Body Image 22 (2017) 136–143

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Body Image
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bodyimage

Body appreciation, interest in cosmetic enhancements, and need for

uniqueness among U.S. college students
Meghan M. Gillen a,∗ , Jamie Dunaev b
a
Division of Social Sciences, 1600 Woodland Road, The Pennsylvania State University, Abington, PA 19001, United States
b
Health Sciences Program, Rutgers University, 311 N. 5th St., Camden, NJ 08102, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of the current study was to examine associations between body appreciation and putative cor-
Received 15 November 2016 relates that focus on self-enhancement and self-expression. Students (N = 261; mean age = 20.16 years,
Received in revised form 23 June 2017 SD = 3.68; 60.9% female) from a non-residential college in the northeastern United States completed a
Accepted 26 June 2017
questionnaire measuring body appreciation, interest in cosmetic enhancements, and need for uniqueness.
Available online 28 July 2017
Individuals with higher body appreciation and African Americans/Blacks reported significantly higher
self-attributed need for uniqueness and significantly higher investment in a distinctive appearance. The
Keywords:
association between body appreciation and interest in cosmetic enhancements (e.g., hair coloring) was
Body appreciation
Positive body image
not significant. Results suggest that body appreciation may be linked to a desire to express one’s own
Cosmetic enhancements unique qualities.
Need for uniqueness © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Appearance investment

1. Introduction 1.1. Body appreciation and interest in cosmetic enhancements

Historically, body image research has focused on negative body
image. Although important for understanding the pervasiveness of
body concerns and potentially associated eating problems, this nar-
row focus failed to address the complexity of thoughts and feelings
people may have about their bodies, including positive percep-
tions. Recent research has indicated that positive body image is
in fact a separate construct from negative body image, with its
own unique dimensions and correlates (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow,
2015a). Tylka and Wood-Barcalow (2015a) define positive body
image as body appreciation, loving and feeling comfort with one’s
body, having broad ideas of attractiveness, adaptive self-care for
appearance, manifesting positive feelings through the body, and
filtering information about the body in protective ways. Psycho-
metrically sound measures have been developed to capture these
constructs including body appreciation, the most widely studied
aspect of positive body image (Avalos, Tylka, & Wood-Barcalow,
2005; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015a). The current study focused
on associations between body appreciation and putative correlates
that relate to the desire to enhance or to express one’s appearance.
∗ Corresponding author. Fax: +1 215 881 7623.
E-mail addresses: mmg204@psu.edu (M.M. Gillen),
Jamie.Dunaev@camden.rutgers.edu (J. Dunaev).
Body appreciation is associated with appearance-related atti-
tudes and behaviors that are protective of health and well-being
(Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015a). Individuals with higher body
appreciation value, respect, and feel pride in their bodies more
than those with lower body appreciation, suggesting that they may
be better equipped to resist cultural pressure to meet unrealistic
standards of attractiveness (Chrisler, Marvan, Gorman, & Rossini,
2015; Gillen, 2015). In resisting this pressure, they may be less
accepting of, and engage less frequently in, behaviors that can help
them meet a thin, toned, and tan ideal (Grant, Gillen, & Bernstein,
2014; Murnen, 2011). For example, those with higher body appreci-
ation report significantly lower drive for muscularity and more sun
protective attitudes (Gillen, 2015). Their behaviors are also more
oriented toward health and well-being: they report significantly
lower dieting behaviors, less disordered eating, higher intuitive eat-
ing (following their body’s cues for hunger and satiety), less talk
about dieting and weight loss, more sun protective behaviors, and
more engagement in exercise (Andrew, Tiggemann, & Clark, 2016;
Gillen, 2015; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013; Wasylkiw & Butler,
2014).
One appearance-related attitude that has not been frequently
examined is interest in cosmetic enhancements. Cosmetic enhance-
ments (e.g., manicures, genital waxing) are typically lower risk
procedures, take relatively little time, and can be performed out-
side of a medical context by trained staff. Yet, perhaps contrary to
common beliefs, these procedures, as well as some self-performed
cosmetic enhancements (e.g., high-heeled shoes), can come with

