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When you read a passage or hear some form of verbal communication, there are linguistic features which make an
impression on you. This is so because the words, graphs and symbols chosen and their arrangements are telling you
something about the writer`s/speaker`s purpose and context.
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The use of various linguistic, grammatical, punctuations and features to convey the overall purpose of the
speaker/writer are referred to as language strategies.
In assessing the language strategy of a speaker/writer or in devising strategies of your own, you may want to
consider the following:
Identifying the type of writing (discourse) will help you determine its function. Consider if it
is narrative, expository, descriptive, dramatic, argumentative?
Read more here, on some common types of discourse and the purposes for which writers have used them.
Every time language is used to communicate meaning it takes place within a particular set of circumstances referred
to as the context of use. The context influences the way language is used and it includes:
the subject matter or content to be communicated
the purpose for the communication
the writer`s/speaker`s awareness of her relationship to the audience
the way the writer/speaker wishes or expects the audience to respond
To communicate effectively with your intended target audience, you must have a `sense` of that audience. You need
to know what they are like and what their expectations are. Here are some considerations:
The age of the speaker/narrator and the effect on the audience/reader/listener receiving the
communication
The status or social background of the audience
The knowledge background of the audience - how much or little do they know of the topic being
communicated and the level of their interest.
The presence or absence of an emotional connection between speaker/writer and intended
audience - is it hostile, indifferent, cordial, intimate?
The size of the audience being addressed - inter-personal or group communication?
The degree to which the communication is intended to be public, private or intimate.
MODULE 2
Language
The following are definitions of language:
(i) system of communication between humans, through written and vocal symbols
(ii) speech peculiar to an ethnic, national or cultural group
(iii) words, especially employed in any art, branch or knowledge, or profession
(iv) a person’s characteristic mode of speech
(v) by extension, the articulate or inarticulate expression of thought and feeling by living creatures.
Language combines a wide variety of features and is the most precise and complex means of communication that
exists.
Language is one of a range of means of communication. It is not to be regarded as just another form of
communication. It is perhaps the most complex of all. It is flexible, dynamic, systematic, creative and socially
governed. It is to be distinguished from all other forms of communication, both human and non-human, because it
does more than simply communicate.
There is a popular misconception that language is just another form of communication. It is important to note that
language is not like other forms of communication and that in fact it is a peculiarly human phenomenon, though
many of its features are to be found in other forms of communication.
There are two types of languages: denotative and connotative language. Denotative language is language interpreted
literally while connotative language has emotive shades of meaning.
Functions of Language
Language is a marker of evolution for the human species
Language offers human beings the means of expressing themselves verbally.
Language is extensive, meaning that the ability to speak separates us from all other species.
Language stands as being widely creative.
Language has identity, meaning that you begin to identify people based on his or her use of language. It creates
personal identity.
Characteristics of Language
Language has a human characteristic. Only humans have the physical capability to pronounce the wide variety of
sounds that are used in world’s languages. Language must be sound based. However, it is not necessary to write it
to be considered a language. Communication must take place for it to be considered a language.
Note that, in order for a language to become a standard form, it must be written.
Language is symbolic. This means that it uses words as representations or symbols of ideas. Most words have an
arbitrary, but mutually agreed relationship between the symbol and the meaning. Symbolism in language ensures
that ideas are easily shared among speakers of the same language. Dictionaries are actually records of the symbolic
meaning of the words in a language. They ensure that the symbolism remains consistent despite the advent of new
generations and new speakers.
Language is systematic. Languages have structure. Each language has specific grammar rules and follow specific
word order. Unlike other forms of communication, language makes use of a number of different systems operating
at several levels.
1. Sound
Since some sequences of sound are not acceptable. Note that the spelling in some cases is not readily recognized
because it may not suggest a sequence of sounds that speakers of English recognize or use normally. Each language
has its accepted sound patterns that are easily recognizable to its speakers.
2. Grammar
Since some order of words, or parts of words, are not acceptable. The grammar of a language is a set of rules that
govern how the words of the language are put together to make meaning.
3. Semantics
Words have specific meanings and people cannot keep changing the meanings of words because they feel like it,
nor can they combine words which produce ridiculous combinations such as ‘green cow’. Such a form is only
possible as a figure of speech.
