Chapter 1

ROTATING
EQUIPMENT
ROTATING
EQUIPMENT
Maintenance and Troubleshooting
DR JAMES M. WATTERSON
Rotating Equipment: Maintenance and Troubleshooting
Copyright © Momentum Press®, LLC, 2019.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—
electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other—except for
brief quotations, not to exceed 250 words, without the prior permission
of the publisher.
First published in 2019 by

Momentum Press®, LLC
222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017
www.momentumpress.net
ISBN-13: 978-1-94708-372-1 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-94708-373-8 (e-book)
Momentum Press Engineering Technology Collection
Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Service Ltd.

Chennai, India
First edition: 2019
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America

Abstract
Rotating Equipment: Maintenance and troubleshooting has been written

on the back of Dr. Watterson’s experience in working with over 20 oil
refineries and petrochemical and fertilizer industries worldwide, which
spans over 30 years. Every aspect of rotating equipment is explored, from
turbines, both gas and steam, compressors, pumps to the use of predictive
maintenance equipment.
Included in this book is an in-depth explanation of predictive main-
tenance techniques, such as ultrasound testing, eddy curves, visual testing
techniques, such as stroboscope, liquid penetrant, and vibration monitoring.
Dr. Watterson also describes clearly the value of online condition-based
monitoring of rotating equipment. The primary objective of this book is
to show the way to reduce cost and frequency of planned maintenance by
detection of abnormalities on equipment’s operating and preset perform-
ance parameters.
KEYWORDS
Understanding Abrasives in mechanical seal failure; bearing failure

types; centrifugal pumps failures; reciprocating pumps; gears & gear
boxes performance and failure patterns
Contents
Acknowledgments xiii
Chapter 1 Pumps 1
Pumps—Reciprocating and Centrifugal 1
Power Pumps 1
Characteristics 3
Materials of Construction 3
Valves3
Capacity Control 3
Power Pumps 4
Diaphragm Pumps 4
Characteristics 5
Control of Capacity 6
Typical Applications 6
Advantages 6
Disadvantages 6
Rotary Pumps 6
Principle 6
Characteristics 9
Rotary Pumps 10
Gear Pumps 10
Spur Gear Pump 10
Herringbone Gear Pump 10
Internal Gear Pump 10
Lobe Pumps 11
Sliding Vane Pumps 11
Screw Pumps 12
Helical Pumps 12
viii • CONTENTS
Typical Applications 13
Advantages 13
Disadvantages 13
Simple Pumping Action of Reciprocating Positive
Displacement Pumps 14
Piston and Plunger Variety 14
Pumping Action 14
Piston and Plunger Packing 17
Piston/Plunger Pumps—Variable Displacement
Devices 20
Lost Motion 20
Variable Crank Throws 21
Stroke Transformers 22
Pulsation Dampers and Suction Stabilizers 23
Pump Operation—Protection Devices 25
Bypasses and Relief Valves 25
Positive Displacement Pump’s Valves 26
Cylinder Valves 26
The Ball Valve 26
The Disc Valve 27
Bowl Valves 28
Turret Assemblies (Figure 1.34) 30
Pistons, Piston Rings, and Plungers 30
Lubrication of Positive Displacement Pump Bearings
and Parts 31
Troubleshooting List for Rotary Pumps 35
Troubleshooting List for Reciprocating Pumps 36
Pumps and Pumping 37
Centrifugal Pumps or Rotodynamic Pumps 38
Pump Losses 39
Centrifugal Pumps are Kinetic Pumps 39
Components of Centrifugal Pumps 42
Impeller 43
Casing43
Shaft44
Shaft Sleeve 44
Wear Rings 44
Stuffing Box (Packing Box) 44
Wearing Rings and Balancing of Single-stage Pumps 44
Balancing 46
CONTENTS • ix
Terminology 47
Head47
Vapor and Vapor Pressure 49
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 50
NPSH Available 50
NPSH Required 50
Cavitation 51
Reduction of Cavitation 52
Cavitation Can Be Eliminated/Reduced By 52
Vapor Lock 52
Friction Head 52
Efficiency 53
Multistage Pumps 53
Balancing of Multistage Pumps 54
Balancing Disc 60
Balancing Drums or Pistons 61
Construction of Centrifugal Pumps 63
Types of Impeller 63
Types of Pump Casing 64
Radial Thrust 67
Diffuser Type Pump Casings 68
Pump Case Sealing 69
Packing Seals 69
Packing Materials 72
Installation of Packing 73
Bearings 74
Maintenance of Centrifugal Pumps 76
Checking Impeller Wearing Rings 76
Checking Casing Wearing Rings 77
Repair and Replacement of Casing and
Impeller Wearing Rings 78
Checking the Shaft 78
Straightening a Shaft (Not for
Close-coupled Types) 80
Final Checkup before Assembling Multistage
Pumps 81
Recommended Clearances for Centrifugal Pumps 82
Between Shaft Sleeve and Bushing 82
Between Impeller Wearing Ring and
Casing Wearing Ring 84
x • CONTENTS
Use of the Graph 85

Operation of Centrifugal Pumps 87
Chapter 2 Mechanical Seals 91
Unbalanced and Balanced Mechanical Seals 94
Balanced Seals 95
Special Seals 98
Quenching 99
Flushing 100
Double Seals 101
Back-to-Back Arrangement 101
Tandem Arrangement 102
Dry Gas Seals—(Compressors) 103
Seals—Common Causes of Failure 106
Mechanical Conditions 106
Hydraulic Conditions 106
Troubleshooting Mechanical Seals 107
Abrasives 110
Incorrect Lapping 111
Cokes Buildup 112
Excessive Wear/Overloading 112
Cracked and Chipped Faces 112
Heat Cracks or Heat Checks 113
Rectification 113
Extreme Wear of Soft Faces 113
Corrosion 114
Slipstick 115
Freezing and/or Sticking of Faces 115
Deformation of Faces (Due to Temperature
and/or Pressure) 115
Blistering 116
Vibration 117
Cavitation 117
Possible Leakage Paths from a Standard Balanced Seal 118
Chapter 3 Bearings—Journal—Thrust—Rolling
Element and Failure Patterns 119
Function of a Bearing 120
Load Bearing and Performance Capacities 120
Bearing Friction 120
Journal Bearings 121
Bearing Design 122
Geometries 123
CONTENTS • xi
Plain Bearing 124

Lemon Bore 124
Pressure Dam 125
Tilting Pad 126
Rolling Element Bearings 128
Rigid Ball Journal Bearing (Single Row) 129
Rigid Ball Journal Bearing (Double Row) 129
Self-aligning Ball Bearings (Double Row) 130
Angular Contact Bearings (Paired) 130
Rigid Roller Journal Bearings 132
Needle Roller Bearings 132
Taper Roller Bearings 133
Thrust Bearings (Ball Thrust Bearings) 134
Snap Rings 134
Shield and Sealed Bearings 134
Builtin Seals 135
Creep in Standard Bearings 135
Creep in Location Bearings 136
Installation of Bearings 137
Methods of Fitting Bearings 139
Expanding the Bearing 139
Freezing the Bearing 140
Removal of Bearings 141
By Grinding 141
Bearing Housing Sealing Methods 143
Noncontact Seals 143
Contact Seals 145
Lip Seals 146
V-Ring Seals 147
Combination Seals 147
Bearing Lubrication 147
Rolling Element Bearings 150
Classification of Failures 150
Metallurgical Factors and Manufacture 150
Poor Assembly 151
Misalignment 151
Poor Assembly 151
Dirt in the Lubricant 151
Fatigue Cracks and Pits 152
Fretting and False Brineling 152
Corrosion 153
Contact Staining 153
xii • CONTENTS
General Corrosion 154

Inadequate Lubrication 154
Electrical Discharge 154
Picture Gallery of Rolling Element Bearing Failures 155
Legend for Rolling Element Bearing Faults Picture
Gallery 161
Metallurgical Aspects of Plain Bearing Failures 163
Bearing Operation 164
Bearing Properties 164
Bearing Materials 165
White Metals 165
Copper–Lead Alloys 166
Overlays 166
Bearing Failures 168
Metallurgical Defects 168
Installation and Operation 169
Bearing Failures—Summary 173
Picture Gallery of Plain Bearing Failures 174
About the Author 193
Index 195
Acknowledgments
My sincere thanks are due to many people who guided me in completing

this book. I am indebted to the women in my life, especially my wife Ann,
who is a constant source of encouragement through difficult times. I also
want to thank my project manager Kiruthigadevi Nirmaladevi, who end-
lessly kept me on the right track. Also, many thanks to John Crane and
company for allowing to the use of some of their sketches.
CHAPTER 1
Pumps
Discharge nozzle
Volute Casing
Bearings
Impeller
Seal
Suction
Shaft
nozzle Oil rings
Centrifugal pump
PUMPS—RECIPROCATING AND CENTRIFUGAL
A plunger or diaphragm reciprocates, resulting in an alternating increase

and decrease in the volume of the pump body or case (Figure 1.1). As the
plunger withdraws, suction pressure forces liquid to enter the pump, and
as the plunger returns, it displaces the liquid, forcing it out through the
discharge. Check valves in suction and discharge prevent backflow.
The plunger pump is the oldest type still in common use.
POWER PUMPS
Power: The piston or plunger is driven by an external power source through

cranks or eccentrics (Figures 1.2, and 1.3).
Power sources are electric motors, gas or diesel engines, and gas turbines.
2 • ROTATING EQUIPMENT
Figure 1.1. Principle of the reciprocating pump
Figure 1.2. Piston type power pump
Figure 1.3. Plunger-type power pump with adjustable stroke
Pumps are usually classified by:
a. Driven mechanism—piston (Figure 1.2) or plunger (Figure 1.3) and

arrangement (horizontal, vertical, inverted).
b. Single- (Figure 1.3) or double-acting fluid end.
Pumps • 3
c. Number of cranks or eccentric throws. (Figure 1.7 shows partial

section through vertical triplex pump.)
d. Open, semi-enclosed, or enclosed frame.
e. Fixed or variable stroke or speed.
CHARACTERISTICS
Flow pattern tries to conform to the pumping system and may be smoothed
out where necessary by the installation of pulsation dampeners. Pumps
have a high head and low capacity compared with centrifugal types.
Sizes
1. Horsepower: Fractional to about 2,500.
2. Capacities: Up to about 1,800 gal/min.
3. Viscosities: Up to about 100,000 S.S.U.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
These are limited because of the moving parts, rubbing contact, and com-
plex bulky casings, especially in piston pumps.
Cast iron, steel, and bronze are the usual materials for power piston
pumps. Power plunger pumps are sometimes built from stainless steel and
special alloys, small sizes being available with plastic heads.
VALVES
Valves for reciprocating pumps are built in a variety of designs and ma-
terials, depending on the corrosiveness, viscosity, and abrasive content of
the fluid handled. Materials for the valve parts range from rubber and
plastics through a wide choice of metals, to such hard materials as sintered
carbides, ceramics, glass, and synthetic sapphire.
See page for detailed sketches.
CAPACITY CONTROL
a. Start–stop.
b. Variable speed drive.
c. Variable stroke length.
d. Bypass.
Synchronized suction valve unloading. (All can be manual or

automatic.)
POWER PUMPS
Advantages
a. High efficiency (90 percent and higher at full load).

b. High pressures, even at small capacities, at high efficiency.
c. Definite flow pattern—can be used for metering.
d. Simplicity and reliability, especially in modern types with auto-
matic self-lubrication, built-in reduction gears, special valve and
plunger materials, efficient rod packing, and so on.
e. Handling of high viscosity fluids, up to 2,500 S.S.U., with little
effect on performance, and speeds up to 400 ft/min and higher.
f. Smooth and quiet operation.
Disadvantages
a. Large space requirements.

b. Limited materials for construction.
c. High net positive suction head (NPSH) requirement compared with
centrifugal pumps.
d. General unsuitability for handling liquids containing solids, abra-
sives, or dirt.
e. High cost compared with centrifugal pump.
f. Need for protection from overpressure.
g. Pulsating flow, unless pump is multicylindered or has a special
drive mechanism or pulsation dampeners are fitted, either of which
increases greatly the expense of the unit.
DIAPHRAGM PUMPS
These might be included under power pumps except for certain peculiar-
ities. The diaphragm, which is the only connection between the driving
mechanism and the fluid being pumped, is used to contain the fluid, elim-
inating packing. It simply floats between the drive and fluid, isolating one
from the other. The diaphragms are actuated by compressed air or oil from
an external supply, by oil that is pumped by a piston (plunger) within the
pump itself (Figure 1.4), or by an entirely mechanical device consisting
Pumps • 5
of a piston or telescoping sleeves that deflect and support the diaphragm

(Figure 1.5). All styles have check valves, like any reciprocating pump, ex-
cept that the piston and packing work against oil, which is separated from
the process fluid by a flexible diaphragm. The oil simply acts as a cushion
between the piston and diaphragm and transmits the force.
Fluid
piston
Process
liquid
Suction position Discharge position
Figure 1.4 and 1.5. Diaphragm pump
CHARACTERISTICS
Flow pattern will be dependent on the drive used, electric motor, engine,
air, hydraulic, or steam supply.
If air, steam, or hydraulic drive, the pattern will conform to the sys-
tem. If the drive is a mechanical piston with or without an oil cushion, the
flow pattern will be definite. These pumps are generally used for moderate
heads and capacities.
Diaphragms: Synthetic rubber or natural rubber or stainless steel.

Casings: Cast iron, stainless steel, bronze, aluminum alloy, or plastic.
Valves: usually ball type—stainless steel, plastic, or ceramic.
CONTROL OF CAPACITY
a. Start–stop.
b. Variable speed drive.
c. Variable stroke.
d. Bypass.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Miscellaneous handling of corrosive, toxic, abrasive, or expensive mate-

rials, where packing leakage cannot be tolerated or the packing would not
stand up.
ADVANTAGES
a. No packing; therefore no leakage, a most desirable feature when

toxic, corrosive, or expensive materials are handled.
b. Efficient slurry handling.
c. Compact unit.
DISADVANTAGES
a. Limited materials of construction.

b. High NPSH requirements.
c. Pulsating flow.
ROTARY PUMPS
PRINCIPLE
In general, as the rotary member turns, it creates cavities, which move

from suction to discharge, forcing the liquid along. There are many varia-
tions of positive displacement pumps of a rotary nature; see Figures 1.6a–
1.6j shown under rotary pumps.
Types: See Figures 1.6a–1.6j.
1.6a. Spur gear, Herringbone, Internal gear.

1.6b. Lobe—a type of gear having two, three, or four teeth per gear.
1.6c. Screw—seal formed by meshing the screw with a helical stator or
with idler screws.
Pumps • 7
1.6d. Swinging vane.