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.06.008
1740-1445/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.M. Gillen, J. Dunaev / Body Image 22 (2017) 136–143
health risks (Saltzberg & Chrisler, 1995). For example, some women
have experienced toxic side effects from cosmetics (Saltzberg
& Chrisler, 1995). Thus, cosmetic enhancements are pursued to
improve appearance, yet come with some level of risk.
Given that body appreciation is associated with health protec-
tive attitudes and behaviors (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015a), it is
possible that individuals higher in body appreciation are less inter-
ested in cosmetic enhancements. Because individuals with higher
body appreciation may conform less to culturally constructed
appearance ideals (Gillen, 2015), they may be less interested in
procedures aimed at achieving these ideals. Prior research pro-
vides support for this contention, although most of this work has
focused on cosmetic surgery attitudes. These attitudes capture indi-
viduals’ opinions on cosmetic surgery procedures, including their
personal willingness to undergo these procedures. For example,
body appreciation was significantly associated with lower accep-
tance of cosmetic surgery attitudes in university students from the
United Kingdom and South Korea (Swami, 2009; Swami, Campana,
& Coles, 2012; Swami, Hwang, & Jung, 2012), and in community
samples of adults from Malaysia, Brazil, and the United States (U.S.)
(Swami, 2010; Swami et al., 2011; Tylka & Iannantuono, 2016).
However, body appreciation was not significantly associated with
cosmetic surgery attitudes in adolescents in Sweden (Lunde, 2013),
and in middle-aged women in the U.S. (Chrisler, Gorman, Serra, &
Chapman, 2012).
Yet, little is known about associations between body appreci-
ation and attitudes toward cosmetic enhancements. As previous
literature on cosmetic surgery attitudes suggests (e.g., Swami,
2009), body appreciation may be associated with less interest in
cosmetic enhancements, as cosmetic enhancements can help indi-
viduals conform to cultural ideals of attractiveness (albeit with
lower risks than surgery). Another possibility is that cosmetic
enhancements can help individuals express their unique quali-
ties, and therefore interest in these procedures may be linked to
higher body appreciation. For example, individuals may dye their
hair blond or obtain genital waxing to conform to cultural ideals
of beauty, or they might get a purple streak in their hair and their
nails painted an unusual pattern to express uniqueness. Thus far,
these associations have not been empirically tested.
We examined sex as a moderating factor in the association
between body appreciation and interest in cosmetic enhancements.
That is, we explored the possibility that the associations between
body appreciation and cosmetic enhancements might vary by sex.
Women are significantly more interested in obtaining cosmetic
procedures than men (Markey & Markey, 2010; Swami, Chamorro-
Premuzic, Bridges, & Furnham, 2009; Swami et al., 2013). Yet body
appreciation is linked to positive health outcomes for both men
and women (Gillen, 2015), suggesting that it might be related to
less interest in cosmetic enhancements for both sexes. Because
these associations are not yet clear, in the current study, the mod-
ifying effect of sex on body appreciation and interest in cosmetic
enhancements was explored.
In addition to body appreciation, it is important to consider
the influence of several demographic variables on interest in
cosmetic enhancements. In particular, body mass index (BMI)
and race/ethnicity may be associated with interest in cosmetic
enhancements. Because of the pervasive thin ideal in U.S. culture
(Murnen, 2011), individuals who have higher BMIs may be more
interested in cosmetic enhancements as methods for increasing
perceived attractiveness. Cosmetic enhancements may allow indi-
viduals to feel attractive in ways that do not directly alter weight
(e.g., hair dye). Although there is heterogeneity and variability
within all racial/ethnic groups, previous research suggests that we
might expect some between-group differences. African Americans
are more satisfied with their appearance and bodies, and they are
more cognitively and behaviorally invested in their appearance as
137
compared to European Americans, which may include spending
time and effort on cosmetic enhancements (Gillen & Lefkowitz,
2012). Yet, previous research indicates that Caucasian women
report greater acceptance of cosmetic surgery than their South
Asian and African Caribbean female counterparts (Swami et al.,
2012), suggesting that Caucasians may also be more interested in
cosmetic enhancements than individuals in ethnic minority groups.
Based on this previous work, we might expect that European Amer-
icans/Whites or African Americans/Blacks may be more interested
in cosmetic enhancements.
1.2. Body appreciation and need for uniqueness
Another variable related to self-enhancement/expression is
need for uniqueness. We might expect that individuals with higher
body appreciation would also be more interested in striving for and
expressing their unique personal qualities. According to the the-
ory of uniqueness (Snyder & Fromkin, 1977, p. 518), uniqueness is
“a positive striving for differentness relative to other people”, and
should not be taken as a negative concept akin to abnormality and
deviance, but rather one related to enhanced self-esteem. There are
individual differences in the need for uniqueness; some individuals
want to feel special and distinct more so than others do.
Tiggemann and Golder (2006) and Tiggemann and Hopkins
(2011) applied the theory of uniqueness to tattooing, a form of
body modification. Because tattooing is a means by which unique-
ness can be displayed visibly on the body, they expected, and found,
that those with at least one tattoo had a significantly higher need for
uniqueness than non-tattooed individuals. Swami (2012) reported
