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ii. Ciliated or nonciliated iii. Elongated, thick --> good protective layer iv.
Nonciliated: portions of the GI tract v. Secretes digestive fluids, absorbs
nutrients vi. Microvilli in intestines for absorption vii. Goblet cells: flask-
shaped glandular cells in between epithelial cells that secr ete mucus onto free
surface h. Pseudostratified columnar i. Appear stratified, but are not ii. Commonly
ciliated iii. Goblet cells secrete mucus; cilia sweep it away iv. Lines the
respiratory system i. Stratified squamous i. Many layers of cells, very thick
ii. Makes up epidermis iii. As older cells are pushed outward, they accumulate
keratin (protein) which produ ces covering of dry, tough protective material that
prevents water and other substances from escaping and microorganisms from entering
iv. Also lines oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, and anal canal j. Stratified
cuboidal i. Multiple layers of cuboidal cells that form lining of a lumen ii. Lines
larger ducts of mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, pancreas, d
eveloping ovaries, and seminiferous tubules k. Stratified columnar i. Several
layers of columnar cells; superficial cells are elongated while basal ce lls are
cuboidal ii. Lines part of the male urethra and ductus deferens and parts of the
pharynx l. Transitional i. Specialized to change in response to increased tension
ii. Lines urinary bladder iii. When the cells contract, there are multiple layers
of cuboidal cells; when the o rgan is distended, the
tissue stretches and there appears to be only a few layers of cells iv. Also
prevent the contents of the bladder from diffusing back into the internal e
nvironment m. Glandular i. Specialized cells to produce and secrete substances into
ducts or into body flui ds ii. Usually found within columnar or cuboidal
epithelium; one or more glandular cell s composes a gland iii. Exocrine gland:
secretes into a duct that opens onto an open surface (such as sk in or GI tract)
iv. Endocrine gland: secretes into tissue fluid or blood v. Merocrine glands:
release fluids by exocytosis vi. Apocrine glands: lose small portions of glandular
cell bodies during secretion vii. Holocrine glands: secrete entire cell along with
fluids n. Types of membranes i. Thin structures that are usually composed of
epithelium and underlying connectiv e tissue a. Mucous membranes: Line tubes that
open to outside of the body (oral and nasal ca vities and tubes of digestive,
respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems) type of epithelium var ies goblet
cells in between epithelial cells secrete mucous b.
Serous membranes: Line cavities that do not open to the outside; reduce friction ;
form inner linings of thorax and abdomen; simple squamous epithelium and loose
connective tissue; secr ete watery serous fluid c. Synovial membranes: Lines joints
(composed entirely of connective tissue) d. Cutaneous membrane: Skin. 2. Connective
tissue a. Most abundant type of tissue by weight b. Provides frameworks, fills
spaces, stores fat, produces blood cells, protects ag ainst infection, and helps
repair tissue damage c. Extracellular matrix: protein fibers and ground substance
d. Fixed cells: remain in their place; wandering cells: reside in different places
in the body e. Fibroblasts: star-shaped cells that produce fibers by secreting
proteins into th e extracellular matrix f. Macrophages: originate as white blood
cells; usually attached to fibers but can detach; function as scavenger cells g.
Mast cells: usually near blood vessels; secrete heparin, which prevents blood cl
otting; also release histamine h. Collagenous fibers: thick threads of collagen;
great tensile strength; component s of body parts that hold structures together,
like ligaments and tendons (tissue containing abundant coll agenous fibers is dense
between cells
connective tissue i.
Elastic fibers: composed of springlike protein elastin commonly in body parts tha t
stretch --> vocal cords, air passages of respiratory system (yellow fibers) j.
Reticular fibers: thin collagenous fibers e spleen k. Areolar i. Delicate, thin
membranes ii. Binds the skin to the underlying organs and fills spaces between
muscles l. Reticular i. Framework of certain internal organs, e.g. liver, spleen,
lymphatic organs m. Cartilage i. Provides support, frameworks, and attachments;
protects underlying tissues; form s structural models for bones ii. Abundant
extracellular matrix iii. Chondrocytes: cartilage cells iv. Lacunae: chambers that
house the chondrocytes v. Perichondrium: connective tissue covering that houses
cartilaginous structures ( contain blood vessels) delicate supporting networks in
e.g. th
vi. Hyaline cartilage
Anatomy and Physiology Page 3
vi. Hyaline cartilage 1) Most common type 2) Very fine collagenous fibers 3) Found
on ends of bones, soft part of the bones 4) Bones begin as hyaline cartilage during
embryonic development vii. Elastic cartilage 1) More flexible 2) Dense network of
elastic fibers 3) External ears and parts of larynx viii. Fibrocartilage 1) Very
tough 2) Shock absorber 3) Intervertebral discs 4)
Cushions bones in the knees and pelvic girdle n. Bone i. Most rigid connective
tissue (mineral salts) ii. Abundant collagenous fibers iii. Internally supports
body structures iv. Red marrow forms blood cells; stores and releases inorganic
chemicals like calci um and phosphorus v. Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix vi.