Language is evolutionary. One manifestation of language change is the invention of new words. As humans invent
or discover new things and new ideas enter the world, new symbols have to be created to represent them.
Changes in meaning are another way in which language evolves. Generally, these changes occur when a significant
group of persons persistenly uses a word to mean something other than its traditionally accepted definition.
Language has a maturational characteristic. As and individual grows older, their ability to produce and comprehend
language increases.
Language is non-instinctive. It needs to be learnt through communicative interaction with others. While humans are
born with the ability to acquire language, they can only do so through imitation.
Language is dynamic. Language is constantly changing. It has great flexibility and can vary according to certain
social or geographical factors.
A language (individual) is a set of elements and a system for combining them into patterned sentences that can be
used to accomplish specific tasks in specific contexts. Examples: to greet friends, argue, ask the time.
A language is any distinct system of verbal expression, distinguished from other such system by its peculiarities of
structure and vocabulary – i.e. every language is distinct from other languages because of these features.
A language is one recognizable, identifiable or accepted entity used by one or more communities of speakers.
A language family is a group of languages that have all developed from a single ancestral language.
Purposes of language
1. Expressive purposes
Language can be used simply to express one’s feelings, ideas or attitudes, without necessarily taking a reader or
listened intro consideration. When language is used in this way, the speaker is not trying to effect change in an
audience or elicit response. He/she is merely giving vent to emotion or needs. Diaries and journals are obvious
examples of language used for expressive purposes.
2. Informative purposes
Language is employed with the intention of conveying information to others. This purpose is used to convey ideas,
truth statements, instructions, abstract and complex propositions and to aid understanding. Therefore, a news
broadcast, a bulletin board or a textbook are all examples of language being used for this purpose.
3. Cognitive purposes
When language is used cognitively, it is with the intention of affecting the audience in some way in order to evoke
some type of response. Therefore, when one uses language to persuade, entertain, stir to anger or arouse sympathy,
one is using language for cognitive purposes. Jokes, political speeches and horror stories are different examples of
ways in which language can be used cognitively.
4. Poetic purposes
Language used in literary, stylistic or imaginative ways is poetic. The user focuses on the structure and pattern of
the language and places emphasis on the manner in which language is manipulated.
5. Phatic purposes
Language is used simply to establish or maintain contact among people. This use of language is most obvious in
spoken communication. Language used for phatic purposes does not necessarily seek to generate a meaningful
response. Although the phatic purpose of language does not often apply to written communication, in the case of
letter writing, the greeting and closure are phatic. Informal or friendly letters and email may also use expressions.
6. Metalinguistic purposes
This is the use of the language to comment on, refer to or discuss language itself. A critique of a speech is
metalinguistic.
7. Social purpose
Sometimes when language is used, it has more to do with certain cultural or ceremonial conventions that relate to
social interaction in a particular community.
8. Identifying purpose
This is seen in the use of slogans, chants, anthems, nicknames and other terms that allow for expression of personal
or group identity.
9. Ritual purpose
This language offers the possibility of exercising control over certain aspects of life.
Variation
Although any speaker of a language could communicate with any other speaker of the same language, these people
often do not all speak the language in the same way. The way in which language is used often varies from group to
group, from one situation to another, and from individual to individual. The language used may also vary in relation
to the intent of the speaker or the purpose of the communication or even the nature of the relationship between the
speaker and the audience.
Variation is the changes in language in response to various influences. For example: social, geographic, individual
and group factors.
Some factors influencing language variation are social pressures, development in technology, geographical location,
political and economic status.
How do varieties develop?
They develop where there is limited communication between different parts of a community that share one
language. Geographical boundaries, isolation, political conflict or military hostilities may lead to sustained loss of
contact between groups so that changes in the language are not shared by all speech communities.
Dialect
Dialect is a variety of a language spoken by an identifiable subgroup of people, i.e. dialects can be characteristic of
geographic, regional, ethnic, socio-economic or gender groups; any version of a language spoke by a particular
geographic or social sub-group, e.g. British Standard English, Cockney English, Yorkshire English, Trinidad
Standard English, American English, Dominican Standard English.
Sometimes, as a language evolves, one particular dialect becomes dominant. This is usually due to the fact that it is
the dialect spoken by the people with the economic power or greatest social influence in that society. In this case,
their dialect becomes accepted as the standard variety of that language. Therefore, the standard variety becomes
the one used for writing and other formal purposes and is often given prestige over the other varieties.
