Running head: GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 1

Green Building Design, Construction, and Safety:

Building ‘Green’ and Worker Safety Issues Associated With Green Technology.

Anthony Linka

Everglades University
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 2

Abstract

This paper discusses and reviews definitions of green building, green building design, the

role of Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) in green building design, the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) role in worker safety and green design,

and ways in which worker safety can be integrated into green design concepts. LEED rating

systems are used to provide examples and an outline of OSHA CFR 29 Part 26 is given as

reference. The process of creating a safety standard within the OSHA framework is detailed and

the inability to keep up with current safety demand is covered. Worker risks in green building

are discussed and solutions are presented to integrate safety within green design.
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 3

Green Building Design, Construction, and Safety:

Building Green and Worker Safety Issues Associated With Green Technology.

The construction industry is a constantly evolving collaboration of professionals formed

by an individual or a corporation for the purpose of creating an idea. Owners, architects,

engineers, interior designers, general contractors, subcontractors, and tradesman all play a

specific role in the process of constructing a project and while these roles may continue to be

constant, the projects continue to evolve into higher efficiency, complex, facilities capable of

providing multiple uses within a single structure. One driving force behind this evolution is the

desire to increase the building’s usable life, while reducing the energy consumed through

construction and operation of the building. This process has given rise to the term ‘green

building’.

New technology has created more efficient building systems, better indoor working

conditions, self-sustaining processes, renewable resources, and reduced the impact construction

has on the environment, however as technology moves forward at a rapid pace, the methods of

integrating this new technology into the construction process lags behind. Many systems require

installations that have not been accomplished previously. This can make the installations very

dangerous for the workers and tradesman, as proper safety protocols may not yet have been

developed for the specialized situation or system. The Occupational Safety and Health

Administration (OSHA), was created in 1970 to assure safe and healthy working conditions by

creating specific standards and by providing training and assistance (U.S. Department of Labor,

2014). Through this agency, specific standards have been established for the safe

accomplishment of almost all activities conducted on a construction site; however, the process of
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 4

creating and enforcing new standards is a slow and time-consuming one. As technology races

forward and new construction practices emerge, safety is often a casualty of progress. This

paper discusses green building, OSHA, and the integration of safety into green design.

Green Building

First, we need to start by defining what green building is. This can be a very complicated

process. Green building is not simply defined as a style of architecture, or by the types of

materials used during construction. To be truly ‘green’ the entire process from design through

construction and the use of the building by the final occupants needs to be evaluated and all these

components must work collaboratively towards the end result. The end result being a building or

group of buildings that is energy efficient, environmentally responsible, designed to provide a

high-quality indoor environment for the occupants, reduces the impact of the development on the

surrounding areas, and able to sustain these qualifications throughout the life-cycle of the

building itself. The World Commission (1987) defined this process as “sustainable development

seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet

those of the future” (p. 39). These qualifications can be equally hard to quantify. Without a

measurable standard of comparison, a cost-benefit analysis is the most logical formula available

to quantify and qualify ‘green’ standards. Benefits can be categorized into three types: direct,

indirect, and reduction.

These benefits are defined by Kwong (2004) as the following: direct cost savings are

economic savings that are directly gained by the building owner through reduced initial

construction cost, reduced energy consumption, lower maintenance requirements, and

deferred replacement. Indirect gains are benefits to users of the building. The last
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 5

category is reduced environmental externalities, which are negative impacts on the

environment resulting from constructing and operating the facility, for which the facility

does not have to pay. (p. RI102)

While energy consumption may be somewhat easier to quantify through comparison to

similar buildings, without the combined effort of the occupants and maintenance staff, the

efficiency of the buildings systems will not reach the designed preconstruction levels. How does

one quantify and qualify environmental responsibility? Using recycled materials and diverting

construction waste from landfills, can be quantified but these are very small components of a

building’s life cycle. Reducing the developments impact on the surrounding area is probably the

most difficult to quantify. One could argue that the least impact a project could have on the

surrounding area is to leave the area undeveloped. Every project is going to have some type of

impact on the surrounding areas. Reducing stormwater runoff and reducing the heat-island effect

generated by the building can be accomplished through careful design of the building and the

surrounding landscape. Sustainability is the key to green building. Design and construction are

to very small parts of a building’s life cycle. Operations and maintenance will comprise the

majority of the building’s useful life and it is through these that the building will truly become

green.

