x + 2 y )(dx − dy ) = dx + dy (where a is some constant) is
(a) 3 x + 3 y + a = 2 log(3 x + 6 y − 1) (b) 3 x − 3 y + a = 2 log(3 x + 6 y − 1)
(c) 3 x − 3 y + a = 2 log(3 x − 6 y − 1) (d) 3 x + 3 y + a = 2 log(3 x − 6 y − 1)
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dy
Q6. For the differential equation + 3 y = e 2 x , the possible solution is:
dx
(a) y = c1e 2 x + c 2 e 3 x (b) y = c1e −2 x + c2 e 3 x
(c) y = c1e 2 x + c2 e −3 x (d) y = c1e −2 x + c 2 e −3 x

dy
Q7. The solution of the differential equation for y : x + y = x 4 , subject to the initial
dx
condition y = 1 at x = 1 is
x 4 4x
(a) y = 5 x 4 − 4 (b) y = +
5 5
x4 1 x4 4
(c) y = + (d) y = +
5 5x 5 5x
Q8. Which one of the following curves gives the solution of the differential
dx
equation K 1 + K 2 x = K 3 , where K 1 , K 2 and K 3 are positive constants with initial
dt
conditions x = 0 at t = 0 ?
(a ) x (b ) x
↑ ↑
t t
(c ) x (d )
t t
dy
Q9. The solution of the differential equation t + y log y = tye t
dt
(a) log y = (t + 1)e t + c (b) log y = (t − 1)e t + c
(c) t log y = (t + 1)e t + c (d) t log y = (t − 1)e t + c

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(1 + y )dx = (tan
2 −1
)
y − x dy (where c is some constant) is
(a) x = ( tan −1 y + 2 ) + ce − tan (b) x = ( tan −1 y − 2 ) + ce − tan

−1 −1
y y
(c) x = ( tan −1 y + 1) + ce − tan (d) x = ( tan −1 y − 1) + ce − tan

−1 −1
y y

dx
y log y + x − log y = 0 (where c is some constant) is
dy
1
(a) x log y = ( log y ) + c (b) x log y = 2 ( log y ) + c
2 2
2
1 1
(c) x log y = ( log y ) + c (d) y log x = ( log y ) + c
3 2
2 2
(e y
+ 2)sin xdx − e y cos xdy = 0 (where c is some constant) is
(a) (e y + 2)sin x = c (b) (e y + 2)cos x = c
(c) (e y + 2)cos ecx = c (d) (e y + 2)sec x = c
Q13. For the differential equation ( y 4 + 2 y )dx + (xy 3 + 2 y 4 − 4 x )dy = 0 one of the possible
solution (where c is some constant) is:
2 ⎛ 2 ⎞
(a) x + 2
+ y2 = c (b) x⎜⎜ y + 2 ⎟⎟ = c
y ⎝ y ⎠
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
(c) x⎜⎜ y + 2 ⎟⎟ + y 2 = c (d) x⎜⎜1 + 2 ⎟⎟ + x 2 = c
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠
d 2 y 3dy
Q14. The solution of the differential equation for y (t ) : 2 − + 2 y = e 3t is
dt dt
1 1
(a) c1e t + c 2 e 2t + e 3t (b) c1e −t + c 2 e 2t + e 3t
2 2
(c) c1e t + c 2 e 2t + e 3t (d) c1e −t + c 2 e −2t + e 3t
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d2y dy
Q15. The solution of the differential equation for 2
+ 2 + 101 y = 10.4e x , subject to the
dx dx
initial conditions y (0 ) = 1.1 and

dy
= −0.9 , is
dx x =0
(a) e − x cos10 x + 0.1e x (b) e − x sin 10 x + 0.1e x

(c) e x cos10 x + 0.1e − x (d) e x sin 10 x + 0.1e − x
d2y
Q16. The solution of the differential equation + 4 y = cos 2t is:
dt 2
t sin 2t
(a) A cos 2t + B sin 2t (b)
4
t sin 2t t 2 sin 2t
(c) A cos 2t + B sin 2t + (d) A cos 2t + B sin 2t +
4 4
d2y
Q17. The solution of the differential equation for y (t ) : 2 − y = 2 cosh (t ) , subject to the
dt
initial conditions y (0) = 0 and

dy
= 0 , is
dt t =0
cos h (t ) + t sin h (t ) (b) − sin h (t ) + t cos h (t )

