Latin America - Wikipedia

3/3/2019 Latin America - Wikipedia
Latin America
Latin America[a] is a group of countries and dependencies in the Western Hemisphere where
Romance languages such as Spanish, Portuguese, and French are predominantly spoken; it is broader Latin America[a]
than the terms Ibero-America or Hispanic America. The term "Latin America" was first used in an
1856 conference with the title "Initiative of the America. Idea for a Federal Congress of the Republics"
(Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas),[5] by the Chilean politician
Francisco Bilbao. The term was used by Napoleon III's French government in the 1860s as Amérique
lutine to consider French-speaking territories in the Americas, (French Canadians, French Louisiana,
French Guiana, Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Martin, Saint Barthélemy) along with the larger
group of countries where Spanish and Portuguese languages prevailed, including the Spanish-speaking
portions of the United States (Southwestern United States and Florida)[6] Today, areas of Canada and
the United States (with the exception of Puerto Rico)[7] where Spanish, Portuguese and French are
predominant are typically not included in definitions of Latin America.
Latin America consists of 13 dependencies and 20 countries which cover an area that stretches from Area 19,197,000 km2
the northern border of Mexico to the southern tip of South America, including the Caribbean. It has an (7,412,000 sq mi)[1]
area of approximately 19,197,000 km2 (7,412,000 sq mi),[1] almost 13% of the Earth's land surface Population 639,048,639 (2016
area. As of 2016, its population was estimated at more than 639 million[2][b] and in 2014, Latin est.)[2][b]
America had a combined nominal GDP of US$5,573,397 million[8] and a GDP PPP of 7,531,585 million
Population 31/km2 (80/sq mi)
USD.[8][9]
density
Demonym Latin American
Countries 20[c]
Contents
Dependencies 13
Etymology and definitions
Origins
Languages Mainly:
Contemporary definitions Spanish,
Subregions and countries Portuguese and
History
French
Pre-Columbian history Others:
European colonization Quechua, Haitian
Slavery and forced labor in colonial Latin America Creole, Mayan
Independence (1804–1825) languages,
Independent Empire of Brazil
Guaraní, Aymara,
Conservative–liberal conflicts in the 19th century
Nahuatl, Italian,
British influence in Latin America during the 19th century
German, English,
French involvement in Latin America during the 19th century
Dutch, Polish,
American involvement in Latin America during the 19th century
Monroe Doctrine Ukrainian, Welsh,
Mexican–American War (1846–48) Yiddish, Chinese,
Japanese
From the United States of America interventions to the "Good Neighbor" policy
World wars (1914–1945) Time zones UTC-2 to UTC-8
World War I and the Zimmermann Telegram
Largest cities (Metro areas)[3][4]
Brazil's participation in World War II
Involvement in World War II
1. Mexico City
Cold War (1945–1992)
2. São Paulo
Economy 3. Buenos Aires
Reforms 4. Lima
Bureaucratic authoritarianism 5. Rio de Janeiro
US relations 6. Bogotá
Cuban Revolution 7. Santiago
Bay of Pigs Invasion
8. Belo Horizonte
Alliance for Progress
9. Guadalajara
Nicaraguan Revolution
10. Monterrey
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America 1/37
Washington Consensus UN M.49 code 419 – Latin America
Turn to the left 019 – Americas
Return of social movements
001 – World
Modern era
Demographics
Largest cities
Ethnic groups
Language
Religion
Migration
Education
Crime and violence
Economy
Size
Development
Standard of living
Environment
Inequality
Trade blocs
Tourism
Culture
Art
Film
Literature
Music and dance
World Heritage Sites
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Etymology and definitions
Origins
The idea that a part of the Americas has a linguistic affinity with
the Romance cultures as a whole can be traced back to the 1830s,
in the writing of the French Saint-Simonian Michel Chevalier,
who postulated that this part of the Americas was inhabited by
people of a "Latin race", and that it could, therefore, ally itself
with "Latin Europe", ultimately overlapping the Latin Church, in
a struggle with "Teutonic Europe", "Anglo-Saxon America" and
"Slavic Europe".[10] Further investigations of the concept of Latin Presencia de América Latina (Presence of Latin America, 1964–65) is a
America are by Michel Gobat in the American Historical 300 square meters (3,200 sq ft) mural at the hall of the Arts House of the
University of Concepción, Chile. It is also known as Latin America's
Review,[11] the studies of Leslie Bethell,[12] and the monograph
Integration.
by Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, Latin America: The Allure and
Power of an Idea (2017).[13]
Historian John Leddy Phelan locates the origins of “Latin America” in the French occupation of Mexico. His argument is that French imperialists
used the concept of "Latin" America as a way to counter British imperialism, as well as to challenge the German threat to France.[14] The idea of a
"Latin race" was then taken up by Latin American intellectuals and political leaders of the mid- and late-nineteenth century, who no longer looked
to Spain or Portugal as cultural models, but rather to France.[15] French ruler Napoleon III had a strong interest in extending French commercial
and political power in the region he and his business promoter Felix Belly called “Latin America” to emphasize the shared Latin background of
France with the former colonies of Spain and Portugal. This led to Napoleon's failed attempt to take military control of Mexico in the 1860s.[6]
The term "Latin America" was first used in 1856 in a conference by the Chilean politician Francisco Bilbao in Paris.[16] The conference had the
title "Initiative of the America. Idea for a Federal Congress of Republics."[5] The same year the Colombian writer José María Torres Caicedo also
used the term in his poem "The Two Americas."[17] Two events related with the U.S. played a central role in both works. The first event happened
less than a decade before the publication of Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo works: the Mexican–American War, after which Mexico lost a third of its
territory. The second event happened the same year both works were written, in opposition to the decision by U.S. president Franklin Pierce to
recognize the regime recently established in Nicaragua by American William Walker and his band of filibusters who ruled Nicaragua for nearly a
year, 1856-57.[11]
In both Bilbao's and Torres Caicedo's works, the U.S.-Mexico war and Walker's expedition to Nicaragua are explicitly mentioned as examples of
dangers for the region. For Bilbao, "Latin America" was not a geographical concept, since he excluded Brazil, Paraguay and Mexico. Both authors
also ask for the union of all Latin American countries as the only way to defend their territories against further foreign U.S. interventions. Both
rejected also European imperialism, claiming that the return of European countries to non-democratic forms of government was another danger
for Latin American countries, and used the same word to describe the state of European politics at the time: "despotism." Several years later,
during the French invasion of Mexico, Bilbao wrote another work, "Emancipation of the Spirit in America," where he asked all Latin American
countries to support the Mexican cause against France, and rejected French imperialism in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. He asked Latin
American intellectuals to search for their "intellectual emancipation" by abandoning all French ideas, claiming that France was: "Hypocrite,
because she [France] calls herself protector of the Latin race just to subject it to her exploitation regime; treacherous, because she speaks of
freedom and nationality, when, unable to conquer freedom for herself, she enslaves others instead!"[18] Therefore, as Michel Gobat puts it, the
term Latin America itself had an "anti-imperial genesis," and their creators were far from supporting any form of imperialism in the region, or in
any other place of the globe.
However, in France the term Latin America was used with the opposite intention. It was supported by the French Empire of Napoleon III during
the French invasion of Mexico as a way to include France among countries with influence in the Americas and to exclude Anglophone countries. It
played a role in his campaign to imply cultural kinship of the region with France, transform France into a cultural and political leader of the area,
and install Maximilian of Habsburg as emperor of the Second Mexican Empire.[19] This term was also used in 1861 by French scholars in La revue
des races Latines, a magazine dedicated to the Pan-Latinism movement.[20]
Contemporary definitions
Latin America generally refers to territories in the Americas where the Spanish or Portuguese or
French languages prevail: Mexico, most of Central and South America, and in the Caribbean,
Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Puerto Rico. Latin America is, therefore, defined as all
those parts of the Americas that were once part of the Spanish, Portuguese and French
Empires.[21] By this definition, Latin America is coterminous with Ibero-America when excluding
the minority French-speaking territories ("Iberian America").[22]
The term is sometimes used more broadly to refer to all of the Americas south of the United
States,[23] thus including the Guianas, the Anglophone Caribbean (and Belize); the Francophone
Caribbean; and the Dutch Caribbean. This definition emphasizes a similar socioeconomic history
of the region, which was characterized by formal or informal colonialism, rather than cultural
aspects (see, for example, dependency theory).[24] As such, some sources avoid this
oversimplification by using the phrase "Latin America and the Caribbean" instead, as in the United
Nations geoscheme for the Americas.[25][26][27]
In a more literal definition, which is close to the semantic origin, Latin America designates
countries in the Americas where a Romance language (a language derived from Latin)
predominates: Spanish, Portuguese, French, and the creole languages based upon these.[23] In
this definition, Quebec would be classified as part of Latin America.
The distinction between Latin America and AngloAmerica is a convention based on the predominant The 4 common subregions in Latin
America
languages in the Americas by which Romance-language and English-speaking cultures are
distinguished. Neither area is culturally or linguistically homogeneous; in substantial portions of Latin
America (e.g., highland Peru, Bolivia, Mexico, Guatemala), Native American cultures and, to a lesser extent, Amerindian languages, are
predominant, and in other areas, the influence of African cultures is strong (e.g., the Caribbean basin – including parts of Colombia and
Venezuela).
The term is not without controversy. Historian Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo explores at length the "allure and power" of the idea of Latin America. He
remarks at the outset, "The idea of 'Latin America' ought to have vanished with the obsolescence of racial theory... But it is not easy to declare
something dead when it can hardly be said to have existed," going on to say, "The term is here to stay, and it is important."[28] Following in the
tradition of Chilean writer Francisco Bilbao, who excluded Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay from his early conceptualization of Latin America,[29]
Chilean historian Jaime Eyzaguirre has criticized the term Latin America for "disguising" and "diluting" the Spanish character of a region (i.e.
Hispanic America) with the inclusion of nations that according to him do not share the same pattern of conquest and colonization.[30]
Subregions and countries

Latin America can be subdivided into several subregions based on geography, politics, demographics and culture. If defined as all of the Americas
south of the United States, the basic geographical subregions are North America, Central America, the Caribbean and South America;[31] the latter
contains further politico-geographical subdivisions such as the Southern Cone, the Guianas and the Andean states. It may be subdivided on
linguistic grounds into Hispanic America, Portuguese America and French America.
Population Name(s) in
Flag Arms
Area Population[2]
Name density Capital official Time(s) zone(s)
(km²) (2016)
(per km²) language(s)
Buenos
Argentina 2,780,400 43,847,430 14.4 Argentina UTC/GMT -3 hours
Aires
Sucre and Bolivia; Buliwya;
Bolivia 1,098,581 10,887,882 9 UTC/GMT -4 hours
La Paz Wuliwya; Volívia
UTC/GMT -2 hours
(Fernando de Noronha)
UTC/GMT -3 hours (Brasília)
Brazil 8,515,767 207,652,865 23.6 Brasília Brasil
UTC/GMT -4 hours
(Amazonas)
UTC/GMT -5 hours (Acre)
UTC/GMT -3 hours
(Magallanes and Chilean
Antarctica)
UTC/GMT -4 hours
Chile 756,096 17,909,754 23 Santiago Chile (Continental Chile)
UTC/GMT -5 hours (Easter

Island)
Colombia 1,141,748 48,653,419 41.5 Bogotá Colombia UTC/GMT -5 hours
Costa Rica 51,100 4,857,274 91.3 San José Costa Rica UTC/GMT -6 hours
Cuba 109,884 11,475,982 100.6 Havana Cuba UTC/GMT -4 hours
Dominican Santo República