Green Design

As with any project, green building starts with an idea or need of an owner. From the

very start of the project life, the owner needs to be committed to the green building process.

Designing the project to be ‘green’ can be a difficult process. Balancing initial cost with life

cycle savings can be a daunting task. There are any number of checklists and criteria developed
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 6

to promote ‘green’ design and construction. In May of 2001, Environmental Building News

published a list of priorities associated with green building. These priorities are listed in order of

return on investment. The following list summarizes these priorities:

1. Save energy – design and build energy efficient buildings.

2. Recycle buildings – utilize existing buildings and infrastructure instead of developing

open space.

3. Create community – design communities to reduce dependence on the automobile and to

foster a sense of community.

4. Reduce material use – optimize design to make use of smaller spaces and utilize materials

efficiently.

5. Protect and enhance the site – preserve and restore local ecosystems and biodiversity.

6. Select low-impact materials – specify low-environmental impact, resource-efficient

materials.

7. Maximize longevity – design for durability and adaptability.

8. Save water – design buildings and landscapes that are water-efficient.

9. Make the building healthy – provide a safe and comfortable indoor environment.

10. Minimize construction and demolition waste – return, reuse, and recycle job site waste.

11. Green up your business – minimize the environmental impact of your own business

practices, and spread the word. (Wilson, Malin, & Yost, Establishing priorities with green

building, 2001)

The United States Green Building Council (USGBC) has developed a very precise

method of sustainable design with its Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design (LEED)

program. Through LEED certification, the building’s design and operations are set against
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 7

specific criteria. These criteria will drive the design of the building, not aesthetically but

functionally.

LEED

The United States Green Building Council developed the Leadership in Energy and

Environmental Design (LEED) rating system as a way to standardize the qualification of

sustainability. LEED rating systems are divided into five categories. Each category covers a

type of project, allowing LEED to remain applicable to all types of projects from entire

neighborhood development to a small office remodel. The five categories into which LEED is

divided are: Building Design and Construction (BD+C), this category covers new building

construction and major renovations; Interior Design and Construction (ID+C), covering interior

spaces within a larger facility in which the tenant does not control; Operations and Maintenance

(O+M), covering improvements to the existing building’s energy systems; Neighborhood

Development (ND), covering multiple buildings, with mixed uses, set within or developing a

community; and Homes, which covers multifamily or single family residential units. (LEED

rating systems, 2014)

Each of these rating systems contains a set of credits, which through an accumulation of

credit points the project can achieve levels of certification. There are four levels of certification:

Platinum, Gold, Silver, and Certified. Using the version 4 rating system for new construction

and major renovations under the BD+C category, a project earning 40-49 points is considered

Certified, 50-59 points, Silver, 60-79 points, Gold, and 80 points and above Platinum. The

credits themselves are also categorized by how they integrate into the design. Focusing on the

main goals of green building, these categories cover the entire design, construction, and
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 8

operation of the building or project. Again, using the version 4 rating system for new

construction and major renovations under the BD+C category, the credit categories are Location

and Transportation, Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, Energy and Atmosphere, Material &

Resources, Indoor Environmental Quality, Innovation, and Regional Priority. (LEED credit

library, 2014) Some of the categories, such as sustainable sites, water efficiency, energy and

atmosphere, material and resources, and indoor environmental quality carry prerequisites that

earn no points but must be achieved to be considered for certification, thus setting the baseline

for comparison to conventional construction projects.

Green Building vs. Conventional Construction

The comparison of green buildings to conventionally built buildings continues to fuel the

debate on green benefits. Green methods and materials are largely unproven and generally cost

significantly more than the same products not categorized as green. However, what makes a

product green? In addition, how does it compare to a conventional product? Green products

generally need to conform to certain design qualities before they can be considered green. Some

of these criteria are quite complicated such as reducing the amount of volatile organic

compounds (VOCs) emitted by the given product and others are simpler such as the product

containing a given percentage of post-consumer waste recycled content. Comparing these green

products to conventional products for the same use will determine the value in choosing a green

product over a conventional one. Using low VOC paint on the interior of the building might be a

requirement, however on the exterior conventional coatings could be considered. Steel used in

the construction of the superstructure might already contain post-consumer waste recycled

material and a conventional product might not be available. These types of green products

coupled with systems designed to reduce energy usage throughout the building are what
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 9

sustainable design concepts are working toward. When comparing operating costs of green

building to conventional buildings the energy savings stands out as the most obvious benefit to

building green and the data is there to prove it, “green buildings commonly use less than half as

much energy as their conventional counterparts, and some green buildings consume less than a

quarter as much energy” (Wilson, Making the case for green building, 2005).

