Climbing Anchors - Field Guide PDF

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H ow to C l i m b® S e r i e s
Climbing
Anchors
Field Guide
Second Edition
John Long
and Bob Gaines
www.Ebook777.com
FALCONGUIDES ®
An imprint of Rowman & Littlefield
Falcon, FalconGuides, Outfit Your Mind, and How to Climb are
registered trademarks of Rowman & Littlefield.
Distributed by NATIONAL BOOK NETWORK
Copyright © 2007, 2014 by John Long and Bob Gaines

All photos by Bob Gaines unless otherwise credited
Illustrations © Mike Clelland
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any

form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including informa-
tion storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from
the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote passages in a
review.
Portions of this book were previously published in Climbing

Anchors by John Long (FalconGuides, 2006, and Chockstone Press,
Inc., 1993), More Climbing Anchors by John Long and Bob Gaines
(Chockstone Press, Inc., reprinted by FalconGuides, 1996), How to
Rock Climb by John Long (FalconGuides, 2003), Climbing Anchors,
2nd Edition, by John Long and Bob Gaines (FalconGuides, 2013),
Climbing Anchors Field Guide by John Long and Bob Gaines (Falcon-
Guides, 2007), Toproping by Bob Gaines (FalconGuides, 2012), and
Rappelling by Bob Gaines (FalconGuides, 2013).
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Information available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available

ISBN 978-0-7627-8208-6 (paperback)
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requirements of American National Standard for Information Sci-
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NISO Z39.48-1992.
Warning: Climbing is a dangerous sport. You
can be seriously injured or die. Read the fol-
lowing before you use this book.
This is an instruction book about rock climbing, a sport
that is inherently dangerous. Do not depend solely on
information from this book for your personal safety.Your
climbing safety depends on your own judgment based on
competent instruction, experience, and a realistic assess-
ment of your climbing ability.
There is no substitution for personal instruction in
rock climbing, and climbing instruction is widely avail-
able.You should engage an instructor or guide to learn
climbing safety techniques. If you misinterpret a concept
expressed in this book, you may be killed or seriously
injured as a result of the misunderstanding. Therefore,
the information provided in this book should be used
only to supplement competent personal instruction
from a climbing instructor or guide. Even after you are
proficient in climbing safely, occasional use of a climbing
guide is a safe way to raise your climbing standard and
learn advanced techniques.
There are no warranties, either expressed or implied,
that this instruction book contains accurate and reliable
information. There are no warranties as to fitness for a
particular purpose or that this book is merchantable.Your
use of this book indicates your assumption of the risk of
death or serious injury as a result of climbing’s risks and
is an acknowledgment of your own sole responsibility for
your safety in climbing or in training for climbing.
The authors and Rowman & Littlefield assume no
liability for accidents happening to, or injuries sustained
by, readers who engage in the activities described in this
book.
Contents
Introduction.............................................................................. vii
Simple Anchors
Chapter 1. Natural Anchors.................................................1
Chapter 2. Chocks................................................................. 14
Nuts...................................................................................... 14
Oppositional Nuts........................................................... 26
Micro-Nuts......................................................................... 28
Hexes................................................................................... 33
Tricams................................................................................ 36
Big Bros............................................................................... 38
Chapter 3. Spring-Loaded Camming Devices........ 39
Chapter 4. Bolts....................................................................... 60
Chapter 5. Fall Forces.......................................................... 71
Chapter 6. Judging the Direction of Pull................... 75
Chapter 7. Knots for Anchoring...................................... 79
Anchor Systems
Chapter 8. Belay Anchors.................................................. 89
SRENE Anchors................................................. 92
Cordelettes.. .......................................................... 95
The Sliding X................................................... 105
The Equalette.................................................... 112
The Quad.......................................................... 116
Composite Anchors: Cordelette,
Sliding X, and Equalette.............................. 119
Upward Oppositional Anchors.......................... 120
Belay Methods.................................................... 122
Chapter 9. Toprope Anchors........................................... 130
Chapter 10. The Joshua Tree System......................... 137
Chapter 11. Rappel Anchors........................................... 149
C ontents v
About the Authors
John Long is the author of
twenty-five books, with over one
million copies in print. He is the
principal author of the How to
courtesy of John Long

Climb® series. His short-form
literary stories have been widely
anthologized and translated into
many languages. John won the
2006 Literary Award for excel-
lence in alpine literature from the
American Alpine Club.
Bob Gaines is an AMGA Certi-

fied Rock Instructor who has
been teaching rock climbing
since 1983. He is the owner/
director of Vertical Adventures
Climbing School, based at Joshua
Tree National Park, California.
Patty Kline
He has trained US Military Spe-

cial Forces, including the elite
US Navy SEAL Team 6. Bob has
also worked extensively as a climbing stunt coordinator on
over forty television commercials. He was the chief safety
officer for the movie Cliffhanger and doubled for Captain
Kirk when Kirk free soloed El Capitan in Star Trek V.
Bob is also the author of Rappelling, Toproping, Best Climbs
Joshua Tree National Park, and Best Climbs Tahquitz and Sui-
cide Rocks, and the coauthor of Rock Climbing:The AMGA
Single Pitch Manual, which is the textbook for the AMGA’s
Single Pitch Instructor Course.
Introduction
Climbing Anchors Field Guide is a companion guide
to the much larger Climbing Anchors. Many readers
would study anchor fundamentals in the large book (or
prior anchor manuals), but when they ventured onto
the rock and had to work strictly from memory, they
sometimes struggled to remember the details. What’s
more, toting Climbing Anchors to the cliffside was nei-
ther practical nor desired. So take this book instead.
That’s what it was made for.
Remember:
Basic Anchor-Building Facts
• “Perfect” rarely exists in real world climbing

anchors.
• No single rigging technique will work in

every situation.
• Trad climbers must efficiently improvise on a

handful of anchor-building techniques.
• The ability to improvise requires a thorough

understanding of basic principles.
• Climbing anchors always involve compro-

mises—the trick is to understand what you
should and should not compromise at a
given place on the rock.
vii
The fine points of the systems remain works-in-
progress as new materials, equipment, and refinements
are introduced into the field and marketplace. Never-
theless, the material in this edition represents the com-
bined, cutting-edge knowledge of both professional
guides and leading climbers worldwide.
viii Introduction
C h a p t e r O n e
Natural Anchors
Natural Anchors Are:
• Anything the environment provides—trees,

blocks, horns of rock, etc.
• Often more secure than gear-built anchors.

• Typically easy and fast to arrange.
• Multidirectional (can be loaded from any
direction).
• By and large environmentally friendly.
When Anchoring to a Tree . . .

• Make sure it is alive.
• Strive for a minimum diameter of 12 inches.
• Tie it off as low as possible to reduce
leverage.
1
A bomber pine tree tied off with a cordelette. Here
the cordelette has been looped around the trunk and
tied with a figure eight loop, creating redundancy in
both the cord around the tree and the two loops at the
master point, which the carabiners are clipped into.
Simple, strong, and redundant. In all such setups, try
to keep the inside angle of the cord/sling less than 90
degrees to avoid load multiplication.
2 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Bad. Not only is this rigging nonredundant, the sling
is too short, so the carabiner is being loaded in three
directions. This is known as triaxial loading.
Very bad. The sling

is too short, and the
single carabiner has
shifted so the load
is on the minor axis,
straight outward on
the gate.
Natural Anchors 3
A rigging rope tied directly to a tree using a bowline
knot with a fisherman’s backup. Remember, a bowline
knot requires a backup knot, because it can work itself
loose if the tail is too short.
4 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Remember . . .
• Only their mass and position keep boulders

and blocks in place.
• To serve as secure anchors, boulders and

blocks must be sufficiently large and totally
immovable.
This large block is well situated, and is bomber for

the direction of pull for which it is rigged. As always,
appraising the integrity of a natural rock anchor
involves judgment. Carefully examine for cracks in
the block. And most importantly, how well is the block
attached to the main rock structure? If you decide to
use a detached block, how big is it: the size of your
car or the size of your boom box? Does it rest on a flat
platform or a sloping shelf? As a general rule, many
climbers avoid rigging anchors off detached blocks
and flakes.
Natural Anchors 5
A monolithic, but detached block. A good rule of thumb
for using detached blocks is one Bob adopted from
Yosemite Search and Rescue Team protocol: For a
detached granite block to be used as an anchor, it must
be as large as a full-size refrigerator resting lengthwise
on a flat surface.
This block is being

incorporated as
a component in
a larger anchor
system. While not
as big as a fridge,
it is situated low
and cradled among
other blocks,
making it virtually
immovable.
6 SIMPLE ANCHORS
This beefy horn of rock is “attached to the planet,”
which is what you’re looking for, rather than a
detached formation sitting “on top of the planet.” The
cordelette is doubled around the horn and tied with an
overhand knot, making the cord itself redundant—an
extra precaution to safeguard against the cord being
cut by a sharp edge.
Natural Anchors 7
Whatever the Rock Feature . . .
• Look out for sharp edges.
• Test the security of the feature by thumping
it with the heel of your hand. Anything that
wiggles or sounds hollow is suspect.
• Look for surrounding cracks.

• Tie off as close to the main wall as possible,
to reduce leverage.
• Tie off with runners, slipknotting if the form is

rounded.
Using a slipknot to sling a horn.
8 SIMPLE ANCHORS
How to tie a slipknot. A slipknot can be tightened down
by pulling on one strand, making it a good choice for
tying off knobs of rock.
Natural Anchors 9
A double-length
(48-inch) nylon
sling girth-hitched
to a horn of rock. If
this were to be used
for pro, the rope
action through the
carabiner might
loosen the sling. A
better setup is to
choke the sling back
on itself.
Although this
configuration
weakens the sling
by 30 to 40 percent,
it increases the
chances of the sling
staying put.
Using a sling or cord threaded through a tunnel or
pocket is called a thread. This thread anchor uses a
5mm Bluewater Titan cordelette (3,080 lbs. tensile
strength), doubled first, threaded through, then tied
with an overhand knot, giving tremendous redundancy
and quadruple strength in the cord itself. This thread
is in strong granite; this same tunnel in a softer rock,
like sandstone, would be much weaker and unreliable.
Also, the arch of rock just above the cord appears to be
partially cracked, a sign of a structural integrity deficit.
Natural Anchors 11
Threads like this are rare in granite, but more common
in limestone. Here a low-stretch rigging rope is tied
with a bowline and fisherman’s backup.
Tensile Strength
vs. Loop Strength
S trength ratings for cord and webbing are

often given as tensile strength and loop
strength. Tensile strength is tested by a straight
pull on a single strand of the material with no
knots, done by wrapping the material around
a smooth bar (4 inches in diameter gives the
most accurate test) on both ends and pulling
until it breaks. Loop strength is strength of the
material tested in a loop configuration, either
tied with a knot or, in the case of webbing, sewn
with bartacked stitching. In general, webbing
loop strength when tied with a water knot is
about 80 percent of twice the tensile breaking
strength, and bartacked sewn webbing loop
strength is generally about 15 percent stron-
ger than the same material tied with a water
knot, depending on the quality and number of
bartacks.
Left—A chockstone tied off with a girth-hitched sling.