similar findings. However, on distinctive appearance investment,
a measure of the desire to have a noticeable, distinct appearance,
Swami (2012) found that those who visited a tattoo parlor for their
first tattoo had significantly higher distinctive appearance invest-
ment than those who visited a tattoo parlor and did not obtain a
tattoo. Yet, Tiggemann and Golder (2006) found no significant dif-
ferences on distinctive appearance investment between those with
and without tattoos, and those with easily concealed, moderately
visible, and no tattoos (Tiggemann & Hopkins, 2011). Other research
suggests that the process of acquiring a tattoo can increase feelings
of uniqueness (Swami, 2011). Specifically, individuals reported sig-
nificantly higher need for uniqueness and distinctive appearance
investment several weeks after obtaining a tattoo (Swami, 2011).
As was done with tattooing, we can also extend the the-
ory of uniqueness to body appreciation. The core features of
body appreciation—acceptance, respect, and protection—provide a
framework for understanding how one’s body is unique in appear-
ance and function (Tylka, 2011). Feeling as if one’s body is special
and distinct—whether for how it looks or what it can do—may be
associated with a need for uniqueness. Some individuals have nat-
ural characteristics that are unusual (e.g., an uncommon name)
that in turn predispose them to a higher need for distinctiveness
(Lynn & Snyder, 2002). Individuals with higher body appreciation
are unusual for having positive opinions about their body. Body
image concerns are widespread among people of all ages includ-
ing children and adults (Gillen & Markey, 2016). Within a cultural
context of bodily discontent, body appreciation may set individuals
apart from others and therefore predispose them to a dispositional
need for distinctiveness.
On the other hand, it is also possible that a higher need
for uniqueness could lead individuals to appreciate their bod-
ies more. For example, individuals who are higher in need for
uniqueness are significantly more willing to take risks (Schumpe,
Herzberg, & Erb, 2016); more extraverted, less neurotic, and open
to new experiences (Schumpe et al., 2016; Swami, Hadji-Michael,
& Furnham, 2008); more independent in their opinions (Snyder &
Fromkin, 1977); have higher self-esteem (Gillen, 2015), and; strive
138 M.M. Gillen, J. Dunaev / Body Image 22 (2017) 136–143
for uniqueness through consumption such as having a stronger
desire for scarce, innovative, and customized products (Lynn &
Harris, 1997). Such attitudes and behaviors reflecting a tendency
toward assertiveness, socialness, and creativity could then promote
higher body appreciation. Perhaps these individuals encounter
more people and objects that are different from their own selves
and experiences, and this leads them to appreciate body diver-
sity, including how their own bodies fit within this framework. Or,
their tendency to be social and noticeable in a positive way may
invite more encouraging feedback from others that enhances their
appreciation for their body.
A need for uniqueness among those with higher body appreci-
ation may manifest more generally, as well as specifically in the
domain of appearance. People are more interested in striving for
uniqueness in areas that are salient to their self-concept (Lynn &
Snyder, 2002). One of these domains is appearance. Appearance
is likely an important domain for many people because the unre-
alistic images of men and women in popular culture suggest that
there are beauty ideals to which all should aspire (Murnen, 2011).
Although those with higher body appreciation may actively resist
these ideals (Tylka, 2011), resistance nonetheless indicates cogni-
tive effort in the appearance domain. Further, resistance of cultural
ideals coupled with love and respect for the body, can develop into
a defining aspect of the self because of its scarcity (Gillen & Markey,
2016). This reasoning suggests that those with higher body appre-
ciation may have a high need for uniqueness in the specific realm
of appearance. However, because links between body appreciation
and need for uniqueness have not been explored previously, a gen-
eral measure of need for uniqueness as well as one more specific to
appearance (i.e., distinctive appearance investment; Tiggemann &
Golder, 2006) were included in the current study.
We also examined the modifying effect of sex on body apprecia-
tion and need for uniqueness to determine if these associations are
significant for both men and women or women only. Although no
significant sex differences have been found on need for uniqueness
and distinctive appearance investment (Swami, 2011), findings
on body appreciation have been more variable, with some work
showing significant (albeit small) sex differences and other work
showing non-significant sex differences (Gillen, 2015; Swami et al.,
2008; Tylka, 2013). Thus, previous empirical work does not inform
hypotheses about how sex might act as a moderator in the relations
between body appreciation and need for uniqueness, suggesting
that this question is worth exploring in the current study.
In addition to body appreciation, we examined associations
between several demographic variables and need for uniqueness.
BMI may relate to need for uniqueness. Because individuals with
larger BMIs do not meet cultural definitions of attractiveness
(Murnen, 2011), they may have a stronger need to feel distinct so
that they stand out in a positive way. This may be true on global
measures of need for uniqueness, but it may be particularly evi-
dent on measures specific to appearance. Further, race/ethnicity
may be relevant to need for uniqueness. African Americans/Blacks
may have a stronger desire for uniqueness than those in other
racial/ethnic groups. Parker et al. (1995) found that African Amer-
ican girls have more flexible ideas of beauty than White girls. In
particular, African American girls’ ideas of attractiveness include
“looking good,” or being well-kept, confident, and making your
