Module 3.11 B1B2 Rev 01

Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.11 – INDUCTANCE / INDUCTOR
MODULE 3
SUB MODULE 3.11
INDUCTANCE / INDUCTOR
Rev. 01 3.11
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Page
Faraday’s Laws Of Electromagnetic Induction ............................2 Principle Uses Of Inductors.......................................................32

Induction Coils...........................................................................32
Lenz’s Law And Polarity Determining Rule .................................6 The Magneto .............................................................................36
Action Of Inducing A Voltage In A Conductor Moving In A

Magnetic Field .............................................................................8
Direction Of The Induce Emf .......................................................8
Magnitude Of The Induced E.M.F. ............................................10
Magnitude Of E.M.F. Induced In A Coil.....................................12
Induction Principles ...................................................................14

Dynamically Induced Emf..........................................................14
Statically Induced E.M.F............................................................16
Self Induced E.M.F....................................................................18

Self-Inductance .........................................................................18
Coefficient Of Self-Induction (L) ................................................18
Mutually Induce E.M.F...............................................................24

Mutual Inductance .....................................................................26
Rev. 01 i 3.11
“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to
date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.
Rev. 01 1 3.11
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC Immediately the movement of NS ceases, the moving coil of G
INDUCTION returns to its original position. This effect proves that e.m.f. is
induced only while NS is moving relative to C.
The transfer of electric energy from one circuit to another without Let us now move NS away from C. The galvanometer deflection
the aid of electric connections is called induction. When electric is found to be in the reverse direction, showing that the direction
energy is transferred by means of a magnetic field, it is called of the induced e.m.f. depends upon the direction in which NS is
electromagnetic induction. This type of induction is universally moved relative to coil C.
employed in the generation of electric power. Electromagnetic
induction is also the principle, which makes possible the If, next, we hold the magnet stationary but move the coil towards
operation of electric transformers and the transmission of radio the magnet and then away from it, the deflection of the
signals through air or outer space. galvanometer is found to follow exactly the same sequence as it
did when the magnet was moved and the coil held stationary.
The magnetic effect of an electric current was discovered by This result shows that the generation of an e.m.f. in C depends
Oersted in 1820. The knowledge of this connection between only upon the relative movement of the magnet and the coil.
electricity and magnetism caused many scientists of the time,
particularly Michael Faraday in England, to try to discover a If the permanent magnet is turned through 180 degrees so that
method of obtaining an electric current from a magnetic field. its S pole is pointing towards the coil, it is found that a repetition
Failure after failure dogged Faraday's efforts until on 29 August of the movements described above is accompanied by
1831 he made the great discovery of electromagnetic induction galvanometer deflections similar to those previously obtained,
with which his name will be forever associated. except that their directions are reversed. Thus, the direction of
the e.m.f. induced by bringing the S pole up to the coil is the
As far as we are concerned, it will be more convenient to same as that previously obtained when the N pole was moved
approach this matter experimentally in a different sequence from away from the coil.
that followed by Faraday. Let us take a coil C, wound with a
large number of turns, and connect it to a galvanometer G, The arrowheads on the dotted lines in the figure represent the
namely a very sensitive moving-coil ammeter. If a permanent direction of the magnetic field in their respective regions. It will
magnet NS is moved up to and along the axis of C, as shown, be seen that as the magnet is moved towards the coil, the
the moving coil of G is deflected, thereby indicating that there magnetic flux of NS also moves across the wires forming the
must be an electromotive force induced or generated in coil C. coil; that is, the magnetic flux is said to cut the coil. Similarly,
when the coil is moved towards the magnet, the magnetic flux is
said to be cut by the coil.
Rev. 01 2 3.11
Rev. 01 3 3.11
It is this relative movement of the magnetic flux and the coil that Similarly, when S is closed, the current through A causes a
causes an e.m.f. to be induced (or generated) in the latter. magnetic field to come into existence; and in this process the
Alternatively, we can say that the induced e.m.f. is due to a magnetic flux may be regarded as spreading outwards from coil
change in the value of the magnetic flux passing through the coil. A, and some of this flux will extend sufficiently to cut coil C and
The above experiments also show that the direction of the thereby induce an e.m.f. in it. It will be seen that as far as the
induced e.m.f. depends both upon the direction of the magnetic e.m.f. induced in C is concerned, both the closing of S in Fig. 1
flux and upon that in which the coil moves relative to the and the moving of A towards C, with S closed, have the same
magnetic flux. effect as moving the magnet towards C.
Let us next bring the magnet up to the coil at different speeds. It The effects observed with the apparatus of Fig. 1 may be
is found that the greater the speed, the greater is the deflection accentuated by placing an iron core inside the coils, thereby
of the galvanometer and, therefore, the greater must be the increasing the magnetic flux linked with C due to a given current
e.m.f. induced in the coil. in A. In fact, we may go still further and wind the two coils A and
C on an iron ring R, as in Fig. 2.
Let us now replace magnet NS of the previous figure by a coil A
(Fig. 1) connected through a switch S to a cell. At the instant The results obtained from the above experiments on
when S is closed, there is a momentary deflection on G; and electromagnetic induction may now be summarized thus:
when S is opened, G is deflected momentarily in the reverse
When a conductor cuts or is cut by magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is
direction. On the other hand, if S is kept closed and coil A moved
induced in the conductor; or alternatively, when there is a
towards C, the galvanometer is deflected in the same direction
change of magnetic flux passing through a circuit, an e.m.f. is
as when S was closed with A stationary. The withdrawal of A
induced in that circuit.
causes a deflection in the reverse direction. Deflection of G
continues only while there is relative movement between the two The direction of the induced e.m.f. depends upon the direction of
coils, i.e. while the magnetic flux passing through coil C is the magnetic flux and upon the direction in which the flux moves
changing. The dotted lines in Fig. 1 represent the distribution of relative to the conductor.
the magnetic flux due to current in coil A. When S is opened, the The magnitude of the e.m.f. is proportional to the rate at which
current falls to zero. Consequently, the magnetic flux of A must the conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux; or alternatively,
also disappear; in other words, the magnetic flux is said to the magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a circuit is proportional to
collapse towards A, and in so doing, the flux that passed through the rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. This last
(or was linked with) coil C cuts the latter and induces an e.m.f. in statement is often referred to as Faraday's Law of
it. Electromagnetic Induction.
Rev. 01 4 3.11
Figure 1 Figure 2
Rev. 01 5 3.11
LENZ’S LAW AND POLARITY DETERMINING RULE