Haversian (central) canals contain blood vessels; lamellae (layers of bone) are
deposited concentrically around them each contains a blood vessel vii. Once
surrounded by matrix, osteoblasts --> osteocytes viii. Osteon/Haversian system:
osteocytes and layers of extracellular matrix, concentr ically clustered around
central canal ix. Canaliculi: cytoplasmic processes that extend outward and pass
through minute tu bes in extracellular matrix; gap junctions connect them to
membranes of surrounding cells allow materi als to move rapidly between blood
vessels and bone cells o. Blood i. Cells suspended in plasma
ii. RBC: transport gases; WBC: fight infection; platelets clot iii. Form in
hematopoietic tissues in red marrow p. Adipose i. Fat --> forms when adipocytes
store fat in their cytoplasm ii. Beneath skin, spaces between muscles, around
kidneys, behind eyeballs, abdominal membranes, surface of heart, some joints q.
Dense i. Regular: very strong; parts of tendons and ligaments (can withstand a lot
of pul ling); poor blood supply ii. Irregular: randomly organized; sustain tension
exerted from multiple directions; in the dermis 3. Muscle tissue a. Voluntary
(skeletal) i. Attach to bones; controlled by conscious effort ii. Thin and narrow;
alternating light and dark striations iii. Multinucleate cells b. Involuntary
(smooth)
i. Lack striations ii. Single nucleus iii. Lines walls of hollow internal organs
e.g. stomach, intestines, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels iv. Moves food
through digestive tract, constricts blood vessels, empties urinary bl adder c.
Cardiac i. Found only in heart ii. Striated, branched, joined end to end, and
interconnected in complex networks gle nucleus iii. Intercalated disc:
intercellular junctions that are only in cardiac tissue iv. Bulk of heart; pumps
blood through the heart 4. Nerve tissue a. In brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves
b. Basic cells = neurons c. Transmit nerve impulses along cellular processes called
axons to other neurons o r to muscles or glands d. Neroglia: support and bind the
components of nervous tissue, carry on phagocytos is, and help supply growth sin
factors and nutrients to neurons by connecting them to blood vessels V. Cell
organelles 1. Nucleus: large, usually spherical, structure that contains DNA 2.
Chromosomes (chromatin): chromatin consists of loosely coiled fibers in nuclear
fluid fibers consist of DNA molecules wrapped around proteins called histones
(chromatin fibers organized, f orm chromosome) 3. Ribosomes: composed of protein
and RNA link amino acids to form proteins in cytoplasm and bound to rough
endoplasmic reticulum 4. Endoplasmic reticulum: participates in protein and lipid
molecule synthesis rough ER synthesizes protein; smooth ER synthesizes lipids,
absorbs fats from the digestive tract, and breaking down drugs 5. Golgi apparatus:
glycoproteins pass from layer to layer, being modified chemical ly (sugar molecules
added or removed); are secreted by exocytosis 6. Lysosomes: "garbage disposal" of
the cell enzymes dismantle debris. Contain more than 40 different enzymes these
enzymes only work in very acidic conditions, which prevents it from destro ying
other cellular contents 7. Inclusions (vacuoles): other chemicals contained in the
cytosol, are usually the re temporarily (e.g. stored nutrients and pigments) 8.
Mitochondria: "powerhouse" of the cell final step in ATP synthesis 9. Cell/plasma
membrane: extremely thin, somewhat elastic, flexible; many outpouchi ng and
infoldings that increase surface area controls entrance and exit of substances
(selectively permeable); al lows cells to receive and respond to incoming messages,
called signal transduction scattered
a. Composed of phospholipid bilayer
a. Composed of phospholipid bilayer b. Interior is fatty acid portions of
phospholipid molecules (selective permeabilit y) c. Many types of proteins i.
Integral protein: protein that spans the membrane ii. Peripheral protein: protein
that projects from the membrane's outer surface iii. Transmembrane protein: extends
from the outer surface at one end and dips into t he cytoplasm at the other end
(many function as receptors) d. Cellular adhesion molecules: enable cells to touch
or bind (help slow white bloo d cells to guide them to the site of injury, help
establish connections between nerve cells that underlie lea rning and memory) 10.