own assets work for you, suggesting that unique personal styles
are desirable and something toward which to strive (Parker et al.,
1995).
1.3. Hypotheses
Drawing on research and theory on interest in cosmetic
enhancements and need for uniqueness, we proposed two
hypotheses. First, we hypothesized that individuals with higher
body appreciation would be less interested in cosmetic enhance-
ments as compared to individuals with lower body appreciation.
We explored interactions between body appreciation and sex.
Second, we hypothesized that individuals with higher body appre-
ciation would have a higher need for uniqueness, both general
uniqueness and uniqueness specific to the appearance domain
as compared to individuals with lower body appreciation. We
explored interactions between body appreciation and sex.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Undergraduates enrolled at a regional college of a larger
university in the northeastern United States participated in a
study. Participants’ mean age was M = 20.16 years (SD = 3.68), and
60.9% identified as women. The sample was racially/ethnically
diverse with 44.4% identifying as European American/White
(n = 116), 20.3% as Asian American/Asian/Pacific Islander (n = 53),
17.6% as African American/Black (n = 46), 8.0% as Latino/a Amer-
ican/Hispanic (n = 21), and 9.6% as other (n = 25). Prior to data
collection, it was determined that a sample size of at least 250
was required in order to conduct the planned analyses. This deter-
mination was made based on recent literature suggesting that
correlations tend to stabilize, in most situations, as sample sizes
approach 250 (Schönbrodt & Perugini, 2013). The sample size for
the current study was N = 261.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Body mass index (BMI)
Participants reported their height and weight and from these
data, BMI was calculated (see Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2016, for formula). Descriptive data on BMI from this
sample were also measured and presented in Gillen (2015).
2.2.2. Body appreciation
The Body Appreciation Scale (BAS; Avalos et al., 2005) was used
to assess positive body image. The original 13-item measure was
used because the second version of the measure (the Body Appreci-
ation Scale-2; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015b) was not available at
the time of data collection. This measure captures appreciation for
the body (sample item: “I feel good about my body”), one aspect of
the multifaceted construct of positive body image (Tylka & Wood-
Barcalow, 2015a). Although the BAS was initially created for use
with women, scores on the scale were found to be invariant for U.S.
men and women (Tylka, 2013), with differential item responding
on one item. Responses were made on a 5-point scale (1 = Never
to 5 = Always). Items were averaged to create a total score, with
higher scores representing higher body appreciation. BAS scores
have demonstrated satisfactory validity and reliability in previous
studies of U.S. college students (Avalos et al., 2005; Tylka, 2013).
Internal consistency reliability scores in the current study were
adequate (Cronbach’s ˛: women ˛ = .92, men ˛ = .90). Descriptive
data on body appreciation from this sample were also measured
and presented in Gillen (2015).
2.2.3. Interest in cosmetic enhancements
A subscale from the Interest in Cosmetic Surgery Scale (Markey
& Markey, 2009) was used to assess interest in cosmetic enhance-
ments. This subscale contains 6 items and measures interest in
obtaining cosmetic procedures that are typically low in cost and
invasiveness, do not require a large time commitment, and do
not need to be performed in a medical context. The items were:
facial, manicure, pedicure, facial waxing (hair removal on face using
wax, e.g., eyebrows), genital waxing (hair removal on genital area
 M.M. Gillen, J. Dunaev / Body Image 22 (2017) 136–143
Table 1
Means, standard deviations, and correlations for study variables.
BMI BAS
BMI (body mass index) – −.31**
Body appreciation (BAS) −.31** – .10
Interest in cosmetic enhancements (ICE) .08 −.12
Self-attributed need for uniqueness (SANU) .04 .22*
Distinctive appearance investment (DAI) .06 .12
M (SD) — men 24.52 (4.19) 3.99 (0.65)
M (SD) — women 24.12 (5.38) 3.65 (0.79)
ta 0.63 3.62
p .529 <.001
Cohen’s d 0.08 0.47
Note: N = 261. Women’s correlations are above the diagonal and men’s are below.
a
Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons, critical value .0125 (.05/4).
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
using wax, e.g., bikini wax), and hair coloring/dye. Response options
range from 1 = I would never consider this procedure to 5 = I would
definitely consider this procedure. The average of the items was used
for the subscale total. Higher scores indicate greater interest in cos-
metic enhancements. Internal consistency reliability scores were
adequate (women ˛ = .75, men ˛ = .72).
2.2.4. Distinctive appearance investment
The Distinctive Appearance Investment Scale (Tiggemann &
Golder, 2006) was used to measure desire for uniqueness in the
appearance domain (sample items: “I use my physical appearance
to express who I am,” “When it comes to appearance, I am some-
what of a non-conformist.”). It has 6 items to which participants
respond on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly
agree). Items were averaged to create a total score, with higher
scores indicating stronger desire for a unique appearance. Previous
research demonstrates the validity and reliability of scores on this
measure in men and women (Swami, 2011; Tiggemann & Golder,
2006; Tiggemann & Hopkins, 2011). Internal consistency reliabil-
ity scores in the current study were adequate (women ˛ = .76, men
˛ = .82).
2.2.5. Need for uniqueness
The Self-Attributed Need for Uniqueness Scale (Lynn & Harris,
1997) was used to measure desire for uniqueness. Unlike the Dis-
tinctive Appearance Investment Scale (Tiggemann & Golder, 2006),