1
(a)
2
(c) t cos h (t ) (d) t sin h (t )
d2y
Q18. The solution of the differential equation for y (t ) : − y = 2sinh ( t ) , subject to the initial
dt 2
conditions y (0) = 0 and

dy
= 0 , is
dt t =0
cos h (t ) + t sin h (t ) (b) − sin h (t ) + t cos h (t )

1
(a)
2
(c) t cos h (t ) (d) t sin h (t )
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NAT(Numerical Answer Type Questions)
= x 2 with the initial condition x(0 ) = 1 will

dx
dt
blow up as t tends to……….
Q20. The value of λ ….., for which the differential equation (xy 2 + λx 2 y )dx + ( x + y )x 2 dy = 0
is exact
Q21. The particular integral of the differential equation (D 2
+ D + 1)y = cos 2 x is
1
( 2sin 2 x − 3cos 2 x ) . Then the value of α is…..
α
d2y dy
Q22. The particular integral of the differential equation 2
+ 2 + 2 y = sin x is
dx dx
1
( sin x − α cos x ) . Then the value of α is……..
5
Q23. The particular integral of the differential equation (D 2
− 5D + 6 )y = e t cos 2t
et
is − (α sin 2t + cos 2t ) . Then the value of α is……..
20
xα
Q24. The particular integral of the differential equation (D − 4 D + 4)y = x e 2 3 2x
is e 2x
.
20
Then the value of α is……..
The particular integral of the differential equation (D 2 + 5D + 4)y = 3 − 2 x is

1
Q25. [α − 4 x ] .
8
Then the value of α is……..
Q26. The maximum value of the solution y ( t ) ……….of the differential equation
for y ( t ) + y ( t ) = 0 , subject to the initial conditions y ( 0 ) = 1 and y ( 0 ) = 1 for t ≥ 0 , is
d2y dx
Q27. If the characteristic equation 2
+ 2α + y = 0 has two equal roots, then the value of
dx dt
α ………. is
d 2x dx 10
Q28. Consider the differential equation 2
+ 3 + 2 x = 0 . Given x ( 0 ) = 20 and x (1) = ,
dt dt e
where e = 2.718 , the value of x ( 2 ) is …………
242





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Solutions
Ans. 1: (c)
y x
Solution: ∫ 1+ y 2
dy + ∫
1+ x 2
dx = c ⇒ 1 + y 2 + 1 + x 2 = c
Ans. 2: (a)
dx
Solution: xdy = − cot ydx ⇒ tan ydy = −
x
dx A
⇒ ∫ tan y dy = − ∫ + log A ⇒ log sec y = − log x + log A ⇒ log sec y = log
x x
π
⇒ x = A cos y ⇒ 2 = A cos ⇒ A = 2 ⇒ x = 2 cos y
4
Ans. 3: (a)
dy x x2 y2
Solution: =− ⇒ xdx + ydy + dy = 0 ⇒ + + y = C1 ⇒ x 2 + y 2 + 2 y = 2C1
dx y +1 2 2
⇒ ( x − 0 ) + ( y + 1) = 2C1 + 1 = C
2 2
which is family of circles with different radii.

Ans. 4: (a)
dy dy 3 y 2 + x 2
Solution: xy = 3y + x ⇒
2 2
= which is a homogeneous equation.
dx dx xy
dy dv dv 3v 2 x 2 + x 2 3v 2 + 1
Put y = vx ⇒ =v+x ⇒v+x = =
dx dx dx vx 2 v
dv 3v 2 + 1 2v 2 + 1 v dx
⇒x = −v = ⇒ 2 dv =
dx v v 2v + 1 x
⇒
1
4
( ) ( )
ln 2v 2 + 1 = ln x + ln c ′ ⇒ ln 2v 2 + 1 = ln x 4 + ln c ⇒ 2v 2 + 1 = cx 4 ( )
⎛ y2 ⎞
⇒ ⎜⎜ 2 2 + 1⎟⎟ = cx 4
⎝ x ⎠
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fiziks