This chockstone, while good for a straight-down pull,
only has surface contact at the top left, and looks like
it could pivot free if any outward or upward force is
applied.
Natural Anchors 13
C h a p t e r T w o
Chocks
Nuts
Basic Rules
of Placing a Good Nut
• The nut has to be bigger—if only a bit—than

the section of crack below where it is lodged.
• Slot the nut that most closely corresponds to

the geometry of the crack.
• Whenever possible, set the nut where the

crack not only pinches off in the downward
direction but also in the outward direction.
• Orient the nut so the cable or sling points in

the expected direction of pull/loading.
• Try to get the majority of the nut set against

the rock, maximizing the amount of surface
contact.
• Avoid endwise placements if possible, as they

tend to be less secure.
• If you have a choice, go with the bigger nut,

as it is generally more secure, with more
surface area contacting the rock.
• Make sure the placement is well seated, with no

movement or rattle when weighted by hand.
14
Use the SOS Acronym
to Assess a Nut Placement
S Structural integrity of the rock itself. Look
for straight-in cracks in massive rock; avoid
flakes, blocks, and rotten cracks.
O Orientation. Place the nut with the antici

pated direction of pull in mind. It may hold a
ton in one direction but be easily dislodged
with a tug in the opposite direction.
S Surface Contact. Always strive for maximum

flushness between the faces of the chock and
the rock.
Both sides of this

Stopper have great
surface contact,
and the constriction
of the crack
corresponds with
the shape of the
taper.
Chocks 15
Like a man in the wrong-size trousers, this Black
Diamond Stopper does not fit the slot. A desirable
placement would involve a larger Stopper placed
normally (rather than endwise), with the main faces of
the chock flush with the walls of the crack. This nut has
all the earmarks of sketchy pro: poor surface contact,
susceptibility to an outward force plucking it from the
crack, and instability from sitting on the flat base of
the nut. On a scale of 1 to 10 (10 being bomber), this
Stopper is about a 2.
16 SIMPLE ANCHORS
This Metolius Curve Nut has great flushness on the
right wall of the crack, but the left side has negligible
surface contact on gritty, grainy rock. Dicey! Because
endwise placements are generally less stable, always
strive to get a flush fit with as much surface contact as
possible.
According to Metolius, the design of Curve Nuts,
while not technically “offset,” gives them added
stability in flares. If you wiggled this nut around a
bit, you’d likely find an ideal placement—that’s how
it usually works. Few cracks are perfectly parallel
sided, and slight repositioning can change a marginal
placement to something much better—or worse.
Chocks 17
This Stopper is flush on the left side, but the right side
has only about 50 percent surface contact, plus the
crack opens up immediately below the placement.
This placement is not bomber—maybe good enough
to hang off, but if this Stopper was all that was keeping
you from hitting the deck, you’d best quickly look for
other placements.
18 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Stopper in a bottleneck placement. There is simply no
way that in a downward pull the nut could be pulled
through the bottleneck—something would have to give,
either the rock itself or the nut or wire cable breaking.
Chocks 19
This Stopper placement is in a good bottleneck and
would easily hold a straight downward force, but what
makes it borderline marginal is its lack of surface
contact on the left side, making it susceptible to being
yanked with even nominal outward force. If this is all
you’ve got, set it as well as you can with a downward
jerk, then test it with an outward tug and see what
happens, taking care not to hit yourself in the face or
teeth if the nut suddenly pops.
20 SIMPLE ANCHORS
A solid endwise stopper placement: flush surface
contact and a lip to the crack to prevent any outward
force from dislodging the placement.
Chocks 21
The Stopper
placement is flush
in this endwise
configuration, but
how strong is that
nubbin of rock on
the right wall of the
crack? Probably
strong enough to
hang off, but not
strong enough to
hold a leader on
a 30-foot ripper.
Believe it: The
principal cause
of pro placement
failure is rock
failure. Protection devices seldom break, but they
often rip out, meaning security, not strength, is
generally the main issue.
Even though the

crack is flared, this
offset nut (meaning
one edge is wider
that the other)
has great surface
contact and fits the
shape of the crack in
both dimensions.
An excellent Stopper
placement with
good surface contact
on both sides of
the nut.
Both the ball nut

and removable
bolt are based
upon this concept
(opposition). While
this configuration
(“stacked” Stoppers)
will work, it is
very rarely used.
In this case these
two Stoppers mate
together rather well,
and both have flush
contact with each
other and the wall of
the crack.
The direction of pull on protection changes with the
next placement. In figure A, the falling climber will
impact the protection straight down.
24 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Figure B shows how a fall on protection placed higher
and out of a direct line with pieces below will change
the direction of pull. Note that the falling climber will
not pull straight down on the top piece because of the
placement of the previous nut.
Chocks 25
Oppositional Nuts
Nuts in opposition, tied together with a clove hitch on
a sling, can help solve the direction-of-pull dilemma,
especially when an SLCD placement is not
available. (See the Knots for Anchoring
chapter for a detailed description of how
to tie a clove hitch.) This configuration
will also work for nuts opposed in a
horizontal crack.
26 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Here clove hitches have been tied directly into the two
nuts to eliminate undesirable angles of pull on the
placements. Not only do the clove hitches allow the
sling to maintain an optimum angle of pull on the nuts,
but as long as some pressure is placed on the anchor,
inward forces between the pieces keep each nut well
set. This is one of the best ways to rig two opposing
wired nuts in a horizontal crack, a rare scenario but not
unheard of on trad climbs.
Chocks 27
Micro-Nuts
Tips for Using Micro-Nuts
• The tolerances of all micros are quite small,

so only ideal placements are secure.
• Owing to the small surface area, micros are

reliable only in good rock.
• Lateral forces easily pivot micros out of

cracks; always slot the micro directly in the
line of pull. This also prevents tweaking the
cable.
• Always extend the placement with a quick-

draw. Rope drag can easily displace the
micro.
• Avoid placements where the wire is running

over an edge.
• Avoid jerking the micro too hard, either

when setting or removing it, lest you prema-
turely bend, weaken, or even break the wire.
28 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Looking sketchy there . . . This number 6 Micro
Stopper (8 kN or 1,798 lbs.) has honorable contact on
its left side, but the right side is flush only at the base,
making the nut very susceptible to displacement by
an outward force. Placed like this, the taper cannot be
relied on to hold anywhere near its rated strength. A
slightly smaller nut might fit better in the bottleneck.
If this is all you have, set the nut well with several
sharp, downward tugs, bearing in mind the placement
is on the marginal side, untrustworthy for critical
situations—like holding a leader fall.
Whenever you have a choice between two equally
secure placements, go with the bigger nut, as its
component strength is higher. But also understand
that the quality of both the rock and the placement are
typically what make the nut secure or insecure, not the
strength of the cable.
Chocks 29
Because of micros’ boxy shape, near parallel-sided
cracks often afford the best placements. Careful
placement is essential, because the relative differences
between a good and bad micro placement are small
indeed. While it is tempting to slot the nut deep in
the crack, it’s usually better to keep it where you can
visually assess the placement. Here the micro shows
good, flush surface contact on both sides of the crack.
30 SIMPLE ANCHORS
This Black Diamond Micro Stopper has great surface
contact on the left side—almost 100 percent flush—
which is what you’re looking for. The right side is
also nearly flush, plus the nut simply fits the slot. To
secure truly bomber placements, scan the crack for the
“V-slot” configuration and place the nut that best fits
the slot. Remember to set the placement with several
downward tugs and give it a test by yanking slightly
out and up. A poorly seated nut may hold a ton with a
straight, downward load, but may be yanked up and
out with a minimal force (like rope drag). Review the
breaking strengths of the nuts you buy, and take this
into consideration when building your anchor. This
number 3 Micro Stopper has a breaking strength of
5 kN (1,123 lbs.), compared to a number 6 Stopper of
10 kN (2,248 lbs.).
Chocks 31
This brass nut
shows great surface
contact on both of its
faces: an excellent
placement.
Poor surface contact

on this brass RP nut,
particularly on the
left side, means this
marginal placement
probably wouldn’t
hold a fall, and
maybe not even
body weight.
Hexes
This is what to look

for: great surface
contact on both
sides, with the curve
of the nut form-
fitting the slot in the
rock. Bomber!
Bomber. Great
surface contact.
A load on this nut
would create a
camming effect to
further key it into
the crack.
Chocks 33
You couldn’t
hang your hat
on this dud—a
common type
of endwise
placement with
beginners. The
right side is
flush against
the wall of
the crack, but
look at the left
side! Minimal
surface contact.
This nut simply
does not correspond to the geometry of the crack and
would likely fail if loaded.
A picture-
perfect endwise
placement—
flush contact
on both ends,
well seated, and
bomber. Set it
well and you’re
good to go.
34 SIMPLE ANCHORS
This Black Diamond
Hex is well seated in
a pocket in the crack,
with excellent surface
contact on both faces of
the chock. When a load
is applied, the camming
action will kick in,
further wedging it in
the crack. Placements
such as this are great
for a downward pull,
but must be well set to
safeguard against any
outward force. If using it as a piece of pro for leading,
a quickdraw or sling will help safeguard against this
possibility.
Close inspection of this

hex placement reveals
a lack of flush surface
contact on the right side
and on the inside of
the hex. Also, the rock
microstructure is large
grained and therefore
potentially weak. This
could be a problem since
the crack really opens
up below the nut. Ideally
you want the crack
narrower below any nut
placement so the nut has
nowhere to go even if
the grainy surface of the
rock fails.
Chocks 35
Tricams
A Tricam placed in the passive mode as a chock.
36 SIMPLE ANCHORS
A Tricam in camming position.
Not good. This