48,442 10,648,791 210.9 UTC/GMT -4 hours
Republic Domingo Dominicana
Ecuador 283,560 16,385,068 54.4 Quito Ecuador UTC/GMT -5 hours
San
El Salvador 21,040 6,344,722 290.3 El Salvador UTC/GMT -6 hours
Salvador
French
83,534 275,713 3 Cayenne Guyane UTC/GMT -3 hours
Guiana*
Guadeloupe* 1,628 449,975 250 Basse-Terre Guadeloupe UTC/GMT -4 hours
Guatemala
Guatemala 108,889 16,582,469 129 Guatemala UTC/GMT -6 hours
City
Port-au-
Haiti 27,750 10,847,334 350 Haïti; Ayiti UTC/GMT -4 hours
Prince
Honduras 112,492 9,112,867 76 Tegucigalpa Honduras UTC/GMT -6 hours
Fort-de-
Martinique* 1,128 385,103 340 Martinique UTC/GMT -4 hours
France
UTC/GMT -5 hours (Zona
Sureste)
Centro)
Mexico 1,964 375 127,540,423 57 Mexico City México
Pacífico)
Noroeste)
Nicaragua 130,375 6,149,928 44.3 Managua Nicaragua UTC/GMT -6 hours
Panama
Panama 75,517 4,034,119 54.2 Panamá UTC/GMT -5 hours
City
Paraguay; Tetã
Paraguay 406,752 6,725,308 14.2 Asunción UTC/GMT -4 hours
Paraguái
Peru 1,285,216 31,773,839 23 Lima Perú; Piruw UTC/GMT -5 hours
Puerto Rico* 9,104 3,667,903 397 San Juan Puerto Rico UTC/GMT -4 hours
Saint Saint-
53.2 9,000[32] 682 Gustavia UTC/GMT -4 hours
Barthélemy* Barthélemy
Saint Martin* 25 39,000 361 Marigot Saint-Martin UTC/GMT -4 hours
Uruguay 176,215 3,444,006 18.87 Montevideo Uruguay UTC/GMT -3 hours
Venezuela 916,445 31,568,179 31.59 Caracas Venezuela UTC/GMT – 4:00 hours
Total 20,111,457 626,741,000
*: Not a sovereign state
History
Pre-Columbian history
The earliest known settlement was identified at Monte Verde, near
Puerto Montt in Southern Chile. Its occupation dates to some
14,000 years ago and there is some disputed evidence of even
earlier occupation. Over the course of millennia, people spread to
all parts of the continents. By the first millennium CE, South
America's vast rainforests, mountains, plains and coasts were the
Mayan archeological site Chichen home of tens of millions of people. The earliest settlements in the
Itza. Americas are of the Las Vegas Culture[33] from about 8000 BCE
and 4600 BCE, a sedentary group from the coast of Ecuador, the
A view of Machu Picchu, a
forefathers of the more known Valdivia culture, of the same era. pre-Columbian Inca site in
Some groups formed more permanent settlements such as the Chibcha (or "Muisca" or "Muysca") and the Peru.
Tairona groups. These groups are in the circum Caribbean region. The Chibchas of Colombia, the Quechuas
and Aymaras of Bolivia were the three indigenous groups that settled most permanently.
The region was home to many indigenous peoples and advanced civilizations, including the Aztecs, Toltecs, Maya, and Inca. The golden age of the
Maya began about 250, with the last two great civilizations, the Aztecs and Incas, emerging into prominence later on in the early fourteenth
century and mid-fifteenth centuries, respectively. The Aztec empire was ultimately the most powerful civilization known throughout the Americas,
until its downfall in part by the Spanish invasion.
European colonization
With the arrival of the Europeans following
Christopher Columbus' voyages, the indigenous
elites, such as the Incas and Aztecs, lost power to
the heavy European invasion. Hernándo Cortés
seized the Aztec elite's power with the help of
local groups who had favored the Aztec elite, and
Francisco Pizarro eliminated the Incan rule in
Western South America. The European powers
Romantic painting of Italian explorer
of Spain and Portugal colonized the region,
Christopher Columbus arriving to the
which along with the rest of the uncolonized
Americas (Primer desembarco de
Cristóbal Colón en América), by Dióscoro world, was divided into areas of Spanish and Cristóbal de Olid leads Spanish soldiers
Puebla (1862) Portuguese control by the line of demarcation in with Tlaxcalan allies against indigenous
1494, which gave Spain all areas to the west, and warriors during the European colonization
of the Americas.
Portugal all areas to the east (the Portuguese
lands in South America subsequently becoming Brazil). By the end of the sixteenth century Spain
and Portugal had been joined by others, including France, in occupying large areas of North, Central and South America, ultimately extending
from Alaska to the southern tips of the Patagonia. European culture, customs and government were introduced, with the Roman Catholic Church
becoming the major economic and political power to overrule the traditional ways of the region, eventually becoming the only official religion of
the Americas during this period.
Epidemics of diseases brought by the Europeans, such as smallpox and measles, wiped out a large
portion of the indigenous population. Historians cannot determine the number of natives who died
due to European diseases, but some put the figures as high as 85% and as low as 25%. Due to the lack
of written records, specific numbers are hard to verify. Many of the survivors were forced to work in
European plantations and mines. Intermixing between the indigenous peoples and the European
colonists was very common, and, by the end of the colonial period, people of mixed ancestry (mestizos)
formed majorities in several colonies.
Slavery and forced labor in colonial Latin America

Indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European
plantations and mines; along with African slaves who were also introduced in the proceeding
centuries.
Spanish and Portuguese empires in
The Mita of Colonial Latin America was a system of forced labor imposed on the natives. First 1790.
established by Viceroy Francisco de Toledo (1569–1581), the Mita was upheld by laws that designated
how large draft levies were and how much money the workers would receive that was based on how
many shifts each individual worker performed. Toledo established Mitas at Potosi and Huancavelica, where the Mitayos—the workers—would be
reduced in number to a fraction of how many were originally assigned before the 1700s. While several villages managed to resist the Mita, others
offered payment to colonial administrators as a way out. In exchange, free labor became available through volunteers, though the Mita was kept in
place as workers like miners, for example, were paid low wages. The Spanish Crown had not made any ruling on the Mita or approved of it when
Toledo first established it in spite of the uncertainty of the practice since the Crown could have gained benefits from it. However, the cortes of
Spain later abolished it in 1812 once complaints of the Mita violating humanitarian rights were made. Yet complaints also came from: governors;
landowners; native leaders known as Kurakas; and even priests, each of whom preferred other methods of economic exploitation. Despite its fall,
the Mita made it to the 1800s.[34]
Another important group of slaves to mention were the slaves brought over from Africa. The first slaves came over with Christopher Columbus
from the very beginning on his earliest voyages. However in the few hundred years, the Atlantic Slave trade would begin delivering slaves,
imported by Spain and other colonizers, by the millions. Many of the large scale productions were run by forced slave labor. They were a part of
sugar and coffee production, farming (beans, rice, corn, fruit, etc.), Mining, whale oil and multiple other jobs. Slaves were also house workers,
servants, military soldiers, and much more. To say the least these people were property and treated as such. Though indigenous slaves existed,
they were no match in quantity and lack of quality jobs when compared to the African slave. The slave population was massive compared to the
better known slave ownership in the United States. After 1860 Brazil alone had imported over 4 million slaves, which only represented about 35%
of the Atlantic slave trade. Despite the large number of slaves in Latin America, there was not as much reproduction of slaves amongst the
population. Because most of the slaves then were African-born, they were more subject to rebellion. The United States involvement in the slave
trade is well known amongst North America, however it hides a larger and in some ways crueler operation in the south which had a much longer
history. [35]
Independence (1804–1825)
In 1804, Haiti became the first Latin American nation to gain independence, following a violent slave revolt led by Toussaint L'ouverture on the
French colony of Saint-Domingue. The victors abolished slavery. Haitian independence inspired independence movements in Spanish America.
By the end of the eighteenth century, Spanish and Portuguese power waned on the global scene as other European powers took their place,
notably Britain and France. Resentment grew among the majority of the population in Latin America over the restrictions imposed by the Spanish
government, as well as the dominance of native Spaniards (Iberian-born Peninsulares) in the major social and political institutions. Napoleon's
invasion of Spain in 1808 marked a turning point, compelling Criollo elites to form juntas that advocated independence. Also, the newly
independent Haiti, the second oldest nation in the New World after the United States, further fueled the independence movement by inspiring the
leaders of the movement, such as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla of Mexico, Simón Bolívar of Venezuela and José de San Martín of Argentina, and by
providing them with considerable munitions and troops.
Fighting soon broke out between juntas and the Spanish colonial authorities, with
initial victories for the advocates of independence. Eventually, these early movements
were crushed by the royalist troops by 1810, including those of Miguel Hidalgo y
Costilla in Mexico in the year 1810. Later on Francisco de Miranda in Venezuela by
1812. Under the leadership of a new generation of leaders, such as Simón Bolívar "The
Liberator", José de San Martín of Argentina, and other Libertadores in South America,
the independence movement regained strength, and by 1825, all Spanish America,
except for Puerto Rico and Cuba, had gained independence from Spain. In the same
year in Mexico, a military officer, Agustín de Iturbide, led a coalition of conservatives
and liberals who created a constitutional monarchy, with Iturbide as emperor. This
First Mexican Empire was short-lived, and was followed by the creation of a republic Miguel Hidalgo y
in 1823. Costilla was the first
leader of the Mexican
War of Independence.
Independent Empire of Brazil
Simón Bolívar,
Liberator of The Brazilian War of Independence, which had already began along other independent
Venezuela, Colombia, movements around the region, spread through northern, northeastern regions and in Cisplatina province.[36] With
Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru the last Portuguese soldiers surrendering on 8 March 1824,[37] Portugal officially recognized Brazil on 29 August
and Panama 1825.[38]
On 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissensions with
both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of republican secession,[39]
as well as unreconciled with the way that absolutists in Portugal had given to the succession of
King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian
throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second
monarch, with the regnal title of Dom Pedro II).[40]
As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional

powers until he became of age, a regency was set up by the
Declaration of the Brazilian independence
by the later Emperor Pedro I on September National Assembly.[41] In the absence of a charismatic figure
7, 1822 who could represent a moderate face of power, during this
period a series of localized rebellions took place, as the
Cabanagem, the Malê Revolt, the Balaiada, the Sabinada,
and the Ragamuffin War, which emerged from the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power,
coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar of a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nation
state.[42] This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt, was overcome
only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation
of Pedro II in 1841.[43]
During the last phase of the monarchy, an internal political debate was centered on the issue of slavery. The
Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850,[44] as a result of the British' Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil
after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the between 1831 and 1889
country, was the institution formally abolished.[45]
On 15 November 1889, worn out by years of economic stagnation, in attrition with the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial
elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.[46]
Conservative–liberal conflicts in the 19th century

After the independence of many Latin American countries, there was a conflict between the people and the government, much of which can be
reduced to the contrasting ideologies between liberalism and conservatism.[47] Conservatism was the dominant system of government prior to the
revolutions and it was founded on having social classes, including governing by kings. Liberalists wanted to see a change in the ruling systems,
and to move away from monarchs and social classes in order to promote equality.
When liberal Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of Mexico in 1824, conservatists relied on their belief that the state had been better off
before the new government came into power, so, by comparison, the old government was better in the eyes of the Conservatives. Following this
sentiment, the conservatives pushed to take control of the government, and they succeeded. General Santa Anna was elected president in 1833.
The following decade, the Mexican–American War (1846–48) caused Mexico to lose a significant
amount of territory to the United States. This loss led to a rebellion by the enraged liberal forces
against the conservative government.
In 1837, conservative Rafael Carrera conquered Guatemala and separated from the Central
American Union. The instability that followed the disintegration of the union led to the
independence of the other Central American countries.
In Brazil, rural aristocrats were in conflict with the urban conservatives. Portuguese control over
Brazilian ports continued after Brazil's independence. Following the conservative idea that the
old government was better, urbanites tended to support conservatism because more
opportunities were available to them as a result of the Portuguese presence.
Simón Bolívar became president of Gran Colombia in 1819 after the region gained independence
from Spain. He led a military-controlled state. Citizens did not like the government's position
under Bolívar: The people in the military were unhappy with their roles, and the civilians were of
the opinion that the military had too much power. After the dissolution of Gran Colombia, New
Grenada continued to have conflicts between conservatives and liberals. These conflicts were each
concentrated in particular regions, with conservatives particularly in the southern mountains and Development of Spanish American
the Valley of Cauca. In the mid-1840s some leaders in Caracas organized a liberal opposition. Independence
Antonio Leocadio Guzman was an active participant and journalist in this movement and gained Government under traditional
much popularity among the people of Caracas.[48] Spanish law
Loyal to Supreme Central Junta or
In Argentina, the conflict manifested itself as a prolonged civil war between unitarianas (i.e. Cortes
centralists) and federalists, which were in some aspects respectively analogous to liberals and American junta or insurrection
conservatives in other countries. Between 1832 and 1852, the country existed as a confederation, movement
without a head of state, although the federalist governor of Buenos Aires province, Juan Manuel Independent state declared or
de Rosas, was given the powers of debt payment and international relations and exerted a established
growing hegemony over the country. A national constitution was only enacted in 1853, reformed Height of French control of the
in 1860, and the country reorganized as a federal republic led by a liberal-conservative elite.[49] Peninsula
After Uruguay achieved its independence, in 1828, a similar polarization crystallized between
blancos and colorados, where the agrarian conservative interests were pitted against the liberal
commercial interests based in Montevideo, and which eventually resulted in the Guerra Grande civil war (1839–1851).[50]
British influence in Latin America during the 19th century

