SUMMARY of DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Chapter 2. Basic Principles of Pipe Flow

Pipe flow is the most commonly used mode of carrying fluids for small to moderately
large discharges. In a pipe flow, fluid fills the entire cross section, and no free surface is
formed. The pipe flow is analyzed by using the continuity equation and the equation
ofmotion. The continuity equation for steady flow in a circular pipe of diameter D is
𝜋
Q = 4 𝐷2 𝑉
where V = average velocity of flow, and Q = volumetric rate of flow, called discharge. The
equation of motion for steady flow is
𝑉2
1 𝑉2
2
z1 + h1 + 2𝑔 = z2 + h2 + 2𝑔 + hL,
hL = hf + hm
where z1 and z2 = elevations of the centerline of the pipe (from arbitrary datum), h1 and h2 =
pressure heads, V1 and V2 = average velocities at sections 1 and 2, respectively (Fig. 2.1), g =
gravitational acceleration, and hL = head loss between sections 1 and 2. The head loss hL is
composed of two parts: hf = head loss on account of surface resistance (also called friction
loss), and hm = head loss due to form resistance, which is the head loss on account of change
in shape of the pipeline (also called minor loss). The minor loss hm is zero in Fig. 2.1, and
Section 2.2 covers form (minor) losses in detail. The term z þ h is called the piezometric
head; and the line connecting the piezometric heads along the pipeline is called the hydraulic
gradient line.

𝑉12 − 𝑉22
The pressure head at section 2 can be written as h2 = h1 + z1 - z2 + - hL
2𝑔
For a pipeline of constant cross section, is reduced to h2 = h1 + z1 - z2 - hL. Thus, h2 can be
obtained if hL is known.
2.1. SURFACE RESISTANCE
The head loss on account of surface resistance is given by the Darcy–Weisbach equation

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
hf = 2𝑔𝐷

The coefficient of surface resistance also depends on the Reynolds number R of the flow,
defined as
 𝑉𝐷
R= 𝑣
where v = kinematic viscosity of fluid that can be obtained using the equation given by
Swamee (2004)
−1
-6 𝑇 1.165
v = 1.792 x 10 [1 + (25) ]
where T is the water temperature in 8C. Eliminating V, the following equation is obtained:
4𝑄
R = 𝜋𝑣𝐷
For turbulent flow (R≤4000), Colebrook (1938) found the following implicit equation for f :
𝜀 2.51 −2
f = 1.325 [ln (3.7𝐷 + 𝑅√𝑓)]
For laminar flow (R≤2000), f depends on R only and is given by the Hagen–Poiseuille
equation
64
f= 𝑹
For R lying in the range between 2000 and 4000 (called transition range), no information is
available about estimating f. Swamee (1993) gave the following equation for f valid in the
laminar flow, turbulent flow, and the transition in between them:
−16 0.125
64 8 𝜀 5.74 2500 6
f = {( 𝑹 ) + 9.5 [𝑙𝑛 (3.7 𝐷 + 𝑹𝟎.𝟗 ) − ( ) ] }
𝑹
𝜀 5.74 −2
For turbulent flow, simplifies to f = 1.325 [𝑙𝑛 (3.7𝐷 + 𝑹0.9 )]
𝜀 𝑣𝐷 −2
Combing with can be rewritten as: f = 1.325 {𝑙𝑛 [3.7𝐷 + 4.618 ( 𝑸 )]}

2.2. FORM RESISTANCE

The form-resistance losses are due to bends, elbows, valves, enlargers, reducers, and so forth.
A form loss develops at a pipe junction where many pipelines meet. Similarly, form loss is
also created at the junction of pipeline and service connection. All these losses, when added
together, may form a sizable part of overall head loss. “Minor loss” for form loss is a
misnomer when applied to a pipe network. In a water supply network, form losses play a
significant role. However, form losses are unimportant in water transmission lines like
gravity mains or pumping mains that are long pipelines having no off-takes. Form loss is
expressed in the following form:
𝑉2
hm = kf 2𝑔
8𝑄 2
hm = kf 𝜋2 𝑔𝐷4 where kf = form-loss coefficient.
2.2.1. Pipe Bend

𝐷 3.5
kf = [0.0733 + 0.923 (𝑅 ) ] 𝛼 0.5

2.2.2. Elbows
Elbows are used for providing sharp turns in pipelines. The loss coefficient for an elbow is
given by
kf = 0.042α2.17 where α = elbow angle in radians.
2.2.3. Valves

2.2.3.1. Sluice Valve.

where e is the spindle depth obstructing flow in pipe.
𝑒 2
kf = 0.15 + 1.91 (𝐷 − 𝑒)
2.2.3.2. Rotary Valve 2.3
𝛼
kf = 133 (𝜋 − 2𝛼) where α = valve closure angle in radians.
Partly or fully closed valves are not considered at the design
stage, as these situations develop during the operation and
maintenance of the water supply systems.