Tricam is set in
camming mode with
the point resting on
a crystal, meaning
it’s unlikely to
withstand much
sideways rope
wiggle, and it might
fall out of the crack
under even slight
outward pressure.
Big Bros
Big Bros, made by Trango, are available in six sizes to

fit cracks ranging from 2.7 inches to 18.4 inches wide.
A set weighs almost 3 1⁄2 pounds and costs about $600,
but they work like magic—often when nothing else
will. With the ends of the Big Bro solidly in contact with
the rock (like this) and with the collar tightly cinched,
this piece can hold any direction of pull. Big Bros now
come color coded for easy size identification.
38 SIMPLE ANCHORS
C h a p t e r T h r e e
Spring-Loaded
Camming Devices
The Basic Essentials

of Placing SLCDs
• Always align the unit with the stem pointing

in the anticipated direction of pull.
• To keep the unit from “walking” because of

rope drag during a lead, clip a quickdraw
into the sewn sling of the unit.
• Try to place the unit near the outside edge

of the crack, where you can eyeball the cam
lobes to determine their position. This also
makes it easier to reach the trigger to clean
the device.
• Strive for the ideal placement, with the cams

deployed/retracted in the most uniformly
parallel section of the crack, so the cams
cannot open if the unit walks a bit. Metolius
puts color-coded dots on the cams to help
with lobe positioning, but with others you’ll
have to eyeball it. Read and follow the
manufacturer’s recommendations for cam
deployment.
Continued on next page
39
Continued from previous page
• Use a larger device over a smaller one, but

unless you are absolutely desperate, never
force too big a unit into too small a hole.
Once the cams are rolled to minimum width,
removal, if even possible, is grievous.
• Never trust a placement where the cams are

nearly “tipped” (the cam lobes almost fully
deployed). In such a position there is little
room for further expansion, and stability is
poor.
• Never place a rigid-stemmed unit so the

stem is over a lip. A fall can either bend or
break the unit. SLCD manufacturer Wild
Country recommends using the “Gunk’s tie
off” for horizontal placements, which is a
pre-tied loop of high-tensile, 5.5mm diam-
eter cord threaded through the hole closest
to the cam head. Clipping in to this loop
prevents torque on the rigid stem.
• Take some time to experiment with marginal

placements on the ground. Clip a sling into
the SLCD and apply body weight to discover
just how far you can trust it. But remember—
body weight testing is far milder than a lead
fall!
40 SIMPLE ANCHORS
This BD Camalot fits this pocket like a pea in a pod.
All four cams have magnificent, flush surface contact,
and the range of retraction is about 50 percent. To
maximize the holding power of the unit, look for
each of the cams to contact the rock at lower to
mid-expansion range (50 to 90 percent retracted for
Camalots). All cams are a little different, so be sure to
read the manufacturer’s guidelines on placement for
whatever brand you buy.
Spring-Loaded Camming Devices 41

green=go
yellow=caution
red=stop
Camming devices should be placed in the tighter

aspect of their range. This flexible-stemmed Metolius
unit has colored dots (drilled holes) on the rim of the
cams; this placement sits on the borderline between
the yellow (caution) and green (go) dots. Metolius
recommends their units be placed 75 to 100 percent
retracted—a different range than other manufacturer’s
devices, because of their different camming angle.
This sacrifices some range, but gives higher holding
power. So remember, with Metolius units, tighter is
better, but it’s wise to leave a few percents off 100
percent tight, so you’ll be able to remove the device
easily.
42 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Good. This Metolius Power Cam displays optimal
green “range finder” dots in a parallel-sided crack.

Poor. Although the range of retraction is acceptable
(although borderline between the green and yellow
dots), this Metolius Power Cam could easily walk into
the wider pod of the crack above the cams, rendering
the placement unstable. Also, the outside right cam
has poor surface contact and is too close to the edge of
the crack.
44 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Incorrect use of a rigid-stemmed camming device in
a horizontal placement risks shearing the stem. This
can be remedied if the unit is pre-tied with a loop of
high-tensile cord through the hole in the stem closest
to the cam head.
The best option on a horizontal cam placement is to

go with a flexible-stemmed unit. It can withstand a
downward bend.

46 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Poor. This Camalot is retracted only about 10 percent.
Based on the “constant camming angle” (engineers
call it the logarithmic spiral), a single-axle camming
device will theoretically work at any point in the range.
Throughout the cam’s rotation, a line drawn from the
axle to the cam’s point of contact (with the wall of the
crack) will remain at the same angle to a line drawn
perpendicular from the stem. However, on a double-
axle Camalot the most secure placements will be
those in the lower to mid-expansion range (50 to 90
percent retracted). Try to shoot for placements where
the bottom tips of all four cams come into line. With
all camming devices, tighter is better, though Black
Diamond recommends you leave at least 10 percent
off the tightest retraction for two reasons: One is that in
this last 10 percent some of the holding power is lost,
and two is that you may not be able to get it out! Here
a larger camming device is called for. And if this is
all you’ve got—beware. If loaded directly downward,
the unit will probably hold body weight, say if you’re
aid climbing, but most likely would not hold a severe
leader fall. This unit lacks both stability and security,
as the cams are not adequately supported, and the unit
could possibly twist out of the placement and fail.
Also beware of the walking phenomenon. The
action of a rope wiggling through a carabiner (or the
repeated falling or lowering of someone on a toprope)
can force a placement like this to pivot back and
forth and walk upward. If the crack is wider above the
placement, the cams can possibly open even further,
rendering the placement worthless. A long sling can
help prevent this, but will not eliminate the possibility
altogether. Avoid situations where the camming device
may walk into a wider section of the crack, and look for
that sweet, tightly retracted placement, ideally in a pod
or a crack with parallel-sided walls.

Bomber. This Camalot is retracted about 50 percent.
Think of 50 percent as a starting point—shoot for 50
percent or tighter. On a Camalot, 50 percent retraction
is when the bases (or bottom edges) of the cam lobes
form a 45-degree angle relative to the vertical axis (the
direction the stem points), or when the bases of the
cams form a 90-degree angle relative to each other.
48 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Excellent, the perfect placement. Solid rock, a parallel-
sided crack, and well-retracted cams (about 75 percent
retracted). This is what Bob strives for with all his
Camalot placements: nice and tight, where the bottom
tips of the cams’ lobes all line up.

This Camalot placement has several problems. While
the rock looks sound, the outer cam on the left wall of
the crack is too close to the edge. The real problem,
however, is the violation of the rule listed in the Black
Diamond literature under BAD PLACEMENTS: “Never
place a unit so that the cams are offset, e.g., with two
cams extended and two cams retracted. It may not hold
a fall.”
Strive to keep the loading axis (the axle) near the
middle. That is, when the SLCD is placed, it forms a
shape, and you want the axle to be pretty much dead
center in that shape. If the axle is too far to one side or
the other of the cam lobes, the physics are all wrong
and the loading is unstable.
50 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Here the rock is solid
and the placement looks
bomber. But the gate on
the biner is contacting the
rock and could possibly
open when loaded.
Remember that when a
carabiner is loaded with
the gate open, it loses
two-thirds of its strength.
By looping a sling
through the SLCD
using the “basket”
configuration, this
carabiner problem
is easily remedied.

Too tight. This
crack is too small
for this cam,
which is placed
with the cams
cranked to over 90
percent retraction.
Removal might be
difficult. Avoid such
placements if at all
possible, although in
dire circumstances
with no other
options, it is better
to risk losing a cam
than losing your life.
This Camalot
is placed in the
middle of its
expansion range,
but the crack
widens appreciably
just above the unit.
A little rope wiggle
could walk the
piece up into the
opening, rendering
it useless. A big
hex would fit better
in a crack that
constricts like
this, whereas this
camming unit
would be better
placed in a more
parallel section.
52 SIMPLE ANCHORS
No! The crack is too
flared. This Metolius unit
also lacks surface contact
on the right outer cam,
and the outer cams are
in the yellow (caution)
dots. This placement may
hold body weight for an
aid move, but that’s about
it. A smaller unit placed
deeper and higher in the
crack would be advisable.
OK. This Camalot is in a

slightly flared crack, with
the inside cams retracted
tighter than the outside
ones, although each set of
cams (inside and outside)
is within a suitable range
and all cams have flush
contact with the rock.
Most camming units will
still work with reasonable
holding power in a flared
crack up to about a
30-degree flare. Ideally
you want a parallel-
sided crack for a bomber
placement.

The same
crack and same
camming device
with two different
placements. In the
top photo the outside
cam has poor
contact and is too
close to the edge of
the crack. By flipping
the cam around
(bottom photo),
the gold cam now
has flush surface
contact with the
rock. Since the inside
and outside cams
are offset, flipping
the orientation one
way or the other
can often afford a
better placement,
particularly in
shallow cracks in
corners.
54 SIMPLE ANCHORS
OK, but one size too small. Metolius recommends that
if a placement falls in the yellow range, the next larger
size unit will put the placement in the green range.
In horizontal placements Metolius recommends that

the outer cams be placed on the lower wall of the crack
for stability.

Dangerous. Remember, the most important thing
to first consider with a placement is the structural
integrity of the rock itself. Any substantial force
applied to this Camalot will result in an outward force
against the walls of the crack that would most likely
break off this thin flake of rock.
56 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Bad. While the placement itself is well retracted and
flush, the problem here—and it’s a big problem—is
the microstructure of the rock: in this case rotten, flaky
rock that most likely will crumble if any significant
force is applied to the camming device.

A Camalot placed behind a thick flake of rock as pro
for a lead climb. Whenever you’re placing a camming
device, first analyze the structural integrity of the rock.
The main reason for failure of pro placements is bad
rock structure. Here the placement is good, but only as
strong as the flake of rock itself. Look for cracks that
bisect the plane of the rock face at a 90-degree angle,
in massive solid rock. Avoid flakes, blocks, and cracked
rock whenever possible.
58 SIMPLE ANCHORS
The innovative Link
Cams, by Omega
Pacific, can cover a
size range of up to
four standard cams.
Bob often saves
one at the back of
his harness when
leading trad climbs
for use at the belay
anchor, in case he’s
used up all the cams
of a particular size
during the lead and
finds he needs that
size for a crucial
placement at the
anchor.
C h a p t e r F o u r
Bolts
The 3⁄8-inch diameter hex-head Powers “Power