Losing most of its North American colonies at the end of the 18th century left Great
Britain in need of new markets to supply resources in the early 19th century.[51] In order
to solve this problem, Great Britain turned to the Spanish colonies in South America for
resources and markets. In 1806 a small British force surprise attacked the capitol of the
viceroyalty in Río de la Plata.[52] As a result, the local garrison protecting the capitol was
destroyed in an attempt to defend against the British conquest. The British were able to
capture large amounts of precious metals, before a French naval force intervened on
behalf of the Spanish King and took down the invading force. However, this caused much
turmoil in the area as militia took control of the area from the viceroy. The next year the
British attacked once again with a much larger force attempting to reach and conquer
Montevideo.[53] They failed to reach Montevideo but succeeded in establishing an British invasions of the Río de la Plata. Beresford
alliance with the locals. As a result, the British were able to take control of the Indian surrenders to Santiago de Liniers (1806).
markets.
This newly gained British dominance hindered the development of Latin American industries and strengthened the dependence on the world
trade network.[54] Britain now replaced Spain as the region's largest trading partner.[55] Great Britain invested significant capital in Latin America
in order to develop the area as a market for processed goods.[56] From the early 1820s to 1850, the post-independence economies of Latin
American countries were lagging and stagnant.[51] Eventually, enhanced trade among Britain and Latin America led to state development such as
infrastructure improvements. These improvements included roads and railroads which grew the trades between countries and outside nations
such as Great Britain.[57] By 1870, exports dramatically increased, attracting capital from abroad (including Europe and USA).[58]
French involvement in Latin America during the 19th century

Between 1821 and 1910, Mexico battled through various civil wars between the established
Conservative government and the Liberal reformists ("Mexico Timeline- Page 2)". On May 8,
1827 Baron Damas, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Sebastián Camacho, a
Mexican diplomat, signed an agreement called "The Declarations" which contained
provisions regarding commerce and navigation between France and Mexico. At this time the
French government did not recognize Mexico as an independent entity.[59] It was not until
1861 that the liberalist rebels, led by Benito Juárez, took control of Mexico City,
consolidating liberal rule. However, the constant state of warfare left Mexico with a
tremendous amount of debt owed to Spain, England, and France, all of whom funded the
Mexican war effort (Neeno). As newly appointed president, Benito Juárez suspended
Maximilian receiving a Mexican delegation at
payment of debts for next two years, to focus on a rebuilding and stabilization initiative in
Miramar Castle in Trieste, Italy
Mexico under the new government. On December 8, 1861, Spain, England and France
landed in Veracruz in order to seize unpaid debts from Mexico. However, Napoleon III, with
intentions of establishing a French client state to further push his economic interests, pressured the other two powers to withdraw in 1862
(Greenspan; "French Intervention in Mexico…").
France under Napoleon III remained and established Maximilian of Habsburg, Archduke of Austria, as
Emperor of Mexico.[60] The march by the French to Mexico City enticed heavy resistance by the Mexican
government, it resulted in open warfare. The Battle of Puebla in 1862 in particular presented an important
turning point in which Ignacio Zaragoza led the Mexican army to victory as they pushed back the French
offensive ("Timeline of the Mexican Revolution"). The victory came to symbolize Mexico's power and
national resolve against foreign occupancy and as a result delayed France's later attack on Mexico City for
an entire year (Cinco de Mayo (Mexican History)). With heavy resistance by Mexican rebels and the fear
of United States intervention against France, forced Napoleon III to withdraw from Mexico, leaving
Maximilian to surrender, where he would be later executed by Mexican troops under the rule of Porfirio
Díaz.[61] Napoleon III's desire to expand France's economic empire influenced the decision to seize
territorial domain over the Central American region. The port city of Veracruz, Mexico and France's desire
to construct a new canal were of particular interest. Bridging both New World and East Asian trade routes
to the Atlantic were key to Napoleon III's economic goals to the mining of precious rocks and the
expansion of France's textile industry. Napoleon's fear of the United States' economic influence over the Painting depicting the Battle of
Pacific trade region, and in turn all New World economic activity, pushed France to intervene in Mexico Puebla in 1862
under the pretense of collecting on Mexico's debt. Eventually France began plans to build the Panama
Canal in 1881 until 1904 when the United States took over and proceeded with its construction and
implementation ("Read Our Story").
American involvement in Latin America during the 19th century
Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine was included in President James Monroe's 1823 annual message to Congress. The doctrine warns European nations that the
United States will no longer tolerate any new colonization of Latin American countries. It was originally drafted to meet the present major
concerns, but eventually became the precept of U.S. foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere. The doctrine was put into effect in 1865 when the
U.S. government supported Mexican president, Benito Juárez, diplomatically and militarily. Some Latin American countries viewed the U.S.
interventions, allowed by the Monroe Doctrine when the U.S. deems necessary, with suspicion.[62]
Another important aspect of United States involvement in Latin America is the case of the filibuster William Walker. In 1855, he traveled to
Nicaragua hoping to overthrow the government and take the land for the United States. With only the aid of 56 followers, he was able to take over
the city of Granada, declaring himself commander of the army and installing Patricio Rivas as a puppet president. However, Rivas's presidency
ended when he fled Nicaragua; Walker rigged the following election to ensure that he became the next president. His presidency did not last long,
however, as he was met with much opposition from political groups in Nicaragua and neighbouring countries. On May 1, 1857, Walker was forced
by a coalition of Central American armies to surrender himself to a United States Navy officer who repatriated him and his followers. When
Walker subsequently returned to Central America in 1860, he was apprehended by the Honduran authorities and executed.
Mexican–American War (1846–48)
The Mexican–American War, another instance of U.S. involvement in Latin America, was a war
between the United States and Mexico that started in April 1846 and lasted until February 1848.
The main cause of the war was the United States' annexation of Texas in 1845 and a dispute
afterwards about whether the border between Mexico and the United States ended where Mexico
claimed, at the Nueces River, or ended where the United States claimed, at the Rio Grande. Peace
was negotiated between the United States and Mexico with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
which stated that Mexico was to cede land which would later become part of California and New
Mexico as well as give up all claims to Texas, for which the United States would pay $15,000,000.
American occupation of Mexico City However, tensions between the two countries were still high and over the next six years things
only got worse with raids along the border and attacks by Native Americans against Mexican
citizens. To defuse the situation, the United States agreed to purchase 29,670 squares miles of
land from Mexico for $10,000,000 so a southern railroad could be built to connect the Pacific and Atlantic coasts. This would become known as
the Gadsden Purchase. A critical component of U.S. intervention in Latin American affairs took form in the Spanish–American War, which
drastically affected the futures of Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Americas, as well as Guam and the Philippines, by dismantling some of the last
remaining Spanish colonial possessions throughout the world.
From the United States of America interventions to the "Good
Neighbor" policy
In the late 19th century and early 20th century, the U.S. banana importing companies United Fruit Company, Cuyamel Fruit Company (both
ancestors of Chiquita), and Standard Fruit Company (now Dole), acquired large amounts of land in Central American countries like Guatamala,
Honduras, and Costa Rica. The companies gained leverage over the governments and a ruling elite in these countries by dominating their
economies and paying kickbacks, and exploited local workers. These countries came to be called banana republics.
The 1898 Spanish–American War resulted in the end of Spanish control in the Caribbean. A period of frequent U.S. intervention in Latin America
followed, with the acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone in 1903, the so-called Banana Wars in Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, and
Honduras; the Caco Wars in Haiti; and the so-called Border War with Mexico.
After World War I, U.S. interventionism diminished, culminating in President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Good Neighbor policy in 1933.
World wars (1914–1945)
World War I and the Zimmermann Telegram

The Zimmermann Telegram was a 1917 diplomatic proposal from the German Empire for Mexico to
join an alliance with Germany in the event of the United States entering World War I against Germany.
The proposal was intercepted and decoded by British intelligence. The revelation of the contents
outraged the American public and swayed public opinion. President Woodrow Wilson moved to arm
American merchant ships in order to defend themselves against German submarines, which had
started to attack them. The news helped generate support for the United States declaration of war on
Germany in April of that year.[63]
The message came as a coded telegram dispatched by the Foreign Secretary of the German Empire,
Arthur Zimmermann, on January 16, 1917. The message was sent to the German ambassador of
Mexico, Heinrich von Eckardt. Zimmermann sent the telegram in anticipation of the resumption of
unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany on 1 February, an act which Germany presumed would
lead to war. The telegram instructed Ambassador Eckardt that if the U.S. appeared certain to enter the
war, he was to approach the Mexican Government with a proposal for a military alliance, with funding
from Germany. As part of the alliance, Germany would assist Mexico in reconquering Texas and the
Southwest. Eckardt was instructed to urge Mexico to help broker an alliance between Germany and The Zimmermann Telegram as it
was sent from Washington to
Japan. Mexico, in the middle of the Mexican Revolution, far weaker militarily, economically and
Ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt
politically than the U.S., ignored the proposal; after the U.S. entered the war, it officially rejected it.
(German ambassador to Mexico)
Brazil's participation in World War II
After World War I, in which Brazil was an ally of the United States, Great Britain, and France, the country realized it needed a more capable army
but didn't have the technology to create it. In 1919, the French Military Mission was established by the French Commission in Brazil. Their main
goal was to contain the inner rebellions in Brazil. They tried to assist the army by bringing them up to the European military standard but
constant civil missions did not prepare them for World War II.
Brazil's President, Getúlio Vargas, wanted to industrialize Brazil, allowing it to be more competitive with other countries. He reached out to
Germany, Italy, France, and the United States to act as trade allies. Many Italian and German people immigrated to Brazil many years before
World War II began thus creating a Nazi influence. The immigrants held high positions in government and the armed forces. It was recently found
that 9,000 war criminals escaped to South America, including Croats, Ukrainians, Russians and other western Europeans who aided the Nazi war
machine. Most, perhaps as many as 5,000, went to Argentina; between 1,500 and 2,000 are thought to have made it to Brazil; around 500 to
1,000 to Chile; and the rest to Paraguay and Uruguay.[64] It was not a secret that Vargas had an admiration for Hitler's Nazi Germany and its
Führer. He even let German Luftwaffe build secret air forces around Brazil. This alliance with Germany became Brazil's second best trade alliance
behind the United States.
Brazil continued to try to remain neutral to the United States and Germany because it was trying to
make sure it could continue to be a place of interest for both opposing countries. Brazil attended
continental meetings in Buenos Aires, Argentina (1936); Lima, Peru (1938); and Havana, Cuba (1940)
that obligated them to agree to defend any part of the Americas if they were to be attacked. Eventually,
Brazil decided to stop trading with Germany once Germany started attacking offshore trading ships
resulting in Germany declaring a blockade against the Americas in the Atlantic Ocean. Furthermore,
Germany also ensured that they would be attacking the Americas soon.
Once the German submarines attacked unarmed Brazilian trading ships, President Vargas met with
Brazilian soldiers greet Italian
the United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt to discuss how they could retaliate. On January 22,
civilians in the city of Massarosa,
1942, Brazil officially ended all relations with Germany, Japan, and Italy, becoming a part of the Allies.
September 1944. Brazil was the
only independent Latin American
The Brazilian Expeditionary Force was sent to Naples, Italy to fight for democracy. Brazil was the only
country to send ground troops to
Latin American country to send troops to Europe. Initially, Brazil wanted to only provide resources
fight in WWII.
and shelter for the war to have a chance of gaining a high postwar status but ended up sending 25,000
men to fight.[65]
After World War II, the United States and Latin America continued to have a close relationship. For example, USAID created family planning
programs in Latin America combining the NGOs already in place, providing the women in largely Catholic areas access to contraception.[66]
Involvement in World War II

There was a Nazi influence in certain parts of the region, but Jewish migration from Europe during the war continued. Only a few people
recognized or knew about the Holocaust.[67] Furthermore, numerous military bases were built during the war by the United States, but some also
by the Germans. Even now, unexploded bombs from the second world war that need to be made safe still remain.[68]
Cold War (1945–1992)
Economy
The Great Depression caused Latin America to grow at a slow rate, separating it from leading industrial democracies. The two world wars and U.S.
Depression also made Latin American countries favor internal economic development, leading Latin America to adopt the policy of import
substitution industrialization.[70] Countries also renewed emphasis on exports. Brazil began selling automobiles to other countries, and some
Latin American countries set up plants to assemble imported parts, letting other countries take advantage of Latin America's low labor costs.
Colombia began to export flowers, emeralds and coffee grains and gold, becoming the world's second-leading flower exporter.
Economic integration was called for, to attain economies that could compete with the economies of the United States or Europe. Starting in the
1960s with the Latin American Free Trade Association and Central American Common Market, Latin American countries worked toward
economic integration.
In efforts to help regain global economic strength, the U.S. began to heavily assist countries involved in World War II at the expense of Latin
America. Markets that were previously unopposed as a result of the war in Latin America grew stagnant as the rest of the world no longer needed
their goods.
Reforms
Large countries like Argentina called for reforms to lessen the disparity of wealth between the rich and
the poor, which has been a long problem in Latin America that stunted economic growth.[71]
Advances in public health caused an explosion of population growth, making it difficult to provide
social services. Education expanded, and social security systems introduced, but benefits usually went
to the middle class, not the poor. As a result, the disparity of wealth increased. Increasing inflation and
other factors caused countries to be unwilling to fund social development programs to help the poor.
Burning forest in Brazil. The removal