it is a more general measure of desire for uniqueness not limited
to the appearance domain. Although it was developed for con-
sumer research (Lynn & Harris, 1997), it has been used previously
in body image research (Swami, 2011). It has 4 “fill-in the-blank”
items to which participants respond on a 5-point scale. Response
options differ across items (sample item: “Being distinctive is
important to me.” a = Not at all, b = Slightly, c = Moderately, d = Very,
e = Extremely). Items were averaged to create a total score, with
higher scores indicating stronger desire for uniqueness. Scores on
this measure have shown satisfactory validity and reliability in men
and women in previous studies (Lynn & Harris, 1997; Swami, 2011).
Internal consistency reliability scores in the current study were
adequate (women ˛ = .75, men ˛ = .73).
2.3. Procedures
After giving informed consent, participants completed a paper-
and-pencil questionnaire on campus in a group setting, supervised
by members of the research team. Participants’ responses were
not linked to their names. Students were recruited from a partic-
ipant pool at the college, so they elected to participate for course
credit in one of several foundational courses in psychology. The
study was advertised as a research study about body modification
in college students with the purpose being to learn about college
139
ICE SANU DAI
.05 .14 .06
.17* .24**
– .08 .10
.06 – .55**
.02 .40** –
0.50 (0.22) 3.14 (0.71) 3.12 (0.71)
1.33 (0.33) 3.20 (0.72) 3.20 (0.66)
22.52 0.77 1.12
<.001 .445 .265
2.96 0.08 0.12
students’ attitudes and behaviors related to body modification.
Measures were presented in the same order for all participants.
Other measures in the study pertain to body image, body modifica-
tion (e.g., piercings and tattoos), risk behaviors and attitudes, and
mental health. The Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the univer-
sity approved this study.
2.4. Statistical analyses
All analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS v.24 for Windows.
All p-values <.05 were considered statistically significant, and two-
tailed p-values are reported for all hypothesis tests. We initially
assessed the data for missing values. Participants with more than
20% of their data missing were excluded from all analyses. Using Lit-
tle’s test (Little, 1988), the remaining missing data were determined
to be missing completely at random (MCAR). We used pooled esti-
mates from multiple imputation, using all relevant study variables
in the imputation model and 20 iterations, to replace the remain-
ing missing data. Following replacement of the missing values, data
were assessed for entry errors and significant outliers (±3 SD). No
entry errors or significant outliers were found and therefore no
further changes were made to the data.
Independent samples t-tests were conducted to assess dif-
ferences in key study variables for men and women, and
one-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were used to determine
racial/ethnic differences in these same variables. All ANOVA mod-
els met the appropriate assumptions (e.g., normality, homogeneity
of variance). To control for Type I error, Tukey HSD post hoc pair-
wise comparisons were used. Partial eta-squared (p 2 ) was used
to estimate effect sizes of the ANOVAs, using guidelines suggested
by Ferguson (2009; small = .04; medium = .25; large = .64). Cohen’s d
was used to estimate effect sizes of the pairwise comparisons, using
guidelines suggested by Cohen (1988; small = 0.20; medium = 0.50;
large = 0.80). Bivariate correlations were used to examine the asso-
ciations among key study variables. Stepwise linear regression
models were used to test the hypotheses. To avoid issues with
multicollinearity, all variables used in the regression models were
mean-centered. All regression models met the appropriate regres-
sion assumptions (e.g., normality, VIF levels).
3. Results
Table 1 shows mean scores for all analytic variables separated
by sex. A series of Bonferroni-corrected t-tests were used to test
for significant sex differences. Men had significantly higher body
appreciation than women (d = 0.47; medium effect), and women
were significantly more interested in cosmetic enhancements than
men (d = 2.96; large effect). Men and women did not differ signif-
icantly on BMI, need for uniqueness, and distinctive appearance
investment.
140 M.M. Gillen, J. Dunaev / Body Image 22 (2017) 136–143
Table 2
Racial/ethnic group comparisons on study variables.
Variablea European African Asian American/
American/ White American/ Black Asian/Pacific
(n = 116) (n = 46) Islander (n = 53)
BMI 23.83 (4.98)a 26.04 (5.76)a 23.45 (4.23)a
BAS 3.68 (0.82)a 3.96 (0.68)a 3.72 (0.65)a
ICE 3.04 (1.53)abc 3.31 (1.47)abc 2.52 (1.32)b
SANU 3.04 (0.60)a 3.65 (0.83)b 3.06 (0.66)a
DAI 3.06 (0.60)a 3.53 (0.76)b 3.11 (0.57)a
Note: BMI = Body mass index, BAS = Body Appreciation Scale, ICE = Interest in cosmetic enhancements, SANU = Self-attributed need for uniqueness, DAI = Distinctive appearance
investment. Same superscripts indicate that group means do not differ.
a
Means (and standard deviations) reported for each variable.
Five one-way ANOVAs were conducted to test for mean dif-
ferences in key study variables across racial/ethnic groups (see
Table 2). There were no significant racial/ethnic differences in
body appreciation or in BMI (ps > .05). However, overall mod-
els revealed small significant differences between the groups in
need for uniqueness, F(4, 256) = 6.92, p < .001, p 2 = .10, distinc-
tive appearance investment, F(4, 256) = 4.96, p = .001, p 2 = .07,
and interest in cosmetic enhancements, F(4, 256) = 2.98, p = .020,
p 2 = .05. Post hoc Tukey HSD pair-wise comparisons revealed that
African American/Black participants reported significantly higher
need for uniqueness and distinctive appearance investment (all
ps < .047, ds = 0.71–.84; large effects) when compared to all other
racial/ethnic groups with the exception of those identifying as
‘other.’ For interest in cosmetic enhancements, the only significant