In the present case it is the relative motion of the magnet with
respect to the coil, which is the cause of the production of the
The characteristics of an induced current are stated in Lenz's induced current. Hence, the induced current always flows in
law as follows: “An induced current always flows in such a such a direction that tends to oppose this relative motion i.e. the
direction that its field tends to opposes any change in the e field approach or withdrawal of the magnet.
that created it”. The direction of the magnetic field inside a coil may be
In Fig. 1(a) it will be seen that the north pole of the coil is determined in one of two ways.
adjacent to the north pole of the bar magnet; hence it opposes
the insertion of the magnet into the coil. At the instant that the
magnet begins to move out of the coil, current induced in the coil LEFT HAND GRASP RULE
changes to the opposite direction; hence the field of the coil is
reversed. The south pole of the coil field is now adjacent to the
north pole of the bar magnet and opposes the withdrawal of the This is defined as: If it is imagined that the left hand is laid on the
magnet (see Fig. 1b). outside of the coil so that the fingers line up with the direction of
the current flow in the turns of the wire, the extended thumb
It can be shown that the Lenz’s Law is a direct consequence of points in the direction of the NORTH Pole. (See Fig. 2)
the law of conservation of energy. Imagine for a moment that
when the N-pole of the magnet approaches the coil, induced
current flows in such a direction as to make the coil face a S- THE CLOCK RULE
pole. Then due to inherent attraction between unlike poles, the
magnet would be automatically pulled towards the coil without
the expenditure of any mechanical energy. It means that we This is defined as: If a solenoid is viewed from the end, the end
would be able to create electric energy out of nothing, which is nearest will be NORTH if the current through the coil is
denied by the inviolable law of conservation of energy. In fact to CLOCKWISE, and SOUTH if it is ANTI-CLOCKWISE.
maintain the sanctity of this law, it is imperative for the induced
current to flow in such a direction that the magnetic effect
produced by it tends to oppose the very cause that produces it.
Rev. 01 6 3.11
Figure 1 Figure 2
Rev. 01 7 3.11
ACTION OF INDUCING A VOLTAGE IN A

CONDUCTOR MOVING IN A MAGNETIC FIELD Another method for determining the direction of induced voltage
is easily applied. Assume that the conductor moving through the
The basic principle of this action is shown in Figure 1. As the field breaks off sections of the lines of force and causes them to
conductor is moved through the field, a voltage is induced in it. wrap around the conductor as illustrated in Figure 3. By applying
The same action takes place if the conductor is stationary and the left-hand rule for conductors, it can be seen that if the
the magnetic field is moved. lines of force curl around the conductor in a counterclockwise
direction, the positive end of the conductor is toward the
observer. Since the current travels from negative to positive, it is
DIRECTION OF THE INDUCE EMF going into the paper in the illustration.
The direction of the induced voltage depends on the direction of The left-hand rule for conductors may be stated as follows:
the field and may be determined by the Fleming’s left hand “When a conductor is held in the left hand with the thumb
rule. pointing in the direction of current flow, the fingers will be
“Extend the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the left hand pointing in the direction of the magnetic field. Conversely, if a
so that they are at right angles to one another, as shown in Fig. conductor is held in the left hand with the fingers around the
2. Turn the hand so that the index finger points in the direction of conductor in the direction of the magnetic field, the extended
the magnetic field and the thumb points in the direction of thumb will be pointing in the direction of the current flow”.
conductor movement. Then the middle finger will be pointing in
the direction of the induced voltage”.
These rules are based upon the fact that current flows from
negative to positive.
Rev. 01 8 3.11
Figure 2
Figure 1
Figure 3
Rev. 01 9 3.11
MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUCED E.M.F.