No one variety of a language is superior to another and that every language is really a collection of dialects.
A group of people who speak the same dialect is known as a speech community.
Although two person may speak the same dialect, their accents may be different. An accent is simply a variation in
pronunciation. Accents can be regional or social.
Dialects differ from one another by semantics (word choice), syntax (sentence structure), grammar and morphology
(word forms).
No matter what dialect is spoken by a speech community, each user is capable of manipulating that dialect in
relation to the context of communication. Depending on whom you are speaking or writing to, you can vary the way
you express yourself. This type of language variation is called code switching. This is the ability to manipulate
between the standard and non-standard dialect based on the social setting.
Dialectal Variation refers to a person’s conscious choice of dialect which can be the variation of Creole or
Standard English. Choice of dialect is chosen based on the speaker’s status, educational background, emotional state
and attitude towards the dialect.
The three different types of dialects are basilect, mesolect and acrolect.
Basilect is a basic form of the dialect spoken by the group at the bottom of the social ladder.
Mesolect is a midway point between basilect and acrolect.
Acrolect is a dialect that is closest to the standard European language spoken by the groups in close contact with
most powerful sector of the society.
Jamaican Language Continuum
This is the range of languages and language dialects spoken in Jamaica. This range is represented as a continuum
because:
1. Not every point on the continuum is a separate language
2. Jamaicans will switch from one to the other continuously in conversations and in different situations
3. according to some persons, the Creole is continuously changing and becoming more like English.
Basilect. is the form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms. The first point on the
continuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated persons.
Mesolect is a form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect. The point on the continuum next
to the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated persons.
Acrolect is the last point on the continuum. An example is Jamaican Standard English. It is most often spoken in
formal situations.
Register
A register is the form of a language in which one may choose to speak, where “form” refers to ranges in formality
and informality.
Standard English is a formal register, Jamaican Creole is a more informal register.
Words used to refer to informal register include: colloquial, vernacular.
A register is also a language variety associated with a particular situation of use; the range of language choice
available for use in different situations.
One may choose to use an entirely different variety or dialect of a language from one situation to the next. The
variety of language that you use at any given time is your register.
Choice of register also generally reflects the speaker’s/writer’s relationship with the audience.
The ability to change your register is an important life skill.
There are five types of registers:
1. Frozen Registers
Used in print and public media, sermons, pledges, prayers. The language of the register is fixed and unchanged. No
direct response from a reader or listener is expected.
3. Consultative Registers
Used in situations where the listener is expected to give some feedback. Example: a doctor visit, interview,
counseling, client-lawyer. This register indicates that the speakers are not intimately related but that there is
sustained communication between them. Standard and non-standard forms of language may be used as the speakers
may switch codes to relate more easily to each other.
4. Casual or Informal
Used when talking with friends and acquaintances in a non-formal setting. This register is usually recognized by the
slangs used. The topic of discussion may be general and there is a conversational tone reflected in the use of
colloquialisms (a word or phrase that is not formal or literary and is used in ordinary or familiar conversation.) and
slang. There may be attempts to code-switch to adopt the dialect of the person.
5. Intimate Registers
It is the language of persons who are very close. This is usually marked by specialized words or expressions only
understood by the parties involved in the intimate relationship. Communication is aided by non-verbal elements and
reference may be made to unspecified topics and situations. There is evidence of intimacy in the use of nicknames
and terms of endearments as well as expression of personal emotions. Incomplete sentences, interruptions,
shortened responses and unexplained references are the norm.
Standard
This is the dialect used for education and other formal or official purposes.
How does a dialect become a standard?
It is spoken by the dominant group in the society thus it commands the most prestige and becomes the target to
which people aspire. Education, publishing and an established body of literature enhance the status of the
prestigious dialect and it emerges as the standard and is often supported by economic, political and social factors.
Creole
The term Creole originally meant a person of European parents who had been born and raised in a colonial territory.
Later, it was used to refer to anyone native to these countries and then it became the name of the language spoken
by these people.
A Creole is a language that is as a result of contact between Africans speaking different native languages and
Europeans speaking different varieties of European languages. Or it is the set of varieties which have their
beginnings in situation of contact where groups of people who do not share a common language are forced to
communicate with each other.