1.6e. Sliding vane.
1.6f. Cam.
1.6g. Cam and piston.
1.6h. Radial piston.
1.6i. Rubber tube—action by cam, rollers, or succession of fingers that
squeeze the tube.
1.6j. Flexible vane.
Suction Discharge
Gear
Gear
Suction Discharge
Internal
gear
Gear
Crescent
Figure 1.6a. External gear pump internal gear pump
Discharge
Suction Discharge
Three
lobe rotor
Suction
Figure 1.6b. Three lobe pump four lobe pump
Figure 1.6c. Screw pump (single screw) Screw pump (triple screw)
Rotor Discharge Discharge
Suction
Suction
Potor
sliding
vones
Swinging
vones
Figure 1.6d. Swinging vane pump Figure 1.6e. Sliding vane pump
Intel Discharge Discharge
Seal
key Sholl
Suction
ation
Rd
Pistion
Eccentric
Roller Eccentric
Figure 1.6f. Cam or roller pump Figure 1.6g. Cam-and-piston pump
Flexible rubber
tube
Discharge
Shaff
Rolor
Shuttle block
lo w
Suction
df
Fl
ui
Push Eccentric
Squeegee ring
Figure 1.6h. Shuttle-block pump Figure 1.6i. Squeegee pump

Pumps • 9
Figure 1.6j. Flexible vane pump
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Flow is proportional to speed, except for losses due to a slip (internal

leakage from discharge to suction), which varies greatly with pres-
sure differential and viscosity.
a. Suction conditions.
b. Pressure (at the suction connection).
c. Vapor pressure of the liquid at pumping temperature.
d. Entrained or dissolved gas.
2. Flow is theoretically independent of the pressure differential. Actual
capacity is affected by increase in slip owing to the pressure.
3. Power varies directly with pressure and speed.
4. Power at constant speed and pressure varies with viscosity.
5. Rotary positive displacement pumps are good vapor handlers;
therefore, they are self-priming.
However, most types should never be operated dry, because liquid is needed
for sealing and lubricating the close clearances. A few types will handle dry gas.
1. Most common machineable metals and alloys. There are limitations

owing to the close clearances and rubbing contacts that are inherent
in the designs. If the materials have poor wearing or seizing charac-
teristics, the clearances must be increased, thereby, decreasing the
efficiency and necessitating oversized pumps.
2. Natural and synthetic rubbers.
3. Fluorocarbons.
4. Nylon.
5. Phenolic resins and other rigid plastics (vinyl, epoxy, furane, etc.).
6. Carbon.
7. Polyethylene.
The rubbers and plastics have limitations because they swell in some
fluids.
ROTARY PUMPS.
GEAR PUMPS.
Spur Gear Pump.
A gear pump uses rotary motion

to trap and displace the fluid.
Herringbone Gear Pump.
The teeth of a herringbone or double

helical gear are shaped like the letter V.
At high speeds, there is less slippage be-
tween the teeth of herringbone gears. The
spur gear pump is for low speeds, up to
600 RPM. A pump having a shaft speed
of 1,750 RPM requires helical gears.
Gear pumps can be built for
high-pressure service up to 1,500 PSI.
The pressure difference across the teeth
is greatest at the center of the pump,
where the gears mesh. To relieve this
pressure, there are radial holes in the
teeth of the drive gear. These holes pre-
vent high vacuum from forming on the
suction side of the pump. They drain
off fluid from the discharge side so
that it is not trapped between the
teeth as the gears mesh.
Internal Gear Pump.
The idler gear rotates inside the rotor or

drive gear. The crescent seal is station-
ary, but still serves to seal the space be-
tween the two gears. Both gears carry
Pumps • 11
fluid to the discharge port. Backflow

from the discharge port to the suction
port is prevented by the crescent seal.
Lobe Pumps.
The liquid is trapped between the wall

of the casing and the rotating lobes.
The lobes trap the liquid and move it
into the discharge port.
Sliding Vane Pumps.
In a sliding vane pump, a set of vanes

is mounted in a rotor. The vanes slide
in and out of the rotor. The rotor is
mounted off center in the casing. As
the vanes pass the suction port, they
slide out of the rotor, but maintain con-
tact with the wall of the casing. Fluid
is trapped in the pocket formed by the
sliding vanes and the wall of the cas-
ing. As rotation continues, the trapped
liquid is moved into the discharge port.
As the vanes pass port the wall of the
casing forces them back into rotor
discharge. At the same time, a vane on
the suction side is sliding out to make
contact with the wall of the casing.
This sliding vane pump has two
suction and two discharge ports. The
pump moves fluid along both walls of
the casing. The balanced design allows
the pump to operate through a higher
pressure difference with less wear load
or wear on the bearings. In some sliding
vane pumps, springs or sealer rings help
hold the vanes against the casing. This
close fit produced allows the pump to op-
erate through a higher pressure increase.
Screw Pumps.
This pump has two screws. The drive

screw is turned by the drive shaft di-
rectly. The idler screw is driven by the
drive shaft through a set of gears. Fluid
is fed to the screws at each side of the
casing. The rolling screws carry the fluid
to the center or discharge of the pump.
Fluid is discharged from the center of the
pump. Screw pumps can be built for very
high speeds, up to 7,000 rpm.
Helical Pumps.
In this pump, the fluid is displaced by a

single helical rotor running in a female
rubber helical stator. As the rotor turns, it
maintains a sealed contact with the helix
of the stator; fluid is trapped between the
helical rotor and the helical stator, with
fluid being pushed along by the rotor.
Screw pumps and, to some extent,
helical pumps are used as major equip-
ment in the oil industry.
Lobe, gear, and sliding vane pumps
are mainly used as auxiliary components
of major equipment.
Screw pumps are particularly sus-
ceptible to failure and or performance
falloff when entrained particles are pres-
ent in the fluid. However, helical pumps
are more than capable of handling flu-
ids with entrained solids and are chiefly
used for this purpose.
Pumps • 13
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
1. Clean, nonabrasive, noncorrosive liquids, in general (Figures 1.6a,

1.6b, 1.6c).
2. Pumps having resilient members of rubber are important exemp-
tions (Figures 1.6c- single screw, 1.6i and 1.6j).
3. Wide range of viscosities, from solvents to heavy tars, greases, and
soaps. (Most types can be steam jacketed to control viscosity or
prevent freezing.)
4. Pressures up to 1,000 lb/sq.in. on nonlubricants.
5. Higher pressures on lubricating fluids.
6. Low viscosity, volatile fluids, including entrained gas or vapor.
7. Miscellaneous chemicals, oils, gasoline, solvents, ink, tars, greases,
soaps, paint, varnish, viscose, molasses, and so on. [Several types,
such as the single screw with rubber stator (Figure 1.6c) will handle
very heavy fluids containing a high percentage of solids such as
sewage, asphalt, and China clay.]
8. Very low flows over a wide range of pressure.
9. Metering.
ADVANTAGES
1. Cost is low.
2. A small space is required.
3. Range of capacity, head, and viscosity is wide.
4. They handle vapor well.
5. They are self-priming.
6. Many types can be run in either direction with equal performance;
thus, piping is simplified or other pumps eliminated.
7. Many types are very simple and with no valves.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Close clearances and/or rubbing contact limit suitable materials of

construction.
2. Close clearances limit the handling of solids and require freedom
from corrosion.
3. Being positive displacement, these pumps must be protected from
overpressure by a suitable relieving device. Many types of pumps
have inbuilt relief valves.
4. Low volumetric efficiency occurs at low speeds (slip approaches

displacement).
5. This effect increases directly with the pressure/viscosity ratio.
SIMPLE PUMPING ACTION OF RECIPROCATING

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
PISTON AND PLUNGER VARIETY
These types of pumps are used where high heads and low capacity are re-
quired. They have a pulsating action, which can be minimized by increas-
ing the number of working cylinders or the fitting of dampeners to both
suction and discharge manifolds or a combination of the two.
PUMPING ACTION
As the piston moves down the cylinder toward the drive end, the cylinder
swept volume gradually increases, producing a pressure drop in the cylin-
der and causing the liquid to enter the cylinder through the suction valve.
This continues until the piston reaches the end of its stroke (Figure 1.7a).
On the return stroke (Figure 1.7b), the piston forces the liquid out through
the discharge valve, at the same time holding the suction valve closed
(however, both suction and discharge valves are usually fitted with return
springs to facilitate this). Remember liquids are incompressible.
Housing
Discharge outlet valve
Flation rings
Shat
Cylinder Flation
Sudtion niot valve
Figure 1.7a. Pumping actions

Pumps • 15
Discharge Valve (Open)
Oscharge Stroke
Suction valve (closed)
Figure 1.7b. Discharge valves actions
Discharge Valve (Closed)
Button Stroke
Button valve (open)
Figure 1.7c. Discharges action effects
This procedure is repeated for every rotation of the driver. If the pump
is double acting, then there are two pumping strokes per rotation of the
driver since the piston or plunger pumps on both the forward and return
strokes. The cylinder has both suction and discharge valves at either ends
(Figures 1.8a and 1.8b).
1. Suction
Shaft
3. Discharge
Forward Stroke
2. Suction
Shaft
4. Discharge
Return Stroke
Figure 1.8a and 1.8b. Show a double-acting pump.

Pumps • 17
PISTON AND PLUNGER PACKING
Some clearance space is necessary between the stationary and moving parts
of the pump. To prevent leakage through these clearances, packing is fitted.
Besides preventing leakage, packing is used to reduce wear between moving
and stationary parts. Packing is made of low-friction materials, which are
flexible enough to provide a tight seal. Some materials soften and break up
at high temperatures; others swell and become too tight. Packing is selected
to suit the nature and temperature of the liquid being pumped.
All piston pumps are inside-packed. The plunger pump shown in
Figure 1.9 is also inside-packed, which is unusual as most plunger and
rotary pumps are outside-packed.
Figure 1.9. Plunger pump action
In Figure 1.10, the plunger packing is in the center of the pump. How-
ever, each packing gland is located outside of the cylinders.
Figure 1.10. Plunger packing arrangement

Figure 1.11 Shows an outside-packed plunger pump/. The plunger’s

stationary packing prevents leakage from the cylinder.
Figure 1.12 shows a diaphragm pump. The diaphragm acts as a seal
between the pumped liquid and the plunger. So, no packing is needed.
P + CIMS
Figure 1.11. Rotary pump
Figure 1.12. Rotary and plunger pump
Packing used on rotary and plunger pumps is contained in a pack-

ing or stuffing box (Figure 1.13). The packing itself is usually of a soft,
low-friction material or a set of metal or fiber packing rings. The packing
is adjusted for leakage by tightening or loosening of the packing gland
nuts. If the packing is too tight, burning of the packing will take place
due to too much friction, resulting in heavy leakage. On most pumps,
some leakage is permitted for packing lubrication. If corrosive or abrasive
Pumps • 19
Packing
Packing rings gland
Packing
Stuffing box
gland nut
Figure 1.13. Rotary pump packing
media is being pumped, then the packing lubrication is obtained from

some outside source.
On many rotary pumps, packing boxes have been replaced by me-
chanical seals. A simplified model is shown in Figure 1.14.
Stationary
Spring seal ring
Seal oil
holder (Carbon)
outlet
O-Ring
Compression
ring
Seal oil Seal
Rotating
Inlet flange
seal ring
(mantel-sarface metal)
Figure 1.14. Rotary pump packing box
The stationary seal ring is held by the seal plate. The rotating seal
ring or face rotates with the shaft. The compression ring is forced into
the rotating seal ring or face by a spring or springs. The compression ring
compresses a flexible O-ring. The O-ring prevents leakage from around
the shaft. A thin film of seal oil lubricates and cools the seal rings. The seal
oil also helps to seal the space between the seal rings.
Mechanical seals provide sealing with very little leakage of the

pumped liquid.
However, they do take time to change out, unlike packing, which is
simply pulled out and replaced in split turns.
Because mechanical seals take time to change, they are not fitted to
fire water pumps or on marine vessels with pump suctions or discharges
situated below the water line.
PISTON/PLUNGER PUMPS—VARIABLE
DISPLACEMENT DEVICES
Usually, to effect a change in throughput or head, the pistons/plungers and
liners are changed.
Power Required = Throughput x Head
Then, both the head and the throughput are variables. Thus, for the
same power available, if we require increasing the head, we must reduce
the pistons’/plungers’ sizes and their corresponding liners.
If we wish the throughput to be increased, we must increase the pis-
ton/plunger size and limit the head.
However, other more variable forms of displacement are available.
LOST MOTION
This is a means of reducing the piston/plunger stroke length and consists sim-
ply of a screwed sleeve between the piston/plunger rod and the connecting rod.
Changing the length of the stroke of the plunger/piston changes the
volume of liquid displaced. Figure 1.15 shows the plunger/piston rod al-
most touching the connecting rod. When the connecting rod moves toward
the drive, the piston/plunger rod does not move immediately (lost motion).
Depending upon the setting of the screwed sleeve, a certain amount of
the connecting rod travel is lost.
Figure 1.15. Lost motion of the Piston/Plunger Stroke

Pumps • 21
The lost motion is variable.

In Figure 1.16, if the connecting rod moves toward the cylinder, there
will be lost motion. Changing the lost motion distance alters the length
of the stroke.
Figure 1.16. Variable lost motion-pump
VARIABLE CRANK THROWS
If we alter the length of the crank throw, we alter the stroke and, hence, the
displacement.
Stroke
Crank
Figure 1.17a. Displacement increased-slotted

crank of pump
Pump (Figure 1.17a) has the longer stroke since its crank throw
is longer. Increasing the length of the crank throw increases pump’s
displacement.
Stroke
Crank
Figure 1.17b. Displacement increased-slotted

crank of pump
Figure 1.17b shows a slotted crank of a pump. The connecting rod
is attached to the crank through a crank pin. The crank pin can be moved
Figure 1.17c. Displacement (shorten) Figure 1.17d. Displacement (center)
in the slot. If we move the pin toward the shaft, we shorten the crank and
reduce the stroke (Figure 1.17c) If we center the crank pin with the shaft,
the stroke length is zero. Hence, the displacement is zero (Figure 1.17d).
STROKE TRANSFORMERS
In this device (Figure 1.18a), the connecting rod is replaced by a two-

part mechanical linkage. The linkage pivots on a track in the guide block.
When the guide block is level, there is no displacement; when the guide
block is angled, the stroke length is increased.
Figure 1.18a. Mechanical link + Figure 1.18b. Mechanical link +

stroke stroke
The guide block may be controlled by a hydraulic piston. Hydraulic

fluid fed under this piston increases the angle of the block. Fluid fed in
above the piston decreases the angle of the guide block. The hydraulic pis-
ton can be controlled by discharge pressure, varying the pumps displace-
ment with changes in pressure of the liquid in the discharge line.
Pumps • 23
A reciprocating variable displacement pump may be matched to the

stroke of some other pump in the process. Both pumps then make the
same number of strokes per minute. Pumps used in this manner are called
proportioning pumps, the volume of one pump being proportioned to the
volume of another. If one pump is moving water and the other chemicals
for water treatment, the flow of chemicals may be proportioned to the flow
of water.
Variable displacement pumps permit fine control of capacity without
changing pump speed.
Pump speed is limited in variability by the type of driver, particularly
with regard to reciprocating pumps, which operate at relatively low speeds
and have high torques.
PULSATION DAMPERS AND SUCTION STABILIZERS
The flow of liquid from a reciprocating pump is pulsating. The flow is

more even if the pump is double acting and even more again if the pump
is of the multicylindered variety.
A pulsation dampener evens out the flow from a reciprocating pump.
The pulsation dampener is a sealed chamber containing gas. The gas nor-
mally used is nitrogen (for hydrocarbon service); air can be used for water.
See Figure 1.19
Figure 1.19. Pulsation dampener
The pulsation dampener is connected into the pump’s discharge line