Bureaucratic authoritarianism of forest to make way for cattle
ranching was the leading cause of
Bureaucratic authoritarianism was practised in Brazil after 1964, in Argentina, and in Chile under
deforestation in the Brazilian
Augusto Pinochet, in a response to harsh economic conditions. It rested on the conviction that no Amazon rainforest from the mid-
democracy could take the harsh measures to curb inflation, reassure investors, and quicken economic 1960s. Soybeans have become one
growth quickly and effectively. Though inflation fell sharply, industrial production dropped with the of the most important contributors to
decline of official protection.[71] deforestation in the Brazilian
Amazon.[69]
US relations
After World War II and the beginning of a Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, US diplomats became interested in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America, and frequently waged proxy wars against the Soviet Union in these countries. The US sought to stop the spread of
communism. Latin American countries generally sided with the US in the Cold War period, even though they were neglected since the US's
concern with communism were focused in Europe and Asia, not Latin America. Between 1946 and 1959 Latin America received only 2% of the
United States foreign aid despite having poor conditions similar to the main recipients of The Marshall Plan.[72] Some Latin American
governments also complained of the US support in the overthrow of some nationalist governments, and intervention through the CIA. In 1947, the
US Congress passed the National Security Act, which created the National Security Council in response to the United States's growing obsession
with anti-communism.[73]
In 1954, when Jacobo Arbenz of Guatemala accepted the support of communists and attacked holdings of the United Fruit Company, the US
decided to assist Guatemalan counter-revolutionaries in overthrowing Arbenz.[74] These interventionist tactics featured the use of the CIA rather
than the military, which was used in Latin America for the majority of the Cold War in events including the overthrow of Salvador Allende. Latin
America was more concerned with issues of economic development, while the United States focused on fighting communism, even though the
presence of communism was small in Latin America.[73]
Cuban Revolution
By 1959, Cuba was afflicted with a corrupt dictatorship under Batista, and Fidel Castro ousted Batista that year and set up the first communist
state in the hemisphere. The United States imposed a trade embargo on Cuba, and combined with Castro's expropriation of private enterprises,
this was detrimental to the Cuban economy.[70] Around Latin America, rural guerrilla conflict and urban terrorism increased, inspired by the
Cuban example. The United States put down these rebellions by supporting Latin American countries in their counter-guerrilla operations
through the Alliance for Progress launched by President John F. Kennedy. This thrust appeared to be successful. A Marxist, Salvador Allende,
became president of Chile in 1970, but was overthrown three years later in a military coup backed by the United States. Despite civil war, high
crime and political instability, most Latin American countries eventually adopted bourgeois liberal democracies while Cuba maintained its
socialist system.
Bay of Pigs Invasion

Encouraged by the success of Guatemala in the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état,[75] in 1960, the U.S. decided to support an attack on Cuba by anti-
Castro rebels. The Bay of Pigs invasion was an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba in 1961, financed by the U.S. through the CIA, to overthrow Fidel
Castro. The incident proved to be very embarrassing for the new Kennedy administration.[76]
Alliance for Progress

President John F. Kennedy initiated the Alliance for Progress in 1961, to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America. The
Alliance would provide $20 billion for reform in Latin America, and counterinsurgency measures. Instead, the reform failed because of the
simplistic theory that guided it and the lack of experienced American experts who could understand Latin American customs.[77]
Nicaraguan Revolution
Following the American occupation of Nicaragua in 1912, as part of the Banana Wars, the Somoza family
political dynasty came to power, and would rule Nicaragua until their ouster in 1979 during the Nicaraguan
Revolution. The era of Somoza family rule was characterized by strong U.S. support for the government and its
military[15] as well as a heavy reliance on U.S.-based multi-national corporations. The Nicaraguan Revolution
(Spanish: Revolución Nicaragüense or Revolución Popular Sandinista) encompassed the rising opposition to
the Somoza dictatorship in the 1960s and 1970s, the campaign led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front
(FSLN) to violently oust the dictatorship in 1978–79, the subsequent efforts of the FSLN to govern Nicaragua
from 1979 until 1990 and the Contra War which was waged between the FSLN and the Contras from 1981–
1990.
The Revolution marked a significant period in Nicaraguan history and revealed the country as one of the major
Che Guevara (left) and
proxy war battlegrounds of the Cold War with the events in the country rising to international attention.
Castro, photographed by
Although the initial overthrow of the Somoza regime in 1978–79 was a bloody affair, the Contra War of the
Alberto Korda in 1961
1980s took the lives of tens of thousands of Nicaraguans and was the subject of fierce international debate.[78]
During the 1980s both the FSLN (a Leftist collection of political parties) and the Contras (a rightist collection of
counter-revolutionary groups) received large amounts of aid from the Cold War super-powers (respectively, the Soviet Union and the United
States).
Washington Consensus
The set of specific economic policy prescriptions that were considered the "standard" reform package
were promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, D.C.-based institutions such as
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and the US Department of the Treasury during
the 1980s and 1990s.
In recent years, several Latin American countries led by socialist or other left wing governments –
including Argentina and Venezuela – have campaigned for (and to some degree adopted) policies
contrary to the Washington Consensus set of policies. (Other Latin countries with governments of the
left, including Brazil, Mexico, Chile and Peru, have in practice adopted the bulk of the policies.) Also
Roll-on/roll-off ships, such as this
critical of the policies as actually promoted by the International Monetary Fund have been some US
one pictured here at Miraflores
economists, such as Joseph Stiglitz and Dani Rodrik, who have challenged what are sometimes
locks, are among the largest ships
described as the "fundamentalist" policies of the International Monetary Fund and the US Treasury for to pass through the Panama Canal.
what Stiglitz calls a "one size fits all" treatment of individual economies. The canal cuts across the Isthmus
of Panama and is a key conduit for
The term has become associated with neoliberal policies in general and drawn into the broader debate international maritime trade.
over the expanding role of the free market, constraints upon the state, and US influence on other
countries' national sovereignty.
This politico-economical initiative was institutionalized in North America by 1994 NAFTA, and elsewhere in the Americas through a series of like
agreements. The comprehensive Free Trade Area of the Americas project, however, was rejected by most South American countries at the 2005
4th Summit of the Americas.
Turn to the left

In most countries, since the 2000s left-wing political parties have risen to power. The presidencies of
Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Ricardo Lagos and Michelle Bachelet in Chile, Lula da Silva and Dilma
Rousseff in Brazil, Néstor Kirchner and his wife Cristina Fernández in Argentina, Tabaré Vázquez and
José Mujica in Uruguay, Evo Morales in Bolivia, Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua, Rafael Correa in Ecuador,
Fernando Lugo in Paraguay, Manuel Zelaya in Honduras (removed from power by a coup d'état),
Mauricio Funes and Salvador Sánchez Cerén in El Salvador are all part of this wave of left-wing
politicians who often declare themselves socialists, Latin Americanists, or anti-imperialists (often
implying opposition to US policies towards the region). A development of this has been the creation of
UNASUR summit in the Palacio de
the eight-member ALBA alliance, or "The Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America" la Moneda, Santiago de Chile
(Spanish: Alianza Bolivariana para los Pueblos de Nuestra América) by some of the countries already mentioned. By June 2014, Honduras
(Juan Orlando Hernández), Guatemala (Otto Pérez Molina), and Panama (Ricardo Martinelli) had right-wing governments.
Return of social movements

In 1982, Mexico announced that it could not meet its foreign debt payment obligations, inaugurating a
debt crisis that would "discredit" Latin American economies throughout the decade.[79] This debt crisis
would lead to neoliberal reforms that would instigate many social movements in the region. A "reversal
of development" reigned over Latin America, seen through negative economic growth, declines in
industrial production, and thus, falling living standards for the middle and lower classes.[80]
Governments made financial security their primary policy goal over social security, enacting new
neoliberal economic policies that implemented privatization of previously national industries and
informalization of labor.[79] In an effort to bring more investors to these industries, these governments
also embraced globalization through more open interactions with the international economy. A view on globalization, titled
Somos cultura que camina en un
Significantly, as democracy spread across much of Latin America, the realm of government became
mundo globalizado ("We are a
more inclusive (a trend that proved conducive to social movements), the economic ventures remained culture walking in a globalized
exclusive to a few elite groups within society. Neoliberal restructuring consistently redistributed world"). The mural is located in
income upward while denying political responsibility to provide social welfare rights, and though Humahuaca in the north of
development projects took place throughout the region, both inequality and poverty increased.[79] Argentina
Feeling excluded from these new projects, the lower classes took ownership of their own democracy
through a revitalization of social movements in Latin America.
Both urban and rural populations had serious grievances as a result of the above economic and global trends and have voiced them in mass
demonstrations. Some of the largest and most violent of these have been protests against cuts in urban services, such as the Caracazo in Venezuela
and the Argentinazo in Argentina.[81]
Rural movements have made diverse demands related to unequal land distribution, displacement at
the hands of development projects and dams, environmental and indigenous concerns, neoliberal
agricultural restructuring, and insufficient means of livelihood. These movements have benefited
considerably from transnational support from conservationists and INGOs. The Movement of Rural
Landless Workers (MST) is perhaps the largest contemporary Latin American social movement.[81] As
indigenous populations are primarily rural, indigenous movements account for a large portion of rural
social movements, including the Zapatista rebellion in Mexico, the Confederation of Indigenous
Nationalities of Ecuador (CONAIE), indigenous organizations in the Amazon region of Ecuador and
Children singing the Internationale, Bolivia, pan-Mayan communities in Guatemala, and mobilization by the indigenous groups of
20th anniversary of MST Yanomami peoples in the Amazon, Kuna peoples in Panama, and Altiplano Aymara and Quechua
peoples in Bolivia.[81] Other significant types of social movements include labor struggles and strikes,
such as recovered factories in Argentina, as well as gender-based movements such as the Mothers of
the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina and protests against maquila production, which is largely a women's issue because of how it draws on women for
cheap labor.[81]
Modern era
The 2000s commodities boom caused positive effects for many Latin American economies. Another trend is the rapidly increasing importance of
the relations with China.[82]
With the end of the commodity boom in the 2010s, economic stagnation or recession resulted in some countries. As a result, the left-wing
governments of the Pink Tide lost support. The worst-hit was Venezuela, which is facing severe social and economic upheaval.
The corruption scandal of Odebrecht, a Brazilian conglomerate, has raised allegations of corruption across the region's governments (see
Operation Car Wash). The bribery ring has become the largest corruption scandal in Latin American history.[83] As of July 2017, the highest
ranking politicians charged were former Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (arrested)[84] and former Peruvian Presidents Ollanta
Humala (arrested) and Alejandro Toledo (fugitive, fled to the US).[85]
Demographics
Largest cities Historical populations