But, Bld = the total magnetic flux, Φ webbers, in the area shown
Figure represents the elevation and plan of a conductor AA shaded, and is therefore the flux cut by the conductor when the
situated in an air gap between poles NS. Suppose AA to be latter is moved from AA to BB. Hence,
carrying a current, I amperes, in direction shown. By applying Φ
either the screw or the grip rule, it is found that the effect of this E=
current is to strengthen the flux on the right and weaken that on
t
the left of A, so that there is a force of BlI newtons urging the
conductor towards the left, where B is the flux density in webbers
i.e. the e.m.f., in volts, generated in a conductor is equal to the
per square meter and l is the length in meters of the conductor in
rate (in webers/second) at which the magnetic flux is cutting or
the magnetic field. Hence, a force of this magnitude has to be
being cut by the conductor; and the weber may therefore be
applied in the opposite direction to move A towards the right.
defined as “that magnetic flux which when cut by a conductor in
The work done in moving conductor AA through a distance d 1 second generates an e.m.f. of 1 volt”.
meters to position BB is BlI × d newton meters or joules. If this
movement of AA takes place at a uniform velocity in t seconds,
the e.m.f. induced in the conductor is constant at, say, E volts.
Hence the electrical power generated in AA is IE watts and the Example
electrical energy is IEt watt seconds or joules. Since the
mechanical energy expended in moving the conductor A four-pole generator has a magnetic flux of 12 milli-webers per
horizontally across the gap is all converted into electrical energy, pole. Calculate the average value of the e.m.f generated in one
then of the armature conductors while it is moving through the
magnetic flux of one pole, if the armature is driven at 900
rev/min.
IEt = BlId
Bld
∴ E= volts
t
Rev. 01 10 3.11
Rev. 01 11 3.11
MAGNITUDE OF E.M.F. INDUCED IN A COIL Next, let us consider the case of the two coils, A and C, shown in
Fig. 3. Suppose that when switch S is closed, the flux in the ring
increases by Φ webers in t seconds. Then if coil A has N1 turns,
Suppose the magnetic flux through a coil of N turns to be
increased by Φ webers in t seconds due to, say, the relative Φ
Average e.m.f. induced in A = − N 1 volts.
movement of the coil and a magnet (Fig. 1). Since the magnetic t
flux cuts each turn, one turn can be regarded as a conductor cut
The minus sign signifies that this e.m.f., in accordance with
by Φ webers in t seconds; hence, we know the average e.m.f;
Lenz's Law, is acting in opposition to the current, trying to
induced in each turn is Φ/t volts. The current due, to this e.m.f., prevent its growth. Hence the induced e.m.f. is acting in
by Lenz’s Law, tries to prevent the increase of flux, i.e. tends to opposition to the battery e.m.f., the direction of which is assumed
set up an opposing flux. Thus, if the magnet NS in Fig. 2 is to be positive.
moved towards coil C, the flux passing from left to right through
the latter is increased. The e.m.f. induced in the coil circulates a If coil C is wound with N2 turns and if all the flux produced by coil
current in the direction represented by the dot and cross in Fig 2, A passes through C,
where for simplicity coil C is represented as one turn. The effect
Φ
of this current is to distort the magnetic field as shown by the Average e.m.f. induced in C = − N 2 volts.
dotted lines, thereby tending to push the coil away from the t
magnet. By Newton's Third Law of Motion, there must be an In this case the minus sign signifies that the e.m.f. circulates a
equal force tending to oppose the movement of the magnet. current in such a direction as to tend to set up a flux in
Owing to the fact that the induced e.m.f. circulates a current opposition to that produced by the current in coil A, thereby
tending to oppose the increase of flux through the coil, its delaying the growth of flux in the ring.
direction is regarded as negative. Hence,
average e.m.f. induced in 1 turn = -Φ/t volts Example.
= - average rate of increase of flux in webers per second A magnetic flux of 400 µwb passing through a coil of 1200 turns
and average e.m.f. induced in coil = -Φ/t volts is reversed in 0.1 s. Calculate the average value of the e.m.f.
induced in the coil.
= -average rate of increase of flux-linkages per second
Rev. 01 12 3.11
Figure 1 Figure 2
Figure 3
Rev. 01 13 3.11
INDUCTION PRINCIPLES
Then the area swept by it = ldx.
Electromagnetic induction occurs whenever there is a relative
movement between a conductor and a magnetic field, provided Hence flux cut =ldxB webers.
that the conductor is cutting across (linking with) magnetic lines ∴ Change in Flux =Bldx webers
of force and is not moving parallel to them. The relative
movement may be caused by a stationary conductor and a Time taken =dt seconds
moving field or by a moving conductor with a stationary field. A According to faraday’s Law,
moving field may be provided by a moving magnet or by
changing the value of the current in an electromagnet. Dynamically induced e.m.f. = Rate of change of flux linkage.
The two general classifications of electromagnetic induction are Bldx dx
= = Bl = Blv
Dynamically induced e.m.f. (Generator action) and Statically dt dt
induced e.m.f. (Transformer action). Both actions are the same
electrically, but the methods of operation are different. If the conductor A moves at an angle θ with the direction of flux
(Figure b), the induced e.m.f. is,
DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF

e = BlvSinθ volts
In this method of producing e.m.f. the relative motion is provided
by physically moving the field or the conductor with respect to
one another.
The direction of the induced e.m.f. is given by the Fleming’s Left
In the Figure a conductor A is shown in cross-section lying within Hand Rule.
a uniform magnetic field of flux density B wb/m2. The arrow It should be noted that generators work on the production of
attached with A shows its direction of motion. Consider the
dynamically induced e.m.f. in the conductors housed in a
condition shown in Figure (a), when A cuts across at right angles
revolving armature lying within a strong magnetic field.
to the flux. Suppose l is its length lying within the field and let it
move a distance dx in time dt.
Rev. 01 14 3.11
(b)
(a)
Rev. 01 15 3.11
Examples. STATICALLY INDUCED E.M.F.

A conductor of length 100 cm moves at right angles to a uniform
magnetic field of flux density 1.5 wb/m2 with a velocity of 500
Statically induced e.m.f. can be further divided into two.
meters/second. Calculate the e.m.f. induced in it. Find also the
value of induced e.m.f. when the conductor moves at an angles Self induced e.m.f. and
of 300 to the direction of the field. Mutually induced e.m.f.
A straight conductor 25 cm long carries 100 A and lies

perpendicular to a uniform field of flux density 0.5 wb/m2. Find
The mechanical force acting on the conductor
The power necessary to drive the conductor against the force at
a uniform speed of 1.27 m/sec.
The e.m.f. generated in the conductor.
The electrical power developed.
Rev. 01 16 3.11
STUDENT NOTES
Rev. 01 17 3.11
SELF INDUCED E.M.F We know by experience that initially it is difficult to set a heavy
body into motion, but once in motion, it is equally difficult to stop
This is the e.m.f. induced in a coil due to the change of its' own it. Similarly in a coil having a large self-induction it is initially
flux linked with it. If current through the coil is changed, then the difficult to establish a current through it, but once established, it
flux linked ,with its own turns will also change which will produce is equally difficult to withdraw it. Hence self-induction is
in it what is called self-induced e.m.f. The direction of this sometimes analogously called electrical inertia or
induced e.m.f. (as given by Lenz's law), would be such as to electromagnetic inertia.
oppose any change of flux, which is, in fact, the very cause of its
production. Hence, it is also known as the opposing or counter
e.m.f. of self-induction. COEFFICIENT OF SELF-INDUCTION (L)
It may be defined in anyone of the three ways given below:
SELF-INDUCTANCE
Imagine a coil of wire, similar to one shown, connected to a FIRST METHOD
battery. It is found that whenever an effort is made to increase The coefficient of self-induction of a coil is defined as
current (and hence flux} through it, it is always opposed by the
instantaneous production of counter e.m.f. of self induction. “the weber-turns per ampere in the coil"
Energy required to overcome this opposition is supplied by the By 'weber turns' is meant the product of flux in webers and the
battery. As will be further explained later on, this energy is stored number of turns with, which the flux is linked. In other words, it is
in the additional flux produced. the flux linkages of the coil.
If now an effort is made to decrease the current (and hence the Consider a solenoid having N turns and carrying a current of I
flux) then again it is delayed due to the production of self- amps. If the flux produced is Φ webers, then weber-turns are
induced e.m.f., this time in the opposite direction. This property NΦ. Hence, weber turns per ampere are NΦ/I.
of the coil due to which it opposes any increase or decrease of
current or flux through it is known as self-inductance. It is NΦ
quantitatively measured in terms of coefficient of self-induction L. By definition, L= Henry
I
This property is analogous to inertia in a material body.
the unit of self-induction is Henry.
Rev. 01 18 3.11
Rev. 01 19 3.11
SECOND METHOD THIRD METHOD
We have seen that flux produced in a solenoid is NΦ