A Creole is a language that comes into being through contact between two or more languages.
The substrate of Creole is the grammar of the African languages while the superstrate of Creole is the vocabulary of
European languages.
It is the set of varieties which have their beginnings in situations of contact where groups of people who do not
share a common language are forced to communicate with each other.
When people who speak different languages find themselves in a situation where they have to communicate with
each other for purposes of trade, business or to survive, these people usually devise a form of language
communication called a pidgin. A pidgin is a system of communication that has grown up among people who do
not share a common language but need to trade or conduct business.
Pidgins are not ordinary languages since they are normally used only for communication between persons from
different speech communities. However, in some case, a pidgin begins to be used as the first language of people in
the same community.
The pidgin may then become a native language; it acquires the more complex grammar of a full language and is
referred to as a Creole.
Therefore, all Creole languages start as pidgins. Sometimes Creole languages are referred to as patois or patwa.
However, the word patois can be used as synonym for any non-standard variety or local dialect, including pidgins.
Grammar
Nouns, verbs and pronouns are not altered in form to indicate plurals, tense, person or case.
Creole uses the plural marker ‘dem’ without changing the noun in any way.
Singular Plural
Standard English Girl Girls
Creole Gal/ gyal Dem gyal/ de gyal dem
Creole does not utilise an auxiliary verb to indicate change in person. However, the Creole differentiates between
the second person singular and plural by inserting ‘all’ in the latter case.
Standard English Creole
st
1 person singular I am eating I eatin
2nd person singular You are eating You eatin
3rd person singular He/She/It is eating He/She/It eatin
1st person plural We are eating We eatin
2nd person plural You are eating You all/All you eatin
3rd person plural They are eating Dey/Dem eatin
The use of double negatives is another characteristic that Creole shares with Standard French (and Spanish) but not
with Standard English
Creole does not reverse word order to indicate the interrogative form of a sentence
CHARACTERISTICS OF GRAMMAR
Preverbal markers, for example, ben/bin/wen/did (pastAuxiliaries and suffixes, for example, did/-ed (past),
marker), go (future marker), a (marker of continuous and
will/shall (future), -ing (continuous), simple present tense
habitual), does (marker of habitual) forms (cook, cooks)
Subject-adjective structures, for example, mi sick, di mango
Subject-copula-adjective structures, for example, I am sick,
sweet the mango is sweet
Phonology
Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages
In the case of English-based Creole, the most distinctive differences in sound combinations are observed in sounds
that occur in Standard English but not in the Creole.
A very obvious one is the ‘th’ sound, which does not exist in Creole. It is replaced by either the ‘d’, ‘t’ or ‘f’ sound,
depending on its postion in the word and the presence or absence of other non-English influences on the Creole.
Creole also dispenses with the final consonant in the words that end in ‘ing’ or with ’d’.
In some cases, an English sound combination is not dropped but reversed, for example: ask becomes aks and film
become flim.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHONOLOGY
* It should be noted that some of the English Creole characteristics are at times carried over into Caribbean
Standard English.
Vocabulary
The vocabulary (lexicon: list of all the words in a language) of Caribbean Creole English is derived primarily from
Standard English. However, a number of words used in Creole speech are related to cultural influences from other
European, Amerindian, African, East Indian and Chinese languages.
Like any other language, the vocabulary of Creole is dynamic and reflects changes that arise out of social
movements such as Rastafarianism or the incorporation of prevalent slang.
CHARACTERISTICS OF VOCABULARY
Language in Society
For example: French and English are spoken in Canada today because it was the scene of several conflicts between
France and English in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Colonisation is the greatest factor responsible for the spread of certain languages from more homogeneous
populations to distant and diverse geographical locations
2. Social Factors
The social dominance of a group ensures that its dialect becomes the one that assumes the place of important in the
society and is considered to be the standard language of that society. Language is also dynamic and never static
unless there are no more speakers of that language. Much of the dynamism of a language is a result of constant
social change and the emergence of new cultural phenomena as a result. However, the elements of social and
economic class always affect attitudes to and choice of language.
For example: individuals seeking to be recognized as part of a certain social group may deliberately cultivate the
language or dialect of that group although they do not normally speak that dialect.
Sometimes a person may switch from one variety of language to another throughout the day as he/she interacts in
different social settings.
