Processes in Increasing the Endurance Strength of Materials

 Shot Peening
Subjecting a metal part to the shot peening process induces a residual compressive stress in its
surface. This compressive stress counters the effect of tensile stresses during operation of the part,
thereby improving its resistance to fatigue failure.
Shot peening was evaluated with the use of soft steel shot, hard steel shot, and a two-step (hard
shot + low intensity-soft shot) peening treatment on a carburized SAE 4320 steel5. All peening
processes significantly reduced retained austenite at the specimen surface, from 28 volume percent
in the as-carburized condition to less than 9 volume percent after all peening treatments. Surface
hardness increased from 57 to 61 HRC, and compressive surface residual stresses dramatically
increased from 100 to almost 1000 MPa. As a result, bending fatigue endurance limits increased
from 1070 to over 1400 MPa for all peening treatments evaluated.

Figure 1. Shot-peened spur gears exhibit

1.6 times longer pitting fatigue life than
gears that were not shot-peened

 Alloying concepts
Steels with optimal fatigue resistance possess several desirable alloying and processing
characteristics. The case should consist of a high-carbon tempered martensite and retained austenite
without the presence of non-martensite transformation (NMT) products. Alloying elements that
increase hardenability, e.g. Ni, Cr, Mn, and Mo, suppress the formation of non-martensitic
transformation products upon quenching. In addition, Ni is often added to improve martensite
toughness. Large carbides, oxides, and other second-phase particles are to be avoided. These
structures may either combine with other features that initiate fatigue cracks, or in the absence of
such features, serve as the sole source of fatigue crack initiation. Consequently, careful control of
strong-oxide-forming elements (e.g. Cr, Si, Mn), in addition to control of S and P, is required in
conventional gas-carburizing furnaces. As will be shown below, austenite grain size refinement is
also critical6. With the increased use of vacuum or plasma carburizing furnaces, it may be more
straightforward and cost effective to utilize high-hardenability, oxide-forming elements (e.g. Si) to
control specific microstructural features to enhance fatigue resistance7,8.
 Intergranular oxide control
A recent study on the effects of high oxide-potential elements in a gas carburized SAE 4320-type
steel has shown that control of alloy chemistry (e.g. Mn and Si levels) can virtually eliminate
intergranular oxidation (IGO) and increase fatigue performance13. Figure 2 shows that a reduction in
the level of oxidizing elements led to a lower IGO depth and correspondingly an increase in fatigue
resistance in a series of alloys modified with Mo to maintain constant hardenabilty. In a related
study, Cornelissen et al. showed that the IGO layer observed in Figure 2a for the high Mn, high Si
steel could be eliminated by processing in a low pressure plasma-carburizing system (e.g. "vacuum
carburizing"), and the endurance limit could be raised to 1525 MPa14. This latter observation
indicates that there are opportunities for alloy modifications that utilize elements undesirable in gas
carburizing in steels designed for processing in vacuum carburizing systems8.

Figure 2. Light optical micrographs showing surface oxidation in gas carburized samples of modifies steels

 Deep Rolling
Like shot peening, deep rolling is a process that utilizes cold working and non-uniform plastic
strain to control surface hardness and residual stress to result in parts with improved fatigue
resistance21,22. Deep rolling also can be used to improve surface finish and radial profiles in fillets.
Crankshafts, axle shafts, and fasteners have been the primary areas of interest for the application of
deep rolling.
This method increases fatigue strength of parts which are exposed to dynamic stress under high
pressure or load and prevents or decreases cracks and fractures which may be derived from stress
and depreciation.
The object resistance decreases due to the instantaneous changes in cross-section and cornered
structure on the parts carrying loads or being exposed to loads (machine elements, shaft, axles etc.).
To prevent this, round lines such as Radius are used. To a great extent, critical cross-section is
usually found in these areas where notch effect exists. Materials are usually cracked or broken from
these areas. The aim of deep rolling method is to decrease notch effect and prevent cracks and
fractures by increasing the fatigue strength.

Figure 3. Stress during deep rolling process

 New Technology Used in Material Fatigue Testing
Hitachi, Ltd. announced the development of a new computer-controlled tri-axial material fatigue
testing machine to emulate the complex stress conditions subjected during operation on mechanical
structures such those in construction machinery and renewable energy facilities. When the testing
machine was used to emulate the stress conditions on actual construction machinery using a test
specimen, it was found that stress conditions could be emulated within an error range of less than 3%.
By applying this fatigue testing machine to optimizing the design of social infrastructure products,
Hitachi will be able to achieve the most appropriate structural design in line with the use conditions thus
contributing to improved reliability as well as reducing material costs
Key features of the testing machine are summarized below.
1. Emulation of stress conditions
Surface stress on mechanical structures can be described as in-plane structural element
deformations in transverse, longitudinal and diagonal directions. However, as conventional material
fatigue testing machines are only able to apply two of the aforementioned deformations to a test
specimen, accurate reproduction of complex stress conditions was difficult. The new tri-axial
material fatigue testing machine is able to emulate stress states working on surfaces of mechanical
structures by applying three independent loads to the test specimen using actuators which apply
loads in the 0, 45 and 95 degree direction.

Figure 4. Stress comparison Figure 5. Screen shot of fatigue fractured test

specimen under complex stress states

2. Tri-axial material fatigue testing machine

The testing machine developed consists of a fixed frame which forms 45-degree axis and two
movable frames which form 0-degree and 90-degree axes. A load is applied in each direction by a
corresponding actuator controlled by a computer. As the test specimen is fixed, when a load is
applied, the center of the test specimen may move causing unexpected fatigue fractures in non-
evaluation areas of the test specimen. In order to avoid this technical issue, linear motion guides
were implemented in the machine frames to cancel-out the movement of the center position of test
specimen.
Evaluations were conducted on a test specimen with complex stress data obtained from actual
operating construction machinery, it was found that the measured stress and the emulated stress
corresponded with an error range of less than 3% (Fig 4 and Fig 5).