Bolt” expansion bolt with a stainless steel hanger
has become somewhat of a minimum standard for
climbing anchor bolts. These were formerly known as
“Rawl bolts,” but the Rawl brand was acquired by the
Powers Company. In good granite the 3⁄8-inch diameter
Power Bolt is rated at over 7,000 pounds shear strength,
with a pullout strength of roughly 5,000 pounds. If
you’re installing bolts, use stainless steel bolts and
match them with stainless steel hangers (such as
the Petzl hanger shown here) to prevent galvanic
corrosion, which is a reaction between two different
types of metal. Although stainless bolts are far more
expensive than carbon steel bolts, they’ll outlast your
lifetime.
60
The two main types of bolts. On the left is a contraction
bolt (3⁄8-inch diameter Powers Drive, formerly known
as a Rawl Drive), and on the right is the 3⁄8-inch
diameter Power Bolt, both manufactured by the Powers
Company. Contraction bolts can be easily identified by
their mushroom head and are unreliable in soft rock
(like sandstone), since they rely on the rock itself to
compress the split shaft. In soft rock the hole tolerance
is often too big, especially if drilled by hand. Even if
a perfect hole is drilled with a rotary hammer power
drill, the bolt can groove its way into the soft rock, often
without contracting the split shaft enough to produce
the tension required for good holding power. In fine-
grained granite with a proper-size hole, the shaft will
contract, and the 3⁄8-inch and 5⁄16-inch diameter sizes
are reliable in good, solid rock. The 1⁄4-inch size is
usually a relic from the past and must be used with
caution.
Bolts 61
Buttonhead contraction bolts (left to right): 3⁄8-, 5⁄16-, and
1
⁄4-inch sizes.
62 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Learn the difference between these two hangers, one
good, one very bad, both manufactured by the SMC
Company and stamped “SMC” on the hanger. These
are relics of the past, but you might come across this
type of hanger on an old trad route. The hanger on the
right is the infamous SMC “death hanger,” a moniker
that stuck after several such hangers failed under body
weight (possibly due to a stress corrosion problem) on
Yosemite’s Middle Cathedral Rock. The “bad” SMC
hangers are identifiable by a distinctive corrosive
discoloration—a yellowish or bronze tint—whereas the
“good” SMC hangers (on the left), made from stainless
steel, show no signs of corrosion or rust and appear
silvery bright, even after twenty-five years. Another
noticeable difference is the thickness of the hangers—
the “bad” hangers roughly the thickness of a dime, and
the “good” hangers roughly the thickness of a quarter.
The “good” SMC hangers are reliable, even after thirty
years, but use the SMC “death hangers” at your peril.
Bolts 63
Another hanger to watch out for is the infamous
“Leeper hanger.” Over 9,000 made it into circulation,
and they’ve all been recalled by the manufacturer due
to stress corrosion problems in the chrome moly steel.
The good news is that they’re easy to identify, due to
their odd geometric shape and rusty condition.
This 3⁄8-inch
diameter
threaded drive
bolt, placed
in the 1970s
at Suicide
Rock, is badly
corroded
with a Leeper
hanger to
match. Not to
be trusted.
64 SIMPLE ANCHORS
An old threaded Rawl Drive bolt. A problem with this
design is that the outward holding power is only as
strong as the threads holding the nut in place. This
flaw was responsible for a death in Yosemite on a route
on Glacier Point Apron named Anchors Away. If you
come across one of these ticking time bombs, make
sure the nut is screwed down as far as it will go, and
use it with caution.
Behold the woeful “spinner.” This buttonhead bolt

protrudes from the hole and the hanger is not flush
against the rock. The hole was not drilled deep enough,
and when hammered in, the shaft bottomed out in the
back of the hole, preventing the head of the bolt from
pinning the hanger flush against the rock.
Bolts 65
A relic from the old days, this 1⁄4-inch Rawl Drive
buttonhead still looks good after twenty-five years;
the “good” SMC stainless steel hanger shows no
signs of corrosion. In trad climbing areas most aging
1
⁄4-inch bolts have been replaced, but you’ll still find
some on more obscure climbs, stuck in the stone like
slow-ticking time bombs. In fine-grained, iron-hard
granite, one of these contraction bolts might hold
2,000 pounds. In anything less than perfect rock, old
Rawl buttonheads should never be trusted. Here the
placement looks acceptable: The bolt is perpendicular
to the plane of the rock face, and the head of the bolt
and hanger is flush to the rock. What can’t be judged by
visual inspection is the length of the bolt. These 1⁄4-inch
buttonheads come in lengths ranging from 3⁄4 inch to
11⁄2 inches. Bob has replaced dozens of 1⁄4-inch bolts
over the years. Many were removed simply by putting
a claw hammer behind the hanger and prying outward,
with about the same force required to pull a nail from a
piece of particleboard.
66 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Amazingly, this 3⁄8-inch threaded Rawl bolt shows
virtually no signs of corrosion after thirty years at
Joshua Tree. Stainless steel has become the standard
for bolts and hangers, as it protects against corrosion,
although many carbon steel bolts are also used
because they are less expensive.
What to Do with That Bolt

There is no absolutely reliable method to test in-
situ bolts, but there are plenty of reasons to want
to. Here are some suggestions:
• Always consider a ⁄4-inch bolt suspect. They

1
haven’t been placed as anchors for over two

decades, though they are still found on older
routes.
Continued on next page
Bolts 67
Continued frrom previous page
• Make sure the bolt hanger is flush to the wall and
not a “spinner,” where the hanger spins freely on
the stud. A spinner indicates the hole was drilled
too shallow for the bolt stud, or that the bolt stud
has crept out from the hole, which happens with
contraction bolts. And don’t try to fix the spinner
by hammering on it. Had that been possible, the
first party would have sunk it. Further hammering
can only damage the shank and the head.
• Keep an eye out for cratering, which occurs in

brittle or extremely hard rock and is usually the
result of sloppy drilling, which forms a chipped-
away crater around the hole.
• Check the hanger for cracks.

• If the bolt is a screwhead, make sure the nut is
snug and the threads are in good shape. John
learned this after taking a 30-foot grounder (into
a snowbank, luckily) when the hanger popped off
the denuded threads of such a bolt. If the bolt is
a buttonhead, or looks like a machine bolt, again
make sure it’s snugly set and free of fatigue cracks.
• If the bolt is clearly bent, or looks to be set in an

oblique hole, beware!
• Discoloration is natural enough, but excessive

rust denotes a so-called coffin nail. Use common
sense. If the bolt looks funky, don’t trust it. And
always back up bolts that don’t meet the modern
standard, if possible. A perfect bolt is nearly
impossible to pull out, even with an astronomi-
cal fall, but there are a lot of bolts out there that
are something less than perfect. Better safe than
splattered.
68 SIMPLE ANCHORS
A 5⁄16-inch buttonhead contraction bolt with a
“good” SMC hanger. A good, flush placement
like this, in solid, fine-grained granite, will have
over 4,000 pounds of shear strength.
This welded steel cold shut shows signs of

corrosion just a few years after installation.
Many manufacturers (such as FIXE) now offer
the preferable stainless steel cold shuts. While
more expensive, they’ll most likely last a
lifetime.
Bolts 69
A well-placed,
3
⁄8-inch stainless
Power Bolt
matched with a
stainless steel
hanger. Good
to go.
Metolius sells hangers in various colors to match the

color of the rock. This is important in areas where
bolting is controversial, and reduces visual pollution
for non-climbers from bright, shiny hangers. Many
climbers go one step further and custom paint the
hangers before installation to blend into the rock.
70 SIMPLE ANCHORS
C h a p t e r F i v e
Fall
Forces
Forces Facts
• Essential peak (dynamic) force load-limiter

qualities in the belay system depend on flex
and give in the components.
• Flex and give in the belay system keep

dynamic forces of a real world factor 2 fall
lower than forces recorded in the lab during
a “simulated factor 2 fall drop test.”
• The top piece always absorbs the greatest

force during a fall; therefore the top piece is
the most important component in the entire
belay chain—be it a point of protection or
the belay anchor itself.
• Make certain, as far as humanly possible,

that the top piece of pro, and not the belay
anchor, arrests any and all leader falls.
• The most critical time is when a leader is first

leaving the belay and has yet to place the
first piece of protection.
• The leader’s protection system is not truly

on-line until a secure piece of protection has
been placed.
71
This climber is running the lead rope through the top
piece in the anchor system as he takes off on lead. If
he should fall, his full weight will come onto this piece,
not the belayer, eliminating the possibility of a factor
2 fall, although unless the belayer is well braced for a
pull directly toward this piece, she will get slammed
into the wall. The best option is for the leader to place
a bomber piece of protection as soon as possible,
independent of the belay anchor, probably from his
current stance, where the crack looks willing to accept
a good piece.
72 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Belaying the leader on a multipitch climb. Here the
stance is well managed: The belayer has butterflied
the rope across the tie-in rope so it feeds out easily
during the lead. The yellow cordelette equalizes three
anchor placements, and the leader’s rope is clipped
into the master point to protect a short traverse at the
beginning of the pitch. If the leader falls, all the pieces
in the anchor, not just one, come into play, but the
belayer better be well braced so they don’t get sucked
into the carabiner where the leader’s rope is clipped.
Fall Forces 73
Climbers on Crimson Cringe in Yosemite. The sooner
the leader can get that first bomber piece in (the “jesus
nut”) the better, so as to avoid the dreaded factor 2
fall right onto the belayer’s device—a hard catch for
the belayer. In this case the leader has done just that,
with the first piece placed right above the anchor.
If the leader clips the rope into the highest piece of
the anchor, and that piece sustains a fall, the belayer
will most likely get pulled hard and slammed in that
direction.
74 SIMPLE ANCHORS
C h a p t e r S i x
Judging the
Direction of Pull
Direction of Pull
• Every fall generates a dynamic force that will

pull on the roped safety system from a specific
direction or directions.
• The direction of pull is described by a direct

line between the belayer and the first piece of
pro (when belaying a leader) or the last piece
of pro (when belaying a follower) through which
the rope runs.
• Lead protection and belay anchors must sustain

loading from every direction of pull that is pos-
sible on a specific pitch.
• To accurately judge the direction of pull, you

must know where the route goes.
• When the direction of pull is uncertain, a multi-

directional belay anchor is required.
• When a swinging fall directly onto protection or

onto the belay anchor is possible, the pro and
the belay anchor must be built to sustain load-
ing across the full arc of the swing.
• Knowing the direction of pull is to a climber what

knowing the direction of a possible ambush is to
a foot soldier: essential for survival.
75
On this trad route at Joshua Tree, the leader has made
a tactical error, belaying from the side of the pitch
instead of moving up higher and belaying from a gear
anchor at the crack above. If the follower comes off,
76 SIMPLE ANCHORS
the direction of pull will be in an arc below the belayer,
and the anchor had better be built to withstand the
swinging load.
Judging the Direction of Pull 77

The leader, now belaying, placed a good directional
for the follower before traversing right to his belay. As
long as that piece is still clipped, the direction of pull
on the belayer and anchor in the event of a fall will be
in a straight line toward that last piece. However, when
the piece is unclipped, the direction of pull will be in
an arc below the belayer, and the anchor will need to
withstand the swinging load.
78 SIMPLE ANCHORS
C h a p t e r S e v e n
Knots
for Anchoring
Tying the water knot (aka ring bend).
79
Tying the
overhand loop.
Tying a figure eight loop.
80 SIMPLE ANCHORS
Tying a double fisherman’s knot. Add one more loop
around each end to make a triple fisherman’s knot.
Knots for Anchoring 81

1 2
3 4
Tying a clove hitch. The rope going straight down from

the biner in the final illustration is the load strand.
82 SIMPLE ANCHORS
1 2
3 4
Tying a bowline. The bowline should always be

tied with a backup, shown here with half a double
fisherman’s for the backup knot (photo 4).

This page and
next:
The double
loop bowline
(aka bowline-
on-a-bight)
1 is useful for
anchoring
with the rope
to a two-
point anchor
system, such
as two bolts
at a hanging
belay. It can
also be used
with a rigging
rope to
equalize two
2 components
in a larger
anchor
system. Back
it up with
half a double
fisherman’s
knot (photo 5).
84 SIMPLE ANCHORS
4
Tying a prusik knot.