adjacent to the pump.
When the pump discharges, liquid is forced into the dampener cham-
ber, compressing the gas or air in the chamber.
Figure 1.20. Bladder action
As the piston moves back down the cylinder, the gas expands against
the liquid forcing the liquid out of the dampener into the discharge line.
Because the gas in the dampener compresses, the dampener can minimize
any sudden increase in discharge line pressure. The gas once compressed
can provide enough pressure to force the liquid out of the dampener cham-
ber, minimizing any sudden decrease in discharge line pressure.
It can be said that the pulsation dampener functions to minimize the
effect of sudden changes in flow line pressure.
The dampener helps to maintain a more even flow of liquid through
the line.
Pumps with smoother discharges require proportionally smaller gas
chambers.
A single-acting simplex pump (single cylinder) in low-pressure service
requires a gas chamber that is twice as large as the pump’s displacement.
A duplex or double-acting pump may have a gas chamber that is equal
to the pump’s displacement.
Liquids, under pressure, absorb gas. The greater the pressure, the
faster is the rate of absorption. Thus, pumps in high-pressure service re-
quire proportionally larger gas chambers.
For a high-pressure pump, the gas in the chamber may be kept at a
higher level of compression than for low-pressure service. Increasing the
compression of the gas reduces the size of the chamber required for the
pump.
Sometimes, the dampener chamber is fitted with a bladder or bag to
seal off the gas from the liquid.
The bladder prevents the gas from being absorbed by the liquid being
pumped.
Pumps • 25
When a bladder is not used, the gas is gradually absorbed by the liq-
uid. The gas absorbed must be replenished by some means—a charging
connection is fitted to the chamber.
PUMP OPERATION—PROTECTION DEVICES
BYPASSES AND RELIEF VALVES
The rotary pump shown in Figure 1.21 is fitted with a discharge-to-suction

bypass. Opening the bypass valve sends the liquid from the discharge line
back to the suction line.
Figure 1.21. Discharge to suction by pass
Engines and turbines must be started with no load. Using a bypass can
remove load from the pump during startup. The bypass can also be used as
a form of flow control, reducing the flow when necessary. Bypass valves
can be manually or automatically operated.
A positive displacement pump must discharge liquid in order to
complete its pumping cycle. Should the discharge valve remain closed,
then the pump cannot discharge liquid down the flow line and as the pis-
ton, rotor, or screw continues to transmit force, liquid pressure increases.
If the pump is driven by a motor, then the drive coupling may break or
the belt may slip and burn up.
To prevent this, the pump is fitted with a relief valve, which is nor-
mally installed in the discharge-to-suction bypass line. As long as the dis-
charge remains normal, the relief valve remains closed. If the pressure
increases above the relief valves set point, the valve will open and dis-
charge back to suction.
See Figures 1.22a and 1.22b. The pump can only run for a relatively
short time in this condition. Circulating around the bypass will rapidly
Value
Relief valve
Discharge
Suction
Figure 1.22a. Pump expansion action Figure 1.22b. Pump expansion action
increase the temperature of the liquid being pumped eventually causing

expansion of the pump parts and resulting in seizure of the pump.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP’S VALVES
CYLINDER VALVES
Applicable to Piston, Plunger, and Diaphragm Pumps.
Figure 1.23a. Pump valve Figure 1.23b. Pump valve guides
THE BALL VALVE
This is a commonly used pump valve. Figure 1.23a. The only moving part
being the ball, which closes off and opens the flow to or from the pump.
To close the valve, the ball must fit closely into the valve seat. To open the
valve, liquid pressure below the seat must be more than the total pressure
above the seat.
Pumps • 27
THE DISC VALVE
See Figure 1.24. In this valve, the part that moves during opening and closing
of the valve is a flat metal disc. The disc is fitted with a spring that provides
some of the force causing the disc to seat or close when the suction pressure
drops. The tension of the spring also increases the suction pressure required
to open the valve. The disc valve is used where large volumes of liquid at
low pressure have to be pumped. Low maintenance is required; however, the
valve offers a lot of resistance to flow and is sluggish in its action.
Disc Spring
Stem guide Valve seat
Figure 1.24. Valve + Wing Figure 1.25a. Wing Figure 1.25b. Wing

Guides guides guides
Every valve must be constructed such that the ball or disc can make a
complete seal across the valve seat every time it is operated.
In the case of the ball valve, the ball is guided into its seat by the walls
of a cage surrounding the ball (Figure 1.23b).
The disc valve must be guided by some sort of stem or wings.
Stem-guided valves are only suitable for relatively low-pressure services
(Figure 1.25a). Wing guides, being more robust in construction, are used
where pressures are moderately high (Figure 1.25b).
For very high-pressure services, the wing guides may be beveled;
the beveled surface causes the guide to rotate slightly as the liquid flows
through it. This, in itself, evens out wear on the valve.
See Figure 1.26 below
Figure 1.26. Wing guides

BOWL VALVES
The bowl valve is almost like the disc valve. The bowl shape helps the
valve to make a tight seal with the valve seat. See Figure 1.27a, and 27b.
Figures 1.25a and 1.25b show two valves designed for use in pumping
thick liquids. Figure 1.25a is for low-pressure service, Figure 1.25b is for
high-pressure service because it has wing guides.
Figure 1.27a. Valve Seal Figure 1.27b. Seat area
Figures 1.28, and 1.29 show the seat area of the disc valve and that of
a bowl valve. The seat of the bowl valve has the least resistance to flow,
making it more suitable than the disc valve for pumping highly viscous
liquids. If the liquid is abrasive, then the seat with less obstruction to flow
would be better.
Figure 1.28. Seat area Figure 1.29. Seat area

Pumps • 29
The ball valve is simpler in construction than the bowl valve. How-
ever, because of the spring, the bowl valve is smoother in action than the
ball valve. When smooth action is not essential, the ball valve is used ow-
ing to its clear flow and ease of maintenance.
If the pump was delivering viscous abrasive media, then rapid wear
would be expected.
Valves shown in Figures 1.30, 1.31, and 1.32 depict ways of compen-
sating for severe service conditions.
Figure 1.30. Valves Figure 1.31. Valves Figure 1.32. Valves

inserts inserts inserts
Valve (Figure 1.31) has renewable rubber inserts for wings and parts
of the disc.
Valve (Figure 1.32) is designed with a replaceable seat.
Valve (Figure 1.33) is a dual-seat valve having a synthetic insert in the
disc. Such an insert is used for all ordinary services. The insert is replace-
able. A special abrasion-resistant insert is available for severe service.
Usually, the same kind of valve is used for both suction and discharge of a
given pump; however, the pump’s discharge pressure may be considerably
higher than the suction pressure.
Figure 1.33. Dual seat valve Figure 1.34. Suction valve installed
If the pressure difference is great, then the discharge valves springs

will be much stiffer than those of the suction valves.
The major difference between the suction and discharge valves is the
way the valves are installed.
Suction valves open into the cylinder; discharge valves open into the
discharge manifold.
Although the pumps may vary, suction valves are usually installed
near the bottom of the pump, whereas discharge valves are installed near
the top of the pump.
Figure 1.34 shows a valve that is installed as a suction valve.
TURRET ASSEMBLIES (FIGURE 1.34)
The suction valve is mounted beneath the discharge valve. Both valves share
the same stem or guide. Access to both valves is through the pot cover. The
discharge valve must be renewed to give access to the suction valve.
PISTONS, PISTON RINGS, AND PLUNGERS
Pistons are usually made from cast iron and are in the main of solid con-
struction, but can be of thick-walled, hollow construction. The pressure
requirement determines the type to be used.
Plungers are made from cast alloy steel. Their surfaces are hard
coated by metal spraying or ceramic coating, depending upon the media
being pumped.
Plungers have no rings, and the stuffing box packing serves as the
seal.
In some piston pumps, packing is carried on the piston. The packing
moves with the piston and in effect is a piston ring, which fits into a series
of grooves machined into the periphery of the piston.
See Figure 1.35
Piston packing rings are usually made of cast iron with gaps for
expansion.
The rings may be made in one piece or three segments (Figures 1.36,
and 1.37).
The gaps allow the rings to expand against the cylinder as the pump
comes up to operating temperature.
Metal rings are corroded or easily abraded where corrosive or abra-
sive liquids are to be pumped, and the use of metal rings is undesirable for
these types of service.
Pumps • 31
Pistons for these types of media are usually fitted with cup leather
rings although the leather referred to is more likely to be some form of
synthetic material such as teflon. See Figure 1.38.
Figure 1.35. Piston ring Figure 1.36, and Figure 1.38. Piston ring
types 1.37. Piston ring types types
LUBRICATION OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP

BEARINGS AND PARTS
The shaft of a rotary pump may tend to move in three different ways. See
Figures 1.39a, 1.39b, and 1.39c.
Radial
Rotary
(Vibration)
(Turning) Axial
(Thrust)
Figure 1.39a. Shaft Figure 1.39b. Shaft Figure 1.39c. Shaft

movements movements movements
A shaft, while rotating, can move in the three different ways shown in
Figures 1.39a, 1.39b, and 1.39c.
Thrust or movement in a straight line direction is axial movement.
A long unsupported shaft can also vibrate or move up and down; this is radial
movement. Bearings are used to constrain axial and radial movement, but, at
the same time, leaving it free to rotate. Thrust bearings constrain axial move-
ment while journal bearings constrain radial movement. The bearings may
be rolling element bearings or bearings made from antifrictional materials.
Figure 1.40 shows a back-to-back ball bearing journal and thrust bearing
of a rotary pump for the constraint of radial and axial movements of the shaft.
The shaft turns freely in the bearings, the bearing lubricant providing a fluid
film that reduces friction between the balls and the tracks in which they run.
Figure 1.40. Back to back ball bearings
Rolling element bearings may be oil or grease lubricated. If the bear-

ing is highly loaded, oil is used as the lubricant since it has faster cooling
properties than grease and any heat produced is quickly dissipated.
Many of the pump’s moving parts are lubricated by the liquid being
pumped. However, other parts do not come into contact with the liquid
being pumped, but still require lubrication.
Oil or grease is used to lubricate such parts. Even packing may be
lubricated from an outside source if the liquid being pumped has poor
lubricating properties.
Figure 1.41. Grease Cup Figure 1.42. Drip oil lubricator
Figure 1.41 shows a simple grease cup. As the shaft rotates under the
cup, it picks up the grease and carries it away along and around the shaft.
The cap of the cup must be periodically screwed down and the cup must
be filled with grease as necessary.
Pumps • 33
Figure 1.42 shows a drip oil lubricator that supplies oil at a drip at
a time onto the rotating shaft. Like the grease cup, it requires periodic
refilling.
Figure 1.43. Shaft lubrication system
Figure 1.43 shows a splash lubrication system. Oil in the reservoir

at the bottom of the crankcase is carried up by the rotating gears and is
splashed onto bearings, gears, crankshaft, and so on.
The oil gradually drips down into the crankcase reservoir. The crank-
case oil level must be checked at regular intervals.
Gear Pump
Reservoir Strainer
Figure 1.44. Force feed lubrication system
In large- or slow-speed pumps, a force feed lubrication system is used

(Figure 1.44). Oil is forced through pipes or galleries by a small pump
(usually of the gear type).
Oil from the crankcase passes through a filter before entering the L/O
pump.
Figure 1.45 shows a force feed lubricator. This force feed lubrica-
tor uses a small plunger pump. The lubricator is powered by a linkage to
the pump shaft. The force feed lubricator does not operate until the pump
OIL
FORCE FEED LUBRICATOR
RESERVOIR
HAND
CRANK
Figure 1.45. Force feed lubricator
starts; however, a hand crank is often fitted to the lubricator so that the
pump can be prelubricated prior to starting.
Oil flow from a force feed system can be observed through a drip
glass. If no drips are observed, then lubrication is not taking place.
Figure 1.46. Lantern metal cage
Figure 1.46 shows a lantern ring, which is a metal cage about the
size of a packing ring, and is fitted in the center of the packing box. The
lantern ring acts as a spacer between the packing and is also used to admit
lubrication to the middle of the packing. The lubricant may be the pumped
liquid or liquid from another source. If from another source, then it needs
to be at a higher pressure than that of the pumped liquid.
Grease-packed bearings can easily be overpacked, causing the bearing
to overheat or possibly fail. Many pumps use sleeve bearings instead of
rolling element bearings. Sleeve bearings control radial movement.
There is no contact between the shaft and bearing; the shaft rotating
on a film of oil, while oil is being supplied by the oil pump.
Pumps • 35
Figure 1.47 shows a section of a babbitted (white metal) sleeve bear-

ing. The bearing container may be made from steel, brass, or bronze.
Figure 1.47. White metal sleeve bearing Figure 1.48. Cutaway
Figure 1.48 shows a cutaway view of a splash ring-supplied journal

bearing of the sleeve variety. The splash ring rotates with the shaft, picking
up oil from the reservoir and carrying it up onto the shaft and bearings.
Some pumps are fitted with a thrust disc instead of ball bearing thrust
races. The thrust disc is fitted to the pump shaft, and axial movement is
controlled by the two Babbitt faces fixed on either side of the disc. Again,
the disc does not make contact with the babbitted faces in the running
condition, the disc being supported by an oil film. Thrust discs are more
commonly fitted to centrifugal pumps than those of the rotary or recipro-
cating types.
TROUBLESHOOTING LIST FOR ROTARY PUMPS

Table 1.1 Check chart for rotary pump problems
Possible cause of trouble

(each number is defined in the list
Symptom below)
Pump foils to discharge 1,2,3,4, 5, 6, 8, 9,16
Pump is noisy 6,10,11,17,18,19
Pump wears rapidly 11,12,13,20,24
Pump not up to capacity 3,5,6,7,9,16,21,22
Pump starts, then loses suction 1,2,6,7,10
Pump takes excessive power 14,15,17,20,23
(continued )
Table 1.1. (Continued )
Possible cause of trouble
(each number is defined in the list
Symptom below)
Suction problems System problems (continued)
1 Pump not properly primed 13. Pump runs dry
2. Suction pipe not submerged 14. Viscosity higher than specified
3. Strainer clogged 15. Obstruction in discharge line
4. Foot valve leaking Mechanical troubles
5. Suction lift too high 16. Pump worn
6, Air leaking into suction 17. Drive shaft bent
7. Suction pipe too small 18. Coupling out of balance or align-
System problems ment
8. Wrong direction of rotation 19. Relief valve chatter
9. Low speed 20. Pipe strain on pump casing
10. Insufficient liquid supply 21. Air leak at packing or seal
11. Excessive pressure 22. Relief valve improperly seated
12. Grit or dirt in liquid 23. Packing too tight
24. Corrosion
TROUBLESHOOTING LIST FOR RECIPROCATING

PUMPS
Table 1.2 Check chart for reciprocating pump problems
Possible cause of problem