3. Cultural Factors
Global movement of people (globalization) has been a major influence on language. Many migrants and refugees
are eager to assimilate quickly as much of the new culture as they can, to facilitate their ability to fit in with their
society. As generations are born into the new culture, much of their original language is lost.
For example: In the case of Hispanic populations in the US, a form of language has evolved that features aspects of
both Spanish and English. The name ‘Spanglish’ has been coined for this phenomenon, but linguists would refer to
it as ‘code mixing’.
While acculturation, or assimilating, of the new culture affects the language of immigrants, sometimes the language
of the host country also undergoes changes as a results of the new cultural influences.
For example: Several Spanish words have become part of everyday English language (taco, piñata)
The coexistence of different languages from different cultures in a society results in linguistic changes in all the
languages. However, the nature of the cultural change determines which language is more widely influential and
what types of change takes place.
For example: In the case of the USA, the fact that some states may well have more Spanish than English native
speakers will be largely instrumental in how language develops there.
4. Political Factors
The official language of a country is normally indicated in the national constitution or other official sources.
Recognition given to other languages is also a political or government decision. Most countries maintain the
assigned status of their languages regardless of political changes. However, in some countries, language is
significantly influenced by political events.
Language policies typically define a government’s plan regarding the approach to the treatment of language in the
specific country. The policy may either promote or discourage the use of a particular language or languages and in
some cases it is designed to protect an ethnic language that may be in danger of disappearing.
Political influences on language can determine the extent to which minority languages or dialects are accepted,
recognized or utilized in a society.
For example: In Quebec, Canada, the provincial government stipulated that only French should be used on street
signs and in places where bilingual signage was allowed, the English letting had to be significantly smaller and
within stipulated dimensions.
Turmoil and violence can arise out of political disputes over language as seen in Sri Lanka and Turkey.
Roles of Languages
There are several roles of languages such as social, political, ethical and psychological.
Choice of language
While attitudes to local dialects have been slowly changing, many people still associate the use of Creole with
negative images and believe that its use should be relegated to specific circumstances and occasions. However, the
fact that non-standard language varieties are the most widely spoken in the Caribbean makes them the choice of
persons trying to get information to large sections of society.
A language variety is usually chosen because of its perceived social function.
Such factors which influence the choice of language and communicative behaviours in interactive situations are:
1. Audience
2. Message
3. Purpose
4. Occasion
5. Gender
6. Age
*Prestige: The level of respect accorded to a language or dialect as compared to that of other languages or dialects
in a speech community. The degree of esteem and social value attached by members of a speech community to
certain languages, dialects, or features of a language variety.
Overt prestige: Using the standard language as well as having a prestigious accent.
Covert prestige:e One that is generally perceived by the dominant culture group as being inferior but which
compels its speakers to use it to show membership in an exclusive community. It allows people to identify with
others based on age, gender, regional or cultural forms.
THIS MODULE seeks to teach you how to use the structures of Caribbean Standard English correctly and
appropriately, as well as with a degree of elegance. You will also be required to produce different types of
communication relevant and appropriate to your social, academic, professional and vocational needs.
Reading, writing, speaking and listening are the four ways in which we use communication and you should be able
to express your self in speaking and writing with precision, accuracy, clarity and fluency. Essentially, for
communication to take place, both writing and reading skills must be employed. Similarly, speech communication
does not end with speaking. For communication to effectively take place, the receiver/audience must employ
listening skills.
It is important, then, for you to be able to not only write and speak effectively, but also to read and listen effectively.
Without effective communication skills, we are at a disadvantage in situations that involve other people.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication has been defined as the process of people interacting through the use of messages [Zeuschner:
1997]. Also it has been referred to as the process of human beings responding to the symbolic behaviour of other
persons.
Ø A close observation of them reveals that communication is a process [not an event], it involves people, it involves
interaction among people and it involves the use of messages.
Ø As a process, communication is dynamic, continuous, irreversible and contextual. It is inevitable, that is, it is sure
to happen and cannot be altered or revoked.
Ø All communicative events involve content and relationship. Content refers to the substance of the message while
relationship tells of the receiver and sender and how they perceive their interaction.
Ø Finally, communication happens in a setting or context and it is from such that much meaning is derived. Context
may be defined as a culture, location or a relationship.