Tying a double
loop figure
eight. Take a
bight of rope
and cross it
back over itself,
forming a loop.
Take two
strands of the
bight and wrap
them around the
standing part,
then poke them
through the
loop.
To finish, take the
loop at the very end
of the bight and fold
it down and around
the entire knot
you’ve just formed.
The double loop

figure eight is a
great knot to use to
equalize two anchor
points. You can
manipulate the knot
by loosening one
strand and feeding it
through the body of
the knot, shortening
one loop, which
makes the other
loop longer.
Tying a Munter hitch on a carabiner.
88 SIMPLE ANCHORS
C h a p t e r E i g h t
Belay
Anchors
Cliff Notes on Redundancy
• Redundancy credo: Never trust a single

piece of gear.
• Proper redundancy ensures that if any one

component fails, the anchor will not auto-
matically fail.
• Redundancy asks that anchor systems be

constructed of multiple components—from
the primary placements to the slings and
biners used for connecting placements.
• According to NASA, doubling-up (making

redundant) components within any system
greatly increases reliability over single
component setups. Tripling slightly increases
reliability over doubled setups. Quadrupling
makes practically no difference.
• In real world climbing you sometimes cannot

make redundant every facet of the system,
but there is every reason to try.
• A fail-safe anchor, not redundancy per se,

is the ultimate goal, and redundancy is only
one important tool to achieve that goal.
89
1 2
Doubled carabiners should always have the gates

opposed and reversed. Locking carabiners would
provide even more security.
1. The wrong way. Even if one of the carabiners is
flipped over so the gates are on opposite sides,
the gates are still not technically opposed.
2. The right way. Even if one of the biners flipped
over and the gates were on the same side, the
direction they open would still be in opposition.
90 ANCHOR SYSTEMS
Two oval carabiners
with the gates
properly opposed
and reversed.
Two pear-shaped
locking carabiners
with the gates
opposed and
reversed at a
toprope master
point.
91
SRENE Anchors
• Solid • Redundant
• Equalized • No Extension
Key SRENE Points
• SRENE is an evaluation strategy, not a

checklist.
• Observance of every SRENE principle does

not guarantee that an anchor will hold a
single pound.
• Modern rigging techniques cannot compen-

sate for insecure primary placements.
• With strong primary placements and mod-

ern rigging techniques providing security,
climbing’s roped safety system is typically
very reliable.
Step-by-Step Belay Anchor

• On popular routes the belay stances/ledges
are usually well established (though not
always ideal). Belay there.
• Further narrow your belay site down to

the most secure, ergonomic, and practical
position.
92 ANCHOR SYSTEMS
• Locate suitable cracks or rock features to
fashion a “good enough” belay anchor.
• Set the most bombproof, primary big nut or

camming device you can find—preferably
a multidirectional placement—and clip into
this while you build the rest of the anchor.
• Determine the direction(s) of pull for both

the climber following the pitch and the
leader casting off on the next lead.
• Simply and efficiently shore up the primary

placement with secondary anchors.
• Try to set the secondary placements in close,

but not cramped, proximity.
• If the rock is less than perfect in quality,

spread the anchors out, using several fea-
tures, to preserve redundancy.
• Using modern rigging techniques, con-

nect the various components of the system
together so they function as one unit to safe-
guard against all possible directions of pull.
• Consider tying into the master point with a

clove hitch (to aid adjustability).
• When bringing up a second after lead-

ing a pitch, if possible situate your body
in line between the anchors and the antici-
pated direction of pull. Remember ABC:
AnchorBelayerClimber.
• Also remember KISS: Keep It Simple, Stupid.

Avoid overbuilding.
Belay Anchors 93
This photo shows decent technique for tying into an
anchor the old-fashioned way, directly with a rope,
which might be necessary if you’re short on gear
or in some sort of emergency situation. An SLCD
and hexentric are tied off tight with clove hitches to
a backup SLCD above. The lower SLCD is set as an
oppositional piece to hold an upward pull. The belayer
is tied into the strand of rope coming down on the
left side of the photo, which will minimize extension
if the lowest piece fails. Note that the load strands of
the clove hitches are cinched nice and tight, with no
strands on the gate of the biner. You might consider
belaying the second through a biner connected to
one of the upper pieces, especially if you’re expecting
someone to struggle and hang on the rope.
94 ANCHOR SYSTEMS
Cordelettes
A Standard Cordelette
• Is a statically equalized system that is most

effective when its arms are of equal length.
• Normally consists of an 18-foot piece of 7mm

nylon cord tied into a loop with a double
fisherman’s knot, or 5.5mm high-tensile cord
connected with a triple fisherman’s knot.
To Rig a Cordelette
• Clip the cordelette into the primary anchors,

then pull the loops of cord down between
each of the pieces.
• Pull the arms of the cordelette tight toward the

anticipated loading direction (direction of pull).
• Align the fisherman’s knot so it is below the

highest primary placement in the system, free
and clear of the master point knot.
• Secure the master point with an overhand

knot or, if you have enough cord, a figure eight
knot. Tie the master point loop about 4 inches
in diameter, roughly the same size as the
belay loop on your harness.
• Clip into the master point with a section of the

climbing rope, not with a daisy chain, PAS, or
other device made of low-stretch material.
Belay Anchors 95
Rigging a Cordelette
To rig a cordelette, first clip the cordelette into the
primary anchors, then pull the loops of cord down
between each of the pieces. Next, pull the arms of
the cordelette tight toward the anticipated loading
direction (direction of pull). Make sure to align the
fisherman’s knot so it is below the highest placement
in the system, free and clear of the master point knot.
Secure the master point with an overhand knot or, if
you have enough cord, a figure eight knot (as shown
here). Tie the master point loop about 4 inches in
diameter, roughly the same size as the belay loop on
your harness. Attach a locking carabiner and clip to the
master point with a section of the climbing rope, not a
daisy chain, PAS, or other sling made of static material.
96 ANCHOR SYSTEMS
V Rigging
This diagram illustrates how a 100-pound load is

distributed between two anchor points at various
angles. Keep the angle between two anchors as narrow
as possible, striving for under 60 degrees. At 120
degrees the load is 100 percent on each anchor! Think
of 0 to 60 degrees as ideal, 60 to 90 degrees a caution
zone, and over 90 degrees a danger zone.
Belay Anchors 97
V Rigging vs. Triangle Rigging
Load per anchor with 100 lb. of force
Bottom Angle V Rigging Triangle Rigging
30 degrees 52 lb. 82 lb.
This triangle
rigging
configuration
is known as
the American
Triangle.
Avoid rigging
with a triangle
configuration;
it adds
unnecessary
forces to your
anchor points.
Stick to a V
configuration
for lower loads
(see chart
above).
98 ANCHOR SYSTEMS
Belay anchor with three SLCDs tied off with a
cordelette. The granite is sound, and all three cams are
bomber, well retracted (over 50 percent) and with all
the cams nicely contacting the walls of the crack. The
rope is attached to the power point with two carabiners
opposed and reversed (including one locking). Clean,
simple, and strong. The bottom cam means this anchor
could also withstand an upward force.
Note that load equalization over placements set
in a vertical crack is much more a concept than a fact.
Here the bulk of direct, downward loading will fall on
the middle SLCD.
Belay Anchors 99
Using a nylon cordelette to connect anchors in a
vertical crack results in an anchor that does not come
close to truly equalizing the forces, but if all the
placements are bomber, it is a simple, easy rigging
method that is essentially a series of backups to the
piece that takes the brunt of the loading, with minimal
extension if that piece were to fail.
100 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

A three-piece belay anchor in a vertical crack at the
top of a climb on Suicide Rock in California. Simple,
quick, and easy rigging with a 7mm nylon cordelette.
This anchor is at the top of the climb, so the highest
force would simply be holding the falling follower.
In a vertical configuration such as this, with a nylon
cordelette, the shortest loop of the cordelette (to the
lowest piece) would absorb most of the load. Note how
the double fisherman’s knot has been placed on the
longest loop near the top piece, to keep it out of the way
for tying the overhand loop to create the master point.
Belay Anchors 101

102 ANCHOR SYSTEMS
This cordelette has been unknotted and used in the
“full length” mode. This is a trick adopted by many
professional guides to add greater utility and get more
usable length from their cordelette, particularly useful
if the placements are spread out more than arms
length. A good knot to use that can be easily untied is
the flemish bend (aka figure eight bend), tied by taking
one end of the cordelette and tying a figure eight
(with a 3-inch tail) then retracing it with the other end
(leaving a 3-inch tail).
When untied, the cord works well for connecting
three points when a standard cordelette, describing
a single loop, would be too short. Simply tie the ends
with figure eights, clip into the two outside anchor
points in a V configuration, and take the middle bight
and clip it into a third point. Then gather the two bights
together and tie a two-loop power point with a figure
eight.
In this particular setup the top left piece has
been extended with a sling so the three arms of
the cordelette are more equal length. The middle
cordelette loop is clipped to two placements used
together, and the right placement’s carabiner has been
doubled (opposed and reversed) to prevent the gate
from opening over the edge of the crack. While there is
some loss of strength in those arms of the cordelette
with a single strand, this rig—based on bomber
primary placements—is a trade-off most climbers can
live with.
As is always the case with such setups, this one is
rigged for a downward pull, and any oblique loading
will put all the load on only one of the cordelette’s
arms.
Belay Anchors 103

Three camming devices in a horizontal crack connected
with a cordelette. Note how the farthest left loop has
been clove-hitched to the piece to keep the fisherman’s
knot out of the way. As with all pre-equalized anchors,
the setup is set for a single direction of pull. Even the
slightest oblique angle of pull will load one side of the
triangle while the other side will bear little if any load.
Stretchy nylon cord is more forgiving in this regard, but
off-axis loading will still weight one of the placements
over the others. However, because the arms of the
cordelette are of relatively equal length here, climbers
can expect to achieve some equalization as long as the
direction of pull is straight down.
104 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

The Sliding X
Sliding X Basics
• The sliding X is an automatic equalizing

system.
• It is normally rigged on standard-length

and/or double-length sewn slings.
• A proper twist in the sliding X sling is essen-

tial to prevent failure of the complete system
if one piece pulls. Always double-check to
be sure that this twist is in place.
• After connecting the sliding X to the place-

ments, clip a biner into the X, weight the
placements, and slide the biner back
and forth along the sling to ensure fluid
functioning.
• To minimize potential extension in longer

equalizing slings, tie an overhand limiter
knot in the long leg of the sling, just above
the clip-in point.
• To avoid load multiplication, keep the angle

between the two legs around 25 degrees
(or less). If the angle is larger than about 60
degrees, use a longer sling to decrease the
angle.
Belay Anchors 105

Rigging a sliding X. The sling self-adjusts to equalize
the anchor when the direction of pull changes from one
side to the other.
106 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Stacked Xs. Here
three placements
are equalized with
two sliding Xs. The
gray sling equalizes
two placements
and the red sling
in turn equalizes
both of these with
a third placement
out of view on the
red sling. Note the
extension limiter
knot on the red
sling.
Because there is no
knot on the locking
carabiner side of the
sling, this setup is
not redundant, since
you’re relying on a
single, twisted loop
in the webbing.
Belay Anchors 107