(each number is defined in the
Symptom list below)
Liquid end noise 1,2, 7, 8,9,10,14,15,16
Power end noise 17,18,19,20
Overheated power end 10,19,21,22,23,24
Water in crankcase 25
Oil leak from crankcase 26,27
Rapid packing or plunger wear 11,12,28, 29
Pitted valves or seats 3,11, 30
Valves hanging up 31,32
Leak at cylinder valve hole plugs 10,13, 33, 34
Loss of prime 1,4,5,6
Pumps • 37
Table 1.2. (Continued )
Possible cause of problem
(each number is defined in the
Symptom list below)
Suction problems Mechanical problems
1. Insufficient suction pressure 14. Valves broken or badly worn
2. Partial loss of prime 15. Packing worn
3. Cavitation 16. Obstruction under valve
4. Lift too high 17. Main bearings loose
5. Leaking suction at foot valve 18. Bearings worn
6. Acceleration head requirement 19. Oil level low
too high 20. Plunger loose
System problems 21. Main bearings tight
7. System shocks 22. Ventilation inadequate
8. Poorly supported piping, abrupt 23. Belts too tight
turns in piping, pipe too small, 24. Driver misaligned
piping misaligned 25. Condensation
9. Air in liquid 26. Seals worn
10. Overpressure or overspeed 27. Oil level too high
11. Dirty liquid 28. Pump not at level and rigid
12. Dirty environment 29. Packing loose
13. Water hammer 30. Corrosion
31. Valve binding
32. Valve spring broken
33. Cylinder plug loose
34. O-ring seal damaged
PUMPS AND PUMPING
When a liquid is required to be moved from one place to another, partic-

ularly over large distances and in any quantity, then pumping must be the
most practical method to achieve this.
Pumps are machines that increase the static pressure of fluids. Pump-
ing is the addition of energy to a fluid, which is used mainly for the pur-
pose of moving the fluid from one point to another. This increase can be
achieved in different ways:
1. By transfer of mechanical energy to the fluid by means of an impel-

ler, that is, a rotating device that is equipped with suitably shaped
vanes operating in a spiral-shaped casing—a centrifugal pump.
2. By the application of a force on the liquid/fluid by means of a recip-
rocating piston or plunger or equivalent device such as a positive
displacement pump.
The largest group of pumps by far is the “Rotodynamic” group, better

known as “Centrifugal Pumps.”
The fluid from these pumps is in a continuous uninterrupted flow.
Reciprocating piston and/or plunger pumps are characterized by in-
termittent flow of the pumped liquid. The resulting accelerations and de-
celerations of the pumped liquid require special arrangements in order to
deal with mass forces, and so on.
These arrangements will be dealt with later, under surge and pulsation.
However, before pumps are selected, certain criteria must be considered:
a. Quantity required—per day—flow rate.
b. Territorial conditions—distances to be pumped—changes in eleva-
tion—head requirement.
c. Power source availability—choice of prime mover of pump.
d. Cost of pumping installation.
e. Future considerations—increase or decrease in capacity.
After due consideration, the capacity, head, prime mover, and thus the
type of pumping installation required can be determined.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS OR ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS
Since: Capacity = head × X-sectional area of discharge pipe and

head = discharge pressure, both head and X-sectional area are variables.
Maximum flow through a pipe occurs when pressure drop over the
length is at the maximum.
Discharge pressure of a pump is at the maximum at the pump outlet
nozzle and reduces over the length of the line, due to losses against friction,
elevation changes, and so on. Frictional losses increase as the pressure in the
line increases, since pressure acts radially as well as axially.
As both the head and X- sectional area are variables, then if we increase
the head, we can reduce the line size. However, to increase the head, we must
either increase pump speed or use a multistage pump or alternatively several
pumps in series. Where practicable, any of these means will produce an in-
crease in capacity. Alternatively, we can increase the line size and/or increase
Pumps • 39
the size of the pump, or increase the pumps speed. Whichever of the methods
is chosen, the ruling factor will be the overall cost of the installation.
PUMP LOSSES
Losses occur in pump efficiency due to the physical design of the pump.
These may be as follows:
a. Entry loss—caused by liquid streaming past the vanes edges into the
impeller. This is especially important as this loss has a direct bearing
on the capability of the impeller to swallow the specified amount of
liquid. Loss can be kept low by the correct vane shape and finish.
b. Hydraulic loss—caused by friction turbulence within the passages
of the impeller and volute, and so on. Losses can be kept low by pro-
viding a good machined finish to rotating parts and/or volute casting
finish, thus providing the correct velocity distribution of flow.
c. Disc Friction Loss—caused by impeller walls rotating in the liquid.
Loss can be kept low by providing a good machined finish or casting
finish to the impeller walls/flanges. Reducing the volume of liquid
between the impeller walls and the volute walls is often advantageous.
d. Leakage Loss—leakage across the wear rings. Loss can be mini-
mized by fitting close tolerance wear rings.
Stuffing box losses must be kept low by correct packing of stuffing
box to prevent leakage.
e. Mechanical Loss—may be due to defective bearings, rubbing wear
rings, overtightened packing, or poor lubrication.
The name signifies that these pumps develop their force to transfer
fluids by means of motion, or velocity.
The fluid is accelerated, and then all, or most, of the velocity is con-
verted into pressure, that is, kinetic energy in the form of velocity head is
converted to pressure head.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS ARE KINETIC PUMPS
When a mass of any substance is made to rotate in a circular path, a force

acts upon it that tends to fling the substance radially outward. This force is
called centrifugal force.
In a centrifugal pump, the liquid is spun around by an impeller that
is driven by either an electric motor, engine, or turbine, which is coupled
to the pump.
A centrifugal pump, in its simplest form, consists of a casing and an

impeller (Figure 1.51). A suction pipe and a discharge pipe are connected
to the casing, and both pipes have to be filled when the pump is in oper-
ation. The liquid enters the center opening (the impeller eye) of the impel-
ler from the suction line. The main rotating part of the pump, the impeller,
is turned rapidly, usually at 3,000 rpm.
Inside the impeller, which is a hollow disc, are a number of vanes, the
number depending upon the size of the impeller. When liquid enters the
impeller, it is picked up by the vanes and rotated at high speed. Due to cen-
trifugal force, the liquid will leave the rim of the impeller at high speed.
Around the impeller, the casing is shaped in a spiral pattern and the
clearance between the impeller and the casing is very close at the top, but
increases as it follows the impeller clockwise until the casing intersects the
discharge opening of the pump. The spiral pattern of the casing is called
the “volute.”
The shape of the volute causes the kinetic energy (movement energy)
of the liquid to be converted into pressure energy. A centrifugal pump
takes in kinetic energy from the prime mover that drives it, and changes
that energy into pressure energy within the liquid being pumped, the liquid
being delivered in a continuous and uninterrupted flow.
Dishcharge
Dishcharge
Vanes
Impeller
Impeller eye
Shaft
Suction
Casing
Suction
Figure 1.49. Single stage pump
The pump shown in Figure 1.49 has only one impeller and is called
a single-stage pump. As the impeller has only one suction side, it is also
called a single-suction pump.
Thus, the pump shown in Figure 1.49 is known as a single-stage
single-suction type of pump.
A centrifugal pump in its simplest form cannot be used for all
the jobs occurring in the industry. The construction of pumps used
for clean liquids differs from pumps for liquids contaminated with
Pumps • 41
particles. In this case, there is a difference in the shape of the impellers

(Figure 1.52).
Depending upon the capacity and discharge pressure, we have:
Single-suction Pumps (Figure 1.50). Shows a single-suction closed
impeller.
Double-suction Pumps (Figure 1.51). In this case, the impel-
ler has two suction eyes. It is obvious that its capacity is twice that of a
single-suction impeller of the same size.
Single-suction Semi-open impeller (Figure 1.52). Used when con-
taminating particles are present in the liquid being pumped.
Figure 1.50. Single- Figure 1.51. Double- Figure 1.52. Single

suction pumps suction pumps suction semi-open
impeller
Centrifugal pumps are principally used where relatively large quan-

tities of liquid are required to be moved through a moderately low head;
however, the head may be increased by raising the pump’s speed, multi-
staging, or pumping in series.
The amount of pressure developed and the rate of flow of the pumped
liquid will depend upon the design of the pump. The impeller’s size, shape,
and the speed of rotation will all have an effect on the pump performance.
Greater pressures and flow rates can be obtained by:-
Increasing the rotational speed of the impeller.

.. .. diameter of the impeller.
.. .. width of the impeller.
A combination of the above.
Note: A pump does not create pressure. It only provides flow. Pressure
is just an indication of the amount of resistance to flow.
Identical impellers that rotate at the same speed transfer equal

amounts of energy to the liquid; so, it follows that greater pressures may
be obtained by increasing the number of impellers used. If the required
pressure cannot be obtained with a single impeller, then several impellers
may be mounted on the same shaft to achieve the required pressure.
The liquid passes through each impeller, in turn, with the discharge
from the first impeller being directed into the suction eye of the second
impeller and so on. The pressure of the liquid is raised in stages as it passes
through each impeller in turn. The total pressure developed is the sum of
the pressures generated by the successive impellers and is much higher
than could be achieved by a single impeller. The liquid flowing from
the rim of the impeller is led into the following impeller by means of a
cross-over passage in the casing.
Such a pump is known as a multistage pump and is equivalent to
several separate pumps connected in series, but only needing one prime
mover, which must have the equivalent horse power of the motors of the
separate pumps connected in series. Figure 1.53 shows a multistage cen-
trifugal pump. Two or more impellers are mounted on the same shaft.
Figure 1.53. Multi stage centrifugal pump
The multistage pump has the same capacity only as a single-stage

pump having the same impeller size, but has a greater head capability,
depending upon the number of stages or impellers.
COMPONENTS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The main components of a basic type of centrifugal pump are shown in

Figure 1.54
Pumps • 43
Figure 1.54. Main components of a centrifugal pump
IMPELLER
Inside the impeller, which is a hollow disc, are a number of vanes, the
number depending upon the size of the impeller. When liquid enters
the impeller, it is picked up by the vanes and rotated at high speed.
Due to centrifugal force, the liquid will leave the rim of the impeller
at high speed.
CASING
The casing houses the impeller and provides branches for suction and dis-
charge pipe connections. Around the impeller, the casing is shaped in a
spiral pattern, and the clearance between the impeller and the casing is
very close at the top.
Following the impeller clockwise, the clearance constantly increases
until the casing intersects the discharge opening of the pump. The spiral
pattern is called the volute, whose purpose is to gather the high-velocity
liquid particles being thrown out of the impeller and to change their direc-
tion of motion toward the discharge side of the pump.
The volute converts the velocity of the liquid into pressure.
SHAFT
The shaft transmits power from the prime mover to the impeller, which
is keyed to the shaft and secured to it by a nut. The shaft is supported on
bearings, which are housed in part of the pump casing or in separate units
secured to the casing by bolts.
SHAFT SLEEVE
The sleeve is a tube having a very hard outside surface. It is fitted to the
shaft in the region of the stuffing box to protect the shaft from wear due
to the rubbing action of the packing. A worn sleeve may be replaced rel-
atively cheaply compared with the cost of replacing a worn shaft. The
sleeve is keyed to the shaft and so rotates with it without slipping.
WEAR RINGS
These may be fitted to both the impeller and the casing, or, in some cases,
only to the impeller, or in the cheapest of pumps, not at all. The function
of the case and impeller wear rings together is to prevent leakage from
the rim of the impeller back to the suction eye, thus preventing recircula-
tion. Wear rings also act as secondary bearings should the pump’s actual
bearings become worn, such that if they were not fitted, both impeller and
casing may be damaged beyond economic repair. Wear rings can be re-
placed when worn and thus avoiding the expense of replacement impellers
and casing.
STUFFING BOX (PACKING BOX)
The stuffing box houses either gland packing or a mechanical type of seal
to prevent leakage of the liquid from the casing where the shaft enters it.
WEARING RINGS AND BALANCING OF

SINGLE-STAGE PUMPS
Wearing rings are installed in the casing or on the impeller (or both) to
take the wear resulting from rotation of the impeller. They are replaceable
at far lower cost than that of either the impeller or casing, whose wear they
prevent.
Pumps • 45
Although wearing rings are designed for uniform clearance around

their circumference, certain conditions may cause them to rub during
operation. Wearing rings are made of materials that will act as a bearing
while lubricated by the liquid being pumped.
Their main purpose, however, is to prevent leakage from the rim of
the impeller to the suction side of the pump. As suction pressure is lower
than discharge pressure, the liquid tries to flow back to the impeller’s suc-
tion eye. This liquid is sealed by the wearing rings.
As a minimum clearance is recommended to account for tempera-
ture, vibration, and eccentricity of the shaft, some liquid will always pass
through the wearing rings. This liquid will flow back to the suction side
and regain its velocity as it passes through the impeller (see Figure 1.55).
The liquid that passes between the impeller and casing wearing rings on
the back side of the impeller cannot flow back to the suction eye and tends
to build up discharge pressure on this back side of the impeller. As there is
a different pressure on both sides of the impeller, if no special arrangements
are made to the impeller such as balancing holes or back vanes, then the
shaft and impeller will move axially toward the suction side of the pump.
Discharge
Casing wearing ring
Impeller wearing ring

Impeller
eye
Suction
Balance hole
Figure 1.55. Pump impeller
Figure 1.56 shows that the resulting force on both sides of the impel-
ler tends to move the impeller and shaft axially toward the suction side of
the pump.
The total differential liquid force might become so high that a special
thrust bearing is necessary even for smaller type pumps. To overcome this
imbalance of the shaft assembly, different shapes of impeller are designed.
Discharge
pressure
Suction
pressure
Discharge
pressure
Figure 1.56. Resulting forces of the impeller
BALANCING
When a single-suction type of impeller has two wearing rings as shown

in Figure 1.57, balance holes are drilled from the suction eye through to
the back side of the impeller. In this case, it is impossible for the liquid to
build up a high pressure at the back side of the impeller, since the liquid
will flow through the balance holes to the suction side. Such an impeller
is 100 percent balanced.
Figure 1.57. Single suction type impeller
Figure 1.58a Shows a single-suction type impeller which has only a

wearing ring on the suction side eye.
This impeller is provided with vanes on its back side, as soon as liq-
uid flows to the back side of the impeller, the vanes throw liquid back
outwards again.
Pumps • 47
Figure 1.58a. Liquid pressure
The liquid pressure will be progressively reduced as it approaches

nearer to the shaft (see Figure 1.58b). In this case, the shaft assembly is
partly balanced.
Figure 1.58b. Partly balanced shaft
TERMINOLOGY
HEAD
This is the pressure expressed in terms of height of the pumped liquid. For
example, atmospheric pressure (approximately one bar) may be expressed
as a head of 10.3 m of water or 760 mm of mercury.
Figure 1.59. Static suction head
Static Suction Head—hs at pump inlet expressed in terms of height

of the liquid in the suction vessel above the pump center-line (refer to
Figure 1.59)
Static Suction Lift—hs. This is the pressure at the pump inlet ex-
pressed in terms of height of the pump center-line above the level of liquid
in the suction vessel (refer to Figure 1.59).
Suction lift may be regarded as a negative suction head. For example,
a suction lift of 4 m may be considered to be the same as a suction head of
−4 m (minus 4 m).
Note: The suction lift of a pump is limited to a theoretical maximum
height of 10.3 m of water (plunger or piston type pump), which corre-
sponds to atmospheric pressure. In practice, however, the maximum suc-
tion lift for a pump will be much less than this because of friction and
other energy losses in the suction line and also on the actual condition of
the pump.
The actual practical suction lift for pumps in good condition will be
in the order of 8 m for plunger/piston types and 5 m for centrifugal pumps.
Static Discharge Head—hd. This is the pressure measured at the
pump discharge expressed in terms of a head of pumped liquid above the
pump center-line (refer to Figure 1.59).
Total Static Head—hst. The total head developed by a pump is a
measure of the amount of power supplied by the driver and may be cal-
culated by subtracting the suction head from the discharge head (refer to
Figure 1.59).
Pumps • 49
For example, if a pump has a suction lift of 3.5 m (−3.5 m suction

head) and a discharge head of 46 m, then the total head would be 46 −
(−3.5) = 46 + 3.5 = 49.5 m.
Friction Head—Ws. This is the pressure loss in ft/meters of liquid
due to friction in the pipe between suction vessel and pump.
Friction Head—Wd. This is the pressure loss in ft/meters of liquid
due to friction in the pipe between pump and the discharge vessel.
Ps—is the absolute pressure in the suction vessel.