Within the process of communication there are five primary elements, because communication is a process, there
are certain elements of this process that are present in every communication act. These elements must be involved in
order for communication to take place:
*Senders/Sources/Encoders
* Receivers/ Decoders
* Messages
* Channels and Mediums
* Feedback
2. Message
This is the content of the communication process. Before the communication process begins, there must be an idea
or body of knowledge that needs to be communicated
3. A. Medium
This is the method that someone chooses to convey her message. Will you use e-mail? Speech? Gestures? A poster?
B. Channel
Channel is closely associated with medium. This is the means by which your message is conveyed. For example, an
e-mail is a medium, whereas the internet is a channel; speech is a medium, but radios and loudspeakers are
channels; gestures are a medium, your hands act as their channel; finally, a poster may be your medium, but the
poster-board and ink are your channels.
4. Receiver (also called decoder)
Eventually your message arrives at the receiver. This is the person responsible for interpreting your message and
taking some sort of meaning form it. The receiver is the main goal of any communication act.
5. Feedback
After the receiver interprets the sender’s message; she then provides feedback to the sender. This is the receiver’s
response to the message and is essential in that it alerts the sender to whether or not the message has been
accurately/effectively received and interpreted.
Communication is described as a process because there are certain stages that it must follow in order for effective
communication to take place. If any of the steps are neglected communication will not take place. The process is
both cyclical (going in a circle/cycle) and transactional (has to be performed).
The event begins with the conceptualization/thinking of the message and this is the sender's role as the originator
of the message. In addition, after the sender has thought of the message, it is the sender's task to encode the
contents of the message (putting it in a form that the receiver can understand). After which the sender selects the
medium (what form it will take) and channel (what device will be used) through which the message will be sent so
that the receiver will be able to receive it. The receiver's role is chiefly to receive the message and to decode it
which shows that the message was received. After which the receiver will try to interpret/understand the message
sent to him/her. The receiver will then provide afeedback/answer to the sender. Without this feedback
communication has not taken place.
It is very important for you to understand that both the sender and the receiver conceptualize, encode, select
medium and channel, decode, interpret and provide feedback in all communicative events.
Barriers: Often during communicative events there is some sort of interference or blockage to interaction. These are
commonly referred to as barriers to communication and may be internal or external in nature.
External barriers include: noise from a lawn mower, gestures, attire, posture, chatting, spilled beverage on a page
and choice of words.
Facilitator: These are factors that may influence the effective conveyance of messages positively or negatively.
Anything that helps to ensure an effective transfer of messages is called a facilitator to communication. Anything
that hinders this effectiveness is a barrier to communication
Some common facilitators to communication are:
i. choosing a familiar language
ii. Using an accessible channel
iii. Ensuring that the medium is appropriate to the message
iv. Using audio/visual aids to enhance the encoding of the message
FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
In general, human beings communicate using two main forms: verbal communication and non-verbal
communication. There are two main ways in which human beings communicate verbally, that is, through speech
and writing.
Verbal communication, simply put, is any form of communication that uses words in order to convey meaning or
transmit messages. Essentially, verbal communication is either speech or writing. There are four main skills that
human beings put into practice when engaging in verbal communication: reading, writing, speaking and listening.
Any verbal communication involves at least two of these skills.
Language is the one thing that all four verbal communication skills have in common; it is a specifically human form
of communication that uses symbols to represent ideas and concepts.
Non-Verbal Communication is the form of communication that does not involve the use of speech or writing. In
effect, non-verbal communication is the use of voice, space, objects, movement, time and the five senses to convey
meanings that without using words. Because the types of non-verbal communication focus on physical actions and
manipulations to convey meaning, they are often referred to as communicative behaviours.
Vocalics: refers to the use of voice in communicating messages. This does not include actual words, but
modulations in tone of voice, rate of speech, pitch and non-verbal utterances. Because vocalics is often used in
conjunction with speech communication (i.e. – verbal), it is often referred to as paralanguage.
Proxemics: is the use of space to communicate. Standing close to someone may indicate that you like her; likewise,
changing seat during an exam may indicate that you suspect your neighbour of cheating or some sort of discomfort.
Artifacts: are objects that convey some sort of message about you. These include clothes, jewellery, home
decorations, book bags etc.