The following is a list of the ten largest metropolitan areas in Latin America.[3] Year Pop. ±%
1750 16,000,000 —
Gross 1800 24,000,000 +50.0%
Metropolitan domestic
City Country population product (PPP,
GDP per capita 1850 38,000,000 +58.3%
(USD, 2014)
(2017) $million) 1900 74,000,000 +94.7%
(USD, 2014) 1950 167,000,000 +125.7%
1. Mexico City Mexico 23,655,355 $403,561 $19,239 1999 511,000,000 +206.0%
2013 603,191,486 +18.0%
2. São Paulo Brazil 23,467,354 $430,510 $20,650
Source: "UN report 2004 data" (PDF)
3. Buenos Aires Argentina 15,564,354 $315,885 $23,606 (https://www.un.org/esa/population/pub
lications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf)
4. Rio de Janeiro Brazil 14,440,345 $176,630 $14,176
5. Bogotá Colombia 9,900,800 $159,150 $17,497
6. Lima Peru 9,752,000 $176,447 $16,530
7. Santiago Chile 7,164,400 $171,436 $23,290
8. Belo Horizonte Brazil 6,145,800 $95,686 $17,635
9. Guadalajara Mexico 4,687,700 $80,656 $17,206
10. Monterrey Mexico 4,344,200 $122,896 $28,290
Mexico City, Mexico São Paulo, Brazil
Ethnic groups
The inhabitants of Latin America are of a variety of ancestries, ethnic groups, and races, making
the region one of the most diverse in the world. The specific composition varies from country to
country: some have a predominance of European-Amerindian or more commonly referred to as
Mestizo or Castizo depending on the admixture, population; in others, Amerindians are a
majority; some are dominated by inhabitants of European ancestry; and some countries'
populations are primarily Mulatto. Various black, Asian and Zambo (mixed black and The Mexican mestizo population is the
Amerindian) minorities are also identified regularly. People with European ancestry are the most diverse in Latin America, with
largest single group, and along with people of part-European ancestry, they combine to make up people being either largely European or
approximately 80% of the population,[87] or even more.[88] Amerindian rather than having a uniform
admixture.[86]
According to Jon Aske:
Before Hispanics became such a 'noticeable' group in the U.S., the distinction between black and white was the major racial division
and according to the one-drop rule adhered to by the culture at large, one drop of African ancestry usually meant that the person
was Black. ...
The notion of racial continuum and a separation of race (or skin color) and ethnicity, on the other hand, is the norm in most of
Latin America. In the Spanish and Portuguese empires, racial mixing or miscegenation was the norm and something that the
Spanish and Portuguese had grown rather accustomed to during the hundreds of years of contact with Arabs and North Africans in
the Iberian peninsula. But, demographics may have made this inevitable as well. Thus, for example, of the approximately 13.5
million people who lived in the Spanish colonies in 1800 before independence only about one fifth were white. This contrasts with
the U.S., where more than four fifths were whites (out of a population of 5.3 million in 1801, 900,000 were slaves, plus
approximately 60,000 free blacks). ...
The fact of the recognition of a racial continuum in Hispanic American (sic) does not mean that there wasn't discrimination, which
there was, or that there wasn't an obsession with race, or 'castes', as they were sometimes called. ...
In areas with large indigenous Amerindian populations, a racial mixture resulted, which is known in Spanish as mestizos ... who are
a majority in Mexico, Central America and most of South America. Similarly, when African slaves were brought to the Caribbean
region and Brazil, where there was very little indigenous presence left, unions between them and Spanish produced a population of
mixed mulatos ... who are a majority of the population in many of those Spanish-speaking Caribbean basin countries (Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Colombia, and Venezuela).
[89]
Aske has also written that:
Spanish colonization was rather different from later English, or British, colonization of North America. They had different systems
of colonization and different methods of subjugation. While the English were primarily interested in grabbing land, the Spanish
in addition had a mandate to incorporate the land's inhabitants into their society, something which was achieved by religious
conversion and sexual unions which produced a new 'race' of mestizos, a mixture of Europeans and indigenous peoples. mestizos
(sic) form the majority of the population in Mexico, Central America, and much of South America. Racial mixing or miscegenation,
after all, was something that the Spanish and Portuguese had been accustomed to during the hundreds of years of contact with
Arabs and North Africans.
Similarly, later on, when African slaves were introduced into the Caribbean basin region, unions between them and Spaniards
produced a population of mulatos, who are a majority of the population in the Caribbean islands (the Antilles) (Cuba, Dominican
Republic, Puerto Rico), as well as other areas of the Caribbean region (Colombia, Venezuela and parts of the Central American
Caribbean coast). mestizos (sic) and mulatos may not have always have been first class citizens in their countries, but they were
never disowned in the way the outcomes of unions of Europeans and Native Americans were in the British colonies, where
interracial marriages were taboo and one drop of Black or Amerindian blood was enough to make the person 'impure'.
[90]
In his famous 1963 book The Rise of the West, William Hardy McNeill wrote that:
Racially mixed societies arose in most of Spanish and Portuguese America, compounded in varying proportions from European,
Indian, and Negro strands. Fairly frequent resort to manumission mitigated the hardships of slavery in those areas; and the Catholic
church positively encouraged marriages between white immigrants and Indian women as a remedy for sexual immorality. However,
in the southern English colonies and in most of the Caribbean islands, the importation of Negro slaves created a much more sharply
polarized biracial society. Strong race feeling and the servile status of nearly all Negroes interdicted intermarriage, practically if not
legally. Such discrimination did not prevent interbreeding; but children of mixed parentage were assigned to the status of their
mothers. Mulattoes and Indian half-breeds were thereby excluded from the white community. In Spanish (and, with some
differences, Portuguese) territories a more elaborate and less oppressive principle of racial discrimination established itself. The
handful of persons who had been born in the homelands claimed topmost social prestige; next came those of purely European
descent; while beneath ranged the various racial blends to form a social pyramid whose numerous racial distinctions meant that no
one barrier could become as ugly and inpenetrable as that dividing whites from Negroes in the English, Dutch, and French colonies.
[91]
Thomas C. Wright, meanwhile, has written that:
The demographic makeup of colonial Latin America became more complex when, as the native population declined, the Portuguese,
Spanish, and the French in Haiti turned to Africa for labor, as did the British in North America. The tricontinental heritage that
characterizes Latin America, then, is shared by the United States, but even a casual examination reveals that the outcome of the
complex interaction of different peoples has varied. While miscegenation among the three races certainly occurred in North
America, it appears to have been much less common than in Latin America. Furthermore, offspring of such liaisons were not
recognized as belonging to new, distinct racial categories in North America as they were in Latin America. The terms mestizo or
mameluco, mulatto, the general term castas, and dozens of subcategories of racial identity frankly recognized the outcomes of
interracial sexual activity in Latin America and established a continuum of race rather than the unrealistic absolute categories of
white, black, or Indian as used in the United States. (The U.S. Census Bureau's forms did not allow individuals to list more than one
race until 2000.)
[92]
Language
Spanish and Portuguese are the predominant languages of Latin America. Spanish is spoken as first
language by about 60% of the population, Portuguese is spoken by about 34% of the population and
about 6% of the population speak other languages such as Quechua, Mayan languages, Guaraní,
Aymara, Nahuatl, English, French, Dutch and Italian. Portuguese is spoken only in Brazil (Brazilian
Portuguese), the biggest and most populous country in the region. Spanish is the official language of
most of the rest of the countries and territories on the Latin American mainland (Spanish language in
the Americas), as well as in Cuba, Puerto Rico (where it is co-official with English), and the Dominican
Republic. French is spoken in Haiti and in the French overseas departments of Guadeloupe,
Martinique and Guiana, and the French overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon; it is also
spoken by some Panamanians of Afro-Antillean descent. Dutch is the official language in Suriname,
Aruba, and the Netherlands Antilles. (As Dutch is a Germanic language, these territories are not
necessarily considered part of Latin America.)
Amerindian languages are widely spoken in Peru,

Linguistic map of Latin America. Guatemala, Bolivia, Paraguay and Mexico, and to a lesser
Spanish in green, Portuguese in degree, in Panama, Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela,
orange, and French in blue.
Argentina, and Chile amongst other countries. In Latin
American countries not named above, the population of
speakers of indigenous languages tend to be very small or even non-existent (e.g. Uruguay). Mexico is
possibly the only country that contains a wider variety of indigenous languages than any Latin
American country, but the most spoken language is Nahuatl.
In Peru, Quechua is an official language, alongside Spanish and any other indigenous language in the
areas where they predominate. In Ecuador, while holding no official status, the closely related Quichua
is a recognized language of the indigenous people under the country's constitution; however, it is only
spoken by a few groups in the country's highlands. In Bolivia, Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní hold
official status alongside Spanish. Guaraní, along with Spanish, is an official language of Paraguay, and Quechua, Guaraní, Aymara,
is spoken by a majority of the population (who are, for the most part, bilingual), and it is co-official Náhuatl, Lenguas Mayas,
with Spanish in the Argentine province of Corrientes. In Nicaragua, Spanish is the official language, Mapudungun
but on the country's Caribbean coast English and indigenous languages such as Miskito, Sumo, and
Rama also hold official status. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages spoken within its
territory as official, though fewer than 1% of its population are native speakers of these languages. Nahuatl is one of the 62 native languages
spoken by indigenous people in Mexico, which are officially recognized by the government as "national languages" along with Spanish.
Other European languages spoken in Latin America include: English, by some groups in Puerto Rico, as well as in nearby countries that may or
may not be considered Latin American, like Belize and Guyana, and spoken by descendants of British settlers in Argentina & Chile; German, in
southern Brazil, southern Chile, portions of Argentina, Venezuela and Paraguay; Italian, in Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, and Uruguay; Ukrainian,
Polish and Russian in southern Brazil and Argentina; and Welsh, in southern Argentina.[93][94][95][96][97][98] Yiddish and Hebrew are possible to
be heard around Buenos Aires and São Paulo especially.[99] Non-European or Asian languages include Japanese in Brazil, Peru, Bolivia, and
Paraguay,Korean in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Chile, Arabic in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile, and Chinese throughout
South America.
In several nations, especially in the Caribbean region, creole languages are spoken. The most widely spoken creole language in Latin America and
the Caribbean is Haitian Creole, the predominant language of Haiti; it is derived primarily from French and certain West African tongues with
Amerindian, English, Portuguese and Spanish influences as well. Creole languages of mainland Latin America, similarly, are derived from
European languages and various African tongues.
The Garifuna language is spoken along the Caribbean coast in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua and Belize mostly by the Garifuna people a mixed
race Zambo people who were the result of mixing between Indigenous Caribbeans and escaped Black slaves. Primarily an Arawakan language, it
has influences from Caribbean and European languages.
Archaeologists have deciphered over 15 pre-Columbian distinct writing systems from mesoamerican societies. the ancient Maya had the most
sophisticated textually written language, but since texts were largely confined to the religious and administrative elite, traditions were passed
down orally. oral traditions also prevailed in other major indigenous groups including, but not limited to the Aztecs and other Nahuatl speakers,
Quechua and Aymara of the Andean regions, the Quiché of Central America, the Tupi-Guaraní in today's Brazil, the Guaraní in Paraguay and the
Mapuche in Chile.[100]
Religion
The vast majority of Latin Americans are Christians (90%),[101] mostly Roman Catholics belonging to
the Latin Church.[102] About 70% of the Latin American population consider themselves Catholic.[103]
According to the detailed Pew multi-country survey in 2014, 69% of the Latin American population is
Catholic and 19% is Protestant. Protestants are 26% in Brazil and over 40% in much of Central
America. More than half of these are converts from Roman Catholicism.[104][105]
Migration Basilica of Our Lady of the Angels

Due to economic, social and security developments that are affecting the region in recent decades, the located in Cartago, Costa Rica
focus is now the change from net immigration to net emigration. About 10 million Mexicans live in the
United States.[106] 31.7 million Americans listed their ancestry as Mexican as of 2010, or roughly 10%
of the population.[107] According to the 2005 Colombian census or DANE, about 3,331,107 Colombians currently live abroad.[108] The number of
Brazilians living overseas is estimated at about 2 million people.[109] An estimated 1.5 to two million Salvadorans reside in the United States.[110]
At least 1.5 million Ecuadorians have gone abroad, mainly to the United States and Spain.[111] Approximately 1.5 million Dominicans live abroad,
mostly in the United States.[112] More than 1.3 million Cubans live abroad, most of them in the United States.[113] It is estimated that over
800,000 Chileans live abroad, mainly in Argentina, the United States, Canada, Australia and Sweden.[114] An estimated 700,000 Bolivians were
living in Argentina as of 2006 and another 33,000 in the United States.[115] Central Americans living abroad in 2005 were 3,314,300,[116] of which
1,128,701 were Salvadorans,[117] 685,713 were Guatemalans,[118] 683,520 were Nicaraguans,[119] 414,955 were Hondurans,[120] 215,240 were
Panamanians[121] and 127,061 were Costa Ricans.[122]
For the period 2000–2005, Chile, Costa Rica, Panama, and Venezuela were the only countries with global positive migration rates, in terms of
their yearly averages.[123]
As a result of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake and its social and economic impact, there was a significant migration of Haitians to other Latin American
countries. During the presidency of Hugo Chávez and his successor Nicolás Maduro, over 1.5 million people fled Venezuela in what was called the
"Bolivarian diaspora" as socioeconomic conditions and the quality of life worsened.[124][125][126]
Education
Despite significant progress, education access and school completion remains unequal in Latin
America. The region has made great progress in educational coverage; almost all children attend
primary school and access to secondary education has increased considerably. Quality issues such as
poor teaching methods, lack of appropriate equipment and overcrowding exist throughout the region.
These issues lead to adolescents dropping out of the educational system early.[127] Most educational
systems in the region have implemented various types of administrative and institutional reforms that World map indicating literacy rate by
have enabled reach for places and communities that had no access to education services in the early country in 2015 (2015 CIA World
1990s. Compared to prior generations, Latin American youth have seen an increase in their levels of Factbook). Grey = no data.
education. On average, they have completed two years schooling more than their parents.[127]
However, there are still 23 million children in the region between the ages of 4 and 17 outside of the formal education system. Estimates indicate
that 30% of preschool age children (ages 4–5) do not attend school, and for the most vulnerable populations, the poor and rural, this calculation
exceeds 40 percent. Among primary school age children (ages 6 to 12), coverage is almost universal; however there is still a need to incorporate 5
million children in the primary education system. These children live mostly in remote areas, are indigenous or Afro-descendants and live in
extreme poverty.[128]
Among people between the ages of 13 and 17 years, only 80% are full-time students in the education system; among them only 66% advance to
secondary school. These percentages are lower among vulnerable population groups: only 75% of the poorest youth between the ages of 13 and 17
years attend school. Tertiary education has the lowest coverage, with only 70% of people between the ages of 18 and 25 years outside of the
education system. Currently, more than half of low income children or living in rural areas fail to complete nine years of education.[128]
Crime and violence