Pd—is the absolute pressure in the discharge vessel.
Hs = Ps + hs − Ws, total minimum suction head.
Hd = Pd +hd +Wd, total minimum discharge head.
H = Hd − Hs, differential head.
VAPOR AND VAPOR PRESSURE
Evaporation is the passage of a substance from the liquid to the gaseous

state, taking place at the surface of the liquid. The rate of evaporation de-
pends upon the area of the surface, the temperature, and so on.
Consider the evaporation of a liquid in a closed vessel. Increasing the
temperature will increase the rate of evaporation with the result that more
liquid will change into vapor. Decreasing the temperature will decrease
the rate of evaporation and more vapor will change into liquid.
The quantity of liquid that will change into vapor depends only on the
temperature and, in the present case, the vapor will exert a pressure above
the level of the liquid.
The pressure exerted by a vapor at any temperature is the greatest
pressure that the vapor can normally exert at that temperature. This pres-
sure is called the saturated vapor pressure or maximum vapor pressure
or often simply the vapor pressure of the liquid at that temperature.
The value of the saturated vapor pressure depends only on the tem-
perature and increases with rise in temperature.
This pressure is the only pressure at which the liquid and vapor can
exist together in equilibrium for that particular temperature because at
greater pressures, the whole of the substance is in the liquid state, while
at all lower pressures, the whole of the substance is in the gaseous state as
an unsaturated vapor.
In pumping, the pressure which exists above the level of the liquid
causes the liquid to be forced into the suction line of the pump, which in
the case of an open tank or well, the pressure exerted will be atmospheric
pressure.
For example, in the case of a fixed roof tank holding hot water, the
saturated vapor pressure above the liquid level in the suction line might be
so high that no liquid but only vapor or a mixture of liquid and vapor is
moved into the pump. As the saturation pressure of a liquid increases with
temperature, the point is soon reached where no lift will be possible when
handling warm or hot fluids, and the pump will fail to operate.
In order to ensure that the suction conditions for a pump are such that no
evaporation occurs in the pump inlet, there must be sufficient suction pressure
above the vapor pressure of the liquid to push the liquid into the pump.
This surplus pressure is called the NPSH.
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH)
Liquids begin to change into their vapor phase at a certain pressure called
the vapor pressure.
The vapor pressure for a liquid will depend upon the type of liquid
and also upon its temperature.
NPSH = Absolute pressure at pump inlet − Vapor pressure of liquid

expressed as meters of liquid in ft/meters
As the liquid in the suction line reaches the eye of the impeller, it
speeds up, and this causes a reduction in pressure.
If the pressure falls to the value of the vapor pressure, then bubbles of
vapor form in the suction branch or the impeller eye and the pump will then
begin to cavitate or vapor-lock, which may cause damage to the pump.
NPSH AVAILABLE
This is the net suction head minus the vapor pressure head. It will depend
upon site conditions.
NPSH REQUIRED
This is the minimum amount of suction head needed to ensure that the
liquid entering the impeller does not vaporize.
The amount of NPSH required depends upon the design of the pump
and also the flow rate through it.
For a pump to operate correctly, the NPSH available must always ex-
ceed the NPSH required.
Pumps • 51
CAVITATION
Cavitation occurs when centrifugal pumps operate with insufficient NPSH.

Cavitation is indicated by noisy operation of the pump. The degree
of noise will vary with each type of pump and with each impeller of the
same pump. It can occur over the full range of the pump performance or
only at a certain capacity. The effect of cavitation will also vary with each
different type of pump.
When a pump starts cavitating, it will develop a rattling or crack-
ling noise and vibration levels will increase. Small gas bubbles are
formed in the low-pressure area (mostly impeller eye) and once these
bubbles arrive at the impeller vanes where pressure increases slightly,
the gas bubbles collapse inwardly (implode) and these implosions can
be very damaging to the mechanical parts of the pump. Particularly,
at the leading edges of the impeller vanes, the implosions produce the
rattling noise.
If a pump is run in a continuous state of cavitation, its performance
will rapidly deteriorate due to damage of the leading edges of the vanes
and other metallic surfaces.
A pump may cavitate continuously or intermittently. Continuous cav-
itation indicates that there is something very wrong with the design of
the system as a whole, either incorrect pump selection or badly designed
piping layout.
If a pump has to operate under changing conditions, the NPSH may
become temporarily insufficient and result in cavitation. Such changing
conditions will often be encountered at plant startup and then the operator
in charge must pay extra attention to controlling cavitation.
Intermittent cavitation is often caused by varying tank levels, high
ambient temperatures, or operating too many pumps in a parallel pump-
ing system. This in itself indicates a fault in the design of the suction
header.
In the case of tank levels—these may be controlled to a minimum
level which meets the NPSH requirement of the pump or pumps. In the
case of high ambient temperatures—all pump performance curves are
based on water and a base temperature of 20°C. If high ambient tempera-
tures have not been anticipated, then vaporization will occur earlier than
that specified in the design.
High-speed pumps will not always cavitate with noise.
The beginning of cavitation will be indicated by a loss of head over
the full range of capacity, but when the full cavitation zone is reached, the
noise will normally become quite violent with a damaging effect on the
impeller and casing material.
REDUCTION OF CAVITATION
The possibility of cavitation can be removed if the system is correctly

designed; however, this is often not the case.
CAVITATION CAN BE ELIMINATED/REDUCED BY
a. Partially closing the discharge valve, creating back pressure in the

pump, effectively increasing the suction pressure.
b. Connecting a bypass line (small bore) back from the discharge line
to the suction nozzle of the pump, thus increasing the suction pres-
sure.
c. Increasing the wear ring clearance of the impeller, so that leakage
occurs back from the discharge side of the impeller to the suction
eye thus increasing the suction pressure.
Any or all of the above methods of reducing cavitation will reduce

pump efficiency, but since cavitation results in long-term pump ineffi-
ciency, they do offer the pump some degree of protection.
In Middle Eastern countries, cavitation often becomes apparent
around midday when the ambient temperature is about the maximum. If
the NPSH available at the pump is marginal, then the chances of cavitation
occurring are enhanced since all pump curves are based on water and an
operating temperature of 20°C.
VAPOR LOCK
Vapor lock is caused by large quantities of vapor separating from the liq-
uid and filling the volute. The trapped vapor will prevent any further liquid
from entering the pump, and the flow through the pump ceases until the
vapor lock is cleared. This may sometimes be done by opening a vent
valve at the top of the pump casing while the pump is running.
FRICTION HEAD
The effects of friction on the pumped liquid in the suction and dis-
charge pipes can reduce the theoretical head available by a consider-
able amount. The amount of head that is absorbed by friction is called
the friction head.
Pumps • 53
The amount of friction head will depend upon several factors such as
the velocity of flow, diameter of pipelines and their surface roughness, and
the viscosity of the liquid being pumped.
EFFICIENCY
Efficiency is a measure of how much mechanical energy supplied to the

pump by the driving unit is converted into pressure energy within the
pumped liquid.
The efficiency of a pump will depend upon many aspects of its
design, but for any given pump, the efficiency will change with the
flowrate.
MULTISTAGE PUMPS
When the pressure required from a pump is greater than that which can
be provided by a single-impeller pump, there are two possible solutions:
a. Connect several similar pumps in series, so that the discharge from

the first pump enters the suction branch of the second pump, and so
on until the pressure required is obtained.
b. Use a multistage type of pump.
Option (a) would work well, but is not efficient because each pump
needs its own driver, and a great amount of space would be needed to
install the pumps.
Option (b) needs only one driver, and takes up much less space.
Multistage centrifugal pumps have several impellers that are all
mounted on the same shaft, and which fits into a single casing. The liquid
pressure is increased by a fixed amount each time it passes from the outlet
of one impeller into the suction eye of the next impeller.
Each impeller is regarded as a stage, and the greater the number of
stages used, the greater will be the final discharge pressure.
It is important to remember that multistage pumps cannot provide
flow rates any greater than a single-stage pump, which uses a similar
impeller.
Multistage pumps are, therefore, used for high-pressure applications,
and not for high flow rate purposes.
Figure 1.60 shows the flow pattern in two adjacent stages of a multi-
stage centrifugal pump.
1st stage Diffuser
2nd stage
Impeller
Figure 1.60. Flow pattern of a centrifugal pump

The liquid that is discharged from the first-stage impeller is guided by
vanes of a diffuser into the suction eye of the second-stage impeller. In addi-
tion to guiding the flow from one impeller to the next, the diffuser also acts
in a similar way to a volute, converting kinetic energy into pressure energy.
The axial thrust in multistage pumps is much greater than in a single-stage
pump, and unless it can be reduced, excessive wear would soon develop in the
thrust bearing that would be needed to accommodate this thrust.
BALANCING OF MULTISTAGE PUMPS
Most multistage pumps do not have volute type casings, the casing being
fitted with diffusers around each impeller, which convert velocity energy
into pressure energy and also guide the liquid into the next impeller more
efficiently than could be managed with a series of volutes.
Several design options are possible to cancel out or reduce axial
thrust; some of which are:
Using double-suction impellers. These are hydraulically balanced as
shown in Figure 1.61. A sectional view of a double-suction pump is shown
in Figure 1.62.
Figure 1.61. Double suction impeller

Pumps • 55
CASING IMPELLER
SUCTION
SUCTION
SHAFT
DISCHARGE
Figure 1.62. Double suction pump
Using hydraulically balanced impellers of the type shown in Figure 1.63.

These may be recognized by the provision of wear rings at both sides and
also by balance holes in the shroud at the discharge side of the impeller.
Suction pressure
Balance hole
Discharge Discharge
pressure pressure
Suction pressure
Figure 1.63. Hydraulically balanced impeller
Mounting impellers of a multistage pump in a back-to-back manner

cancels out or reduces axial thrust Figure 1.64.
The impellers of a multistage pump shown in Figure 1.65 are dis-
charging the liquid directly into the next impeller. To guide the liquid into
the eye of the next impeller, diffusers are installed around each impeller.
The purpose of the diffuser is to collect the high-velocity liquid particles
leaving one impeller and convert its velocity energy into pressure energy
Figure 1.64. Axial thrust
and at the same time. direct the liquid into the suction eye of the next
impeller. Diffusers are frequently used in multistage pumps and are more
efficient than volute designs of casing. However, diffuser designs are more
costly than volute designs, and so single-stage diffuser pumps are not used
as often as volute types because of the expense.
Intermediate sleeves
Suction
st
P1 1 stage
Suction 2nd stage
Suction 3rd stage
Suction 4th stage
Final
discharge P5 P4 P3 P2
Figure 1.65. Discharging liquid into next impeller
It is obvious that the shaft of this type of pump is not in axial balance,
so a special arrangement is required.
To obtain the maximum axial balance of the shaft, there are various
designs of impeller arrangements that can achieve this, although their ba-
sic principles are the same.
Pumps • 57
Figure 1.66 shows a multistage centrifugal pump, where the liquid dis-
charged from the first impeller flows to the other end of the pump into the suc-
tion eye of the second impeller. By guiding the liquid in such a way the shaft
remains in axial balance, and no special balancing arrangement is installed. This
type of pump has separate volute cases that convert the velocity into pressure.
Discharge second stage
P3
Final discharge
P3
Intermediate
Sleeves
Suction
P1
P2
Intermediate
Intermediate
P5 P3
P4
Sleeves
Sleeves
P4
P2
P4
Discharge third stage
P2 Discharge first stage
Figure 1.66. Discharge action of centrifugal pump

Figure 1.67 shows a mixed design in which the final stage impeller
is mounted in the opposite direction to the others. The casing has three
diffusers and a volute case for the final stage.
Final Intermediate sleeves
discharge
P3 Suction
P5 P1 1st stage
Suction 4th stage
Suction 2nd stage

Suction 3rd stage
P4
P3
P2
Figure 1.67. Mixed design final stage impeller

This design reduces the axial imbalance, but nevertheless incorpor-

ates a special balancing arrangement.
Figure 1.68 Shows the principle of a multistage double-suction type of
pump. The shaft and impellers are 100 percent balanced. The principle of this
type of pump is a combination of a double suction and a multistage pump.
Figure 1.68. Double suction pump
It may be necessary in some cases to have a pump with a high dis-

charge head and a low capacity, or in other cases, a low discharge head and
a high capacity.
Figure 1.69 shows a six-stage single-suction pump series connected.
The discharge head is six times the discharge head of the first impeller. The
capacity is the capacity of the first impeller. The shaft is in axial balance.
Figure 1.69. Single stage suction pump
Figure 1.70 shows the same pump connected in parallel by means of

a switch valve (three way valve) installed in the suction line. The pump
now acts as three-stage double-suction pump. The discharge head is three
times the discharge head of the first impeller and the capacity is twice the
capacity of the first impeller. The shaft remains in axial balance.
Figure 1.71 shows the impeller arrangement and flow pattern
through a nine-stage horizontal split case pump. The first impeller is a
double-suction type and so is hydraulically balanced; impellers 2, 3, 4,
Pumps • 59
Figure 1.70. Single stage switch valve-impeller
Figure 1.71. Arrangement showing flow pattern of pump
and 5 are single entry as are impellers 6, 7, 8, and 9. The back-to-back ar-
rangement of the impellers considerably reduces the amount of hydraulic
imbalance on the rotating element and, hence, the size of the thrust bearing
required.
The installation of a balancing piston/disc would further reduce the
size of the thrust bearing.
Figure 1.72 shows another arrangement and flow pattern of the same
pump. Although this arrangement is better from a hydraulic balance point
of view, it would be, because of the complexity of the casing casting, al-
most impossible to manufacture economically.
Figure 1.72. Arrangement showing flow pattern of pump

BALANCING DISC
The thrust imparted by each impeller will create a total thrust equal to the
sum of the thrust from all impellers.
For balancing purposes, a disc is mounted after the last impeller. It is
known as a balancing disc.
Figure 1.73 Shows a cutaway drawing of a balancing device.
Figure 1.73. Cutaway of balancing device
The cross-section in Figure 1.76 shows more details.