⎛ 4 ⎞
y = 2 when x = 1 ⇒ ⎜ 2 + 1⎟ = c.1 ⇒ c = 9 ⇒ 2 y 2 + x 2 = 9 x 6
⎝ 1 ⎠
Ans. 5: (b)
dy x + 2 y − 1 dy dz dz 3z − 1
Solution: = . Let x + 2 y = z ⇒ 1 + 2 = ⇒ =
dx x + 2 y + 1 dx dx dx z +1
⎛1 1 1 ⎞
⎟dz = ∫ dx + c ⇒ + log(3z − 1) = x + c
z 4
⇒ ∫⎜ + −
⎝ 3 4 3z − 1 ⎠ 3 9
⇒ 3 x − 3 y + a = 2 log(3 x + 6 y − 1)
Ans. 6: (c)
e5x
Solution: Ι.F . = e ∫ = e 3 x ⇒ y × e 3 x = ∫ e 2 x × e 3 x dx + c ⇒ y × e 3 x =
3 dx
+ c ⇒ y = c1e 2 x + c 2 e −3 x
5
Ans. 7: (d)
1
dy 1 ∫ dx
Solution: + y = x 3 ⇒ Ι.F . = e x = e ln x = x
dx x
x5 x4 c
⇒ y × x = ∫ x 3 × xdx + c ⇒ y × x = +c⇒ y = +
5 5 x
1 c 4 x4 4
Since y = 1 at x = 1 ⇒ 1 = + ⇒c= ⇒ y= +
5 1 5 5 5x
Ans. 8: (a)
Solution:
dx K 2
+
dt K 1
K
x= 3 ⇒
K1
dx
dt
+ Ax = B ⇒ I .F . = e ∫ = e At ⇒ x × e At = ∫ B × e At dt + c
Adt
( )
e At
⇒ x × e At = B × + c ⇒ x = c1 + ce − At
A
Since x = 0 at t = 0 ⇒ c1 + c = 0 ⇒ c1 = −c ⇒ x = c (1 − e − At )
Ans. 9: (d)
1 dy 1 1 dy dz
Solution: Divide by yt ⇒ + log y = e t , put log y = z ⇒ =
y dt t y dt dt
1
dz 1 ∫ dt
⇒ + ⋅ z = e t ⇒ I ⋅ F = e t = e log t = t
dt t
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fiziks

⇒ zt = ∫ te dt + c ⇒ t log y = te − e + c
t t t
Ans. 10: (d)

dx tan −1 y − x
(
Solution: 1 + y dx = tan y − x dy ⇒
2
) = ( −1
)
dy 1+ y2
dx x tan −1 y
⇒ + = . This is a linear differential equation.
dy 1 + y 2 1 + y 2
1
∫ 1+ y 2 dy −1
I .F . = e = e tan y
tan −1 y
Its solution is x.e tan −1 y
= ∫e tan −1 y
dy + c
1+ y2
1
Put tan −1 y = t on R.H.S. so that dy = dt
1+ y2
x.e tan
−1
y
= ∫ e t .t dt + C = t.e t − e t + c = e tan
−1
y
(tan −1
)
y −1 + c
(
⇒ x = tan −1 y − 1 + ce − tan ) −1
y
Ans. 11: (a)

dx dx x 1
Solution: y log y + x − log y = 0 ⇒ + =
dy dy y log y y
1
∫ y log y dy
I .F . = e = e log (log y ) = log y
Its solution is x. log y = ∫

1
(log y )dy + c ⇒ x. log y = 1 (log y )2 + c .
y 2
Ans. 12: (b)
∂M ∂N
Solution: M = (e y + 2)sin x, N = −e y cos x ⇒ = e y sin x, = e y sin x
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
⇒ = ⇒ ∫ (e + 2)sin xdx + 0 = c ′ ⇒ (e y + 2)cos x = −c' = c
y
∂y ∂x
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Ans. 13: (c)
Solution: M = ( y 4 + 2 y ), N = (xy 3 + 2 y 4 − 4 x )
∂N ∂M
−
∂M ∂N ∂x ∂y
= − = f (y)
3
⇒ = 4 y + 2,
3
= y −4 ⇒
3
∂y ∂x M y
3
∫ − y dy 1
then Ι.F . = e = e −3 log y =
y3
we get 3 ( y 4 + 2 y )dx + 3 (xy 3 + 2 y 4 − 4 x )dy = 0 which is an exact

