The hidden symmetry of the Coulomb problem in relativistic quantum

mechanics: From Pauli to Dirac

Tamari T. Khachidze and Anzor A. Khelashvilia兲
Department of Theoretical Physics, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, I. Chavchavadze ave. 3,
0128, Tbilisi, Georgia
共Received 19 August 2005; accepted 27 January 2006兲
Additional conserved quantities associated with an extra symmetry govern a wide variety of
physical systems ranging from planetary motion to atomic spectra. We give a simple derivation of
the hidden symmetry operator for the Dirac equation in a Coulomb field and show that this operator
may be reduced to the one introduced by Johnson and Lippmann to include the spin degrees of
freedom. This operator has been rarely discussed in the literature and has been neglected in recent
textbooks on relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. © 2006 American
Association of Physics Teachers.
关DOI: 10.1119/1.2178846兴

I. INTRODUCTION II. A SHORT HISTORY OF THE

JOHNSON-LIPPMANN OPERATOR
It is well known that the Coulomb problem has an addi-
tional dynamical symmetry in classical and nonrelativistic The analogue of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector for the
quantum mechanics. Classical orbits in the Coulomb field are Dirac equation is the Johnson-Lippmann operator.15 Only the
closed due to this symmetry. In quantum mechanics this abstract of their work was published:
symmetry leads to the accidental degeneracy of the hydrogen “Besides the usual integrals of motion, M ជ and j 共in
atom spectrum. The nature of these phenomena has been Dirac’s notation兲 the relativistic equations for a charge
explained by Fock,1 Bargman,2 Pauli,3 and others4 and has in a Coulomb field admit
been discussed in several textbooks.5,6 The conserved quan-
tity associated with this symmetry is often called the
Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector and has been discussed by many
authors 共see Refs. 7 and 8 and references therein兲.
It is known that this symmetry is spoiled for relativistic
ជ rជr−1 − i
A=␴ 冉 冊
បc
e2
共mc2兲−1 j␳1共H − mc2␳3兲 共1兲

mechanics. Sommerfeld9 derived the energy levels of the hy-

drogen atom by transforming to a rotating coordinate system
in which relativistic precession was eliminated and closed
orbits occur 共see Refs. 10 and 11兲. Dahl12 showed that in post
Newtonian mechanics, the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector is
part of the Lorentz boost operator. Therefore traces of this
symmetry still remain in the relativistic case.
There has been little discussion about this symmetry in
relativistic quantum mechanics, in particular, for the Dirac
equation. It is known that the l-degeneracy of the hydrogen
atom spectrum in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics does
not exist for the Dirac equation because the Laplace-Runge-
Lenz vector is no longer conserved in this case. However, the
degeneracy is not lifted completely, and the twofold degen-
eracy in the total angular momentum still remains and con-
tradicts the Lamb shift, which is observed experimentally. It
is possible that the Lamb shift is controlled by the same
symmetry.13,14
The generalization of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector to
include the spin degrees of freedom was introduced by
Johnson and Lippmann15 and is called the Johnson-
Lippmann operator. We believe that a discussion of the
Johnson-Lippmann operator will enhance our understanding
of dynamical symmetries because of its close connection to
the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector and the accidental degen-
eracy of the hydrogen atom spectrum. The aim of our paper
is to give a simple derivation of the Johnson-Lippmann op-
erator for the relativistic hydrogen atom in the framework of
the Dirac equation.
as another integral of motion. Since A and j anticom-
mute, the pairs with the same 兩j兩 are degenerate. Thus
the existence of A establishes the “accidental” degen-
eracy in relativistic Kepler problem just as the existence
of the axial vector establishes the degeneracy with re-
spect to l in the corresponding non-relativistic problem.”
The first discussion of the relativistic Kepler problem ap-
peared in the 1960s in order to derive simpler solutions of
the Dirac equation.16 Later the supersymmetry of the Dirac
equation for the Coulomb problem was demonstrated, but the
radial equations were mainly considered for the purpose of
deriving the best separation of variables.14 Recently Katsura
and Aoki17 considered the Johnson-Lippmann operator in ar-
bitrary dimensions from the supersymmetric point of view
and obtained supercharges in the relativistic case for the first
time. The Johnson-Lippmann operator played an important
role in their generalization to arbitrary dimensions.
The commutativity of the Johnson-Lippmann operator
with the Dirac Hamiltonian can be proved by “rather tedious
manipulations.”17 Probably for this reason the Johnson-
Lippmann operator does not appear in textbooks on relativ-
istic quantum mechanics. The only exception is Ref. 18
where a short footnote is included.
From the pedagogical point of view it would be desirable
to show the simple and transparent derivation of this operator
and prove its commutativity with the Hamiltonian. We real-
ize this goal by using the method developed in our recent
paper.19