Latin America and the Caribbean have been cited by numerous sources to be the most dangerous regions in the world.[129][130] Studies have
shown that Latin America contains the majority of the world's most dangerous cities. Many analysts attribute the reason to why the region has
such an alarming crime rate and criminal culture is largely due to social and income inequality within the region, they say that growing social
inequality is fueling crime in the region.[131] Many agree that the prison crisis will not be resolved until the gap between the rich and the poor is
addressed.
Crime and violence prevention and public security are now important issues for governments and
citizens in Latin America and the Caribbean region. Homicide rates in Latin America are the
highest in the world. From the early 1980s through the mid-1990s, homicide rates increased by
50 percent. The major victims of such homicides are young men, 69 percent of whom are between
the ages of 15 and 19 years old. Countries with the highest homicide rate per year per 100,000
inhabitants as of 2015 were: El Salvador 109, Honduras 64, Venezuela 57, Jamaica 43, Belize
2012 map of countries by homicide rate. 34.4, St. Kitts and Nevis 34, Guatemala 34, Trinidad & Tobago 31, the Bahamas 30, Brazil 26.7,
As of 2015, the Latin American countries Colombia 26.5, the Dominican Republic 22, St. Lucia 22, Guyana 19, Mexico 16, Puerto Rico 16,
with the highest rates were El Salvador Ecuador 13, Grenada 13, Costa Rica 12, Bolivia 12, Nicaragua 12, Panama 11, Antigua and Barbuda
(108.64 per 100,000 people), Honduras
11, and Haiti 10.[132] Most of the top countries with the highest homicide rates are in Africa and
(63.75) and Venezuela (57.15). The
Latin America. Countries in Central America, like El Salvador and Honduras, top the list of
countries with the lowest rates were Chile
(3.59), Cuba (4.72) and Argentina (6.53). homicides in the world.[133]
Brazil has more overall homicides than any country in the world, at 50,108, accounting for one in
10 globally. Crime-related violence in Latin America represents the most threat to public health, striking more victims than HIV/AIDS or other
infectious diseases.[134] Countries with lowest homicide rate per year per 100,000 inhabitants as of 2015 were: Chile 3, Peru 7, Argentina 7,
Uruguay 8 and Paraguay 9.[132][135]
Economy
Size
According to Goldman Sachs' BRICS review of emerging economies, by 2050 the largest economies in the world will be as follows: China, United
States, India, Japan, Germany, United Kingdom, Brazil and Mexico.[136]
Brazil, São Paulo
Population and economy size for Latin American countries
Country Population[2] GDP (nominal)[137] GDP (PPP)

(2016, millions) (2015, billions US$) (2015, billions US$)
Argentina 43.8 601.7 972.3
Bolivia 10.9 33.5 73.9
Brazil 207.7 1,799.6 3,207.9

Mexico, Mexico City
Chile 17.9 240.0 424.3
Colombia 48.7 300.98 724.16
Costa Rica 4.9 51.6 74.1
Cuba 11.5 N/A N/A
Dominican Republic 10.6 66.6 147.6
Ecuador 16.4 98.9 181.8
El Salvador 6.3 25.7 52.9
Guatemala 16.6 63.2 125.6 Argentina, Buenos Aires

Haiti 10.8 8.8 19.0
Honduras 9.1 19.9 41.0
Mexico 127.5 1,161.0 2,220.1
Nicaragua 6.1 12.3 31.2
Panama 4 47.5 82.2
Paraguay 6.7 29.1 60.8
Peru 31.8 179.9 385.4

Chile, Santiago
Uruguay 3.4 55.0 74.2
Venezuela 31.6 131.9 491.6
Total 577.8 N/A N/A
[137]
Development
Over the past two centuries, Latin America’s GDP per capita has fluctuated around world average. Peru, Lima
However, there is a substantial gap between Latin America and the developed economies. Between 1820
and 2008, this gap widened from 0.8 to 2.7 times.[138] Since 1980, Latin America also lost growth versus
the world average. Many nations such as those in Asia have joined others on a rapid economic growth path, but Latin America has grown at slower
pace and its share of world output declined from 9.5% in 1980 to 7.8% in 2008.[139]
Standard of living
Latin America is the region with the highest levels of income inequality in the world.[140] The following table lists all the countries in Latin
America indicating a valuation of the country's Human Development Index, GDP at purchasing power parity per capita, measurement of
inequality through the Gini index, measurement of poverty through the Human Poverty Index, measurement of extreme poverty based on people
living under 1.25 dollars a day, life expectancy, murder rates and a measurement of safety through the Global Peace Index. Green cells indicate the
best performance in each category while red indicates the lowest.
Social and economic indicators for Latin American countries

GDP (PPP) Real Income Extreme Murder
HDI Youth Life Peace
per capita in GDP inequality poverty % rate per
Country (2015 literacy % expectancy GPI
US$ growth % Gini <1.25 US$ 100,000
est.) (2015)[144] (2016)[145] (2016)[147]
(2015)[141] (2015) (2015)[142] (2011)[143] (2014)[146]
Argentina 0.827 20,170 2.6 43.6 0.9 99.2 78 6 1.957
Bolivia 0.662 6,421 4.1 46.6 14.0 99.4 69 12 2012 2.038
Brazil 0.755 15,690 −3.0 52.7 0.3 97.5 74 25 2.176
Chile 0.847 25,564 2.3 50.8 0.8 98.9 79 4 1.635[147]
Colombia 0.720 13,794 2.5 52.2[148] 8.2 98.2 76 28 2.764
Costa Rica 0.766 15,318 3.0 48.6 0.7 98.3 79 10 1.699
Cuba 0.769 N/A N/A N/A N/A 100.0 79 2.057
Dominican
0.702 15,777 5.5 45.7 4.3 97.0 78 17 2.143
Republic
Ecuador 0.732 11,168 −0.6 46.6 5.1 98.7 77 8 2.020
El Salvador 0.666 8,293 2.3 41.8 15.1 96.0 75 64 2.237
Guatemala 0.627 7,721 3.8 52.4 16.9 87.4 72 31 2.270
Haiti 0.483 1,794 2.5 59.2 54.9 72.3 64 102012 2.066
Honduras 0.606 4,861 3.5 57.4 23.3 95.9 71 75 2.237
Mexico 0.756 18,335 2.3 48.1 8.4 98.5 77 16 2.557
Nicaragua 0.631 4,972 4.0 45.7 15.8 87.0 73 122012 1.975
Panama 0.780 20,512 6.0 51.9 9.5 97.6 79 182012 1.837
Paraguay 0.679 8,671 3.0 48.0 5.1 98.6 77 9 2.037
Peru 0.734 12,077 2.4 45.3 5.9 97.4 74 7 2.057
Uruguay 0.804 21,719 2.5 41.3 0.0 98.8 77 8 1.726
Venezuela 0.762 15,892 −10.0 44.8 3.5 98.5 75 62 2.651
Environment
Environmental indicators for Latin American countries

Environmental CO2 emissions[151]
Country performance[150] (2009)
(2012) (tons of CO2
EPI per capita)
Argentina 56.48 4.14
Bolivia 54.57 1.31
Brazil 60.90 1.74
Chile 55.34 3.84
Colombia 62.33 1.33
Costa Rica 69.03 1.37 Sumidero Canyon, located

in Chiapas, Mexico.
Cuba 56.48 2.40
Dominican Republic 52.44 1.79
Ecuador 60.55 2.09
El Salvador 52.08 1.10
Guatemala 51.88 1.03
Haiti 41.15 0.24
Honduras 52.54 0.96
Mexico 49.11 3.72
Nicaragua 59.23 0.73
Panama 57.94 2.10

Glaucous macaw (behind
Paraguay 52.40 0.64 hyacinth macaw) and other
macaws. Macaws are long-
Peru 50.29 1.32
tailed, often colorful New
Uruguay 57.06 2.31 World parrots.[149]
Venezuela 55.62 5.45
Inequality
Wealth inequality in Latin America and the Caribbean remains a serious issue despite strong economic growth and improved social indicators
over the past decade. A report released in 2013 by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs entitled Inequality Matters. Report of the
World Social Situation, observed that: ‘Declines in the wage share have been attributed to the impact of labour-saving technological change and
to a general weakening of labour market regulations and institutions.[152] Such declines are likely to affect individuals in the middle and bottom of
the income distribution disproportionately, since they rely mostly on labour income.’ In addition, the report noted that ‘highly-unequal land
distribution has created social and political tensions and is a source of economic inefficiency, as small landholders frequently lack access to credit
and other resources to increase productivity, while big owners may not have had enough incentive to do so.[152][153]
Trade blocs
The major trade blocs (or agreements) in the region are the Pacific Alliance and Mercosur. Minor blocs
or trade agreements are the G3 Free Trade Agreement, the Dominican Republic – Central America
Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Andean
Community of Nations (CAN). However, major reconfigurations are taking place along opposing
approaches to integration and trade; Venezuela has officially withdrawn from both the CAN and G3
and it has been formally admitted into the Mercosur (pending ratification from the Paraguayan
Native New World crops exchanged
legislature). The president-elect of Ecuador has manifested his intentions of following the same path.
globally: maize, tomato, potato,
This bloc nominally opposes any Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States, although
vanilla, rubber, cacao, tobacco
Uruguay has manifested its intention otherwise. Chile, Peru, Colombia and Mexico are the only four
Latin American nations that have an FTA with the United States and Canada, both members of the
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
Tourism
Income from tourism is key to the economy of several Latin American countries.[154] Mexico is the
only Latin American country to be ranked in the top 10 worldwide in the number of tourist visits. It
received by far the largest number of international tourists, with 39.3 million visitors in 2017, followed
by Argentina, with 6.7 million; the Brazil, with 6.6 million; Chile, with 6.5 million; Dominican
Republic, with 6.2 million; Cuba with 4.3 million; Peru and Colombia with 4.0 million. The World
Tourism Organization reports the following destinations as the top six tourism earners for the year
2017: Mexico, with US$21,333 million; the Dominican Republic, with US$7,178 million; Brazil, with Rafael Correa, Evo Morales, Néstor
US$6,024 million; Colombia, with US$4,773 million; Argentina, with US$4,687 million; and Panama, Kirchner, Cristina Fernández, Luiz
Inácio Lula da Silva, Nicanor
with US$4,258 million.[155]
Duarte, and Hugo Chávez at the
Places such as Cancún, Riviera Maya, Galápagos Islands, Punta Cana, Chichen Itza, Cartagena de signing of the founding charter of
the Bank of the South
Indias, Cabo San Lucas, Mexico City, Machu Picchu, Margarita Island, Acapulco, San Ignacio Miní,
Santo Domingo, Buenos Aires, Salar de Uyuni, Rio de Janeiro, Punta del Este, Labadee, San Juan, São
Paulo, La Habana, Panama City, Iguazú Falls, Puerto Vallarta, Poás Volcano National Park, Viña del
Mar, Guanajuato City, Bogotá, Santa Marta, San Andrés, San Miguel de Allende, Lima, Guadalajara,
Cuzco, Ponce and Perito Moreno Glacier are popular among international visitors in the region.
Aerial view of Cancún. Mexico is the

most visited country in Latin
America and 6th in the world.
Performance indicators for international tourism in Latin America

International Tourism Tourism Direct and
International Tourism Tourism
tourism receipts receipts indirect Tourism
tourist receipts[157] receipts[158]
receipts[156] (2011) (2011) employment[159] competitiveness[160]
Country arrivals[156] (2003) (2003)
(2017) (US$ (US$ in tourism (2011)
(2017) (as % (as %
(Millions per per (2005) (TTCI)
(1000s) of exports) of GDP)
of US$) arrival) capita) (%)
6,705 5,060 945 133 7.4 1.8 9.1 4.20

Argentina
Bolivia 959* 784 31 9.4 2.2 7.6 3.35
Brazil 6,589 5,809 1,207 34 3.2 0.5 7.0 4.36
Chile 6,450 3,634 596 107 5.3 1.9 6.8 4.27
4,027 4,773 873 45 6.6 1.4 5.9 3.94

Colombia
Costa
2,910 3,876 982 459 17.5 8.1 13.3 4.43
Rica
Cuba 4,297 3,045 872 194 N/A N/A N/A N/A
Dominican 6,188 7,178 1,011 440 36.2 18.8 19.8 3.99

Republic
1,608 1,657 734 58 6.3 1.5 7.4 3.79

Ecuador
El
1,556 873 351 67 12.9 3.4 6.8 3.68
Salvador
1,660 1,550 1,102 94 16.0 2.6 6.0 3.82

Guatemala
Haiti 516* 504 655 17 19.4 3.2 4.7 N/A
908 686 753 92 13.5 5.0 8.5 3.79

Honduras
39,298 21,333 507 105 5.7 1.6 14.2 4.43

Mexico
1,787 841 356 65 15.5 3.7 5.6 3.56

Nicaragua
1,843 4,452 1,308 550 10.6 6.3 12.9 4.30

Panama
1,537 603 460 37 4.2 1.3 6.4 3.26

Paraguay
Peru 4,032 3,710 908 81 9.0 1.6 7.6 4.04
3,674 2,540 765 643 14.2 3.6 10.7 4.24