difference was between Asian American/Asian/Pacific Islanders and
Latino/a Americans/Hispanics (p = .038, d = 0.81; large effect), in
that Latino/a Americans/Hispanics reported greater interest in cos-
metic enhancements than Asian American/Asian/Pacific Islanders.
Because of these significant group differences, race/ethnicity is
examined as predictor in all subsequent regression analyses.
Next, correlations were performed to illustrate bivariate asso-
ciations between variables, and were conducted separately by sex
(see Table 1). In men, higher body appreciation was significantly
associated with both lower BMI and higher self-attributed need
for uniqueness, although the associations were weak. In women,
higher body appreciation was significantly associated with lower
BMI, higher self-attributed need for uniqueness, and higher distinc-
tive appearance investment, although the associations were again
weak.
Next, two linear regressions were performed to illustrate associ-
ations between key study variables and to determine the amount of
variance accounted for in the outcomes by body appreciation (see
Table 3). In order to use race/ethnicity as a predictor variable in the
regression models, we created five dummy variables. In the analy-
ses, European American/White was omitted and thus served as the
reference category for each racial/ethnic group. Demographic vari-
ables including sex, BMI, and the five dummy coded race/ethnicity
variables were entered in Step 1, body appreciation was entered
in Step 2, and body appreciation × sex was entered in Step 3. The
outcomes were self-attributed need for uniqueness and distinctive
appearance investment (because body appreciation was not sig-
nificantly associated with interest in cosmetic enhancements, we
omitted the regression model with interest in cosmetic enhance-
ments as the outcome). Step 2 (but not Step 3) added a significant
amount of variance in both regression models (see Table 3). Indi-
viduals with higher body appreciation and those who identified
as African American/Black reported significantly higher distinc-
tive appearance investment and significantly higher self-attributed
need for uniqueness.
4. Discussion
The goal of the current study was to explore associations
between body appreciation and variables that reflect self-
Latino/a Other (n = 25) F p Partial 2
American/
Hispanic (n = 21)
24.29 (4.73)a 24.86 (4.16)a 2.21 .069 .03
3.99 (0.68)a 3.90 (0.82)a 1.81 .128 .03
3.63 (1.44)c 2.82 (1.54)abc 2.98 .020 .05
3.14 (0.59)a 3.20 (0.88)ab 6.92 <.001 .10
2.98 (0.74)a 3.25 (0.84)ab 4.96 .001 .07
enhancement and/or self-expression, including interest in cosmetic
enhancements and need for uniqueness. Results generally sug-
gested that individuals with higher body appreciation also tended
to show a stronger need for uniqueness. Body appreciation was
associated with a greater desire for uniqueness both generally and
in the domain of appearance; these findings emerged once the
effects of sex, BMI, and race/ethnicity had been accounted for. Body
appreciation was not significantly associated with interest in cos-
metic enhancements.
Body appreciation significantly predicted both uniqueness vari-
ables: distinctive appearance investment and self-attributed need
for uniqueness. Distinctive appearance investment includes the
need to stand out in the domain of appearance. People strive to
be unique in domains that are more integral to their sense of self
(Lynn & Snyder, 2002). Appearance may be particularly important
to those with higher body appreciation, but not just for aesthetic
reasons. Individuals with higher body appreciation may value their
bodies for what they can do, as well as the special combination of
features they have that comprise their unique selves. Feeling a close
connection with and sense of appreciation for one’s body (Tylka,
2011) may be related to wanting to publically express its perceived
special qualities.
Self-attributed need for uniqueness is a more general measure
of need for uniqueness, and also demonstrated significant asso-
ciations with body appreciation. That is, individuals with higher
body appreciation also tended to show a higher need to be dis-
tinct. The Self-Attributed Need for Uniqueness Scale is a relatively
brief measure that does not specify domains in which individu-
als strive for uniqueness. Yet, it appears that individuals’ need for
uniqueness extends beyond the domain of appearance into a more
general need to feel different from others. Being different might
lead to being challenged by others for one’s unique characteristics,
and therefore requires a degree of confidence in upholding these
same qualities. As supported by the theory of uniqueness (Snyder &
Fromkin, 1977), striving for difference is a positive process related
to higher self-esteem. Previous research also demonstrates that
body appreciation is significantly associated with characteristics
that are conducive to self-expression such as higher self-esteem
(Gillen, 2015), lower neuroticism (Swami et al., 2008), higher
extraversion (Swami et al., 2008), lower maladaptive perfection-
ism (Iannantuono & Tylka, 2012), greater sexual liberalism and
more positive attitudes toward unconventional sexual practices
(Swami, Weis, Barron, & Furnham, 2017). Thus, body appreciation
may encourage confidence that allows people to strive for differ-
ence. It is also possible that the mere presence of body appreciation
is a unique quality. It is normative for people to have body image
concerns (Gillen & Markey, 2016), and less common to score high on
measures of positive body image, at least among women (Wood-
Barcalow, Tylka, & Augustus-Horvath, 2010). Amidst widespread
body concerns, higher body appreciation may set individuals
apart from others. Naturally unusual qualities (i.e., body appre-
ciation) may, over time, instill in people a trait level need for
distinctiveness (Lynn & Snyder, 2002). It is important to consider,
 M.M. Gillen, J. Dunaev / Body Image 22 (2017) 136–143 141