Movement: incorporates several movements of the body – eye contact, facial expressions, posture and gestures all
communicate information. Failing to meet eye contact when speaking to a parent may indicate nervousness, shame
or the possibility of untruthfulness; sitting straight in a chair could indicate attentiveness.
Chronemics: refers to the use of time. By being early for class you show respect for the teacher and fellow
classmates; similarly, a teacher who arrives consistently late for class is exhibiting a lack of respect for her students
and profession.
The five senses: (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell) are also used in non-verbal communication. For example, a
normally good cook who over-salts a dish for her cheating spouse may be using taste to indicate her unhappiness or
displeasure.
There are also six functions of non-verbal communication. That is, we use non-verbal communication for six
main reasons.
i. Substitute: is where we use non-verbal communication instead of, or to replace verbal communication. Waving
goodbye instead of saying it out loud is one example of this.
ii. Reinforce: We also use non-verbal communication to reinforce or complement our verbal communication.
Pounding your hand onto a table when arguing may reinforce whatever point you’re making.
iii. Regulate: is used mostly in conversation to control the flow of messages. Raising your hand to answer or ask a
question in class helps to regulate the communication going on in the room.
iv. Contradict: Sometimes we use non-verbal communication to contradict our verbal communication. The most
common example of this is using vocalic sarcasm – when you say one thing, but your tone of voice says the
opposite.
v. Manage impressions: We often manage impressions through the use of non-verbal communication. The way
we dress, for example, often coincides with the impression we want others to have of us.
vi. Establish relationships: Finally, we use non-verbal communication to establish relationships. The wearing of a
wedding band is a non-verbal indication that the person is married.
CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication takes place in a variety of settings or contexts. The context is the setting/environment, place where
communication takes place. The following are various contexts where communication may take place.
Intra-personal: Communicating within one’s self. E.g. Thinking, daydreaming, solving problems, imagining. Also
includes all physical feedback mechanisms, such as sensations of hunger, pain, pleasure.
Interpersonal: The interaction of two or more people. The one-on-one setting, direct contact of one person with
another person. E.g. interviews, conversations, intimate communication.
Academic: This communication takes place in an educational setting where persons communicate mainly to
disseminate educational information. E.g. Lecturer speaking to a class, essays, research paper, internal assessment.
Small-group: Interaction between 4-6 people. It is one of the most important communication settings and exists
everywhere. It requires the following conditions: Leadership, Equal sharing of ideas, Peer pressure, Roles & norms,
Focus on a common goal.
Public communication: When one person talks to several others and is the dominant focus of the communication.
E.g. speaker and an audience – speech, debate, general devotion. Defining characteristics: One person is identified
as the primary sender of messages and others function primarily as receivers of those messages.
Mass communication: This communication begins to function when a message needs help to get from its source to
its destination. Some form of medium is needed to connect the sender to receiver. Media may be print
(newspaper/magazine), electrical (radio, television, video), or electronic (computer modem)
Inter-cultural communication: Sometimes called “cross-cultural communication” This context describes what
happens when the sender of a message is from a different cultural background than the intended receiver. E.g. a
person can communicate with someone who does not share the same culture; communicating across social sub-
groups.
Organizational communication: Focuses on inter-personal, small-group, public and mass communication as they
interact in a complex, multi-group setting. E.g. business, government, and educational institutions.
There are two main ways in which human beings communicate verbally, that is, through speaking and writing.
SPEAKING: is the vocalized form of human communication through the use of uttered sounds for auditory
communication. It is based upon the syntactic combination of lexicons and names that are drawn from very large
vocabularies.
WRITING: is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols such
as letters that express some meaning.
TYPES: Expository speeches, Conversations, Face –to face, Interview, Meeting, Oral Briefing, Public address,
Oral Presentation, Telephone Call, Conference, Training Session etc.
Advantages
Direct medium of communication
advantages of physical proximity and usually, both sight and sound of sender and receiver; allows instant
interchange of opinion, views, attitudes – instantaneous feedback
Disadvantages
More difficult to hold ground in face of opposition
more difficult to control when a number of people take part
lack of time to think things out – quality of decision making may be inferior
TYPES: Essay, Journal, Diaries, Letter, Memorandum, Report, Abstract, minutes, Article, Press Release
Advantages:
Disadvantages
Can take time to produce
can be expensive
Does not allow for exchange of opinion, views or attitudes except over a period of time.