Uruguay
789* 575* 1,449 25 1.3 0.4 8.1 3.46

Venezuela
(*) Data for 2015 rather than 2016, as the newest data is currently unavailable.
Culture
Latin American culture is a mixture of many cultural expressions worldwide. It is the product of many diverse influences:
Indigenous cultures of the people who inhabited the continent prior to European Colonization. Ancient and very advanced civilizations
developed their own political, social and religious systems. The Mayas, the Aztecs and the Incas are examples of these. Indigenous legacies
in music, dance, foods, arts and crafts, clothing, folk culture and traditions are very strong in Latin America. Linguistic effects on Spanish and
Portuguese are also marked, such as in terms like pampa, taco, tamale, cacique.
Western civilization, in particular the culture of Europe, was brought mainly by the colonial powers – the Spanish, Portuguese and French –
between the 16th and 19th centuries. The most enduring European colonial influence is language and Roman Catholicism. More recently,
additional cultural influences came from the United States and Europe during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, due to the growing
influence of the former on the world stage and immigration from the latter. The influence of the
United States is particularly strong in northern Latin America, especially Puerto Rico, which is an
American territory. Prior to 1959, Cuba, who fought for its independence along American soldiers
in the Spanish–American War, was also known to have a close socioeconomic relation with the
United States. In addition, the United States also helped Panama become an independent state
from Colombia and built the twenty-mile-long Panama Canal Zone in Panama which held from
1903 (the Panama Canal opened to transoceanic freight traffic in 1914) to 1999, when the
Torrijos-Carter Treaties restored Panamanian control of the Canal Zone. South America
experienced waves of immigration of Europeans, especially Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese,
Germans, Austrians, Poles, Ukrainians, French, Dutch, Russians, Croatians, Lithuanians and
Ashkenazi Jews. With the end of colonialism, French culture was also able to exert a direct
influence in Latin America, especially in the realms of high culture, science and medicine.[162] This
can be seen in any expression of the region's artistic traditions, including painting, literature and Roman Catholic Easter procession
music, and in the realms of science and politics. in Comayagua, Honduras
Due to the impact of Enlightenment ideals after the French revolution, a certain number of Iberian-
American countries decriminalized homosexuality after France and French territories in the Americas
in 1791. Some of the countries that abolished sodomy laws or banned any reference to state interference in
consensual adult sexuality in the 19th century were Dominican Republic (1822), Brazil (1824), Peru (1836),
Mexico (1871), Paraguay (1880), Argentina (1887), Honduras (1899), Guatemala and El Salvador. Today gay
marriage is legal in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Uruguay, and French overseas departments, as well as in some
states of Mexico. Civil unions can be held in Ecuador, Chile and one administrative region of Venezuela.
African cultures, whose presence derives from a long history of New World slavery. Peoples of African
descent have influenced the ethno-scapes of Latin America and the Caribbean. This is manifested for
instance in music, dance and religion, especially in countries like Brazil, Uruguay, Honduras, Puerto Rico,
Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, Haiti, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, and Cuba.
Asian cultures, whose part of the presence derives from the long history of the Coolie trade mostly arriving
during the 19th and 20th centuries, and most commonly Chinese workers in Peru and Venezuela. But also
from Japanese and Korean immigration especially headed to Brazil. This has largely effected the cuisine,
traditions including literature, art and lifestyles and politics. The effects of Asian influences have especially
and mostly effected the nations of The Dominican Republic, Brazil, Cuba, Panama and Peru.
Art
Nicaraguan women wearing
Beyond the rich tradition of indigenous art, the development of the Mestizaje costume,
Latin American visual art owed much to the influence of Spanish, which is a traditional
Portuguese and French Baroque painting, which in turn often costume worn to dance the
Mestizaje dance. The
followed the trends of the Italian Masters. In general, this artistic
costume demonstrates the
Eurocentrism began to fade in the early twentieth century, as Latin
Spanish influence upon
Americans began to acknowledge the uniqueness of their condition Nicaraguan clothing.[161]
and started to follow their own path.
From the early twentieth century, the art of Latin America

Diego Rivera's mural depicting
was greatly inspired by the Constructivist Movement.[163]
Mexico's history at the National
The Movement quickly spread from Russia to Europe and
Palace in Mexico City
then into Latin America. Joaquín Torres García and
Manuel Rendón have been credited with bringing the
Constructivist Movement into Latin America from Europe.
An important artistic movement generated in Latin America is muralism represented by Diego Rivera,
David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco and Rufino Tamayo in Mexico, Santiago Martinez
Delgado and Pedro Nel Gómez in Colombia and Antonio Berni in Argentina. Some of the most
impressive Muralista works can be found in Mexico, Colombia, New York City, San Francisco, Los Mural by Santiago Martinez Delgado
in the Colombian Congress
Angeles and Philadelphia.
Painter Frida Kahlo, one of the most famous Mexican artists, painted about her own life and the
Mexican culture in a style combining Realism, Symbolism and Surrealism. Kahlo's work commands the highest selling price of all Latin American
paintings.[164]
The Venezuelan Armando Reverón, whose work begins to be recognized internationally, is one of the most important artists of the 20th century in
South America; he is a precursor of Arte Povera and Happening. From the 60s the kinetic art emerges in Venezuela, its main representatives are
Jesús Soto, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Alejandro Otero and Gego.
Colombian sculptor and painter Fernando Botero is also widely known[165][166][167] by his works which, on first examination, are noted for their
exaggerated proportions and the corpulence of the human and animal figures.
Film
Latin American film is both rich and diverse. Historically, the main centers of production have been
Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and Cuba. Latin American film flourished after sound was introduced in
cinema, which added a linguistic barrier to the export of Hollywood film south of the border.[168]
Mexican cinema started out in the silent era from 1896 to 1929 and
flourished in the Golden Era of the 1940s. It boasted a huge
industry comparable to Hollywood at the time with stars such as
María Félix, Dolores del Río, and Pedro Infante. In the 1970s,
Mexico was the location for many cult horror and action movies.
The Guadalajara International Film
More recently, films such as Amores Perros (2000) and Y tu mamá
Festival is considered the most
también (2001) enjoyed box office and critical acclaim and
prestigious film festival in Latin
America. propelled Alfonso Cuarón and Alejandro González Iñárritu to the
front rank of Hollywood directors. Alejandro González Iñárritu
directed in 2010 Biutiful and Birdman (2014), Alfonso Cuarón
directed Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in 2004 and Gravity (2013). Close friend of both, In 2015, Alejandro
Guillermo del Toro, a top rank Hollywood director in Hollywood and Spain, directed Pan's Labyrinth (2006) González Iñárritu became
and produced El Orfanato (2007). Carlos Carrera (The Crime of Father Amaro), and screenwriter Guillermo the second Mexican
Arriaga are also some of the most known present-day Mexican film makers. Rudo y Cursi released in December director in a row to win both
(2008) in Mexico was directed by Carlos Cuarón. the Academy Award and
the Directors Guild of
Argentine cinema has also been prominenent since the first half of America Award for Best
Director. He won his second
the 20th century and today averages over 60 full-length titles
Oscar in 2016 for The
yearly. The industry suffered during the 1976–1983 military
Revenant.
dictatorship; but re-emerged to produce the Academy Award
winner The Official Story in 1985. A wave of imported U.S. films
again damaged the industry in the early 1990s, though it soon recovered, thriving even during the
Argentine economic crisis around 2001. Many Argentine movies produced during recent years have
been internationally acclaimed, including Nueve reinas (2000), Son of the Bride (2001), El abrazo
President Cristina Fernández with
the film director Juan José partido (2004), El otro (2007), the 2010 Foreign Language Academy Award winner El secreto de sus
Campanella and the cast of The ojos and Wild Tales (2014).
Secret in Their Eyes (2009) with the
Oscar for Best Foreign Language In Brazil, the Cinema Novo movement created a particular way of making movies with critical and
Film intellectual screenplays, a clearer photography related to the light of the outdoors in a tropical
landscape, and a political message. The modern Brazilian film industry has become more profitable
inside the country, and some of its productions have received prizes and recognition in Europe and the
United States, with movies such as Central do Brasil (1999), Cidade de Deus (2002) and Tropa de Elite (2007).
Puerto Rican cinema has produced some notable films, such as Una Aventura Llamada Menudo, Los Diaz de Doris and Casi Casi. An influx of
Hollywood films affected the local film industry in Puerto Rico during the 1980s and 1990s, but several Puerto Rican films have been produced
since and it has been recovering.
Cuban cinema has enjoyed much official support since the Cuban revolution and important film-makers include Tomás Gutiérrez Alea.
Literature
Pre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, though the Aztecs and Mayans, for instance, produced elaborate codices. Oral accounts of
mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh.
Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua-speaking population of Peru and the Quiché (K'iche')
of Guatemala.
From the very moment of Europe's discovery of the continents, early explorers and conquistadores produced
written accounts and crónicas of their experience – such as Columbus's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo's
description of the conquest of Mexico. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the
church, within which context Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays.
Towards the end of the 18th Century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition
emerged, including the first novels such as Lizardi's El Periquillo Sarniento (1816).
The 19th century was a period of "foundational fictions" (in critic Doris Sommer's words), novels in the
Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often
focussed on the indigenous question or the dichotomy of "civilization or barbarism" (for which see, say,
Domingo Sarmiento's Facundo (1845), Juan León Mera's Cumandá (1879), or Euclides da Cunha's Os Sertões
(1902)). The 19th century also witnessed the realist work of Machado de Assis, who made use of surreal devices Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
of metaphor and playful narrative construction, much admired by critic Harold Bloom. in 1772 by Andrés de Islas
At the turn of the 20th century, modernismo emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was Nicaraguan
poet Rubén Darío's Azul (1888). This was the first Latin American literary movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was
also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer so much at issue. José Martí, for instance, though a Cuban
patriot, also lived in Mexico and the United States and wrote for journals in Argentina and elsewhere.
However, what really put Latin American literature on the global map was
no doubt the literary boom of the 1960s and 1970s, distinguished by daring
and experimental novels (such as Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963)) that were
frequently published in Spain and quickly translated into English. The
Boom's defining novel was Gabriel García Márquez's Cien años de soledad
(1967), which led to the association of Latin American literature with magic
realism, though other important writers of the period such as the Peruvian
Mario Vargas Llosa and Carlos Fuentes do not fit so easily within this
framework. Arguably, the Boom's culmination was Augusto Roa Bastos's
monumental Yo, el supremo (1974). In the wake of the Boom, influential
precursors such as Juan Rulfo, Alejo Carpentier, and above all Jorge Luis
Borges were also rediscovered.
Argentine Jorge Luis Chilean poet Gabriela
Borges in L'Hôtel, Paris in Mistral, first Latin American
Contemporary literature in the region is vibrant and varied, ranging from
1969 to win a Nobel Prize in
the best-selling Paulo Coelho and Isabel Allende to the more avant-garde
Literature, in 1945
and critically acclaimed work of writers such as Diamela Eltit, Giannina
Braschi, Ricardo Piglia, or Roberto Bolaño. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of
testimonio, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú. Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented
by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel.
The region boasts six Nobel Prize winners: in addition to the two Chilean poets Gabriela Mistral (1945) and Pablo Neruda (1971), there is also the
Guatemalan novelist Miguel Angel Asturias (1967), the Colombian writer Gabriel García Márquez (1982), the Mexican poet and essayist Octavio
Paz (1990), and the Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa (2010).
Music and dance

Latin America has produced many successful worldwide artists in terms of recorded global music sales. Among the most successful have been
Juan Gabriel (Mexico) only Latin American musician to have sold over 200 million records worldwide,[169] Gloria Estefan (Cuba), Carlos Santana,
Luis Miguel (Mexico) of whom have sold over 90 million records, Shakira (Colombia) and Vicente Fernández (Mexico) with over 50 million
records sold worldwide. Enrique Iglesias, although not a Latin American, has also contributed for the success of Latin music.
Other notable successful mainstream acts through the years, include RBD, Celia Cruz, Soda Stereo, Thalía, Ricky Martin, Maná, Marc Anthony,
Ricardo Arjona, Selena, and Menudo.
Caribbean Hispanic music, such as merengue, bachata, salsa, and more recently reggaeton, from such countries as the Dominican Republic,
Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, Cuba, and Panama, has been strongly influenced by African rhythms and melodies. Haiti's compas is a genre of
music that is influenced by its Caribbean Hispanic counterparts, along with elements of jazz and modern sounds.[170][171]
Another well-known Latin American musical genre includes the Argentine
and Uruguayan tango (with Carlos Gardel as the greatest exponent), as well
as the distinct nuevo tango, a fusion of tango, acoustic and electronic music
popularized by bandoneón virtuoso Ástor Piazzolla. Samba, North American
jazz, European classical music and choro combined to form bossa nova in
Brazil, popularized by guitarist João Gilberto with singer Astrud Gilberto
and pianist Antonio Carlos Jobim.
Other influential Latin American sounds include the Antillean soca and
calypso, the Honduras (Garifuna) punta, the Colombian cumbia and
vallenato, the Chilean cueca, the Ecuadorian boleros, and rockoleras, the
Mexican ranchera and the mariachi which is the epitome of Mexican soul,
the Nicaraguan palo de Mayo, the Peruvian marinera and tondero, the Traditional Mexican dance
Uruguayan candombe, the French Antillean zouk (derived from Haitian Jarabe Tapatío
Salsa dancing in Cali,
Colombia compas) and the various styles of music from pre-Columbian traditions that
are widespread in the Andean region.
The classical composer Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959) worked on the recording of native musical traditions
within his homeland of Brazil. The traditions of his homeland heavily influenced his classical works.[172] Also
notable is the recent work of the Cuban Leo Brouwer and guitar work of the Venezuelan Antonio Lauro and the
Paraguayan Agustín Barrios. Latin America has also produced world-class classical performers such as the
Chilean pianist Claudio Arrau, Brazilian pianist Nelson Freire and the Argentine pianist and conductor Daniel
Barenboim. Brazilian opera soprano Bidu Sayão, one of Brazil's most famous musicians, was a leading artist of
the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1937 to 1952.
Arguably, the main contribution to music entered through folklore, where