however, that the need for uniqueness may be culturally-bound.
Individuals in cultures with independent construals of the self, like
the U.S., may be more prone to strive for uniqueness than those
in cultures that encourage interdependent perspectives of the self
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Future research should focus on asso-
ciations between body appreciation and need for uniqueness in
non-Western cultures that are more oriented toward interdepen-
dent selves.
Interestingly, body appreciation was not associated with inter-
est in cosmetic enhancements. Cosmetic enhancements (e.g.,
genital waxing, hair coloring) are not very time consuming or costly,
and are generally easily accessible and low in risk. Therefore, body
appreciation may not distinguish those who are interested in pur-
suing these relatively commonplace procedures from those who
are not. Another potential explanation for the lack of association
between body appreciation and interest in cosmetic enhancements
is the meaning individuals attach to these procedures. Some may
engage in them to achieve cultural ideals of beauty, some may
obtain them to achieve a distinct appearance, whereas others may
see them as a form of self-care. These different motives may wash
out any significant associations between these variables.
Results from the regressions also showed that African Amer-
icans/Blacks had significantly higher need for uniqueness, both
generally and in the domain of appearance. This finding is consis-
tent with previous research illustrating that African American girls
value and strive for utilizing and expressing the unique aspects
of one’s appearance (Parker et al., 1995). Striving for uniqueness
is a positive process related to improved self-esteem (Snyder &
Table 3
Regression models predicting need for uniqueness.
Fromkin, 1977), and may explain why African Americans/Blacks
tend to have more positive body image than those in other
racial/ethnic groups, particularly European Americans/Whites
(Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2012; Parker et al., 1995; Swami, Airs, Chouhan,
Leon, & Towell, 2009). This finding may also reflect Majors and
Billson’s (1992) work on African American men, who adapt a ‘cool
pose’ in an effort to distinguish their identities in a culture that
limits their opportunities for success. Thus, for some oppressed
groups, appearance is a controllable domain through which they
can express their unique qualities (Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006).
4.1. Limitations, strengths, and conclusions
The present study has limitations. It is correlational and there-
fore does not allow conclusions to be drawn regarding the direction
of associations. For example, body appreciation may lead individ-
uals to strive for uniqueness, just as need for uniqueness may also
be conducive to appreciating one’s body. These associations may
also be confounded by third variables such as personality and self-
esteem. The measure of cosmetic enhancements is limited in scope
(i.e., 6 items) and could be expanded to include other procedures,
including some that may be more common in men, and some
that could better reflect need for uniqueness (e.g., adding items
on type/color of hair dye). In addition, our results are not widely
generalizable. Participants represented a select group of individu-
als: psychology students from one non-residential college located
in the northeastern U.S. The study was advertised as one about
body modification, so individuals who have body modifications