L= Henry
NI I
Φ=
l / µ0µr a NΦ = LI
Φ N − NΦ = − LI
∴ =
I l / µ0µr a Differentiating both sides we get (assuming L to be a constant)
d dI
− ( NΦ ) = − L.
NΦ N dt dt
But L= Hence L=N Henry
I l / µ0µr a dΦ dI
∴ −N = − L.
dt dt
N2 l
∴ L= Henry But, = Reluctance(S) dΦ
l / µ0µr a µ0µr a −N = Self induced e.m.f.
dt
dI
µ 0 µ r aN 2 N 2 ∴ e L = − L.
∴ L= or L= Henry dt
l S
dI
This gives the value of self-induction in terms of dimensions of If, = 1amps / sec , and e L = 1volts ; Then, L=1Henry
dt
the solenoid.
Hence, a coil has a self-inductance of one Henry if one volt is
induced in it when current through it changes at the rate of one
ampere per second.
Rev. 01 20 3.11
eL
Φ
N
Rev. 01 21 3.11
Examples.
1. The field winding of a d.c. electromagnet is wound with 960
turns and has resistance of 50Ω. When the exciting voltage
is 230 V, the magnetic flux linking the coil is 0.005 Wb.
Calculate the self-inductance of the coil and the energy
stored in the magnetic field.
2. A mild steel ring is wound with 300 turns. When the current
through the coil is reduced from 9 to 6 amps the flux
decreases from 950 to 910 µWb. Calculate the effective self-
induction of the coil over this range of current variation.
3. An air-cored solenoid 1 cm in diameter and 1 meter long has
an inductance of 0.1 mH. Find the number of effective turns
in the coil.
4. A solenoid 50 cm long and 10 cm in diameter is wound with
1500 turns. Find (a) the inductance (b) the energy stored in
the magnetic field when a current of 4 A flows in the coil.
5. An air cored toroidal coil has 450 turns and a mean diameter
of 30 cm and a cross-sectional area of 3cm2. Calculate (a)
the inductance of the coil (b) the average e.m.f. induced if a
current of 2A is reversed in 0.04 seconds.
Rev. 01 22 3.11
STUDENT NOTES
Rev. 01 23 3.11
MUTUALLY INDUCE E.M.F. These circular lines of force expand very rapidly and moreover
expand at right angles to the conductor.
Let us first take the case of two parallel conductors A and B lying It will be seen from Fig. 1 that some flux produced by current in
close to but not touching each other. Conductor A is connected A has cut conductor B. The flux that cuts B induces an e.m.f. in
to a battery through a switch S, whereas B is connected across a B which is called mutually induced e.m.f. This induced e.m.f. is
voltmeter. It is found that at the instant of closing or 'opening S, so called because it is produced in one conductor due to the
there is a momentary deflection in voltmeter. As is explained changes of flux in a neighboring conductor. Once the maximum
below, it is due to the production of mutually induced e.m.f. in B flux has been established, B will not be cut further by more flux
which is produced because of change in flux linked with B. with the result that no further e.m.f. will be induced in it, because
It has been shown before that every current carrying conductor e.m.f. is induced only when the flux linked with the coil or a
is enshrouded by circular magnetic lines of force. But it should conductor is changing.
be remembered that this field is not established to its full When S is opened (Fig. 2), then current in A will rapidly but not
strength instantaneously on closing the switch S. It needs both instantaneously decrease to zero value. Hence flux will also
time and energy (supplied by the battery) to bring this field to its decrease to zero. The circular lines of force will, therefore,
full strength, because current always takes some time (though contract, return to the axis of A and vanish. These lines, while
very small) to come to its maximum steady value. The gradual returning to A will cut B in a direction opposite to that in, which
increase of current strength and hence of field strength around A they cut it while expanding outwards from A. Hence they will
is shown in Fig. 1. again induce an e.m.f. in B, though this time in the opposite
In Fig. 1, S has been closed and initially only a few lines of force direction.
encircle A. But as current through A increases gradually, the So we conclude that: -
number of lines of force produced also increases. At one stage it
is assumed that both current and flux around A have reached A momentary e.m.f. is induced in B whenever S is closed or
their maximum steady values and, will continue at these values opened. This is shown by the momentary deflection of the
till S is opened. voltmeter.
As the flux increases, these lines of force may be thought of as No e.m.f. is induced in B when current through A is constant.
emanating, i.e., expanding outward from the axis of the The direction of the induced e.m.f. in B is opposite to that in A as
conductor A, just as ripples emanate from the point where a required by Lenz's law.
stone piece is dropped in a pond.
Rev. 01 24 3.11
Figure 1 Figure 2
Rev. 01 25 3.11
Let us now consider two coils A and B lying close to each other Coefficient of mutual inductance can be defined in three ways.
Coil A is joined to a battery, and a switch whereas coil B is
connected to a sensitive voltmeter. When current through A is
established by closing the switch, then its magnetic field is set up
which partly links with or threads through the coil B. As current FIRST METHOD
through A is changed, the flux linked with B is also changed,
Hence, mutually induced e.m.f. is produced in B, whose
magnitude is given by Faraday's Laws and direction by Lenz's Let there be two magnetically coupled coils having N1 and N2
Law. turns respectively. Coefficient of mutual inductance between the
two coils is defined as
If now battery is connected to B and the voltmeter across A then
the situation is reversed and now a change of current in B will “the weber-turns in one coil due to one ampere current in the
produce mutually induced e.m.f. in A. other”.
It is obvious that in either of the two examples considered above, Let a current of I1 amperes when flowing in the first coil produce
there is no movement of any conductor, the flux variations being a flux Φ1 webers in it. It is supposed that whole of this flux links
brought about by variations in current strength only. Such an with the turns of the second coil. Then flux linkages i.e. weber-
e.m.f. induced in one coil by the influence of the other coil is turns in the second coil for unit current in the first coil are N2Φ1/I1.
called statically but mutually induced e.m.f.
Hence by definition,
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
We have seen that any change of current in coil A is always
N 2 Φ1
accompanied by the production of mutually induced e.m.f. in coil M = Henry
B. Mutual inductance may therefore be defined as the ability of a I1
coil (or circuit) to produce an e.m.f. in a nearby coil by induction
when the current in the first coil changes. This action being
reciprocal, the second coil can also induce an e.m.f. in the first
when the current in the second coil changes. This ability of
reciprocal induction is measured in terms of the coefficient of
mutual induction M.
Rev. 01 26 3.11
I1 I2
N1 N2
Φ1 Φ2
Rev. 01 27 3.11
SECOND METHOD THIRD METHOD
We will now deduce an expression for the coefficient of mutual N 2 Φ1