628 Am. J. Phys. 74 共7兲, July 2006 http://aapt.org/ajp © 2006 American Association of Physics Teachers 628
III. DIRAC K-OPERATOR AND K-ODD OPERATORS ជ · Vជ 兲共⌺
共⌺ ជ · ជl兲 = 共Vជ · ជl兲 + i共⌺
ជ ,Vជ ⫻ ជl兲 = i共⌺
ជ ,Vជ ⫻ ជl兲. 共11兲
It is well known that the Dirac operator Hence
ជ · ជl + 1兲
K = ␤共⌺ 共2兲 ជ · Vជ 兲共⌺
ជ · ជl + 1兲 = 共⌺
ជ · Vជ 兲 + i共⌺
ជ ,Vជ ⫻ ជl兲
共⌺
commutes with the Dirac Hamiltonian ជ · ជl + 1兲共⌺
= − 共⌺ ជ · Vជ 兲. 共12兲
a
ជ · pជ + ␤m − ,
H=␣ 共3兲 In the last step we made use of Eq. 共10兲. Thus we obtain the
r anticommutator
where a ⬅ Ze2 = Z␣ and ជl is the angular momentum vector. ជ · ជl + 1,⌺
兵⌺ ជ · Vជ 其 = 0. 共13兲
Here ␣ ជ and ␤ are the usual Dirac matrices and e2 = ␣ is the
ជ is the electron spin matrix
fine structure constant; ⌺ According to Eq. 共2兲, it follows that

⌺ 1
ជ
ជ = ␳ ␣ជ = ␥5␣ជ = ␴ 0 .
ជ
0 ␴
冉 冊 共4兲
ជ · Vជ 兲 = − 共⌺
K共⌺ ជ · Vជ 兲K.

Thus the theorem is proved.

共14兲

According to the Sommerfeld formula the hydrogen atom It is evident that the class of operators that anticommute
spectrum is given as9 with K 共called K-odd兲 is not restricted to the operators we

冋 册
have just discussed. Any arbitrary operator of the form
E 共Z␣兲2 −1/2
ជ · Vជ 兲, where Ô commutes with K is also K-odd.
= 1+ , 共5兲 Ô共⌺
m 共n − 兩␬兩 + 冑␬2 − 共Z␣兲2兲2 The following useful relation holds for the conditions of
where ␬ is the eigenvalue of K and 兩␬ 兩 = 冑 j共j + 1兲 + 1 / 4 = j
the theorem:
+ 1 / 2. Because ␬ can be positive or negative, the energy
spectrum is twofold degenerate. Note that in Eq. 共1兲 the
ជ · Vជ 兲 = − i␤ ⌺
K共⌺ 共
ជ · 1 关Vជ ⫻ ជl − ជl ⫻ Vជ 兴 .
2 兲 共15兲
Dirac operator is denoted by j. The antisymmetrized vector product characteristic of the
If there is a symmetry that relates the signs of ␬, the cor- Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector appears on the right-hand side of
responding symmetry operator must anticommute with K. Eq. 共15兲. The important special cases resulting from the theo-
This operator also must commute with the Dirac Hamil- rem include V ជ = rជ̂ 共unit radial vector兲, Vជ = pជ 共linear momen-
tonian. The first step is to construct operator共s兲 that anticom- ជ
tum兲, and V = Aជ 共Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector兲. The latter vec-
mute with K. To find such an operator, we generalize a theo-
tor has the form3
rem known earlier for the Pauli equation.13 For the Dirac
case this theorem may be formulated as follows. i
ជ = rជ̂ − 关pជ ⫻ ជl − ជl ⫻ pជ 兴. 共16兲
Theorem: Suppose Vជ be a vector that satisfies the follow- A
2ma
ing commutation relation with the angular momentum ជl:
According to Eq. 共15兲 there is a relation between these
关li,V j兴 = i␧ijkVk . 共6兲 three K-odd operators
Equivalently, in vector product form one has ជ · rជ̂ + i ␤K共⌺
ជ · Aជ = ⌺ ជ · pជ 兲.
⌺ 共17兲
ជl ⫻ Vជ + Vជ ⫻ ជl = 2iVជ . 共7兲
ma
We are now ready to derive the hidden symmetry operator.
Assume that this vector is perpendicular to ជl:

共lជ · V
ជ 兲 = 共Vជ · ជl兲 = 0. 共8兲
IV. THE HIDDEN SYMMETRY OPERATOR
Then K anticommutes with the operator ⌺ ជ · Vជ , which is a
scalar with respect to the total Jជ momentum, that is, it com- The second step of our derivation is to find a K-odd op-
mutes with Jជ = ជl + 21 ⌺
ជ. erator that commutes with the Dirac Hamiltonian. There still
ជ · ជl兲共⌺
ជ · Vជ 兲. If we exploit the remains considerable freedom of choice because of our re-
Proof: Consider the product 共⌺ ជ · Vជ 兲. Let us choose the
18 mark about operators of the form Ô共⌺
known properties of Dirac matrices and the conditions of
the theorem, we can show that ជ ជ
operators ⌺ · rជ̂ and K共⌺ · pជ 兲. This choice is dictated by Eq.
共17兲, which relates them to the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector.
ជ · ជl兲共⌺
共⌺ ជ · Vជ 兲 = 共lជ · Vជ 兲 + i共⌺
ជ ,lជ ⫻ Vជ 兲 = i共⌺
ជ ,2iVជ − Vជ ⫻ ជl兲 Both operators are diagonal. After commuting them with the
共9a兲 nondiagonal operator H we will end up with nondiagonal
terms. For example,
ជ · Vជ 兲 − i共⌺
=− 2共⌺ ជ ,lជ ⫻ Vជ 兲. 共9b兲 ជ · rជ̂,H兴 = 2i ␤K␥5 .
关⌺ 共18兲
Therefore r
ជ · ជl + 1兲共⌺
共⌺ ជ · Vជ 兲 = − 关⌺
ជ · Vជ + i共⌺
ជ ,lជ ⫻ Vជ 兲兴. 共10兲 共See Problem 2.兲 The resulting matrix on the right-hand side
is antidiagonal. For this reason we consider the following
Now consider the same product in reversed order, combination of diagonal and antidiagonal matrices:

629 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 7, July 2006 Tamari T. Khachidze and Anzor A. Khelashvili 629
 ជ · rជ̂兲 + ix K共⌺
A⬘ = x1共⌺ ជ · pជ 兲 + ix K␥5 f共r兲. 共19兲 V. THE PHYSICAL MEANING AND SOME
2 3
APPLICATIONS OF THE JOHNSON-LIPPMANN
The coefficients are chosen in such a way that the A⬘ opera- OPERATOR
tor is Hermitian with x1,2,3 equal to arbitrary real numbers;
f共r兲 is an arbitrary scalar function to be determined later. To understand the physical meaning of the A⬘ operator, we
The commutator of A⬘ with H is given by use Eq. 共15兲 to rewrite Eq. 共26兲 in the form

关A⬘,H兴 = x1
2i
r
a ជ
␤K␥5 − x2 2 K共⌺
r
ជ · rជ̂兲
· rជ̂兲 − x3 f ⬘共r兲共⌺ 冉
ជ · rជ̂ −
A⬘ = ⌺
i
2ma
冊 i
␤关pជ ⫻ ជl − ជl ⫻ pជ 兴 + K␥5 .
mr
共28兲

− ix32m␤K␥5 f共r兲. 共20兲 In the nonrelativistic limit when ␤ → 1 and ␥5 → 0, A⬘ re-

duces to the projection of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector on
We group diagonal and antidiagonal matrices separately and ជ · Aជ . Because 共lជ · Aជ 兲 = 0, it is
the electron spin direction, A⬘ → ⌺
set Eq. 共20兲 to zero and obtain
a projection onto the total momentum Jជ .
K共⌺ 冋
r2
2 3 册 r
1 冋
ជ · rជ̂兲 a x + x f ⬘共r兲 + 2i␤K␥5 1 x − mf共r兲x = 0.
3 册 For another application we calculate the square of the
Johnson-Lippmann operator,17
共21兲
Equation 共21兲 is satisfied if the diagonal and antidiagonal
A2 = 1 + 冉 冊冉 冊
K
a
2
H2
m2
−1 . 共29兲

terms are separately zero, Because all the operators in Eq. 共29兲 commute with one an-
other, we can replace them by their eigenvalues. Therefore,
1 we can obtain the energy spectrum algebraically after speci-
x1 = mf共r兲x3 , 共22a兲
r fying the spectrum of A2. Because A2 is a positively defined
operator, the minimal eigenvalue of A2 is zero. For this ei-
a genvalue the solution of Eq. 共29兲 gives the ground state en-
x2 = − f ⬘共r兲x3 . 共22b兲 ergy of the hydrogen atom,
r2
If we integrate Eq. 共22b兲 over the interval 共r , ⬁ 兲, we find 冉
E0 = m 1 −
共Z␣兲2
␬2
冊 1/2
. 共30兲