Two cam
placements rigged
with a sliding X with
extension-limiting
knots, set up as a
component part of
a larger toprope
anchor system. By
using a double-
length (48-inch)
nylon sling and
tying two overhand
knots, the sling itself
becomes redundant.
Stacked Xs. Here,

by tying the two
overhand knots on
the purple sling,
extension is limited
and redundancy is
achieved.
108 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Stacked Xs. By tying two overhand knots on both the
yellow and red slings, extension is limited throughout
the entire three-piece anchor system and redundancy
is achieved.
Belay Anchors 109

Three camming devices equalized with a sliding X
and clove hitches. This is a good belay anchor rig for
a multipitch climb, providing the two climbers are
swinging leads. Since there is no power point, climbers
swapping leads at this belay stance will require the
arriving climber to also rig his rope in this fashion. No
big deal, but a bit more time consuming, and a real
cluster if there were a third climber at this stance. If
one of the two SLCDs on top were to blow out, there
would be sudden loading on the remaining anchor.
Judging by the placements (A1), however, this would be
nearly impossible, even in a factor 2 fall situation, as
the downward force would be shared by the two cams,
and the force required to break the sling would be
astronomical.
110 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

The same anchor as in the previous photo is now
rigged to be entirely self-equalizing. An overhand
limiter knot tied on the left side of the upper sling
(configured in a sliding X) would limit extension if
the top cam failed. This rig is equalized with two
Dyneema slings paired and attached (via a sliding
X) to the lower piece, to guard against an upward/
outward pull on the anchor.
It takes time for a leader to learn to survey a given
belay, choose a system, and quickly and efficiently rig
it. Using limiter knots can reduce extension. Learn to
shorten the slings as needed. Using oversize slings
adds needless slack.
Belay Anchors 111

The Equalette
Tying the Equalette
• Use 20 feet of 7mm nylon cord tied into a

loop with a double fisherman’s knot, or 5mm
high-tensile cord tied with a triple fisher-
man’s knot.
• Form a U shape and grab the cordelette at

the bottom of the U.
• Position the fisherman’s knot about 18 inches

above the bottom of the U.
• Tie an overhand knot on each side of your

palm where you have grabbed the cord,
about 10 inches apart.
Using the Equalette
• At the power point always use two locking

biners, with one locker connected into each
separate strand of the power point (between
the limiter knots). If you are forced to use
one biner, clip one strand, twist the other 180
degrees, then clip the other strand to main-
tain redundancy. This is the same technique
used to clip into a sliding X.
• Before using the equalette, make sure you

have mastered the clove hitch. Use clove
112 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

This close-up
of an equalette
master point
clearly shows how
to rig two locking
biners through the
strands between the
limiter knots. This
setup will remain
equalized if the
load swings right
or left, but if one
anchor should fail,
the limiter knots will
minimize extension
in the system.
hitches to adjust the arm lengths, as shown in

the photos.
• On multipitch climbs (with a two-climber

team) where the first climber to the stance
is going to lead the next pitch, each climber
can clip into the master point with his own
two locking biners. If the second climber to
the stance is going to lead the next pitch, he
can clip a locking biner directly into the two-
locking-biner master point (biner to biner).
This greatly facilitates secure and speedy
turnover at the belay.
Belay Anchors 113

Four-piece anchor
rigged with an
equalette using
clove hitches. It’s
not only solidly
equalized but also
able to adjust to
changes in loading
direction.
Four-piece belay
anchor in a vertical
crack configuration
using a 7mm
diameter nylon
cordelette rigged
in equalette mode.
Clove hitches have
been used for easy
adjustment, and the
lower-most piece is
set for an upward
pull.
114 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Three-piece anchor
rigged with an
equalette. Clove
hitches have been
used on the middle
and right-hand
pieces, and a BHK
has been tied to
shorten the left-most
arm.
Three-piece toprope
anchor rigged with
an equalette.
Belay Anchors 115

Four-piece
equalette rigged
using Sterling
6mm Power Cord
(4,271 lbs. tensile
strength). Double
loop figure eight
knots have been
tied to equalize
the placements.
The Quad
To rig a quad, take a cordelette and double it. Position
the double fisherman’s knot near one end. Grab the
midpoint (all four strands) with your fist and tie over-
hand knots on each side of your fist, about 8 inches
apart.
116 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Two-bolt quad rig for toprope setup. The quad is
simply a doubled equalette. Lab testing suggests that
for two horizontally oriented anchor points (as shown
here), the quad setup is basically indestructible. Field
testing suggests that for those who frequently belay
from, or toprope off, two horizontally oriented bolts (as
found on top of countless sport and toprope climbs), a
quad rig is your best friend. Simply keep a quad rigged
(with the limiter knots tied) on a piece of 7mm nylon
or 5 or 6mm high-strength cord and break it out for
use in these situations. Brute strength and fantastic
equalization are achieved just as quickly as you can
clip off the bolts and the power point.
Here locking carabiners are attached directly to the
bolt hangers, bypassing the hardware store rappelling
doodads, and three oval carabiners (opposed and
reversed) are used for the rope attachment.
Belay Anchors 117

Quad rig close-up. At 12.4 kN (2,788 lbs.) tensile
strength for each strand of this Sterling 7mm corde-
lette, clipping just two strands at the master point gives
you twice the strength ever needed. Clip three and have
a submarine anchor. Just make sure you leave one
strand unclipped (as shown here) to create a loop for
your master point clip-in, so that if one of the anchors
were to fail, the loop would capture the carabiners.
118 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Composite Anchors: Cordelette,
Sliding X, and Equalette
Multipitch anchor with cordelette and sliding X

combo. While this setup—and ones like it—has
been a mainstay for many years, incorporating new
techniques such as the equalette will allow climbers to
achieve even greater equalization.
Belay Anchors 119

Upward Oppositional Anchors
Upward Force Oppositionals

Are Required:
• When a belayer is significantly lighter than

the active climber.
• Whenever belaying below an overhang

where the initial protection off the belay
anchor is directly above or even behind
(such as with a roof crack) the anchor.
• Where the rock is steep or overhanging and

the forces generated by a leader fall can
create significant (say, more than 18 inches)
“lift” of the belayer.
This rig shows a

cordelette used to
equalize the load on
two nuts combined
with two SLCDs
clove hitched to
provide opposition.
A belayer tied tight
to these anchors
isn’t going to be
lifted any more than
18 inches—enough
to provide some give
in the system, but
not enough to be
dangerous.
120 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Simple three-piece multipitch anchor rigged with an
upward directional piece.
Belay Anchors 121

Belay Methods
Here the belay device is clipped into the belay loop on

the climber’s harness—an indirect belay. Providing the
belayer has a solid stance to brace against downward
loading, the indirect belay is the technique of choice
if the anchor is less than superb. In holding a fall the
belayer, not the anchor, bears the brunt of the fall force,
which can be uncomfortable and awkward when the
falling climber hangs on the rope for a long period
of time. Although this belay method is probably the
most common method used by recreational climbers
to belay a follower, it is rarely used by professional
guides, who favor the direct belay as long as the
anchor is bomber.
Though not always possible, the ideal is: With
any indirect belay the belayer should try to get
into a position directly beneath the belay anchor to
avoid getting dragged there by downward loading.
Remember ABC positioning for bringing up the
second: AnchorBelayerClimber.
122 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Here the belay device
is clipped into both
the harness’s belay
loop and the loop in
the figure eight tie-in
knot. If the climber
falls, most of his
weight will go onto
the anchor, not on the
belayer—providing that
the belayer is situated
directly beneath the
anchor. To the extent
that the belayer is to one
side or the other of the
anchor is the extent that
his body, not the anchor,
will bear the load.
This shows how a re-directed belay is set up. Always

remember that a re-direct basically doubles the loading
on the anchor—no problem with premium anchors (like
bolts on a sport climb), but with sketchy anchors a re-
directed belay is a little dicey. Here a bomber four-piece
anchor is equalized with a cordelette, and the re-direct
is run through the master point.
Belay Anchors 123

This effectively illustrates a clean and simple rigging
of a direct belay (direct belay = belaying directly
off the belay anchor) via a Petzl Grigri clipped into
the power point. Note how the power point is at an
ergonomically friendly chest level, ideal for managing
a direct belay. Besides the Grigri, another popular
assisted braking device is the Trango Cinch. Tube
devices, such as the Petzl Reverso and the Black
Diamond ATC Guide, can also be used for direct
belaying in the autoblocking mode. You DO NOT,
however, want to use an ordinary tube device (like
a regular ATC) for a
direct belay, as the
brake position would
be awkward and
potentially dangerous,
especially if the master
point is waist level or
higher. Another direct
belay option is to use a
Munter hitch on a large,
pear-shaped locking
carabiner.
Remember this:
A direct belay is an
easy and efficient
means to belay the
second or follower, but
never should be used
to belay the leader.
Also understand that
with all direct belays, when the anchors are less than
ideal, any loading bypasses the shock-absorbing
qualities of the belayer’s body and places the entire
load directly onto the anchors. Granted, toprope forces
are generally moderate, but any force is a concern if
you’ve wandered off route and get stuck belaying from
mank. When the anchors are rock solid, however, a
direct belay is a quick, efficient, and comfortable way
to bring up a second.
124 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Lowering with a Grigri and a direct belay. Here the
belayer is clove hitched to the shelf of the cordelette
(all three loops of the cordelette’s arms). To lower
someone using a Grigri, re-direct the brake strand
as shown here for better control on the lower. This
is an awkward maneuver unless the master point is
rigged waist level or higher. Remember, even with an
assisted braking device like a Grigri, never take your
brake hand off the brake strand side of the rope when
belaying or lowering someone.
Belay Anchors 125

Three-bolt anchor
rigged for a direct
belay using a Grigri.
Here the Grigri is
clipped to a locking
carabiner clipped to
the shelf (all three
loops of the arms of
the cordelette). The
leader has clipped
directly into the bolt
hangers, bypassing
the old hardware
store quick links.
126 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Another clean and simple rigging for a rope-direct
belay. Take the rope from your harness and tie a clove
hitch to the master point carabiner, then, off the back
side of the clove hitch, tie a figure eight loop and clip
back to the anchor with a separate carabiner. The
direct belay goes off this strand (on another figure
eight loop), and it can be any distance from the anchor
(e.g., 20 or 30 feet away), to allow you to position
yourself so you can see the follower. You’ll always be
able to give a better belay if you can get a visual on
your climber.
Left—Guides frequently use a rope-direct when the

anchor is set back from the edge and they want to
position themselves near the edge to eyeball their
client. In this setup you run the rope through two
biners at the anchor’s master point, climb down to the
edge, then tie an overhand loop on the doubled bight
of rope. This now serves as an extended master point,
and the belayer is secured where he wants to be. Here
a Grigri is used for a direct belay from the new master
point.
Belay Anchors 127