The balancing disc is located in chamber C (see Figure 1.74). This
chamber is connected to the suction side of the pump by an external pipe.
Because the shaft is moveable in the axial direction, clearance S1 between
the balancing disc and the balancing disc head is variable. The balancing
disc with the balancing disc head forms chamber B.
Chamber B is connected to the clearance between the last impeller
and the casing. This clearance is referred to as S2.
Chamber B is also connected with chamber C through the clearance S1.
Obviously, there is a pressure difference between S2 and B depending
upon the size of S1.
Clearance S1 has just the size required to keep the pressure in B as
high as is needed for balancing the shaft.
Pumps • 61
To suction
Discharge
c
Balance
S2 disc head
S1
Balance disc
Suction
Axial play
Figure 1.74. Balancing disc
When S1 increases, some liquid will escape to C (remember, the dis-

charge pressure is higher than the suction pressure) and the pressure in B
will decrease. The shaft will move to the suction side.
As a result, S1 decreases and the pressure in B increases; so, the shaft
will move in the opposite direction again.
The dimensions of the balancing disc head are just right to keep the
shaft in axial balance.
Actually, the shaft and the impellers (they are attached to the shaft)
are in a floating position.
BALANCING DRUMS OR PISTONS
In Figure 1.75a and 75b, a balancing drum or piston is attached to the shaft
after the last impeller.
Chamber A at one side of the drum is connected to the suction side of

the pump by an external pipe, so suction pressure acts on one side of the
drum and discharge pressure on the other side.
Due to the clearance between drum and casing, the discharge pressure
gradually drops to the suction pressure at chamber A.
The dimensions of the drum are just right to keep the shaft (rotor) in ax-
ial balance when the pump is in operation and all the forces rotor are acting.
The small clearance between the balancing drum and the casing min-
imizes leakage from the discharge side of the pump to the suction side.
The balancing line ensures that both mechanical seals are subject to
suction pressure only.
SUCTION
DISCHARGE
Impellers
HP Balance Drum
HP
LP HP LP
LP HP LP
HP
Diffusers Small Clearance

LP HP HP LP
Normal thrust
Balance dise
on rotor
thrust
Balance Line
Figure 1.75a. Balancing drums
Clearence
To suction
Figure 1.75b. Balancing drums or pistons

Pumps • 63
CONSTRUCTION OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
There are many different ways in which centrifugal pumps may be con-
structed because of the different duties they may have to perform. Con-
struction details of the most common types are shown in this section.
TYPES OF IMPELLER
The pump’s impeller is the most important component of a pump, be-

cause its size, shape, and speed of rotation determine the head (pressure)
and capacity (flow rate) developed by the pump. Many different types of
impeller are in use, depending on the duty required of the pump. Some
typical examples of different impellers are shown in Figures 1.76a, 1.76b,
1.76c, and 1.76d.
Figure 1.76a. Open Impeller Figure 1.76b. Semi-open Impeller
Figure 1.76c. Closed Impeller Figure 1.76d. Double-suction Impeller

Figure 1.76a. shows an open impeller whose vanes are attached to a

central hub and have either small or no shrouds between them. This type
of impeller is not likely to become clogged by solids that may be present
in a pumped liquid. Open impellers are not as efficient as closed types.
Figure 1.76b. shows a semi-open impeller, which has a shroud at one
side only. This type is also useful for pumping liquids containing solids,
and gives better flow control than the fully open type.
Figure 1.76c. shows an enclosed type impeller, which has a shroud at
each side to enclose the liquid passages and with the eye (liquid inlet) at
one side only. This type of impeller gives better flow control and is more
efficient than either the open or semi-open types.
Figure 1.76d. shows a sectional view of a double-suction impeller,
which has a liquid inlet (eye) at both sides. This type is also a closed vane,
but can handle larger quantities of liquid flow and reduces axial thrust on
the pump shaft because of its hydraulic balance.
A pump may be constructed with a single impeller, or when
high-pressure applications are required, with two or more impellers
mounted on the same shaft. The impellers may be either of the single- or
double-entry types, more commonly known as single- or double-suction
types.
In double-suction impellers, the speed of the liquid entering the im-
peller eye is decreased, which gives better suction performance. This de-
sign is often used for low NPSH applications, or when high flow rates are
required.
TYPES OF PUMP CASING
Centrifugal pumps are used in a very wide range of applications, and,

therefore, vary considerably in their construction.
Pump casings are made in many different forms and sizes, some of
which are shown in Figures 1.77a, 1.77b, 1.77c, 1.77d, and 1.77e.
Pump casings may be split either vertically or horizontally, or diago-
nally (at an angle between the vertical and the horizontal).
Vertically split casings (also called radially split casings) are used
in close-coupled designs, which are frequently used in oil installations.
Casings of this type have the advantage of allowing the pump bearing
housing, stuffing box, and impeller to be removed as a single unit from
the casing, which remains undisturbed with its piping still attached. See
Figure 1.78.
Horizontally split casings (also called axially split casings) usually
have suction and discharge branches fixed to the lower half of the pump
Pumps • 65
Figure 1.77a. Pump casings Figure 1.77b. Pump casings
Figure 1.77c. Pump casings
Figure 1.77d. Pump casings Figure 1.77e. Pump casings

Figure 1.78. Pump casings
casing. This is to allow the top half to be easily removed for internal access
to the rotating assembly, and diffusers (if fitted). See Figure 1.79.
Figure 1.79. Rotating assembly + diffuser
For very high-pressure applications, a barrel casing is used. The inner

casings fit inside the stronger barrel casing.
See Figure 1.80.
Pumps • 67
Figure 1.80. Barrel casing
RADIAL THRUST
In a single-volute pump, pressures around the impeller are not uniform.

This has the effect of creating radial thrust upon the impeller, which pro-
duces a bending action on the shaft.
If the radial thrust becomes too great, then the shaft may deflect, caus-
ing excessive wear of bearings, seals, and wear rings, even causing break-
age of the shaft. Heavier section shafting would reduce deflection, but this
would not be an economical solution. The ideal design should reduce axial
thrust to an acceptable level. Such a design is often incorporated in pumps
having horizontally split casings, and is called double volute. Two liquid
passages are placed 180° apart, so that any pressure imbalance around one
volute is equaled by the other volute (see Figure 1.81).
rge rge
ha ha
sc sc
Di Di
f
f
eo
eo
Lin
Lin
e
arg
ch
is
fD
eo
Li n
Figure 1.81. Single volute, Double volute

Some pump casings use a split design instead of a double volute.

Part of the volute and discharge branch are separated into two halves
by a dividing wall.
This has the effect of reducing the hydraulic radial forces acting on
the impeller (see Figure 1.82).
Figure 1.82. Hydraulic radial forces
DIFFUSER TYPE PUMP CASINGS
Some pumps do not have a volute type of casing, but instead use a dif-
fuser. Diffusers convert the kinetic energy of the pumped liquid into pres-
sure energy, which is also the function of the volute. However, the diffuser
is more efficient than a volute, and the problem of radial thrust on the
impeller is avoided with diffuser pumps.
The impeller is surrounded by the guide vanes of the diffuser, which
enables the liquid to leave the impeller at high speed and enter the diffuser
without shock. This is done by carefully choosing the correct angles for
the vanes.
As the liquid flows through the spaces between the diffuser vanes, the
speed of flow is decreased because of the enlargement of the area of the
liquid flow path.
The reduction of kinetic (speed) energy is balanced by an increase in
pressure energy, so that the liquid leaves the diffuser at a higher pressure
than when leaving the impeller. After leaving the diffuser, the liquid then
enters the casing annulus, and finally leaves at the discharge branch (see
Figure 1.83).
Diffusers are frequently used in multistage pumps and are more effi-
cient than volute designs of casing.
Pumps • 69
Figure 1.83. Kinetic energy
However, diffuser designs are more costly than volute designs, and so
single-stage diffuser pumps are not used as often as volute types because
of the expense.
PUMP CASE SEALING

To prevent leakage of the pumped liquid in the region where the shaft en-
ters the pump casing, it is necessary to have some kind of sealing device
fitted.
Pump-sealing devices are of two main types, and are fitted into that
part of the pump casing called the stuffing box.
The two types are:
• Packing types of seal.

• Mechanical types of seal.
PACKING SEALS
The most common arrangement for gland packing is the solid packed
stuffing box. In this arrangement, the packing gland is tightened to com-
press the soft packing rings until leakage is restricted to an acceptably
small amount.
It is important not to overtighten the packing gland so that all leakage

is prevented. A small amount of leakage is necessary in order to lubricate
the packing, and so reduce friction and wear of both shaft (sleeve) and
packing.
Gradually, as the packing wears, a greater amount of leakage will oc-
cur. The gland tightness can then be adjusted to restore the leakage rate
back to normal. See Figure 1.84.
Packing
Casing gland
Shaft
Shaft
sleeve
Packing rings Packing
gland
nut
Figure 1.84. Leakage of packing
A replaceable sleeve is often fitted to the shaft in the region of the

stuffing box to protect the shaft from wear caused by the rubbing action
of the packing. The sleeve can be replaced when worn at much lower cost
than would be incurred if the whole shaft had to be replaced.
Although many pumps are used with this simple type of packing ar-
rangement, it should not be used when the pump is operating with suction
lift conditions as there is a risk of air being drawn into the pump through
the stuffing box, causing the pump to lose its suction.
Pumps that operate under suction lift conditions use a sealing or injec-
tion type of packing arrangement. This involves using a liquid to help seal
the packing gland, and prevent air being drawn into the pump. This sealing
liquid comes from either the discharge side of the pump, or from an exter-
nal source. If the sealing liquid is supplied from the pump discharge, then
the pumps stuffing box is said to be internally sealed (Figure 1.85).
If the sealing liquid is supplied from an external source, then the
stuffing box is said to be externally sealed (see Figure 1.86).
Pumps that use a sealing type packing arrangement must provide
some means of distributing the sealing liquid within the stuffing box. This
is normally done by using a lantern ring. Lantern rings are usually made
Pumps • 71
Internally sealed
Figure 1.85. Packing rings
Liquid from
outside source
Externally sealed
Figure 1.86. Water jacket
of brass or bronze, and are normally positioned centrally in the stuffing

box with an equal number of packing rings at each side (see Figure 1.87).
If the pump is to handle liquids containing sand or grit, then, the seal-
ing system should be of the external type.
The pressure of the sealing liquid should always be greater than the
pump’s suction pressure.
Friction between the shaft/sleeve and the packing can produce a lot of
heat. Sometimes, this heat cannot be removed by the air or normal packing
lubrication, and a water jacket is then fitted around the stuffing box to
prevent overheating of the packing and shaft (see Figure 1.88).
Figure 1.87. Wearing rings
Figure 1.88. Check for concentricity
PACKING MATERIALS
The materials commonly used to make packing include cotton, asbestos,

and flax. They are usually woven or braided to form a continuous length
of square section.
The lengths of packing are often impregnated with graphite to help in
reducing friction, and are available in a range of different section sizes to
suit different stuffing box dimensions.
Packing lengths are often reinforced with wire strands. These
strengthen the material and help it to keep its shape (See Figure 1.89).
Pumps • 73
Pumps that handle cool water often use nonreinforced cotton as packing
materials. Pumps handling liquids at temperatures over 105°C usually need
packing with a reinforced asbestos material because it resists heat and hardening.
In addition to the natural packing materials, there is also a range of
synthetic and metallic packing materials, which may be more suitable for
high-temperature applications or for certain types of pumped liquids.
Many of the synthetic packing materials are made in the form of a “V”
or chevron section, and are installed with the open part of the “V” facing
the liquid being pumped. In this position, the pressure of the liquid in the
pump tends to expand the packing and helps it to seat on the shaft.
Figure 1.89. Types of Packing.
INSTALLATION OF PACKING
Each packing ring is inserted in the stuffing box with the ends of the splits
cut at angle. The splits are orientated 90° apart (see Figure 1.90). This is
done to minimize leakage through the split.
Figure 1.90. Radical forces
Each packing ring is installed separately and pushed into position

with the gland. When all the rings are in place, they are initially only com-
pressed slightly by the gland and the pump is then started. Leakage will
soon become apparent. This is the liquid flowing between the packing and
the shaft and serves as a lubricant to both. If the leakage is more than a few
drops per minute, the gland should be tightened until the gland packing
leaks only slightly (2 to 3 drops per minute). If the packing is overtight-
ened, it will burn up and become useless in a very short span of time.
If the packing is not of the lubricated type, the rings should be dipped
in oil before insertion. This will help to prevent the packing from becom-
ing overheated during the initial startup.
A stuffing box should never only be partly repacked. A total repack
job should be carried out if more than one ring of packing is required. If
only the outer rings are renewed, they will have extra pressure placed on
them because the old internal packing will be too worn to be effective.
In stuffing boxes where lantern rings are used, it should be care-
fully noted as to how many rings were placed at either side of the
ring so that it can be correctly placed in the stuffing box to admit the
sealing liquid.
When repacking a stuffing box, the condition of the shaft or shaft
sleeve should be checked for wear damage. An excessively worn shaft or
sleeve should be renewed as it is likely that excessive leakage will occur
after a short time even after the fitting of new packing.
In the oil and gas industry, the only important pumps that still use
packing as a sealing method are the fire water pumps. All other major
pumps are fitted with mechanical seals.
Fire pumps are not allowed to be fitted with mechanical seals because
in the event of seal failure during an emergency, the mechanical seal would
take too long to replace, whereas with a packing, you can either nip up the
gland or add an additional packing very quickly.
Mechanical Seals: These will be dealt with separately under the sec-
tion “Mechanical Seals.”
Table 1.3 gives details of several types of packing materials and
their applications.
BEARINGS
Pump bearings may be of two types:

a. Sleeve Bearings.
b. Rolling Element Bearings.
Both of the above types will be dealt with separately under the section
“Bearings.”
Table 1.3 Packing types and applications
Fluid Packing Fluid Packing

Clear water, hot or cold; White asbestos or cotton plaited Solvents; Alcohols; Fuel White asbestos strands,
Sewage; Slurries; Calcium construction with general service oils; Kerosene; Chlorinated plaited or interwoven
brine; Neutral liquids; lubricant. Graphited. hydrocarbons to 120°C; construction,
Maximum temperature 100°C. impregnated with
a solvent-resistant
lubricant. Graphited.
Clear hot or cold water; Neutral Special white asbestos plaited Where metallic packing is Crinkled lead foil
liquids; Maximum temperature construction with a high-temperature preferred for hot or cold water, sheets with resilient
200°C. lubricant. Graphited. mild alkalis, mild acids, brine asbestos core.
boiler feed service. Maximum
temperature 230°C. Where
suction pressure exceeds 3 b.
Sulfuric, nitric, and other acids. Blue African asbestos plaited Alkalis and other liquids with Teflon-impregnated
Maximum temperature 130°C. construction with an acid resisting pH factors above 7, and for white asbestos braid
lubricant. Graphited. temperatures of 30 to 230°C. packing.
Alkalis: Caustic soda; Silicate White asbestos lattice braid Acids, weak or concentrated, Teflon-impregnated
of soda; Salt brine; Sulfate; construction with nonsoapy lubricant. especially those with a blue asbestos braid
Maximum temperature 130°C. Graphited. pH factor of 4 or less. For packing.
temperatures of 30 to 130°C.
Food products; Any liquids First-grade asbestos or cotton
where non contamination plaited construction with an edible
is the controlling factor. compound, which is colorless,
Maximum temperature 85°C. tasteless, and odorless. Nongraphited.
75
Many pump manufacturers are using rolling element bearings in pref-

erence to sleeve bearings due to the added cost of providing a powered and
pressurized lubrication system necessary for sleeve bearings and which is
not required for rolling element bearings.
MAINTENANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Maintenance operations for centrifugal pumps fall into two categories:

Routine preventive maintenance often referred to as scheduled
maintenance.
Overhaul or repair maintenance.
Routine maintenance may be classed as work done primarily to rec-
tify the effects of normal wear of a pump.
Overhaul or repair operations are performed to rectify the results of
excessive wear, overheating, damage from solids in the liquid, or injury or
wear from any other cause.
To reduce pump repairs, the first step is to reduce or eliminate equip-
ment failure. In order to achieve this, it is important to determine the
causes of failures that have occurred.
Therefore, reliable records should be kept in a form that is readily
available for analysis.
To reduce the cost of repairs, it is necessary not only to establish
which parts have failed, but also why they have failed.
Careful examination of each part will help in reducing failures. Be-
cause of the small clearances between impeller and casing wear rings, we
must be sure that all rotating elements are concentric to the center-line of
the shaft.
CHECKING IMPELLER WEARING RINGS
The eccentricity of the outside diameter should not exceed 0.001″ or