inductance in terms of the dimensions of he two coils. M = Henry
I1
N1 I1
Flux in the first coil Φ1 = Wb N 2 Φ 1 = MI 2
l / µ0µr a
− N 2 Φ 1 = − MI 1
Φ1 N1
=
I1 l / µ 0 µ r a Differentiating both sides we get (assuming M to be a constant)
d dI
− ( N 2 Φ1 ) = −M . 1
dt dt
Assuming that whole of this flux (it usually is some percentage of
it) is linked with the other coil having N2 turns then by definition; d
− ( N 2 Φ 1 ) = Mutually induced e.m.f. in the second
dt
coil=eM
N Φ N1
M = 2 1 Hence M = N2 Henry
I1 l / µ0µr a
dI 1
N 2 N1 l ∴ eM = − M .
∴M = Henry. But, = Reluctance(S) dt
l / µ0µr a µ0µr a
dI 1
µ 0 µ r aN 1 N 2 N N If, = 1amps / sec , and e M = 1volts ; Then, M=1Henry
∴ M = or M = 1 2 Henry dt
l S Hence, a coil is said to have a mutual inductance of one Henry if
the current changing at the rate of one ampere per second in
one coil induces an e.m.f. of one volts in the other.
Rev. 01 28 3.11
I1 I2
N1 N2
eM
Φ1 Φ2
Rev. 01 29 3.11
Examples.
1. Two identical coils X and Y of 1000 turns each lie in parallel
planes such that 80% of flux produced by one coil links with
the other. If a current of 5A flowing in X produces a flux of
0.05 mWb in it, find the mutual inductance between X and Y.
2. Two coils of 1200 and 150 turns respectively are wound on a
common iron magnetic core of reluctance 2.4×105 AT/Wb.
Neglecting any leakage of flux, calculate their mutual
inductance.
3. Two coils having 100 and 150 turns respectively are wound
side by side on a closed iron circuit of section 125 sqcm and
mean length of 200cm. Determine the mutual inductance
between the coils assuming relative permeability if iron as
2000. What will be the e.m.f. induced in the second coil if the
current changes from zero to 5A in the first coil in 0.02 sec.
Rev. 01 30 3.11
STUDENT NOTES
Rev. 01 31 3.11
PRINCIPLE USES OF INDUCTORS Ep Np