2.2.4. Transitions
Transition is a gradual expansion (called enlarger) or gradual contraction (called reducer). In
the case of transition, the head loss is given by
(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )2
hm = kf 2𝑔
2
8(𝐷22 −𝐷12 ) 𝑄 2
hm = kf 𝜋 2 𝑔𝐷14 𝐷24
2.2.4.1. Gradual Contraction.
The loss coefficient can be obtained using the following equation:
1
kf = 0.315αe ⁄3
The contraction angle αe (in radians) is given by
𝐷 −𝐷
αe = 2tan−1 ( 12𝐿 2), where L = transition length.
2.2.4.2. Gradual Expansion.

where r = expansion ratio D2/D1, and αe =

expansion angle (in radians) given by

2.2.4.3. Optimal Expansions Transition.

where x = distance from the transition inlet.

2.2.4.4. Abrupt Expansion.

kf = 1
2.2.4.5. Abrupt Contraction.

2.2.5. Pipe Junction

where Vmax = maximum velocity in a pipe branch meeting at the

junction. In the absence of any information, kf may be assumed as 0.5.

2.2.6. Pipe Entrance

where R = radius of entrance transition. It should be noticed that for a

sharp entrance, kf = 0.5.
2.2.7. Pipe Outlet

where d ¼ outlet diameter. Putting D/d =1,for a pipe outlet, kf = 1.

2.2.8. Overall Form Loss

2.2.9. Pipe Flow Under Siphon Action

2.3. PIPE FLOW PROBLEMS

In pipe flow, there are three types of problems pertaining to determination of (a) the nodal
head; (b) the discharge through a pipe link; and (c) the pipe diameter.

2.3.1. Nodal Head Problem

2.3.2. Discharge Problem

2.3.3. Diameter Problem

Equation (2.22c) yields D within 2.75%. However, close to transition range, the error is
around 4%.

2.4. EQUIVALENT PIPE

In the water supply networks, the pipe link between two nodes may consist of a single
uniform pipe size (diameter) or a combination of pipes in series or in parallel.

The total head loss across node A and node B will be the sum of the head losses in the three
individual pipes as
hL = hL1+ hL2+ hL3
Similarly Fig. 2.17c shows that the total discharge Q flows between parallel pipes of length L
and diameters D1 and D2 as
Q = Q1+Q2
As the pressure head at node A and node B will be constant, hence the head loss between
both the pipes will be the same.
2.4.1. Pipes in Series

Using the Darcy–Weisbach equation with constant friction factor f, and neglecting minor
losses, the head loss in N pipes in series can be calculated as:

Denoting equivalent pipe diameter as De, the head loss can be rewritten as:

Equating these two equations of head loss, one gets

2.4.2. Pipes in Parallel

Using the Darcy–Weisbach equation and neglecting minor losses, the discharge Qi in pipe i
can be calculated as

Thus for N pipes in parallel,

The discharge Q flowing in the equivalent pipe is

2.5. RESISTANCE EQUATION FOR SLURRY FLOW

where s = ratio of mass densities of particle and fluid, Cv = volumetric concentration, CD =

drag coefficient of particle, and f = friction factor of sediment fluid

where Rs = sediment particle Reynolds number given by

2.6. RESISTANCE EQUATION FOR CAPSULE TRANSPORT
 SUMMARY of DRINKING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Chapter 3. Pipe Network Analysis

The network is analyzed for the worst combination of discharge withdrawals that may result
in low-pressure heads in some areas. The network analysis is also carried out to find
deficiencies of a network for remedial measures. It is also required to identify pipe links that
would be closed in an emergency to meet firefighting demand in some localities due to
limited capacity of the network. The effect of closure of pipelines on account of repair work
is also studied by analyzing a network.

3.1. WATER DEMAND PATTERN

Generally, there are many taps in a house, thus the withdrawal rate varies in an arbitrary
manner. The maximum withdrawal rates occur in morning and evening hours. The maximum
discharge (withdrawal rate) in a pipe is a function of the number of houses (persons) served
by the service connections. In the analysis and design of a pipe network, this maximum
withdrawal rate is considered.