0.025 mm; otherwise, the ring should be machined down. Checking can
be carried out on a lathe by means of a mandrel and dial gauges (see
Figure 1.91).
The clearance between the inside diameter of the impeller and the
outside diameter of the shaft should not exceed 0.001″ or 0.025 mm.
The shaft should be measured at the places where the impeller is to
be mounted.
Pumps • 77
Figure 1.91. Pump shaft checks
CHECKING CASING WEARING RINGS
Checking concentricity of casing wearing rings can be done on a milling

machine as shown in Figure 1.92. The casing is positioned on the table of the
milling machine without bolting down. A mandrel is installed in the vertical
position and dial gauges mounted on the mandrel by means of a clamp.
Dial gauges
Rim of pomp cover
Figure 1.92. Checking eccentric movement

The table is moved in such a way that the dial gauge reading of the outer
spigot of the casing reads zero all around the circumference of the spigot.
If eccentricity exceeds 0.001″ or 0.025 mm, the inner diameter of the
wearing ring must be machined down.
REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT OF CASING AND IMPELLER

WEARING RINGS
As previously mentioned, the clearance between the wearing rings is of

extreme importance.
Wearing rings must be replaced when the clearance has become too great.
Pumps with double wearing rings can have their clearances restored
in three ways:
1. Obtain a new oversized impeller ring and use the old casing ring.
2. Obtain a new casing ring bored undersize and use the old impeller ring.
3. Renew both rings.
When a new ring is put on an impeller, its surface is often off center
with the shaft; therefore, after mounting a new ring, check its wearing
surface and, if necessary, machine it.
Normally, the impeller wearing rings are shrunk onto the impeller.
The inside diameter of the rings should be approx. 0.006″ or 0.15 mm less
than the diameter of the impeller at a diameter of approx.100 mm.
After shrinking, the outside diameter is slightly larger than before and
it will, therefore, probably need to be machined down to the preshrinking
measurement.
Casing wearing rings are generally pressed into the casing and mea-
surement of the inside diameter should be taken after pressing.
When the casing rings have to be machined in the workshop, it is ad-
visable to keep the outside diameter of the ring 0.006″ or 0.15 mm more
than the inside diameter of the casing, at a diameter of approx. 100 mm.
To be sure that the casing ring is pressed parallel into the casing, a
guide shoulder can be machined on the outside diameter, which fits into
the casing. The length of the centering guide should not exceed 2 mm.
CHECKING THE SHAFT
When checking shafts of closed-coupled type pumps for bending, use a

magnetic base and dial gauge and check the whole shaft, but especially the
diameter of the shaft where the impeller is mounted.
Pumps • 79
See Figure 1.93
Figure 1.93. Four jaw chuck
When checking the shafts of horizontal pumps, put two V-blocks at

the places where the bearings are installed and check the whole shaft, but,
especially, the diameter of the shaft where the impeller is mounted. See
Figure 1.94
Figure 1.94. Checking procedures
If it is preferable to check for bending of the shaft on the lathe, do

not put the shaft between the two centers because this method of checking
gives no indication of the eccentric movement of the impeller, as the diam-
eter where the impeller is mounted shows zero on the dial gauge.
See Figure 1.95
Figure 1.95. Checking procedures
A better way to check the shaft for bending on the lathe is to use a
four-jaw chuck and a steady rest without using the tailstock center. See
Figure 1.96.
Note: If the diameters where the bearings are installed indicate zero
on the dial gauge, the eccentricity of the diameter where the impeller is
Figure 1.96. Checking Procedures
mounted should not exceed 0.002″ or 0.05 mm. If the eccentricity is more
than this, the shaft should be straightened.
To get an idea of the eccentric movement of the shaft diameter where
the impeller is mounted, clamp the coupling end of the shaft in a four-jaw
chuck, install the steady rest at the place where one of the bearings is in-
stalled, and align the shaft in such a way that the places where the bearings
are installed indicate zero on the dial gauge.
When the shaft has been aligned, check the whole shaft, especially the
diameter where the impeller is mounted.
See Figure 1.96.
STRAIGHTENING A SHAFT (NOT FOR CLOSE-COUPLED

TYPES)
Suppose the shaft is bent more than the maximum tolerated amount (0.05
mm) and has to be straightened. The following procedure can be followed
if no hydraulic press is available.
Spot where material

has to be stretched
Dial gauge shows

highest point out
of the centre line
Figure 1.97. Clearances for pumps
Put the shaft between the two centers of the lathe (it is advisable to
use an old machine), do not use running centers at either ends of the shaft
(damage is possible).
Pumps • 81
With the dial gauge, find the spot which is most out of the center-line,
and mark this point with a piece of chalk. See Figure 1.97
Clamp a piece of tool steel in the tool holder/post and press the steel
against the marked point until the dial gauge shows a bending of the shaft
at the opposite side of approx. 2 mm (Figure 1.98).
Dial gauge shows 2mm

bending at opposite side.
Force in this direction Tool holder
Figure 1.98. Clearances for pumps
After sometime, release the pressure against the shaft by slackening the
tool holder/post and check the shaft again for straightness. Continue this pro-
cedure until, according to tolerance allowed (0.05 mm), the shaft is straight.
Note: Do not press against the shaft at places where bearings sleeves
and impeller are to be installed.
FINAL CHECKUP BEFORE ASSEMBLING MULTISTAGE PUMPS
1. Check the shaft for bending (maximum bending allowed 0.002″ or

0.05 mm).
2. Check inside diameters of impellers and intermediate sleeves as
well as the outside diameter of the shaft (maximum clearance
allowed 0.001″ or 0.025 mm).
3. Check keys and key-ways of shaft, impellers, and intermediate
sleeves.
4. Check concentricity of all impeller wear rings and intermediate
sleeves on the lathe by means of a mandrel (maximum eccentricity
allowed 0.001″or 0.025 mm).
5. Check concentricity of intermediate bushings and casing wearing
rings (maximum eccentricity allowed 0.002″ or 0.05 mm for
wearing rings, 0.001″or 0.025 mm for intermediate bushes).
6. Check the outside diameter of all diffusers (maximum difference
allowed 0.003″ or 0.075 mm).
7. Install the bearing halves (sleeve bearings) or bearings (rolling

element) at the casing ends and check, by means of the shaft and
dial gauge, the concentricity of the casing where the diffusers are
installed.
8. If necessary, lower or raise the bearing housings until the maximum
eccentricity does not exceed 0.003″ or 0.075 mm in the vertical
direction. Redoweling of the bearing housings may be necessary.
9. Check clearances of bearings (see attached list).
10. Install diffusers only, and mount the top half of the casing together
with the gasket; check the clearance between the top cover and the
diffusers (maximum clearance 0.040″ or 1.00 mm).
11. Mount all impellers and intermediate sleeves on the shaft and
tighten the nut hand tight only.
Now, check the eccentricity of the impeller wear rings and intermedi-
ate sleeves (maximum eccentricity of impellers 0.003″ or 0.075 mm;
maximum eccentricity of intermediate sleeves 0.002″ or 0.05 mm).
12. When the balancing drum is installed, check the clearance between
the drum and the cylinder (clearance should be 0.009″ to 0.013″
or 0.22 to 0.32 mm).
13. Assemble the pump and check that the shaft assembly rotates
freely when turned by hand.
14. Check that the axial float of shaft complies with manufacturer’s
recommended tolerances.
Bearing clearances for sleeve type bearings
Diameter shaft Minimum clearance Maximum clearance

18–30 mm +0.053 mm +0.086 mm
31–50 mm +0.064 mm +0.103 mm
51–80 mm +0.076 mm +0.122 mm
81–120 mm +0.090 mm +0.144 mm
121–180 mm +0.106 mm +0.169 mm
181–250 mm +0.122 mm +0.194 mm
RECOMMENDED CLEARANCES FOR

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
BETWEEN SHAFT SLEEVE AND BUSHING
To protect the shaft of a centrifugal pump from corrosion and wear, sleeves
are mounted around the shaft (see Figures 1.99a and 1.99b).
Pumps • 83
Neck bush
Gland Sleeve
Sleeve gasket
Sleeve
Figure 1.99b. Different types

Figure 1.99a. Different types of sleeves of sleeves
The outside diameter of most sleeves is either tempered or metal

sprayed, making the sleeves more resistant to wear caused by friction of
the packing rings. To avoid the liquid being pumped between the sleeve
and the shaft, sleeve gaskets are required that are usually in the form of an
O-ring, which can be made of various different materials depending upon
the temperature of the liquid being pumped. The most common materials
used for O-rings are synthetic rubber compounds such as viton, nitrile,
neoprene, and buna. Teflon rings and back-up rings are also available, if
required.
Figures 1.100a and 1.100b show two different types of sleeves.
Nuts
Sleeve
Figure 1.100a. Different types of sleeves

Sleeve gasket
This edge of the shaft Sleeves

must be bewlled
Sleeve gasket
Figure 1.100b. Different types of sleeves
BETWEEN IMPELLER WEARING RING AND CASING

WEARING RING
The clearance between the impeller wearing ring and the casing wear-
ing ring is very small and varies with different circumstances, such as
temperature of the liquid being pumped and the diameter of the impeller
wearing ring.
Too large a clearance results in a continuous loss of energy, and the
internal flow of the liquid accelerates the wear of both rings. Too small a
clearance may cause seizing of the impeller wearing ring with the casing
wearing ring.
The diversity of clearances applied to centrifugal pumps may often be
the cause of unfavorable pump performance and difficulties during operation.
The pump manufacturer will try to keep clearances to the minimum
with respect to pump performance. Pump performance curves are nor-
mally conducted with water at 20°C.
In practice, operating conditions usually deviate very much from test
conditions as regards the liquids to be pumped and the operating tempera-
tures. Adherence to the test clearances often causes trouble such as seizure
of the rotating assembly in the pump casing.
For high-temperature conditions, the manufacturer’s clearances must
often be increased in order to ensure trouble-free operation of the pump.
This extra work is both time consuming and expensive, and the resulting
increased clearance reduces the pump’s efficiency.
Clearances that are selected too large result in a continuous loss of
energy and the internal wear accelerates in proportion to the increase in
clearance such that period between overhauls is shortened.
Summing up, there is a need for more uniform instructions regard-
ing the determination of applicable clearances that are acceptable to both
pump manufacturers and field workshops.
Pumps • 85
The recommended clearances are defined in the graph in Figure 1.101.

These clearances will cover the majority of cases, which may occur. It will
be of considerable advantage if these clearances are adhered to, since it
will, for instance, be possible to obtain uniform clearances for all centrif-
ugal pumps supplied to arrange for pumps to be locally overhauled and
modified to suit changing operating conditions.
Figure 1.101. Recommended clearance as per graph
USE OF THE GRAPH
In order to determine the recommended clearances to be applied to a given

centrifugal pump, a distinction has been made between:
a. Single- and two-stage pumps; and

b. Multistage pumps.
These two categories have been subdivided, according to the tempera-

ture of the liquids, into:
Cold: up to 100°C or 212°F

Warm: from 100°C to 250°C or 212°F to 482°F.
Hot: 250°C or 482°F and above.
The outer diameter of the impeller wearing ring is the basis for deter-
mining the clearances between:
a. The impeller wearing ring and the casing wearing ring.

b. The intermediate bushing and the sleeve.
The graph shows the relation between these dimensions. The above
subdivisions are indicated by various lines.
The manufacture of rings will require the application of certain toler-
ances. It will be difficult, however, to give a tolerance for the machining of
both the outer diameter of the impeller ring and the inner diameter of the
casing ring. Therefore, a combined tolerance is given to the “clearances,”
leaving it to the maker of the rings to allocate this “tolerance” between the
two rings.
Since the clearances in the graph are minimum values, the tolerances
have to be regarded as an additional allowance (see shaded part of the graph).
The clearances to be applied are, therefore, given between two values.
Unsteady suction conditions will result in heavy vibrations of pump
rotating assemblies (cavitation), so that seizing may occur.
To prevent serious damage to the assembly, it is essential that only
that part of the rotating assembly which has the smallest diameter should
touch its mating part first. For this reason, the clearances between the
intermediate sleeves and the bushings should always be chosen to be 0.1
mm (0.004″) smaller than the minimum clearances required between the
impeller and casing wearing rings of the pump.
If the corresponding tolerances are also applied here, the above re-
quirement will always be met.
Example 1
Determine the clearance for a multistage hot oil pump, having an impel-
ler ring of 175 mm outside diameter and an intermediate sleeve outside
diameter of 75 mm.
When reading from the 175 mm. point on the horizontal line of the
graph up to the multistage hot line, a minimum clearance of 0.60 mm will
be found.
Pumps • 87
At the 175 mm. point in the shaded part, a tolerance is found of 0.12
mm, which results in a clearance of between 0.60 and 0.72 mm.
The minimum clearance for the intermediate bushings and sleeves of
this pump should now be 0.60 to 0.10 mm = 0.5 mm.
The corresponding tolerance for machining these parts can be read at
the 75 mm point, which gives 0.08 mm, resulting in a required bushing
clearance of between 0.5 and 0.58 mm.
Example 2
Determine the clearances for a single-stage cold water pump having an

impeller wearing ring outside diameter of 100 mm and a sleeve outside
diameter of 50 mm.
According to the graph, a minimum clearance of 0.24 mm and a tol-
erance of 0.09 mm will be found. The clearance between the impeller
wearing ring and the casing wearing ring should be between 0.24 mm and
0.33 mm.
The minimum clearance of the intermediate bushings and sleeves
should be 0.24 mm to 0.1 mm = 0.14 mm.
For a sleeve of 50 mm. diameter, the graph shows a tolerance of
0.06 mm.
The clearance between sleeves and bushings should be between 0.14
and 0.20 mm.
It should be noted that these are recommended clearances only.
The manufacturer’s recommendations as laid down in the pump’s
manual are of vital importance and should be carefully studied by the me-
chanic during repair, overhaul, or checking of the pump.
In practice, many pumps in many locations have been modified owing
to changed operating conditions. As a result, the information supplied by
the manufacturer may be inadequate, and a record of the pump provided
by the mechanical or inspection department may differ from the original
instructions.
The first task of the repairer is to collect all the facts and records
compiled during the operation time of the pump before any inspection or
overhaul is carried out.
OPERATION OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
From the pump curve, it is apparent that the maximum head achievable
occurs at zero flow. If there is no liquid movement (zero flow), then no
work is done. However, this is not strictly true because energy is used in
turning the impeller within the pump’s casing. This energy, which would
normally be used for moving the liquid, is converted into heating the fluid
within the casing.
If the pump were to be operated against a closed valve, then eventual
seizure of the pump would occur. It is useful to run a pump against a
closed valve for short intervals to determine its condition.
If the pump fails to make its specified head against a closed valve,
then there is obviously internally wrong with it, probably worn wear rings
or impeller vanes.
Pumps are usually started with the suction valve open and the dis-
charge valve closed. However, in many installations, a nonreturn valve is
fitted upstream of the discharge valve enabling the discharge valve to be
left open. If the pump was started with the discharge valve open and there
was no nonreturn valve fitted, then the pumps prime mover would be on
full load at startup. This is undesirable, since a much more powerful prime
mover would be required and such power would be redundant after the
startup has occurred.
Pumps may be operated in series or in parallel.
Series operation is implemented where a greater head is required than
is available from a single pump. The discharge of one pump is fed into the
suction of another and so on.
The pressure head of the liquid is increased by each pump, in turn,
but, the capacity of the system is only that of a single pump.
When starting pumps in series, starting must be carried out in the
following order (see Figure 1.102). The pump (P4) nearest to the final
discharge must be started first, then pump (P3), then (P2) and then, finally
pump (P1).
Figure 1.102. Pumps in series