a The full spectrum can be derived by an algebraic method,

x3 f共r兲 = − x2 . 共23兲
r because we can construct the Witten algebra,20 identifying
relativistic supercharges as17 Q1 = A and Q2 = iAK / ␬. It fol-
We then substitute Eq. 共23兲 into Eq. 共22a兲 and obtain lows that 兵Q1 , Q2其 = 0 and Q21 = Q22 = A2 ⬅ h. The last quantity
1 may be recognized as a Witten Hamiltonian 共N = 2 supersym-
x2 = − x1 共24兲 metry兲.
ma
If we introduce the nilpotent operators Q± = Q1 ± iQ2, such
and that Q±2 = 0, we can develop the well-known ladder
procedure,17 and obtain the Sommerfeld formula for the en-
1 ergy levels, Eq. 共5兲.
x3 f共r兲 = x1 . 共25兲 The algebraic 共supersymmetric兲 aspects of the Dirac-
mr
Coulomb problem and many other applications have been
The substitution of Eqs. 共23兲–共25兲 into Eq. 共19兲 yields the considered by Stahlhofen,21 who showed that the Johnson-
following operator that commutes with the Dirac Hamil- Lippmann operator generates supersymmetry for the Dirac
tonian, Eq. 共3兲: equation, which is the known radial supersymmetry.14

冋 册
ជ · rជ̂兲 − i K共⌺
A⬘ = x1 共⌺ ជ · pជ 兲 + i K␥5 .
ma mr
This operator is K-odd and satisfies all the conditions of the
above theorem.
We have constructed the operator A⬘ associated with a
hidden symmetry of the Dirac equation in the Coulomb field.
This operator is not new. Equation 共26兲 is just a different
form of the Johnson-Lippmann operator. If we substitute the
␣ជ matrices, make use of Eq. 共4兲, and take into account the
It is worthwhile to note a full analogy with classical me-
共26兲 chanics, where closed orbits can be derived by calculating
the square of the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector without solving
the differential equation of motion.5 We believe that the de-
generacy of the hydrogen atom spectrum with respect to the
interchange ␬ → −␬ is related to the existence of the
Johnson-Lippmann operator, which in turn takes its physical
origin from the Laplace-Runge-Lenz vector. It is also re-
markable that the same symmetry is responsible for the ab-
sence of the Lamb shift in the Dirac-Coulomb problem. The
inclusion of the Lamb shift terms,22

冉 冊
expression 共3兲, A⬘ can be expressed as

冋 册
4␣2 m 1 3 ␣2 ជ · ជl兲,
i 䉭VLamb ⬇ 2 ln − ␦ 共rជ兲 + 共⌺ 共31兲
ជ · rជ̂ −
A⬘ = ␥5 ␣ K␥5共H − ␤m兲 , 共27兲 3m ␮ 5 2 ␲ m 2r 3
ma
found by calculating radiative corrections to the photon
where we have dropped x1, which is an unessential common propagator and photon-electron vertex function in the Dirac
factor. Equation 共27兲 is the Johnson-Lippmann operator in Hamiltonian, breaks the commutativity of A with H. How-
Eq. 共1兲. ever, it is evident that if radiative correction terms like Eq.

630 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 7, July 2006 Tamari T. Khachidze and Anzor A. Khelashvili 630
共31兲 do not appear in the Dirac Hamiltonian and only the ri
Coulomb potential is considered, the appearance of the Lamb 关⌺i, ␣ j p j兴
r

冉冊
shift is forbidden.
1
= 2␧ijk␣k p jri
r
VI. SUGGESTED PROBLEMS
Problem 1: Show that the Dirac operator commutes with
= 2i␧ijk␣k共ri p j − i␦ij兲 冉冊1
r
共36a兲

the Hamiltonian, that is, 关K , H兴 = 0, for an arbitrary central

potential V共r兲.
Solution: =2i␣klk 冉冊
1
r
2i ជ · ជl兲.
= ␥5共⌺
r
共36b兲

ជ · ជl + 1兲, ␣ជ · pជ + ␤m + V共r兲兴
关K,H兴 = 关␤共⌺ 共32a兲 We group these terms together and find