the true soul of the Latin American and Caribbean countries is expressed.
Musicians such as Yma Súmac, Chabuca Granda, Atahualpa Yupanqui,
Violeta Parra, Víctor Jara, Jorge Cafrune, Facundo Cabral, Mercedes Sosa,
Brazilian singer Carmen
Jorge Negrete, Luiz Gonzaga, Caetano Veloso, Susana Baca, Chavela Vargas,
Miranda helped popularize
samba internationally. Simon Diaz, Julio Jaramillo, Toto la Momposina, Gilberto Gil, Maria
Bethânia, Nana Caymmi, Nara Leão, Gal Costa, Ney Matogrosso as well as
musical ensembles such as Inti Illimani and Los Kjarkas are magnificent
examples of the heights that this soul can reach.
Latin pop, including many forms of rock, is popular in Latin America today (see Spanish language rock and
roll).[173] A few examples are Café Tacuba, Soda Stereo, Maná, Rita Lee, Mutantes, Secos e Molhados Legião
Urbana, Titãs, Paralamas do Sucesso, Cazuza, Barão Vermelho, Skank, Miranda!, Cansei de Ser Sexy or CSS, A couple dances tango.
and Bajo Fondo.
More recently, reggaeton, which blends Jamaican reggae and dancehall with Latin America genres such as bomba and plena, as well as hip hop, is
becoming more popular, in spite of the controversy surrounding its lyrics, dance steps (Perreo) and music videos. It has become very popular
among populations with a "migrant culture" influence – both Latino populations in the United States, such as southern Florida and New York
City, and parts of Latin America where migration to the United States is common, such as Trinidad and Tobago, Dominican Republic, Colombia,
Ecuador, El Salvador, and Mexico.[174]
World Heritage Sites

The following is a list of the ten countries with the most World Heritage Sites in Latin America.[175]
Country Natural sites Cultural sites Mixed sites Total sites

1. Mexico 6 28 1 35
2. Brazil 7 14 0 21
3. Peru 2 8 2 12
4. Argentina 5 6 0 11
5. Colombia 2 6 1 9
6. Cuba 2 7 0 9
7. Bolivia 1 6 0 7
8. Chile 0 6 0 6
9. Ecuador 2 3 0 5
10. Panama 3 2 0 5
See also
Latin Americans List of Latin Americans
Amerindians Latin American studies
Criollo Agroecology in Latin America
Afro-Latin American Latin America and the League of Nations
Asian Latin American Romance-speaking world
Mestizos United States of Latin Africa
Mulatto Water supply and sanitation in Latin America
White Latin American Latin America and the Caribbean (region)
Zambo Latin American integration
Diaspora Latin America–United States relations
Latin American Australian Caribbean
Latin American British Association of Caribbean States
Latin American Canadian Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
Hispanic and Latino Americans Central American Integration System
Hispanic Americas (terminology) – Use of the word American
Latino
Notes
a. In the main Latin American languages:
Spanish: América Latina

Portuguese: América Latina
French: Amérique Latine
b. Includes the population estimates for South American and Central American countries excluding Belize, Guyana, the United States, and
Spanish and French speaking Caribbean countries and territories, as listed under "Sub-regions and countries"
c. Not including Anglophone or Dutch-speaking countries, such as Belize, Guyana, Jamaica, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago; see
Contemporary definitions section
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Further reading
Ardao, Arturo. Génesis de la idea y nombre de América Latina. Caracas: Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos Rómulo Gallegos, 1980.
Ayala Mora, Enrique. "El origen del nombre América Latina y la tradición católica del siglo XIX." Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de
la Cultura 40, no. 1 (2013), 213–41.
Azevedo, Aroldo. O Brasil e suas regiões. São Paulo: Companhia Editora Nacional, 1971. (in Portuguese)
Enciclopédia Barsa. Volume 4: Batráquio – Camarão, Filipe. Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987. (in Portuguese)
Bomfim, Manoel. A América latina: Males de origem. Rio de Janeiro: H. Garnier 1905.
Braudel, Fernand. "Y a-t-il une Amérique latine?" Annales ESC 3 (1948), 467–71.
Castro-Gómez, Santiago. Crítica de la razón latinoamericana. Barcelona: Puvil Libros 1996.
Coatsworth, John H., and Alan M. Taylor, eds. Latin America and the World Economy Since 1800. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press
1998.
Coelho, Marcos Amorim. Geografia do Brasil. 4th ed. São Paulo: Moderna, 1996. (in Portuguese)
Edwards, Sebastián. Left Behind: Latin America and the False Promise of Populism. University of Chicago Press, 2010.
Sebastian Edwards; Gerardo Esquivel; Graciela Márquez (15 February 2009). The Decline of Latin American Economies: Growth,
Institutions, and Crises (https://books.google.com/books?id=f4KQPrTzR0EC). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-18503-3.
Galeano, Eduardo. Open Veins of Latin America: Five Centuries of the Pillage of a Continent. 1973
Gobat, Michel, "The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race," American Historical
Review Vol. 118, no. 3 (December 2013), pp. 1345–1375.
Halperin Donghi, Tulio. (1970). Historia contemporánea de América Latina (2. ed.). Madrid: Alianza Editorial.
Leonard, Thomas et al. (2010). Encyclopedia of Latin America. Facts on File. ISBN 9780816073597
Mariátegui, José Carlos. Temas de nuestra América. Vol. 12 of Obras completas de Mariátegui. Lima: Biblioteca Amauta 1960.
Martínez Estrada, Ezequiel. Diferencias y semejanzas entre los países de América Latina. Mexico" Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
México 1962.
Maurer Queipo, Isabel (ed.): "Directory of World Cinema: Latin America", intellectbooks, Bristol 2013, ISBN 9781841506180
McGinnes, Aims. "Searching for 'Latin America': Race and Sovereignty in the Americas in the 1850s." In Race and Nation in Modern Latin
America, edited by Nancy P. Appelbaum, Anne S. Macpherson, and Karin alejandra Rosemblatt. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press 2003, pp, 87–107.
Mignolo, Walter, The Idea of Latin America. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell 2005.
Moraña, Mabel, Enrique Dussel, and Carlos A. Jáuregui, eds. Coloniality at Large: Latin America and the Postcolonial Debate. Durham: Duke
University Press 2008.
Moreira, Igor A. G. O Espaço Geográfico, geografia geral e do Brasil. 18. Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1981. (in Portuguese)
Phelan, John Leddy. (1968). Pan-latinisms, French Intervention in Mexico (1861–1867) and the Genesis of the Idea of Latin America. Mexico
City: Universidad Nacional Autonónoma de México 1968.
Vesentini, José William. Brasil, sociedade e espaço – Geografia do Brasil. 7th Ed. São Paulo: Ática, 1988. (in Portuguese)
Tenenbaum, Barbara A. ed. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. 5 vols. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1996
Tenorio-Trillo, Mauricio. Latin America: The Allure and Power of an Idea. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2017.
Vasconcelos, José. Indología: Una interpretación de la cultura ibero-americana. Barcelona: Agencia Mundial de Librería 1927.
Werncek vianna, Luiz. A revolução passive: Iberismo e americanismo no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Revan 1997.
Zea, Leopoldo. Filosofía de la historia americana. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económico 1978.
Zea, Leopoldo, ed. Fuentes de la cultura latinoamericana. 2 vols. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1993.
External links
IDB Education Initiative (http://www.iadb.org/en/topics/education/education-initiative-in-latin-america,6887.html)
Latin American Network Information Center (http://www1.lanic.utexas.edu/)
Latin America Data Base (http://ladb.unm.edu/)
Washington Office on Latin America (http://www.wola.org/)
Council on Hemispheric Affairs (http://www.coha.org/)
Codigos De Barra (http://codigosdebarras.net/)
Infolatam. Information and analysis of Latin America (http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20080908155853/http%3A//www.infolatam.com/) at the
Library of Congress Web Archives (archived 2008-09-08)
Map of Land Cover: Latin America and Caribbean (FAO) (http://www.fao.org/farmingsystems/FarmingMaps/LAC/09/LC/index.html)
Lessons From Latin America (http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090323/dangl) by Benjamin Dangl, The Nation, March 4, 2009
Keeping Latin America on the World News Agenda – Interview with Michael Reid of The Economist (https://web.archive.org/web/2010062412
0221/http://knightcenter.utexas.edu/blog/?q=en%2Fnode%2F4318) at the Wayback Machine (archived 2010-06-24)
Cold War in Latin America, CSU Pomona University (https://archive.is/20121214185340/http://www.csupomona.edu/~jmvadi/454/The%20Col
d%20War.html) at Archive.today (archived 2012-12-14)
Latin America Cold War Resources, Yale University (http://www.yale.edu/macmillan/lais/cold-war-resources.html)
Latin America Cold War, Harvard University (http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~jidoming/images/jid_uslatin.PDF)
http://larc.ucalgary.ca/ Latin American Research Centre, University of Calgary (http://larc.ucalgary.ca/)
The war on Democracy, by John Pilger (http://johnpilger.com/videos/the-war-on-democracy)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_America&oldid=885232802"
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Latin America - Wikipedia

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Latin America - Wikipedia

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3/3/2019 Latin America - Wikipedia

Subregions and countries

UTC/GMT -5 hours (Easter

Colombia 1,141,748 48,653,419 41.5 Bogotá Colombia UTC/GMT -5 hours

Cuba 109,884 11,475,982 100.6 Havana Cuba UTC/GMT -4 hours

Dominican Santo República

Ecuador 283,560 16,385,068 54.4 Quito Ecuador UTC/GMT -5 hours

Guadeloupe* 1,628 449,975 250 Basse-Terre Guadeloupe UTC/GMT -4 hours

Honduras 112,492 9,112,867 76 Tegucigalpa Honduras UTC/GMT -6 hours

Nicaragua 130,375 6,149,928 44.3 Managua Nicaragua UTC/GMT -6 hours

Peru 1,285,216 31,773,839 23 Lima Perú; Piruw UTC/GMT -5 hours

Saint Martin* 25 39,000 361 Marigot Saint-Martin UTC/GMT -4 hours

Uruguay 176,215 3,444,006 18.87 Montevideo Uruguay UTC/GMT -3 hours

Venezuela 916,445 31,568,179 31.59 Caracas Venezuela UTC/GMT – 4:00 hours

Total 20,111,457 626,741,000

*: Not a sovereign state

Slavery and forced labor in colonial Latin America

As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional

Conservative–liberal conﬂicts in the 19th century

British inﬂuence in Latin America during the 19th century

French involvement in Latin America during the 19th century

American involvement in Latin America during the 19th century

World wars (1914–1945)

World War I and the Zimmermann Telegram

Brazil's participation in World War II

Involvement in World War II

Cold War (1945–1992)

Burning forest in Brazil. The removal

Bay of Pigs Invasion

Alliance for Progress

Turn to the left

Return of social movements

Largest cities Historical populations

5. Bogotá Colombia 9,900,800 $159,150 $17,497

6. Lima Peru 9,752,000 $176,447 $16,530

7. Santiago Chile 7,164,400 $171,436 $23,290

8. Belo Horizonte Brazil 6,145,800 $95,686 $17,635

9. Guadalajara Mexico 4,687,700 $80,656 $17,206

10. Monterrey Mexico 4,344,200 $122,896 $28,290

Mexico City, Mexico São Paulo, Brazil

Aske has also written that:

Thomas C. Wright, meanwhile, has written that:

Amerindian languages are widely spoken in Peru,

Migration Basilica of Our Lady of the Angels

Crime and violence

Brazil, São Paulo

Population and economy size for Latin American countries

Country Population[2] GDP (nominal)[137] GDP (PPP)

Argentina 43.8 601.7 972.3

Bolivia 10.9 33.5 73.9

Brazil 207.7 1,799.6 3,207.9

Colombia 48.7 300.98 724.16

Costa Rica 4.9 51.6 74.1

Cuba 11.5 N/A N/A

Dominican Republic 10.6 66.6 147.6

Ecuador 16.4 98.9 181.8

El Salvador 6.3 25.7 52.9

Guatemala 16.6 63.2 125.6 Argentina, Buenos Aires

Honduras 9.1 19.9 41.0

Mexico 127.5 1,161.0 2,220.1

Nicaragua 6.1 12.3 31.2

Panama 4 47.5 82.2

Paraguay 6.7 29.1 60.8

Peru 31.8 179.9 385.4