1 1 1
Multiplying by 3
y y y
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
equation. ⇒ ∫ ⎜⎜ y + 2 ⎟⎟dx + ∫ (2 y )dy = C ⇒ x⎜⎜ y + 2 ⎟⎟ + y 2 = C
⎝ y ⎠ ⎝ y ⎠
Ans. 14: (a)

Solution: (D 2 − 3D + 2) = 0 ⇒ D = 1, 2 ⇒ C.F . = c1e t + c 2 e 2t
1 1 1
P.I . = e 3t = 2 e 3t = e 3t
(D − 3D + 2) (3 − 3 × 3 + 2) 2
2
Ans. 15: (a)

− 2 ± 4 − 4 × 101 − 2 ± 20i
Solution: (D 2 + 2 D + 101) = 0 ⇒ D = = = −1 ± 10i
2 2
C.F . = e − x ( A cos10 x + B sin 10 x ) ;
1 1 10.4 x
P.I . = 10.4e x = 10.4e x = e = 0.1e x
(D + 2D + 101)
2
(1 + 2 × 1 + 101) 104
⇒ y = e − x ( A cos10 x + B sin 10 x ) + 0.1e x

∵ y (0 ) = 1.1 ⇒ 0 = 1( A + 0 ) + 0.1 = 1.1 ⇒ A = 1 .
⇒ y = e − x (cos10 x + B sin 10 x ) + 0.1e x
= e − x (− 10 sin 10 x + 10 B cos10 x ) − e − x (cos10 x + B sin 10 x ) + 0.1e x

dy
⇒
dx
= −0.9 ⇒ −0.9 = 1(− 0 + 10 B ) − 1(1 + 0 ) + 0.1 ⇒ 10 B = 1 − 0.1 − 0.9 ⇒ B = 0 .

dy
∵
dx x =0
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−x
⇒ y = e cos10 x + 0.1e x
Ans. 16: (c)