=
Es Ns
INDUCTION COILS
Induction coils, often called spark coils, are used extensively to Where Ep and Es = voltages
produce the spark necessary for the ignition of fuel in gasoline Np and Ns = number of turns of wire in primary and secondary
engines. Such a coil is actually a special type of transformer. By coils.
means of the induction coil, the low voltage of a battery is
stepped up to several thousand volts so that it will jump the gap In an ignition system, the current through the primary coil is
of a spark plug and create a spark. The primary winding of an interrupted at the instant when a spark is desired in the cylinder
induction coil consists of relatively few turns of large wire and will of the engine. This is accomplished by means of a set of cam-
carry sufficient current to set up a strong magnetic field through actuated breaker points. The cam is driven by the engine and is
the soft-iron core. The core consists of thin iron laminations or timed to open the breaker points at the correct point for the firing
insulated iron wires bound together in the size and shape of the fuel charge in the cylinder.
desired. This type of construction reduces the effects of the eddy Figure shows a schematic circuit for a typical induction coil used
currents induced in the core. In a solid core, eddy currents are in an ignition system. It will be noted that a capacitor (condenser)
quite strong and cause heating as well as loss of power. is connected in parallel with the breaker points. The purpose of
The secondary winding in an induction coil, placed concentrically this capacitor is to cause the magnetic field to collapse more
around the primary winding, consists of many turns of fine wire. rapidly and to reduce the arcing at the breaker points. The
The number of turns in the secondary winding depends on the capacitor accomplishes these functions by absorbing the voltage
voltage to be produced by the coil. induced in the primary when the magnetic field collapses. The
theory of capacitors is explained in another section of this text.
When a magnetic field is built up by the primary coil, the
magnetic flux links with the many turns of wire in the secondary When the breaker points close in the primary circuit of an
coil and induces a relatively high voltage in the secondary. The induction coil, the buildup of current is gradual, even though it
voltage induced in the secondary coil is in approximately the appears to be almost instantaneous. Since the current buildup is
same ratio to the voltage in the primary coil as the ratio of the gradual, so also is the buildup of the magnetic field. The full
number of turns in the secondary coil is to the number of turns in current flow does not take place instantaneously because of the
the primary coil. This relationship may be expressed by the effects of self-inductance as defined in Lenz's law. That is, as the
following equation: long as the current flow is increasing.
Rev. 01 32 3.11
Induction coil with a mechanical circuit breaker
Rev. 01 33 3.11
The effect of the gradual increase in field strength is to reduce Coils of the type described in the foregoing paragraph are often
the induced voltage in the secondary winding. The capacitor used as boosters in aircraft ignition systems. Such a coil
connected across the breaker points in the primary circuit, supplies a spark during the starting of the engine, when the
counteracts the effects of self-inductance when the breaker magneto is not turning fast enough to produce satisfactory
points are opened; hence at this time there is a instantaneous ignition.
collapse of the current flow and magnetic field. This very rapid
collapse of the field results in a great increase in the voltage
induced in the secondary coil. It is this high voltage which
produces the spark at the spark gap.
Figure 1 illustrates graphically the approximate rate of current
increase compared with current decrease in the primary winding
of an induction coil as the breaker points are closed and then
opened.
Some induction coils are provided with self-actuate breaker
points. In coils of this type the breaker points are opened by the
magnetic field of the primary coil. Figure 2 is a schematic
diagram of an induction coil utilizing vibrator mechanism as a
circuit interrupter to produce the spark. The breaker points are
normally held in the close position by spring tension. When the
switch is closed, the magnetic field of the core attracts the
armature and opens the breaker points. This action breaks the
primary circuit and causes the field to collapse. The collapse of
the field induces a high voltage in the secondary circuit, and the
voltage produces the spark across the spark gap. The collapse
of the field also releases the contact points, which are
immediately closed by spring tension. Again the field builds up in
the primary, and the cycle is repeated. This action continues for
as long as the switch is closed, and a steady shower of sparks
occurs at the spark gap.
Rev. 01 34 3.11
Figure 2 Primary current in an

Figure 1 Spark-coil induction coil
Rev. 01 35 3.11
THE MAGNETO Figure is a diagram of a small high-tension ignition system for a