3.2. HEAD LOSS IN A PIPE LINK

3.2.1. Head Loss in a Lumped Equivalen

where Q = discharge entering the link. Can be used for calculation

of f; where Reynolds number R is to be taken as

3.2.2. Head Loss in a Distributed Equivalent

3.3. ANALYSIS OF WATER TRANSMISSION LINES
Water transmission lines are long pipelines having no withdrawals. If water is carried by
gravity, it is called a gravity main

3.4. ANALYSIS OF DISTRIBUTION MAINS

and the nodal head hj is given by

3.5. PIPE NETWORK GEOMETRY
The water distribution networks have mainly the following three types of configurations:
- Branched or tree-like configuration
- Looped configuration
- Branched and looped configuration
3.6. ANALYSIS OF BRANCHED NETWORKS
A branched network, or a tree network, is a distribution system having no loops. Such a
network is commonly used for rural water supply. The simplest branched network is a radial
network consisting of several distribution mains emerging out from a common input point.

3.7. ANALYSIS OF LOOPED NETWORKS

A pipe network in which there are one or more closed loops is called a looped network.

This feature is absent in a branched network. Analysis of a looped network consists of the
determination of pipe discharges and the nodal heads. The following laws, given by
Kirchhoff, generate the governing equations:
- The algebraic sum of inflow and outflow discharges at a node is zero; and
- The algebraic sum of the head loss around a loop is zero.
3.7.1. Hardy Cross Method
The analysis of looped network is carried out by using additional equations found from the
fact that while traversing along a loop, as one reaches at the starting node, the net head loss is
zero. The analysis of looped network is involved, as the loop equations are nonlinear in
discharge.The method is based on the following basic equations of continuity of flow and
head loss that should be satisfied:
1. The sum of inflow and outflow at a node should be equal:

2. The algebraic sum of the head loss in a loop must be equal to zero:

where i = pipe link number to be summed up in the loop k.

Knowing ∆Qk, the corrections are applied as

The overall procedure for the looped network analysis can be summarized in the following
steps:
1. Number all the nodes and pipe links. Also number the loops. For clarity, pipe numbers are
circled and the loop numbers are put in square brackets.
2. Adopt a sign convention that a pipe discharge is positive if it flows from a lower node
number to a higher node number, otherwise negative.
3. Apply nodal continuity equation at all the nodes to obtain pipe discharges. Starting from
nodes having two pipes with unknown discharges, assume an arbitrary discharge (say 0.1
m3/s) in one of the pipes and apply continuity equation (3.13) to obtain discharge in the other
pipe. Repeat the procedure until all the pipe flows are known. If there exist more than two
pipes having unknown discharges, assume arbitrary discharges in all the pipes except one and
apply continuity equation to get discharge in the other pipe. The total number of pipes having
arbitrary discharges should be equal to the total number of primary loops in the network.
4. Assume friction factors fi = 0.02 in all pipe links and compute corresponding Ki using Eq.
(3.15). However, fi can be calculated iteratively using Eq. (2.6a). 5. Assume loop pipe flow
sign convention to apply loop discharge corrections; generally, clockwise flows positive and
counterclockwise flows negative are considered.
6. Calculate ∆Qk for the existing pipe flows and apply pipe corrections algebraically.
7. Apply the similar procedure in all the loops of a pipe network. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until
the discharge corrections in all the loops are relatively very small.

3.7.2. Newton–Raphson Method

Expanding the above equations as Taylor’s series,

Arranging the above set of equations in matrix form,

Solving

Knowing the corrections, the discharges are improved as

The overall procedure for looped network analysis by the Newton–Raphson

method can be summarized in the following steps:
Step 1: Number all the nodes, pipe links, and loops.
Step 2: Write nodal discharge equations as

where Qjn is the discharge in nth pipe at node j, qj is nodal withdrawal, and jn is the total
number of pipes at node j.

Step 3: Write loop head-loss equations as

where Kn is total pipes in kth loop.

3.7.3. Linear Theory Method
The linear theory method is another looped network analysis method presented byWood and
Charles (1972). The entire network is analyzed altogether like the Newton– Raphson method.
The nodal flow continuity equations are obviously linear but the looped head-loss equations
are nonlinear. The process is repeated until the two solutions are close to the allowable limits.
The nodal discharge continuity equations are

The above equation can be linearized as

- Nodal continuity equations for nL - 1 nodes

- Loop head-loss equations for kL loops

The overall procedure for looped network analysis by the linear theory method can be
summarized in the following steps:
Step 1: Number pipes, nodes, and loops.
Step 2: Write nodal discharge equations as
3.8. MULTI-INPUT SOURCE WATER NETWORK ANALYSIS
3.8.1. Pipe Link Data

3.8.2. Input Point Data

3.8.3. Loop Data

3.8.4. Node–Pipe Connectivity

3.8.5. Analysis
3.9. FLOW PATH DESCRIPTION