Solution: (D 2 + 4 ) = 0 ⇒ D = +2i, − 2i ⇒ C.F . = A cos 2t + B sin 2t
Ans. 17: (d)
Solution: (D 2 − 1) = 0 ⇒ D = +1,− 1 ⇒ C.F . = c1e t + c 2 e − t
⎛ e t + e −t ⎞
)( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 t t
P.I . = 2⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 2 e t + e −t = t e + e −t = e t − e −t
( D −1
2
) ⎝ 2 ⎠ D −1( 2D 2
⇒ y (t ) = c1e t + c 2 e −t + (e − e −t )
t t
2
y (0) = 0 ⇒ c1 + c 2 = 0 ;
= c1e t − c 2 e −t + (e t − e −t ) + (e t + e −t ) ,
dy 1 t dy
= 0 ⇒ c1 − c 2 = 0
dt 2 2 dt t =0
Thus c1 = c 2 = 0 ⇒ y (t ) = (e − e −t ) = t sinh(t )
t t
2
Ans. 18: (c)
Solution: (D 2 − 1) = 0 ⇒ D = +1,− 1 ⇒ C.F . = c1e t + c 2 e − t
⎛ et − e − t ⎞
P.I . =
1
2⎜ ⎟=
1
et − e − t = t
1 t −t t
(
e − e = et + e − t ) ( ) ( )
2
(
D −1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ) D −1
2
(
2D 2 )
⇒ y ( t ) = c1et + c2 e− t +
2
(e + e )
t t −t
y (0) = 0 ⇒ c1 + c 2 = 0 ;
= c1et − c2 e− t + ( et + e − t ) + ( et − e− t ) ⇒
dy 1 t dy
= 0 ⇒ c1 − c2 = 0
dt 2 2 dt t =0
Thus c1 = c 2 = 0 ⇒ y ( t ) =
2
( e + e ) = t cosh ( t )
t t −t
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NAT (Numerical Answer Type Questions)
Ans. 19: 1
dx dx x −2+1 −1
Solution: = x ⇒ ∫ 2 = ∫ dt ⇒
2
=t +C ⇒ =t +C
dt x − 2 +1 x
−1 −1
⇒ x(0) = 1 ⇒
1
= 0 + C ⇒ C = −1 ⇒ = t −1 ⇒ x = as t → 1 , x blows up.
1 x 1− t
Ans. 20: 3
∂M ∂N
Solution: M = (xy 2 + λx 2 y ), N = ( x + y )x 2 dy ⇒ = 2 xy + λx 2 , = 3x 2 + 2 xy
∂y ∂x
∂M ∂N
⇒ = ⇒λ =3
∂y ∂x
Ans. 21: 13
1 1 1
Solution: P.I . = .cos 2 x = 2 .cos 2 x = .cos 2 x .
D + D +1
2
−2 + D + 1 D−3
D+3 D+3
. cos 2 x = (2 sin 2 x − 3 cos 2 x )
1
⇒ P.I . = . cos 2 x =
D −9
2
−2 −9
2
13
Ans. 22: 2
2D − 1
sin x = − (2 D − 1)sin x
1 1 1
Solution: P ⋅ I . = sin x = sin x =
D + 2D + 2
2
− 1 + 2D + 2 4D − 1
2
5
⇒ P ⋅ I. = −
1
(2 cos x − sin x ) = 1 (sin x − 2 cos x )
5 5
Ans. 23: 3
1 1
Solution: P ⋅ I ⋅ = e t cos 2t = e t cos 2t
D − 5D + 6
2
(D + 1) − 5(D + 1) + 6
2
1 1
P ⋅ I ⋅ = et cos 2t = et cos 2t
D − 3D + 2
2
−4 − 3D + 2
1 3D − 2
P ⋅ I ⋅ = −et cos 2t = −et cos 2t
3D + 2 9D2 − 4
3D − 2 et et
P ⋅ I ⋅ = −e t
cos 2t = ( 3D − 2 ) cos 2t = − ( 3sin 2t + cos 2t )
9 × −4 − 4 40 20
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Ans. 24: 5
1 1
Solution: P.I . = .x 3 e 2 x = e 2 x .x 3 .
D − 4D + 4 ( D + 2) − 4 ( D + 2) + 4
2 2
2x 1 ⎛ x ⎞
4 5
1 3 2x x
⇒ P.I . = e 2 x . x = e ⎜ ⎟ = e
D2 D ⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ 20
Ans25: 11
−1
( 3 − 2 x ) = ⎡⎢1 + D + D 2 ⎤⎥ ( 3 − 2 x )
1 −1
5 5
Solution: P.I . = ⎡⎣ D 2 + 5D + 4 ⎤⎦
4⎣ 4 4 ⎦
1⎡ 5 ⎤ 1⎡ ⎤ 1
⇒ P.I . = ⎢1 − D − D 2 ⎥ (3 − 2 x ) = ⎢3 − 2 x − × −2⎥ = [11 − 4 x ]
5 5
4⎣ 4 4 ⎦ 4⎣ 4 ⎦ 8
Ans26: 1.41
Solution: ( D 2 + 1) = 0 ⇒ D = ±i ⇒ y = c1eix + c2 e− ix = A cos x + B sin x
∵ y ( 0 ) = 1 ⇒ 1 = A × 1 + B × 0 ⇒ A = 1 ⇒ y = − A sin x + B cos x
⇒ y ( 0 ) = 1 ⇒ 1 = − A × 0 + B × 1 ⇒ B = 1 ⇒ y = cos x + sin x
For maxima, y′ = − sin x + cos x = 0 ⇒ sin x = cos x ⇒ x = 450
y′′ = − cos x − sin x , y′′ < 0 for x = 450

1 1 2
⇒ y ( max ) = cos 450 + sin 450 = + = = 2
2 2 2
Ans27: 1
−2α ± 4α 2 − 4
Solution: ( D 2 + 2α D + 1) = 0 ⇒ m1 , m1 = ∵ m1 = m1 ⇒ α = 1
2
Ans. 28: 0.8566
Solution: ( D 2 + 3D + 2 ) = 0 ⇒ D = −1, −2 ⇒ x ( t ) = C1e − t + C2 e −2t
10
⇒ x (1) = = C1e −1 + C2 e−2 ⇒ C1 + C2 e−1 = 10 and C1 + C2 = 20
e
10e − 20 10e
⇒ C1 = ; C2 =
e −1 e −1
⎛ 10e − 20 ⎞ −2 ⎛ 10e ⎞ −4
x ( 2) = ⎜ ⎟e + ⎜ ⎟ e = 0.8566
⎝ e −1 ⎠ ⎝ e −1 ⎠
249






Mathematical Physics Guide for Competitive Exams

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fiziks

1.1.1 Vector Operations

(iii) Dot product of two vectors

If two vectors are perpendicular, then A.B = 0

parallel, their cross product is zero.

of A along the three coordinate axes.