Distinctive appearance investment Self-attributed need for uniqueness

B SE ˇ t pr2 B SE ˇ t pr2

Step 1
Sex .08 .09 .06 0.99 .06 .05 .09 .03 0.52 .03
BMI .00 .01 .02 0.26 .02 .01 .01 .06 0.90 .06
Race/ethnicity
African American/Black .46*** .12 .26 3.93 .24 .58*** .12 .31 4.75 .29
Asian American/Asian/Pacific Islander .05 .11 .03 0.46 .03 .02 .12 .01 0.18 .01
Latino/a American/Hispanic -.10 .16 -.04 -0.62 -.04 .08 .16 .03 0.51 .03
Other .19 .15 .08 1.29 .08 .14 .15 .06 0.94 .06

Step 2
Sex .16 .09 .12 1.85 .12 .13 .09 .09 1.39 .09
BMI .01 .01 .09 1.37 .09 .02 .01 .13 1.96 .12
Race/ethnicity
African American/Black .38** .12 .21 3.18 .20 .49*** .12 .26 4.00 .24
Asian American/Asian/Pacific Islander .05 .11 .03 0.44 .03 .02 .11 .01 0.16 .01
Latino/a American/Hispanic -.18 .16 -.07 -1.13 -.07 .00 .16 .00 0.01 .00
Other .13 .15 .06 0.92 .06 .09 .15 .04 0.57 .04
Body appreciation .19** .06 .21 3.11 .19 .19** .06 .20 3.09 .19

Step 3
Sex -.09 .49 -.07 -0.19 -.01 .45 .50 .31 0.90 .06
BMI .01 .01 .09 1.37 .09 .02 .01 .13 1.95 .12
Race/ethnicity
African American/Black .37** .12 .21 3.11 .19 .50*** .12 .27 4.04 .25
Asian American/Asian/Pacific Islander .03 .11 .02 0.31 .02 .04 .12 .02 0.30 .02
Latino/a American/Hispanic -.18 .16 -.07 -1.15 -.07 .01 .16 .00 0.06 .00
Other .13 .15 .06 0.89 .06 .09 .15 .04 0.60 .04
Body appreciation .14 .10 .16 1.39 .09 .25* .11 .26 2.34 .15
Body appreciation × sex .07 .12 .18 0.53 .03 -.08 .13 -.22 -0.66 -.04

Step 1 adjusted R2 .05** .08***

Step 2 adjusted R2 .09*** .11***
Step 3 adjusted R2 .08*** .11***
R2 1–2 .03** .03**
R2 2–3 .00 .00

Note: N = 261. pr2 = partial correlation. Sex is coded as 0 = men, 1 = women, race/ethnicity was dummy coded as five variables with European American/White serving as the
reference group.
*
p < .05.
**
p < .01.
***
p < .001.
142 M.M. Gillen, J. Dunaev / Body Image 22 (2017) 136–143
themselves or feel particularly positive or negative toward body
modifications may have been more likely to participate. Although
not available at the time of data collection, there is a newer version
of the Body Appreciation Scale (BAS-2; Tylka & Wood-Barcalow,
2015b) that addresses some of the limitations of the original BAS
and incorporates new information gleaned from the positive body
image literature. This newer measure may have better captured
body appreciation in our sample.
A strength of the current study is its focus on several putative
correlates of body appreciation that focus on self-enhancement
and/or expression that have not been frequently examined in prior
research. Results show that individuals with higher body appreci-
ation also had a stronger desire to be different from others which
may represent an underlying confidence in themselves and their
bodies. Future studies should continue to focus on associations
between body appreciation and need for uniqueness. It would
be interesting, for example, to examine if body appreciation is
associated with markers that signify a unique appearance such as
tattoos, piercings, facial cosmetics, and clothing styles (Tiggemann
& Golder, 2006; Tiggemann & Hopkins, 2011). Potential mediators
of the links between body appreciation and need for uniqueness
could also be explored including self-esteem and personality traits
(e.g., extraversion). The present findings add to the growing litera-
ture on positive body image by indicating that body appreciation is
related to indicators of “positive striving for differentness” (Snyder
& Fromkin, 1977, p. 518)
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