six-cylinder opposed engine. Reference to this diagram will help
A magneto is an excellent example of the application of
the student to gain an understanding of the magneto operation.
electromagnetic induction. It has been explained that
electromagnetic induction takes place whenever there is a The purpose of a magneto is to develop voltage of sufficient
relative movement between a conductor and a magnetic field. In strength to jump the gap of a spark plug in the cylinder of an
a magneto, the magnetic field is provided by a permanent engine. This voltage is necessary at the instant when the fuel-air
magnet. A coil of wire is located in such a position that it will be charge in the engine is to be ignited and the magneto is
linked by the field of the permanent magnet whenever the field is designed to produce the maximum voltage only when it is
set in motion. In some magnetos, the permanent magnet is required.
rotated to produce the required motion of the field, and in others,
Since the value of an induced voltage depends upon the rate of
the magnetic flux is carried by rotating, soft-iron inductors.
current change in a coil, breaker points are incorporated in the
The coil of a high-tension magneto contains two separate primary circuit of the magneto to cause an instantaneous
windings. The primary winding consists of relatively large copper collapse of the primary current and magnetic field. During the
wire and the secondary winding of many thousands of turns of time that the breaker points are closed, the primary current
very fine wire. Thus the coil assembly is actually a high-ratio increases because of the flux change produced by the rotating
step-up transformer. Only the primary winding is included in the permanent magnet. As the magnet rotates, the magnetic flux
magneto for a low-tension ignition system. reaches maximum strength through the core of the primary coil
and then begins to decrease. The primary current increases in a
The coil assembly is wound on a laminated soft-iron core, which
direction, which sets up a field to oppose the decrease in the
is mounted between the pole shoes of the magneto. The
magnet field. When the maximum opposition exists between the
magnetic flux passes from one pole of the permanent magnet
rotating-magnet field and the primary current field, the breaker
into one of the pole shoes and through the core of the coil. It
points are opened by a cam and there occurs an instantaneous
returns to the opposite pole of the magnet through the other pole
reversal of the magnetic field. This rapid flux reversal produces a
shoe, thus completing the magnetic circuit. When the permanent
very high voltage in the secondary winding of the coil.
magnet rotates between the pole shoes, it causes a rapid
reversal of the flux through the core of the coil, thus inducing a
voltage in the coil.
Rev. 01 36 3.11
Rev. 01 37 3.11
Because of the opposition between the rotating-magnet field and The secondary winding is connected through a distributor to the
the primary-current field, a high stress exists immediately before spark plugs of the engine, and the magneto is timed to the
the breaker points open. This is because the flux from the engine so that the high voltage is produced at the instant that it
rotating magnet has dropped to zero and has begun to exert is needed to ignite the fuel-air charge in each cylinder. Note
force in the opposite direction. The primary field at this time is particularly in the Figure that the distributor terminals are not
maintained entirely by the current flowing in the primary circuit. connected to the correspondingly numbered spark plugs; engine
Hence, it can be seen that there are two magnetic forces acting cylinders do not fire in numerical sequence. The firing order of a
against each other. The m.m.f. of the primary coil is maintaining typical six-cylinder opposed engine, such as that represented in
the field while the force of the rotating magnet is attempting to the diagram, is 1-4-5-2-3-6; hence, the distributor terminals must
reverse the field. The stress thus produced is comparable to the be connected as follows: 1 to 1, 2 to 4, 3 to 5, 4 to 2, 5 to 3, and
tension of a spring. When the breaker points open, the action 6 to 6.
may be compared to the releasing of a trigger which permits the
If the primary circuit of a magneto were closed continuously, the
spring to snap forward violently. This, of course, represents the
magneto would generate a relatively high alternating voltage,
rapid reversal of the magnetic field.
which would not, however, be high enough to jump the gap in a
A capacitor is connected in parallel with the breaker points to spark plug. The breaker points increase the voltage induced in
absorb the voltage induced in the primary coil by a sudden the secondary coil because they produce an instantaneous
change in the magnetic field. This absorption results in a more collapse of the magnetic field. The breaker points also make it
rapid collapse of the field and prevents the current from arcing possible to time the spark for the instant at which it is needed in
across the breaker points. If an arc were permitted at the breaker the cylinder.
points, the points would burn and the primary current would
There are many types of magnetos designed for aircraft engines,
decrease gradually instead of instantaneously.
but it is beyond the scope of this text to describe in detail their
As shown in the Figure, the secondary winding is wound upon construction and operation. The foregoing description of
the core with the primary coil. This arrangement provides for the magneto theory is intended only to show the student how
maximum effect when the field collapses, and a very high electromagnetic induction is applied in the operation of
voltage is consequently produced in the secondary coil. The fact magnetos.
that the secondary winding consists of many thousands of turns
of fine wire is one of the principal reasons why it is possible to
develop an e.m.f. of several thousand volts.
Rev. 01 38 3.11
Rev. 01 39 3.11
Student Notes:
Rev. 01 40 3.11

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Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.11 – INDUCTANCE / INDUCTOR

SUB MODULE 3.11

Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Page

Faraday’s Laws Of Electromagnetic Induction ............................2 Principle Uses Of Inductors.......................................................32

Action Of Inducing A Voltage In A Conductor Moving In A

Induction Principles ...................................................................14

Self Induced E.M.F....................................................................18

Mutually Induce E.M.F...............................................................24

“The training notes and diagrams are

LENZ’S LAW AND POLARITY DETERMINING RULE

ACTION OF INDUCING A VOLTAGE IN A

MAGNITUDE OF THE INDUCED E.M.F.

DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF

Examples. STATICALLY INDUCED E.M.F.

A straight conductor 25 cm long carries 100 A and lies

SECOND METHOD THIRD METHOD

We have seen that flux produced in a solenoid is NΦ

SECOND METHOD THIRD METHOD

We will now deduce an expression for the coefficient of mutual N 2 Φ1

PRINCIPLE USES OF INDUCTORS Ep Np

Induction coil with a mechanical circuit breaker

Figure 2 Primary current in an

THE MAGNETO Figure is a diagram of a small high-tension ignition system for a

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