This is an easy technique that is especially useful at
one-pitch crags where you belay from the top and the
anchors are set way back from the edge. The end of
the rope is clipped to the power point of the anchor
system with a figure eight on a bight. Find your belay
position and tie another figure eight (which becomes
an extended power point), then simply secure yourself
with a locking biner to your belay loop and rig your
belay device (with a separate locking biner) off the
extended master point.
As always, downward forces will try to drag the
belayer into a direct line beneath the anchor—which
is exactly where you might end up if your stance is not
adequate and the anchor is not directly behind you.
If using a non-locking device like the ATC pictured
here, make sure you are in an ergonomic braking
position, with the ability to brake above the device
(as shown here). If the device is positioned above
you, the braking position will be extremely awkward,
compromising the safety of the belay.
128 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

The Atomic Clip. For belaying a second from the top
of a single-pitch route, the Atomic Clip is a simple
and efficient rigging method. It is particularly useful
for belaying from two-bolt anchors. Tie a double loop
bowline or double loop eight, clip it to the two anchor
points, and equalize it. Here the climber is using a
direct belay with a Grigri clipped to a figure eight loop
on the strand running from the back side of the double
loop bowline.
Belay Anchors 129

C h a p t e r N i n e
Toprope Anchors
Tips for Setting
• Evaluate any hazards at the site, especially

loose rocks that the movement of a running
rope could dislodge.
• Extend the anchors over the edge at the top

of the cliff to prevent rope drag and damage.
Professional guides prefer to rig this exten-
sion with a length of low-stretch or static
rope. Pad any sharp edges at the lip. Make
sure the rope sits directly above the climb,
and also make sure to run two independent
strands of rope or webbing over the lip to
maintain redundancy.
• Set the chocks and SLCDs fairly close

together near the top of the climb when pos-
sible to reduce the number of slings
and carabiners required.
• Avoid setting pieces behind detached

blocks, flakes, or other questionable rock
features. Also avoid having the rope near
these features.
• Connect the rope to the master point with

two opposed and reversed locking carabin-
ers or three ovals.
Continued on page 132
130
Bomber toprope anchor. Clean, simple, and strong.
The bolts are 3⁄8-inch diameter 5-piece Power Bolts
(7,000 lbs. shear strength) installed with FIXE ring
anchors (rated at 10,000 lbs.). The 7mm nylon Sterling
cordelette (rated
at 5,000 lbs. loop
strength tied
with a double
fisherman’s
bend) is doubled
then tied with
an overhand
knot, leaving a
four-loop master
point. The rope
is attached
with three steel
oval carabiners
opposed and
reversed. If
you do a lot of
toproping like
Bob does, steel is
far more durable
than aluminum.
As discussed
earlier, any
off-axis loading
will put most or
all of the force
on one bolt,
but in toprope
situations the
forces are relatively low (compared to a leader fall)
and the extension would be minimal even if one of the
bolts failed. Plus a nylon cordelette (versus a Dyneema
or Technora cord) has some modicum of stretch,
resulting in a lower force than if using more static
material.
Toprope Anchors 131

A quad rigged for
toproping with two
locking carabiners
opposed and
reversed.
Continued from page 130

• Belay toprope climbs from the ground when-
ever possible.
• Avoid belaying directly below the climber, in

case rocks come off.
• A ground anchor merely needs to provide

extra ballast to help you counterweight the
climber, so one bombproof piece is usually
sufficient.
• If you’re in an exposed situation where get-

ting yanked from your ground belay would
be disastrous or even fatal, set up a redun-
dant anchor system.
132 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

A two-bolt anchor rigged for toproping with a sliding
X. Note the locking carabiners on the bolt hangers, two
separate nylon slings, and three steel ovals. Bob rigged
this anchor for adjustment since he’d be toproping
three different routes off the same anchor, each in
a slightly different direction. A good rule of thumb
regarding extension is this: Limit extension in any
anchor system to no more than half a single-length
sling.
Toprope Anchors 133

Detail of a two-bolt
equalette rigged
with webbing for an
absolutely bomber
toprope setup.
Note how the gates
are opposed and
reversed on the
carabiners. Owing
to the sliding master
point, this equalette
can remain almost
perfectly equalized
between the two
bolts, even if the
direction of pull
should change.
A doubled equalette
rigged for toproping.
Here the cordelette
was doubled first,
then tied like a
normal equalette,
leaving two strands
of cord for each
carabiner at the
master point.
Toprope rig using a doubled equalette.
The 7mm nylon

cordelette was
doubled, then
overhand knots
were tied 5 inches
from the middle.
Here the left arm
goes to a sling
threaded through a
tunnel in the rock,
and the right arm
goes to a two-bolt
chain anchor.
Note how the two
locking carabiners
are opposed
and reversed,
each clipped
independently to
two strands of cord.
Toprope Anchors 135

The primary placements
are solid, secure, and
well equalized with
sliding Xs, but why not
tie limiter knots on both
sides of the master point
to limit extension? If
you can determine the
exact direction of pull/
loading—and normally
you can on any toprope
setup—there is little to
gain by using the sliding
X. And in this case there’s
no redundancy at the
webbing. All this anchor
needs is two limiter knots just above the power point
and then you’d have it: Solid, Redundant, Equalized,
and No Extension.
Same toprope anchor as

in the previous photo, but
here the anchors are tied
off with pre-equalized
slings and joined with a
cordelette. The double-
length Dyneema slings
at the pieces have been
tied off with figure eights
(an overhand knot in
10mm width Dyneema
can be very difficult to
untie once weighted).
Providing the direction
of pull is straight down—
and it is on this toprope route—such a setup is simpler
to rig than the previous setup with its sliding Xs. The
point is, you need not worry as much about building a
multidirectional anchor when the direction of possible
loading is only in one direction.
136 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

C h a p t e r T e n
The Joshua Tree

System
Developed by professional guides at Joshua Tree
National Park, the Joshua Tree System greatly sim-
plifies seemingly complex toprope anchor setups.
Bob has used it for over thirty years in his climbing
school and can vouch for its efficiency and security.
Using this system, he’s never come across a climb he
couldn’t rig a toprope on, as long as there was enough
rope. For most situations a length of 50 to 60 feet is
adequate. Bob prefers 10mm or 10.5mm diameter
Sterling Safety Pro low-stretch rope, which has about
3 percent stretch and good abrasion resistance.You
don’t want to use dynamic rope for your rigging rope,
because it is easily abraded due to its stretch, and far
less abrasion resistant than static or low-stretch rope.
To rig the Joshua Tree System, visualize a V con-
figuration, with the two separate anchors at the top of
the V and your master point at the point, or bottom,
of the V. For your master point knot, learn the BHK
(page 147). BHK stands for “big honking knot” and is
essentially an overhand knot on a doubled bight, giv-
ing you two-loop redundancy at the master point.
The combinations of various anchors are endless,
and if you learn double loop knots (like the double
loop eight and double loop bowline), you’ll be able to
rig without slings and cordelettes, using only the rig-
ging rope.
137
Rigging the Joshua Tree System. After the anchor
placements were made, the climber pre-equalized
the bottom leg of the V with a double loop eight. As he
approached the edge, he secured himself by tethering
with a sling to a prusik knot on the rigging rope. He’s
tying the BHK master point knot, to which he’ll attach
the carabiners for the climbing rope. He’ll make the
final adjustment with a clove hitch to the top anchor
and fix an edge protector to safeguard wear at the lip.
138 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

The Joshua Tree
System rigged using
double loop eights.
Here each end of
the V is connected
to two placements
pre-equalized with
double loop eights. The
instructor knows from
experience that tying
the BHK will bring the
bight of rope up about
4 feet, so he took this
into account when he
tied off the ends of the
V. As he approached
the cliff’s edge, he
secured himself with a double-length (48-inch) nylon
sling attached to the rigging rope with a klemheist knot
and clipped to his harness belay loop with a locking
carabiner. He’s tied the BHK master point knot and
attached two opposed and reversed locking carabiners.
The rig is now ready for the climbing rope.
Final rigging
showing use
of double
loop eights,
eliminating
the need for
any slings or
cordelettes. By
learning double
loop knots, you
can streamline
your rigging by using just the rigging rope itself for
maximum efficiency. Note the edge protector at the lip,
attached to the rigging rope with a sling and friction
hitch.
The Joshua Tree System 139

The Joshua Tree System. Each end of the V has a two-
point SLCD anchor equalized with a double length (48-
inch) nylon sling tied with a sliding X and extension-
limiting overhand knots. The master point is tied with
a BHK. Even if the loading direction shifts slightly, this
rig will adjust to those slight changes in the vector for
good load distribution.
140 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Illustration of how
to rig the Joshua
Tree System using
double loop knots
(in this case,
double loop figure
eights), with two
anchor placements
at each leg of the V.

Detail of BHK
master point
with three ovals
opposed and
reversed on a
toprope setup.
A rope protector
like this Petzl
model (made of
ballistic cloth with
Velcro closure) can
save your rigging
rope from getting
frayed over edges.
Attach it with a
friction hitch—like
the klemheist knot
shown here.
142 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Tethering. A good way to secure yourself as you work
near the edge of the cliff is to take a double-length (48-
inch) nylon sling, tie a klemheist knot on one strand of
the rigging rope, then attach the sling to the belay loop
on your harness with a locking carabiner.

Making the transition from rigging to rappelling. Once
you’re done rigging and choose to rappel down, secure
yourself with a tether by using a 48-inch nylon sling
attached to the rigging rope with a klemheist knot
and clipped to the belay loop of your harness with a
locking carabiner. Before you go over the edge, pull
up the climbing rope, rig your rappel, and back it up
with an autoblock knot clipped to your leg loop. Don’t
allow too much distance between the toprope master
point carabiners and your rappel device, because as
you go over the edge, you’ll want enough slack in your
double-length sling (here the yellow sling) so that you
can weight your rappel system and check that your
autoblock is grabbing without any weight on the sling.
After double-checking everything, you should be able
to reach up and untie the klemheist so you can take the
sling with you.
144 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Tying a klemheist knot.

Rig an autoblock out of 4 feet, 6 inches of the softest,
most supple 6mm nylon cord you can find, tied with
a double fisherman’s knot. An autoblock is simply a
wrap, with both ends of the loop clipped to a carabiner.
146 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Tying a BHK. Take a bight of Tie an overhand knot on all
rope and double it. four strands.
Thread the two loops back or incorporate the loop into

through the single loop the master point carabiners.
you’ve created,

BHK master point with three steel oval carabiners
opposed and reversed on a toprope rig.
148 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

C h a p t e r E l e v e n
Rappel Anchors
Tips for Setting
• Statistically, rappelling is responsible for only about
6 percent of all climbing accidents, but many of
these prove to be fatal.
• Rappelling forces you to rely completely on your

equipment and anchors/rigging.
• The most common rappelling accident scenario is

simply rappelling off one or both ends of the rope,
so get into the habit of tying stopper knots in the
ends of the rope.
• Never trust—and always thoroughly check—the

integrity of fixed rappel anchors (especially the
rigging), and back them up if necessary.
• Except for huge trees and titanic natural features,

at least two bombproof anchors should be estab-
lished at rappel stations.
• Avoid the American Triangle rigging system.

