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d) Autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria Soil bacteria (Michael T. Holmes, Oregon State University, Corvallis).
This is one of the most important classification types
as it takes into account the most important aspect of Bacteria convert energy in soil organic matter into
bacteria growth and reproduction. Autotrophic bacteria forms useful to the rest of the organisms in the soil
(also known as autotrophs) obtain the carbon it requires food web. A number of bacteria decomposers can break
from carbon dioxide. Some autotrophs directly use down pesticides and pollutants in soil. Decomposers
sunlight in order to produce sugar from carbon dioxide, are especially important in immobilizing, or retaining,
whereas others depend on various chemical reactions. nutrients in their cells, thus preventing the loss of
Heterotrophic bacteria obtain carbohydrates and/or sugar nutrients, such as nitrogen, from the rooting zone.
from the environment they are in (for example, the living Bacteria dominate in tilled soils but they are only 20–30%
cells or organism they are in). efficient at recycling carbon (C). Bacteria are higher in
nitrogen (N) content but lower in total carbon (10 to
e) Classification based on phyla 30% nitrogen, 3 to 10 C:N ratio) than most microbes.
Based on the morphology, DNA sequencing, conditions Bacteria from all four groups perform important
required, and biochemistry, scientists have classified services related to water dynamics, nutrient cycling, and
bacteria into 12 phyla. Each phylum further corresponds disease suppression. Some bacteria produce substances
to number of species and genera of bacteria. The bacteria that help bind soil particles into microaggregates
classification includes bacteria that are found in various (diameters of 1/10,000–1/100 of an inch or 2–200 µm).
types of environments such as bacteria that can survive Stable aggregates improve water infiltration and the soil’s
extreme temperatures (extreme hot as in sulfur water water-holding ability. A diverse bacterial community will
spring bacteria and extreme cold as in bacteria found in compete with disease-causing organisms in roots and on
Antarctic ice), bacteria that can survive in a highly acidic plant surfaces.
versus highly alkaline environment, aerobic bacteria Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobia) form symbiotic
versus anaerobic bacteria, autotrophic bacteria versus associations with the roots of legumes like alfalfa and
heterotrophic bacteria, etc. clovers. Rhizobia are Gram negative rod-shaped bacteria.
Visible nodules are created where bacteria infect a growing
Bacteria Functions root hair. The plant supplies simple sugars to the bacteria
Bacteria perform important functions in the soil, decom- and the bacteria convert nitrogen (N2) from air into a
posing organic residues from enzymes secreted in the soil. nitrogen form (NO3- or NH4+) the plant can use. When
There are basically four functional soil bacteria groups: leaves or roots from the plant decompose, nitrogen
1. Decomposers, which are bacteria that consume simple increases in the soil. Dinitrogen (N2) fixing bacteria need
sugars and simple carbon compounds, such as root anaerobic (no oxygen) conditions and fix nitrogen in
exudates and fresh plant litter. microsites provided by legume nodules characterized by
2. Bacteria mutualists form partnerships with plants pink or red tissue (anerobic conditions) in nodules.
including the nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobia). Nitrifying bacteria change ammonium (NH4+) to nitrite
3. Bacteria can also become pathogens to plants. (NO2-) then to nitrate (NO3-), which is a preferred form
4. Lithotrophs or chemoautotrophs bacteria obtain of nitrogen for grasses and most row crops. Nitrifying
energy from compounds of nitrogen, sulfur, iron, or bacteria need well-aerated soils. Nitrate is leached more
hydrogen instead of from carbon compounds. Some easily from the soil, so some farmers use nitrification
of these species are important to nitrogen cycling and inhibitors to reduce the activity of nitrifying bacteria.
degradation of pollutants. Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate to nitrogen (N2)
oxygen levels, because even after a flood (saturated soil, and lithotrophic bacteria convert nitrogen, sulfur, iron, or
lack of oxygen) or soil tillage (infusion of oxygen) there other nutrients for energy and are important in nitrogen
exist small microenvironments where different types of cycling and pollution degradation. Actinomycetes are
bacteria and microorganisms can exist to repopulate the classified as bacteria but are very similar to fungus and
soil when environmental conditions improve. decompose recalcitrant (hard to decompose) organic
As natural succession occurs in a plant community, compounds. Bacteria are important in producing polysac-
succession also occurs in the soil. Bacteria have the charides that cement sand, silt, and clay particles together
ability to alter the soil environment to favor certain plant to form microaggregates and improve soil structure.
communities. On fresh sediments, photosynthetic bacteria Bacteria have the ability to adapt to many different soil
establish first, fixing atmospheric N and C, producing microenvironments (wet vs. dry, well oxygenated vs.
organic matter, and other nutrients to initiate nitrogen- low oxygen). They also have the ability to alter the soil
cycling processes in the young soil. Bacteria dominate environment to benefit certain plant communities as soil
in tilled or disrupted soils, soils with higher pH, and conditions change.
soils with high nitrate-nitrogen availability, which is the
perfect environment for low successional plants called Acknowledgment
This fact sheet was produced in conjunction with the Midwest
weeds. Early successional plant species start to grow, and
Cover Crops Council (MCCC).
as the plant community is established, different types
of organic matter enter the soil and change the type of References
food available to bacteria. Slowly, the altered bacterial Archulate, R. 2009. Soil Quality Basics, Lesson 1, Activity 3.
community changes soil structure and the environment Soil Quality Assessment and Applications for Field Staff,
for other plants to succeed. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource
As the soil is disturbed less and plant diversity increases, Conservation Service, ver 7.2009.
the soil food web becomes more balanced and diverse, Magdoff, F., and H. van Es. 2001. Building Soils for Better Crops.
making soil nutrients more available in an environment 2nd ed. Sustainable Agriculture Network. Beltsville, MD.
better suited to higher plants. Diverse microbial popula- www.sare.org/publications/soils.htm.
Nester, E.W., D.G. Anderson, E.C.E. Robert, Jr., and M.T. Nester.
tions with fungus, protozoa, and nematodes keep nutrients
2007. Microbiology: A Human Perspective. Edited by Nicole
recycling and disease causing organisms in check. Young. McGraw-Hill Publishing.
Sylvia, D.M., P.G. Hartel, J.J. Fuhrmann, and D.A. Zuberer.
Summary 2005. Principle and Application of Soil Microbiology. 2nd
Microorganisms abound in the soil and are critical to ed. Edited by David M. Sylva, Pearson Prentice Hall.
decomposing organic residues and recycling soil nutri- Tugel, A.J., A.M. Lewandowski, and D. Happe-vonArb, eds.
ents. Bacteria are the smallest and most hardy microbe 2000. Soil Biology Primer, Chapter 3: Soil Bacteria. Ankeny,
in the soil and can survive under harsh or changing soil IA: Soil and Water Conservation Society. See http://soils.
conditions. Bacteria are only 20–30% efficient at recycling usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology.
carbon, have a high N content (10 to 30% N, 3–10 C:N
ratio), a lower C content, and a short life span. There are Related Publications
• Using Cover Crops to Improve Soil and Water Quality
basically four functional soil bacteria groups including
• Sustainable Crop Rotations with Cover Crops
decomposers, mutalists, pathogens, and lithotrophs. • The Biology of Soil Compaction
Decomposer bacteria consume simple sugars and simple • Using Cover Crops to Convert to No-till
carbon compounds, while mutualist bacteria form part- • Understanding Soil Microbes and Nutrient Recycling
nerships with plants including the nitrogen-fixing bacteria • The Role of Soil Fungus
(Rhizobia). Bacteria can also become pathogens to plants • The Role of Soil Protozoa and Nematodes
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