ជ · rជ̂,H兴 = 2i ␥5 + 2i ␥5共⌺
关⌺ ជ · ជl兲
ជ · ជl兲, ␣ជ · pជ 兴 + 关␤, ␣ជ · pជ 兴
=关␤共⌺ 共32b兲 r r
2i 5 ជ ជ 2i
= ␥ 共⌺ · l + 1兲 = ␥5␤K. 共37兲
ជ · ជl兲共␣ជ · pជ 兲 − 共␣ជ · pជ 兲␤共⌺
= ␤共⌺ ជ · ជl兲 + 2␤共␣ជ · pជ 兲 共32c兲 r r
ជ · pជ 兲 , H兴.
Problem 3: Calculate the commutator 关K共⌺
ជ · ជl兲共␣ជ · pជ 兲 + ␤共␣ជ · pជ 兲共⌺
= ␤共⌺ ជ · ជl兲 + 2␤共␣ជ · pជ 兲. Solution:
共32d兲 ជ · pជ 兲,H兴
关K共⌺
ជ matrices,
ជ to ⌺
Make the transition from ␣ ជ · pជ ,H兴 + 关K,H兴共⌺
= K关⌺ ជ · pជ 兲 共38a兲

ជ · ជl兲共⌺
关K,H兴 = ␤␥5关共⌺ ជ · pជ 兲 + 共⌺
ជ · pជ 兲共⌺
ជ · ជl兲 + 2共⌺
ជ · pជ 兲兴 共33a兲 ជ · pជ , ␣ជ · pជ + ␤m + V共r兲兴
=K关⌺ 共38b兲

ជ · pជ 兲 − i共⌺
= ␤␥5关− 2共⌺ ជ pជ ⫻ ជl兲 + i共⌺
ជ pជ ⫻ ជl兲 + 2共⌺
ជ · pជ 兲兴 = 0. ជ · pជ , ␣ជ · pជ 兴 + mK关⌺
=K关⌺ ជ · pជ , ␤兴 + K关⌺
ជ · pជ ,V共r兲兴. 共38c兲
共33b兲 The individual commutators are
In the last step we made use of the theorem given in the text. ជ · pជ , ␣ជ · pជ 兴 = 关⌺ ␣ 兴p p = 2i␧ ␣ p p = 0,
关⌺ 共39兲
i i i j ijk k i j
Problem 2: Calculate the commutator 关⌺ ជ · rជ̂ , H兴.
Solution: ជ · pជ , ␤兴 = 0,
关⌺ 共40兲

ជ · rជ̂, ␣ជ · pជ + ␤m + V共r兲兴 = 关⌺
关⌺ ជ · rជ̂, ␣ជ · pជ 兴
ជ · pជ ,V共r兲兴 = ⌺ 关p ,V共r兲兴 = − i⌺ ri V⬘共r兲 = − i共⌺
关⌺ ជ · rជ̂兲V⬘共r兲.

冋 册
i i i
ri ri r
= ⌺i , ␣ j p j + 关⌺i, ␣ j p j兴 . 共41兲
r r
共34兲 For the Coulomb potential, V共r兲 = −a / r, and it follows that
V⬘共r兲 = a / r2 and hence
In what follows the subscript indices run over 1 , 2 , 3 and
summation is assumed with respect to the repeated indices. ជ · pជ 兲,H兴 = − ia K共⌺
关K共⌺ ជ · rជ̂兲. 共42兲
Calculate individual terms, r2
Problem 4: Calculate the commutator 关K␥5 f共r兲 , H兴.

⌺i 冋 册
ri
r
, ␣ jp j
Solution:
关K␥5 f共r兲,H兴
1
r
1
r
冋 册
= ⌺i 关ri, ␣ j p j兴 + ⌺i , ␣ j p j ri 共35a兲
= K关␥5 f共r兲,H兴 + 关K,H兴␥5 f共r兲
= K␥5关f共r兲,H兴 + K关␥5,H兴f共r兲 共43a兲

冋 册
ជ · pជ 兴 + K · 2m␥5␤ f共r兲
=K␥5关f共r兲, ␣
=
⌺ i␣ j 1
关ri,p j兴 + ⌺i␣ j ,p j ri =
iជ ជ · rជ ␣ជ · rជ 共35b兲
ជ − i⌺
⌺·␣
r r r r3 ជ · rជ̂ f ⬘共r兲 + 2mK␥5␤ f共r兲
= K ␥ 5i ␣ 共43b兲

ជ · rជ̂兲f ⬘共r兲 + 2mK␥5␤ f共r兲.

=iK共⌺ 共43c兲
3i 5 i 5 2i 5
= ␥ − ␥ = ␥ . 共35c兲
r r r These relations are used to obtain Eq. 共20兲.

631 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 74, No. 7, July 2006 Tamari T. Khachidze and Anzor A. Khelashvili 631

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by NATO Reintegration Grant
No. FEL. REG. 980767 and by DST of Georgian MES Grant
No. 69.
a兲
Electronic mail: khelash@ictsu.tsu.edu.ge
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Tamari T. Khachidze and Anzor A. Khelashvili 632