Anchors should be rigged using equalized slings,
or at least slings of equal length.
• Never run the rope around a chain connecting the

anchors.
• Double-check all connecting links (anchor place-

ments/slings, slings/rope, rope/rappel device,
rappel device/harness) before you start down.
• Always rappel slowly and smoothly to keep a low,

static load on the anchor.
149
Two 3⁄8-inch bolts. The left bolt
has a stainless steel hanger,
then a steel quick link to a
steel lap link through which
the rope is threaded. The right
bolt has a welded cold shut
with chain. The tackle on this
anchor is a witless medley
of various hardware store
fixtures, none of which are
designed for climbing anchors.
The equalization looks good,
and the rope is threaded through two different points
for redundancy. Most climbers are leery to even trust
two hardware store fixtures and would never trust
just one (like a single lap link), as the quality of the
metallurgy is poor. When you come across one of these
rap anchors featuring a mishmash of rusting chains
and odd doodads, an easy way to give yourself an
extra margin of safety is simply to tie a loop of nylon
webbing through both bolt hangers as a backup.
While the two lengths of rusty chain would offer

redundancy, it is lost where it all comes down to that
one measly lap link of unknown origin and vintage.
Why trust your life to an aging hardware store relic
some skinflint bought for 79 cents? This chain rig
was easily backed up by
threading a length of 1-inch
webbing through both
bolt hangers and tying it
with a water knot. Though
seriously lacking, these
hardware store horror
shows are rarely fatal
owing to the modest loads
generated by rappelling. As
belay anchors, such setups
are truly widow makers.
150 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Rap ring comparison. Top, left to right: FIXE welded
stainless steel (rated at 50 kN or 11,240 lbs.); FIXE
welded plated
carbon steel
(rated at 35 kN
or 7,868 lbs.).
Bottom, left to
right: Omega
Pacific
aircraft-
grade forged
aluminum
alloy ring
(rated at 20 kN or 4,496 lbs.); SMC lightweight
aluminum ring (rated at 14 kN or 3,147 lbs.); Ushba
titanium ring (rated at 30 kN or 6,744 lbs.).
Not your hardware store variety, these CE-certified

quick links were made for climbing applications.
Top: Camp stainless steel 8mm (rated at 50 kN MBS
or 11,240 lbs.); bottom: Petzl stainless steel Maillon
Rapide (SWL 1,400 kg or 3,086 lbs.—SWL stands for
safe working load, typically one-fifth of the breaking
strength).
Rappel Anchors 151

SMC rap rings are light (11 grams) and strong (rated
at 14 kN or 3,147 lbs.), a good choice for carrying on
long multipitch climbs where weight is a factor and
the descent will involve multiple rappels. Bob will
bring a small knife and extra webbing if he knows he’ll
be doing lots of rappels off an adventure climb, since
chances are some re-rigging will be necessary.
152 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

The American “death” Triangle is something of a
myth when it comes to rappel anchors (see rigging
chart in chapter 8). The fear is that this setup
dangerously multiplies the loading force by pulling
the bolts together. Under body weight the angle of
the sling, at both bolts, is about 90 degrees. If the
angle of the slings at the rap rings is 60 degrees, and
a 200-pound load is applied, each bolt will be loaded
to about 200 pounds using triangle rigging. With
V rigging, however, the load would be just over 100
pounds on each bolt at 60 degrees. Triangle rigging
is poor engineering by any definition. But given that
rap anchors basically sustain body-weight loads, the
American Triangle, though always a wretched rigging
strategy, is by and large only deadly when rigged to
abysmal primary anchors.
Rappel Anchors 153

This example shows
V rigging on one of
the most common
rappel anchors
you’ll encounter—a
two-bolt anchor.
Here we have two
separate 1-inch
nylon slings, tied
with water knots
and two rap rings.
With this narrow of
an angle, the load is
distributed nearly
50/50 on the bolts.
Simple, strong, and
redundant.
Example of a two-
bolt rappel anchor
pre-equalized with
cord. Thread a
length of cord (7mm
nylon shown here)
through the bolt
hangers and tie into
a loop using a figure
eight bend or double
fisherman’s knot.
Pull the cord down
between the bolts
and tie with a figure
eight loop, then add
two quick links.
A three-bolt anchor pre-
equalized with cord. Start by
tying an overhand follow-
through (or a figure eight
follow-through) on one end
of the cord through the bolt
hanger, then thread the cord
through the middle bolt
hanger and tie the other
end of the cord to the last
bolt hanger with another
overhand follow-through.
Gather the cord at the
master point (clipping in
a carabiner makes it easy
to gather all the strands
equally), then tie a figure eight or overhand loop. If
length is an issue, remember the figure eight takes
more cord to tie than an overhand. Install two quick
links and you’re good to go.
Two 3⁄8-inch diameter bolts installed with FIXE ring

hangers. Such ring anchors are becoming more
commonplace owing to their brute strength, simple
setup, and fluid rope
removal. Visually
unobtrusive, the
welded stainless
rings are stronger
than the hangers.
Over time, however,
rings often show
signs of wear—from
people toproping
and lowering
directly off the
rings, as well as
from countless rappel ropes being pulled through the
rings. Always inspect rings for wear.
Rappel Anchors 155

This two-bolt rap anchor is well engineered. All the
components are stainless steel. Both bolts are five-
piece Powers. The left one has a stainless steel FIXE
hanger with stainless chain attached to a final quick
link; the right bolt has a Petzl hanger with a quick link/
welded stainless ring combo. The positioning of the
bolts combined with the hardware rigging makes for a
narrow angle of pull between the two bolts. Good to go.
156 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

Two-bolt rap anchor in a mountain environment,
exposed to winter snow and ice. The bolts are 3⁄8-inch
buttonhead drives. The hangers, being made of
stainless steel, appear fine, but the carbon steel quick
links show corrosion that has started to take hold like a
slow-growing cancer, only nine years after installation.
The welded stainless rings also show signs of wear—
right at the welds.
Although the
paint job has
worn off, this rap
anchor combo
shows no signs of
corrosion, even
after many years
in a mountain
environment.
That’s because all
the components—
bolts, hangers,
quick links, and
rings—are made
of quality stainless
steel. It’s more expensive to install a setup like this, but
it will likely be good for a hundred years.
Rappel Anchors 157

Slings through a thread
at Joshua Tree National
Park. The rigging is
redundant, but how
strong is the rock itself?
It’s really just a pinch
where two massive
blocks touch, forming a
keyhole that the slings
are threaded through.
Use discretion with
blocks. Remember, you
want a chunk of rock
attached to the planet,
not one sitting on top of
the planet.
Bomber, redundant rigging on a massive knob of

rock at Joshua Tree National Park. The formation is
attached to the main bedrock. Good to go.
158 ANCHOR SYSTEMS

For the Last Time . . .
Conforming an anchor to the letter of every
sound rigging principle does not guarantee that
the anchor will hold a single pound. The best
rigging can do no more than exploit the poten-
tial holding strength of the primary placements.
Hence the first rule in building all anchors is to
get sound primary placements. With bomber
primary placements, the rules of thumb and
modern rigging methods stack the odds in your
favor that the anchor will do its job and do it well.
Rappel Anchors 159

About the Authors
John Long is the author of twenty-five books, with
over one million copies in print. He is the principal
author of the How to Rock Climb series. His short-
form literary stories have been widely anthologized and
translated into many languages. John won the 2006 Lit-
erary Award for excellence in alpine literature from the
American Alpine Club.
Bob Gaines is an AMGA Certified Rock Instructor

who has been teaching rock climbing since 1983. He
is the owner/director of Vertical Adventures Climbing
School, based at Joshua Tree National Park, California.
He has worked extensively training US Military Spe-
cial Forces, including the elite US Navy SEAL Team
6. Bob has also worked extensively as a climbing stunt
coordinator on over forty television commercials. He
was the chief safety officer for the movie Cliffhanger
and doubled for Captain Kirk when Kirk free soloed El
Capitan in Star Trek V. Bob is also the author of Rappel-
ling, Toproping, Best Climbs Joshua Tree National Park, and
Best Climbs Tahquitz and Suicide Rocks, and the coauthor
of Rockclimbing:The AMGA Single Pitch Manual, which
is the textbook for the AMGA’s Single Pitch Instructor
Course.

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Copyright © 2007, 2014 by John Long and Bob Gaines

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any

Portions of this book were previously published in Climbing

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Information available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available

The paper used in this publication meets the minimum

courtesy of John Long

Bob Gaines is an AMGA Certi-

He has trained US Military Spe-

Basic Anchor-Building Facts

• “Perfect” rarely exists in real world climbing

• No single rigging technique will work in

• Trad climbers must efficiently improvise on a

• The ability to improvise requires a thorough

• Climbing anchors always involve compro-

Natural Anchors Are:

• Anything the environment provides—trees,

• Often more secure than gear-built anchors.

• By and large environmentally friendly.

When Anchoring to a Tree . . .

Very bad. The sling

• Only their mass and position keep boulders

• To serve as secure anchors, boulders and

This large block is well situated, and is bomber for

This block is being

• Look for surrounding cracks.

• Tie off with runners, slipknotting if the form is

Using a slipknot to sling a horn.

S trength ratings for cord and webbing are

Left—A chockstone tied off with a girth-hitched sling.

• The nut has to be bigger—if only a bit—than

• Slot the nut that most closely corresponds to

• Whenever possible, set the nut where the

• Orient the nut so the cable or sling points in

• Try to get the majority of the nut set against

• Avoid endwise placements if possible, as they

• If you have a choice, go with the bigger nut,

• Make sure the placement is well seated, with no

O Orientation. Place the nut with the antici­

S Surface Contact. Always strive for maximum

Both sides of this

Even though the

Both the ball nut

Tips for Using Micro-Nuts

• The tolerances of all micros are quite small,

• Owing to the small surface area, micros are

• Lateral forces easily pivot micros out of

• Always extend the placement with a quick-

• Avoid placements where the wire is running

• Avoid jerking the micro too hard, either

Poor surface contact

This is what to look

Close inspection of this

A Tricam placed in the passive mode as a chock.

Not good. This

Big Bros, made by Trango, are available in six sizes to

The Basic Essentials

• Always align the unit with the stem pointing

• To keep the unit from “walking” because of

• Try to place the unit near the outside edge

• Strive for the ideal placement, with the cams

O Orientation. Place the nut with the antici