Pumps • 89
This is to avoid shock loading the mechanical seals, which would oc-
cur if the starting order were P1, P2, P3, and then P3.
Series pumping systems give flexibility of operation, but each pump
requires its own individual driver, Consideration should be given to the
practicality of a series pumping system compared with a multistage pump
having a single, but more powerful driver.
Pumps operated in parallel (Figure 1.103) increase the pumped ca-
pacity of the system in proportion to the number of pumps in operation;
however, the system has only the pressure head capability of a single pump
of the system.
The pumps in a parallel system can be started in no particular order.
Figure 1.103. Pumps in parallel

Index
Abrasives, in seal failure, 110–111 load, and performance

Axially split casings. See capacities, 120
Horizontally split casings lubrication for, 31–35, 147–150
noncontact seals, 143–145
Babbitt, 123–124 removal of, 141
Back-to-back double seal by grinding, 141–142
arrangement, 101–102 snap rings, 134
Back-up rings, 83 V-ring seals, 147
Balanced seal, 95–98 Blistering, 116–117
leakage paths, 118 Bowl valve, 28–30
Balancing disc, in multistage Bypass valve, 25–26
pumps, 60–61
Balancing drum or piston, in Cam-and-piston pump, 8
multistage pumps, 61–62 Cam or roller pump, 8
Ball thrust bearings, 134 Casing, 43
Ball valve, 26 diffuser, 68–69
Barrel casing, 66–67 types of, 64–67
Barrier seal, 106 Cavitation, 51
Bearings, 31, 74, 76. See also in bearings, 172, 174–175
specific bearings in mechanical seals, 117–118
builtin seals, 135 reduction of, 52
combination seals, 147 Centrifugal force, defined, 39
contact seals, 145–146 Centrifugal pumps, 1, 38–42
design, 122–123 bearings, 74, 76
expanding, 139–140 components of, 42–44
fitting methods, 139 construction of, 63–69
freezing, 140 maintenance of, 76–82
friction, 120–121 operation of, 87–89
function of, 120 recommended clearances for,
geometries, 123–124 82–87
housing sealing methods, 143 sealing, 69–74
installation of, 137–139 Chipped face, 112–113
lip seals, 146–147 Closed impeller, 63–64
196 • INDEX
Coking, 112 advantages of, 104

Combination seals, for bearing, 147 barrier seal in, 106
Contact seals, for bearing, configurations of, 104–105
145–146 disadvantages of, 104
Copper–lead alloys, as bearing
material, 166 Efficiency, 53
scoring of, 191 Electrical discharge damage, in
uneven lead distribution in, 169 bearings, 154, 172, 178
Corrosion, 114 Elliptical bearing. See Lemon bore
in bearings, 153–154, 170–172 bearing
Cracked face, 112–113 Erosion, in bearing, 172,
Cratering. See Blistering 179–180, 192
Creep, in standard bearings, External gear pump, 7
135–136 Externally pressurized
Cylinder valve, 26 bearings, 121
Deformation, of seal faces, False brineling, 153

115–116 Fatigue, in bearing failure, 173,
Diaphragm pumps 180–181. See also Thermal
advantages, 6 fatigue
applications, 6 Flashing, 111
capacity control, 6 Flexible vane pump, 9
characteristics of, 5 Fluid-film bearing, 121
construction, materials of, 5 Flushing system, 100–101
disadvantages, 6 Freezing
packing for, 18 bearing, 140
principle of, 4–5 of seal face, 115
Diffusers, 68–69 Fretting, 152–153, 182
in multistage pump, 55–56 Fretting corrosion, 114
Dirt, in lubricant, 151–152 Friction head, 49, 52–53
Disc valve, 27 Full bearings, 123
Discharge pressure, of pump, 38
Discharge versus suction Gas bearings, 121
valves, 30 Gear pumps, 10–11. See also
Double helical gear pump. See specific pumps
Herringbone gear pump Gland packing, 69–72
Double seals, 101 Grease-packed bearings, 34
back-to-back arrangement, “GS” type rubber seal, 146
101–102
tandem arrangement, 102 Head, 47–49
Double-suction impellers, 54–55, Heat cracks or checks, 113
63–64 Helical pump, 12
Double-suction pump, 41 Herringbone gear pump, 10
Double volute, 67 High-pressure pump, 24
Dry gas seals, 103 Horizontally split casings, 64, 66
INDEX • 197
Hydraulic Balance, 94 repair and replacement, 78

Hydraulic overloading, 112 impeller wearing rings
Hydraulically balanced checking, 76–77
impellers, 55 repair and replacement, 78
Hydrodynamic bearing, 121 overhaul or repair, 76
Hydrostatic bearing, 121 routine or scheduled, 76
shafts
Impeller, 43. See also specific checking, 78–80
impellers straightening, 80–81
types of, 63–64 Maximum vapor pressure.
Internal gear pump, 7, 10–11 See Saturated vapor pressure
Mechanical overloading, 112
JIS B2402, 146 Mechanical seals, 91–94
Journal bearings, 31, 121–122 abrasives, 110–111
electrical arcing damage in, 178 balanced, 95–98
full, 123 blistering, 116–117
partial arc, 123 cavitation, 117–118
coking, 112
Kinetic pumps, 39–42 corrosion, 114
cracked and chipped faces,
Labyrinth seals, 144 112–113
Lantern rings, 70–72 deformation, 115–116
Lapping, incorrect, 111 double. See Double seals
Leakage paths, of mechanical dry gas, 103–106
seal, 118 excessive wear/overloading, 112
Lemon bore bearing, 124–125 failure, causes of, 106
Linear bearing, 120 flushing, 100–101
Lip seals, 146–147 freezing or sticking, 115
Lobe pump, 7, 11 heat cracks or checks, 113
Location bearings, 136–137 incorrect lapping, 111
Lost motion, in piston/plunger leakage paths, 118
pumps, 20–21 quenching, 99–100
Low-friction bearings, 120 slipstick, 115
Lubricant, dirt in, 151–152 soft faces, extreme wear of,
Lubrication 113–114
for bearing, 147–150 special, 98–99
failure, 187–188 troubleshooting, 107–110
inadequate, 154 unbalanced, 94–95
of positive displacement pump vibration, 117
bearings and parts, 31–35 Multistage pumps, 42, 53–54
balancing of, 54–59
Maintenance of centrifugal disc, 60–61
pumps drums or pistons, 61–62
casing wearing rings final checkup before assembling,
checking, 77–78 81–82
198 • INDEX
Needle roller bearings, 132–133 bowl valve, 28–30

Net positive suction head cylinder valve, 26
(NPSH), 50 disc valve, 27
Noncontact seals, for bearing, turret assemblies, 30
143–145 Power pumps, 1–3
Normal environment, 98 advantages, 4
NPSH. See Net positive suction head capacity control, 3–4
NPSH available, 50 characteristics of, 3
NPSH required, 50 construction, materials of, 3
disadvantages, 4
O-rings, 83 piston type, 2
Offset bearing, 126 plunger-type, with adjustable
Oil feed hole, incorrect drilling of, stroke, 2
184–185 principle of, 2
Open impeller, 63–64 valves for, 3
Overbalanced seal, 96 Pressure dam bearing, 125–126
Overlays, 166–168 Pressure Gradient, 92
Pressurized lubrication system, 148
Packing box. See Stuffing box Proportioning pumps, 23
Packing materials, for sealing, 72–73 Pulsation dampener, 23–25
installation of, 73–74 Pump, 37–38. See also specific
types of, 73, 75 pumps
Paired angular contact bearings, bearings. See Bearings
130–131 bypass valve, 25–26
Partial arc bearings, 123 casing. See Casing
Piston rings, 30–31 classification of, 2–3
Piston/plunger pumps, 1, 30–31 discharge pressure, 38
lost motion, 20–21 losses in, 39
packing for, 17–20 piston rings, 30–31
pulsation dampener, 23–25 pistons, 30–31
stroke transformers, 22–23 plungers, 30–31
suction stabilizers, 23–25 protection devices, 25–26
variable crank throws, 21–22 relief valve, 25–26
Plain bearing, 124 sealing, 69–74
failures, 173, 183 selection criteria, 38
installation, 169–173, 187 speed, 23
materials, 165–166 terminologies, 47–53
metallurgical aspects of, 163–169 Pumping, 37–38
operation, 164, 169–173
overlays, 166–168 Quenching, 99–100, 114
picture gallery of, 174–192
properties, 164–165 Radial thrust, 67–68
Positive displacement pumps, 25 Radially split casings. See
ball valve, 26 Vertically split casings
bearings and parts, lubrication Reciprocating positive
of, 31–35 displacement pumps
INDEX • 199
piston and plunger variety, 14 Saturated vapor pressure, 49–50

pumping action of, 14–16 Scoring
Reciprocating pumps of lead–bronze bearing, 191
principle of, 2 of white metal journal
troubleshooting list for, 36–37 bearing, 191
valves for, 3 of white metal thrust pad, 190
Relief valve, 25–26 Screw pump, 7, 12
Repacking, of stuffing box, 74 Sealed or shielded bearing,
Rigid ball journal bearing 134–135
double row, 129–130 Sealing device
single row, 129 for bearing, 143
Rigid roller journal bearings, 132 combination, 147
Roller and ball bearings, 121 contact, 145–146
Rolling element bearings, 31–32, lip seals, 146–147
74, 76, 128–129 noncontact, 143–145
failures V-ring seals, 147
classification of, 150 mechanical type, 74. See also
corrosion, 153–154, 156, 162 Mechanical seals
dirt in lubricant, 151–152 packing type, 69–74
electrical discharge, 154 Self-aligning ball bearings, 130
false brineling, 153, Self-lubricated bearings, 121
156–157, 162 Semi-open impeller, 63–64
fatigue cracks, and pits, 152 Shaft, 44
fretting, 152–153 Shaft sleeve, 44
inadequate lubrication, 154, 158 Shear rate, 121
metallurgical factors, and Shuttle-block pump, 8
manufacture, 150–151 Single-stage pump, 40
misalignment, 151, 155, 161 and wearing rings, balancing of,
picture gallery of, 155–163 44–47
poor assembly, 151–152, Single-stage single-suction
160–161 pump, 40
true brineling, 157, 162 Single-suction pump, 40–41
Rotary bearing, 120 Single-suction semi-open
Rotary pumps. See also specific impeller, 41
pumps Sleeve bearings, 34, 74, 76
advantages, 13 Sleeve gaskets, 83–84
applications, 13 Sliding vane pump, 8, 11
characteristics of, 9 Slipstick, 115
construction, materials of, 9 Snap rings, 134
disadvantages, 13–14 Soft faces, extreme wear of, 113–114
packing for, 19 Special seal, 98–99
principle of, 6 Split sleeve bearing. See Plain
troubleshooting list for, 35–36 bearing
types of, 6–12 Spur gear pump, 10
Rotodynamic pumps. See Squeegee pump, 8
Centrifugal pumps Static discharge head, 48
200 • INDEX
Static suction head, 48 V-ring seals, 147

Static suction lift, 48 Vapor, 49–50
Sticking, of seal face, 115 Vapor lock, 52
Stroke transformers, 22–23 Vapor pressure, 49–50
Stuffing box, 18–19, 44, 69 Variable crank throws, in piston/
repacking of, 74 plunger pumps, 21–22
Suction stabilizers, 23–25 Vertically split casings, 64
Suction versus discharge Vibration, in pump, 117
valves, 30 Volute, 40, 43
Swinging vane pump, 8
Wear rings, 44
Tandem double seal single-stage pumps and, balancing
arrangement, 102 of, 44–47
Taper roller bearing, 133–134 White metal, as bearing material,
Teflon rings, 83 165–166
Thermal fatigue, of white metal erosion of, 192
thrust pad, 189–190 fatigue of, 180–181
Thrust bearings, 31, 120 premature failure of, 181
Tilting pad bearing, 126–127 scoring of, 190–191
Total static head, 48–49 thermal fatigue of, 189–190
Turret assemblies, 30 Wire–wool failure, 172–173,
183–184
Unbalanced seal, 94–95
Underpressurized sleeve bearings. “Z” type rubber seal, 146
See Fluid-film bearing Zero flow, 87–88
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ROTATING

Copyright © Momentum Press®, LLC, 2019.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

First published in 2019 by

ISBN-13: 978-1-94708-372-1 (print)

Momentum Press Engineering Technology Collection

Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Service Ltd.

First edition: 2019

Printed in the United States of America

Rotating Equipment: Maintenance and troubleshooting has been written

Understanding Abrasives in mechanical seal failure; bearing failure

Use of the Graph 85

Plain Bearing 124

General Corrosion 154

My sincere thanks are due to many people who guided me in completing

PUMPS—RECIPROCATING AND CENTRIFUGAL

A plunger or diaphragm reciprocates, resulting in an alternating increase

Power: The piston or plunger is driven by an external power source through

Figure 1.1. Principle of the reciprocating pump

Figure 1.2. Piston type power pump

Figure 1.3. Plunger-type power pump with adjustable stroke

Pumps are usually classified by:

a. Driven mechanism—piston (Figure 1.2) or plunger (Figure 1.3) and

c. Number of cranks or eccentric throws. (Figure 1.7 shows partial

Synchronized suction valve unloading. (All can be manual or

a. High efficiency (90 percent and higher at full load).

a. Large space requirements.

of a piston or telescoping sleeves that deflect and support the diaphragm

Figure 1.4 and 1.5. Diaphragm pump

Diaphragms: Synthetic rubber or natural rubber or stainless steel.

Miscellaneous handling of corrosive, toxic, abrasive, or expensive mate-

a. No packing; therefore no leakage, a most desirable feature when

a. Limited materials of construction.

In general, as the rotary member turns, it creates cavities, which move

1.6a. Spur gear, Herringbone, Internal gear.

1.6d. Swinging vane.

Figure 1.6a. External gear pump internal gear pump

Figure 1.6b. Three lobe pump four lobe pump

Rotor Discharge Discharge

Intel Discharge Discharge

Figure 1.6f. Cam or roller pump Figure 1.6g. Cam-and-piston pump

Figure 1.6h. Shuttle-block pump Figure 1.6i. Squeegee pump

Figure 1.6j. Flexible vane pump

1. Flow is proportional to speed, except for losses due to a slip (internal

1. Most common machineable metals and alloys. There are limitations

Spur Gear Pump.

A gear pump uses rotary motion

Herringbone Gear Pump.

The teeth of a herringbone or double

Internal Gear Pump.

The idler gear rotates inside the rotor or

fluid to the discharge port. Backflow

The liquid is trapped between the wall

Sliding Vane Pumps.

In a sliding vane pump, a set of vanes

This pump has two screws. The drive

In this pump, the fluid is displaced by a

1. Clean, nonabrasive, noncorrosive liquids, in general ­(Figures 1.6a,

1. Close clearances and/or rubbing contact limit suitable materials of

4. Low volumetric efficiency occurs at low speeds (slip approaches

SIMPLE PUMPING ACTION OF RECIPROCATING

Sudtion niot valve

Figure 1.7a. Pumping actions

Discharge Valve (Open)

Suction valve (closed)

Figure 1.7b. Discharge valves actions

Discharge Valve (Closed)

1. Clean, nonabrasive, noncorrosive liquids, in general (Figures 1.6a,