Cytoplasm: network of organelles suspended in liquid cytosol 11. Cytoskeleton:
supportive framework formed by network of protein rods and tubules VI.
Integumentary system 1. Functions: keeps out pathogens, keeps the body from losing
water, helps regulate temperature, synthesizes nutrients such as vitamin D 2.
Epidermal and Dermal structures a. Epidermis: outer layer, consists of stratified
squamous epithelium
i. Stratum corneum (outermost layer) ii. Stratum granulosum iii. Stratum spinosum
iv. Stratum basale (stratum germinativum, or basal cell layer melanocytes b.
Dermis: inner layer, thicker than epidermis, connective tissue with collagen and
elastic fibers, smooth muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and blood i. Sensory
receptors 1) Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles: stimulated by heavy pressure 2)
Tactile (Meissner's) corpuscles: senses light touch 3) Free nerve endings: respond
to temperature changes or to factors that can damage tissues (extend into the
epidermis) c. Basement membrane: connects epidermis to dermis d. Subcutaneous layer
or hypodermis: areolar and adipose tissue, contains blood ves sels that supply the
skin forms network (rete cutaneum) between dermis and subcutaneous layer 3.
Keratin: a waterproof, fibrous protein that accumulates in skin cells as they mo ve
further from the dermal blood supply (as a result of growth of the epidermis) as
epidermal cells become kerati nized, they become rougher and tightly packed,
forming the stratum corneum these dead cells are eventually shed. deepest layer)
contain
4. Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis): areolar and adipose tissue, supplies the skin
with nutrients from the blood 5. Sebaceous glands: usually associated with hair
follicles, secrete globules of fa tty material that burst the cells (holocrine
glands) release sebum scattered throughout the skin but not on the palm s and soles
6. Sudoriferous glands: wide-spread in the skin; ball-shaped coil in the dermis or
superficial subcutaneous layer a. Eccrine glands: abundant on the back, neck, and
forehead b. Apocrine glands: sweat from these gland develop a scent when
metabolized by bact eria become active at puberty, are activated when emotionally
upset, frightened, or in pain 7. Appendages a. Hair: present on all surfaces except
palms, soles, lips, nipples, and parts of e xternal reproductive organs dead
epithelial cells in a hair follicle. Dark hair has more brownish-black eume lanin;
blonde and red hair has more reddish-yellow pheomelanin b. Nails: nail plate, on
top of nail bed; whitish, thickened, half-moon lunula is m ost active growing
region VII. Skeletal system 1. Functions: provides structure, produce blood cells,
support and protect softer t issues, and provide points of attachment for muscles
2. Bone classification a. produce profuse sweat
Long bones: longitudinal axes, expanded ends (e.g. forearm bones; thigh bones) b.
Short bones: cubelike, short (e.g. wrist bones, ankle bones) c. Flat bones:
platelike, with broad surfaces (e.g. rib bones, some skull bones) d. Irregular
bones: variety of shapes, usually connected to several other bones (e. g.
backbones, facial bones) e. Sesamoid or round bones: usually small and nodular and
are embedded in tendons a djacent to joints (e.g. patella) 3. Osteocytes: bone
cells are arranged in bony chambers called lacunae, which form c oncentric circles
around central (Haversian) canals 4. Osteoblasts: bone-forming cells e, they are
called osteocytes 5. Osteoclasts: cells that break down calcified bone matrix as
osteoclasts resorb bone tissue and osteoblasts replace the bone 6. Spongy bone vs.
compact bone a. Spongy bone i. Composed of osteocytes and extracellular matrix, but
the cells do not congregate around central canals ii. Instead, cells lie within
trabeculae (bony projections) and absorb nutrients tha t diffuse into calaliculi
(microscopic canals that connect the bone tissue) b. Compact bone Bone remodeling:
occurs once they are surrounded by bony matrix in lacuna
i. Composed of osteocytes and extracellular matrix, cluster around central canal m
an osteon or Haversian system ii. Central canals contain blood vessels and nerve
fibers iii. Central canals are longitudinal through bone; perforating canals (aka
Volkmann's canals) connect them transversely, which contain larger blood vessels
and nerves 7. Axial vs. appendicular skeleton -total 206 bones a. Axial i. Skull 1)
8 cranial bones a) Frontal b) Parietal -2 c) Occipital d) Temporal -2 for