(ii) Rule: To multiply by a scalar, multiply each component.

Because xˆ , yˆ and ẑ are mutually perpendicular unit vectors

In particular, A. A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 ⇒ A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2

second row is A (in component form), and whose third row is B .

Example: Find the angle between the face diagonals of a cube. z

Solution: The face diagonals A and B are (0,0,1)

to the plane shown in the figure. 3 n̂

Solution: The vectors A and B can be defined as

(i) Scalar triple product: A. B × C ( )

and A cos θ is the altitude. Evidently, B

Note that the dot and cross can be interchanged: A. B × C = A × B .C ( ) ( )

1.1.4 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors

Its magnitude, r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 is the distance from the origin,

The infinitesimal displacement vector, from ( x, y, z ) to ( x + dx, y + dy, z + dz ) , is

∇V is a vector quantity, with three components.

The gradient ∇V points in the direction of maximum increase of the function V.

1.2.3 The Operator ∇

The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector, ∇ , “multiplying” a scalar V:

There are three ways the operator ∇ can act:

1. on a scalar function V: ∇V (the gradient);

2. on a vector function A , via the dot product: ∇ ⋅ A (the divergence);

3. on a vector function A , via the cross product: ∇ × A (the curl).

From the definition of ∇ we construct the divergence:

A here is a function-there’s a different vector associated with every point in space.)

From the definition of ∇ we construct the curl:

(a) Calculate the value of constants c1 , c 2 , c3 if A is irrotational.

(b) Determine the constant c 4 if A is also solenoidal.

∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az

the rule for multiplying by a constant:

the product rule:

Α ⋅ Β (Dot product of two vectors),

f Α (Scalar time’s vector),

Α × Β (Cross product of two vectors),

(vi) ∇ × (Α × Β ) = (Β ⋅ ∇ )Α − (Α ⋅ ∇ )Β + Α(∇ ⋅ Β ) − Β(∇ ⋅ Α ),

(1) Divergence of gradient: ∇ ⋅ ∇V ( )

Occasionally, we shall speak of the Laplacian of a vector, ∇ 2 A . By this we mean a vector

∇ 2 A ≡ (∇ 2 Ax )xˆ + (∇ 2 Ay )yˆ + (∇ 2 Az )zˆ.

This is nothing more than a convenient extension of the meaning of ∇ 2 .

(2) Curl of gradient: ∇ × ∇V ( )

The curl of a gradient is always zero: ∇ × ∇V = 0. ( )

work done by a force F :

On the “vertical” stretch dx = dz = 0, so

(ii) d l = dyyˆ , x = 2, A ⋅ d l = 2 x( y + 1)dy = 4( y + 1)dy, so ∫ A ⋅ d l = 4∫ ( y + 1)dy = 10 .

By path (1), then,

Meanwhile, on path (2) x = y, dx = dy, and dz = 0, so

Solution: Line Integral ∫ F .d l = ∫ F .d l + ∫ F .d l + ∫ F .d l

On path C1, x = 0, y = 0, d l = dzzˆ

On path C3 the slope of line is-2 and intercept on z axis is 2 ⇒ z = −2 y + 2 = 2(1 − y )

On C3, x=0, dx = 0 d l = dyyˆ + dzzˆ

where A is again some vector function, and d a is an

the surface(as shown in figure). There are, of course, two x

(ii) x = 0, d a = − dydzxˆ , A ⋅ d a = −2 xzdydz = 0, so ∫ A ⋅ d a = 0 .

(v) z = 2, d a = dx dy zˆ, A ⋅ d a = y (z 2 − 3)dx dy = y dx dy, so ∫ A ⋅ d a =

Evidently the total flux is

(c) Volume Integrals

where T is a scalar function and dτ is an infinitesimal volume element. In Cartesian coordinates,