As comparisons continue and benefits are weighed, there is one area of green building

that seems to have taken a back seat to the conversations, worker safety. In the United States,

the Department of Labor established OSHA to protect workers and to require all employers to

provide a safe and healthy workplace. The next section discusses OSHA, the impacts OSHA has

on the construction of a building and how OSHA standards and rules are created.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

In 1970, Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act, which created the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). OSHA covers almost all private

employers and their workers. OSHA creates safety standards by which all workers must abide,

sets criteria for safety provisions that must be provided by employers, and enforces these

regulations through site inspections, fines and training. OSHA created a separate set of rules and

regulations specifically for the construction industry. These rules and regulations are part of a

set of standards included in 29 CFR Part 1926. This section covers virtually every activity

performed on a construction jobsite. These standards are divided into 29 specific sections with

numerous standards defined within each section. The sections included in 29 CFR Part 1926 are:

Subpart A. General

Subpart B. General Interpretations

GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 10

Subpart C. General Safety and Health Provisions

Subpart D. Occupational Health Environmental Controls

Subpart E. Personal Protective and Life Saving Equipment

Subpart F. Fire Protection and Prevention

Subpart G. Signs, Signals, and Barricades

Subpart H. Material Handling, Storage, Use, and Disposal

Subpart I. Tools – Hand and Power

Subpart J. Welding and Cutting

Subpart K. Electrical

Subpart L. Scaffolds

Subpart M. Fall Protection

Subpart N. Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Elevators, and Conveyors

Subpart O. Motor Vehicles, Mechanized Equipment, and Marine Operations

Subpart P. Excavations

Subpart Q. Concrete and Masonry

Subpart R. Steel Erection

Subpart S. Tunnels and Shafts, Caissons, Cofferdams, and Compressed Air

Subpart T. Demolition

Subpart U. Blasting and Use of Explosives

Subpart V. Power Transmission and Distribution

Subpart W. Rollover Protective Structures; Overhead Protection

Subpart X. Stairways and Ladders

Subpart Y. Commercial Diving Operations

GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 11

Subpart Z. Toxic and Hazardous Substances

Subpart AA. Reserved for future use.

Subpart BB. Reserved for future use.

Subpart CC. Cranes and Derricks in Construction (U.S. Department of Labor, 2014)

Though the extensiveness of these standards helps to ensure worker safety at all times the

process for amending and adding standards is a lengthy and time-consuming one. The process

consists of several steps, which at a minimum could take almost five years to complete and in

some cases up to twelve and a half years to accomplish. The first stage of the rule making

process is Making the Decision: Conducting preliminary rulemaking activities, this stage takes

anywhere from twelve to thirty-six months. Stage 2, developing the proposed rule, is a twelve to

thirty-six month process after which the proposed rule is published taking two to three months.

Stage 4 is a six to twenty-four month process in which the proposed rule is subjected to public

comments and hearings. After this period, the final rule is developed. A process taking eighteen

to thirty-six months. Upon final development, the final rule is published taking two to three

months. The final stage of rule development includes a four to twelve month period in which

compliance guides are published and legal action is resolved. (The OSHA rule making process,

2012) With the steps outlined above, it is virtually impossible for OSHA to remain current with

safety regulations involving new technologies. While many of OSHA’s standards have been

proven to cover installation methods and technologies as they develop and change, the possibility

and likelihood of deficiencies in the standards remain. Keeping worker safety a top priority,

other solutions than can keep pace with the fast paced construction industry need to be

addressed. The next section will discuss some of the safety issues workers face when working

on green projects and the steps being taken to develop procedures to reduce potential risks.
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 12

Safety and Green Building

Worker safety is an essential component that needs to be seamlessly integrated into green

design. There are a number of ways of accomplishing this. Green design is an integrative

process. During the early design process when professionals are chosen to collaborate on a

project, the addition of a safety, health and environmental (SH&E) professional can ensure

worker safety will be addressed throughout the design process. As SH&E professionals are

involved throughout the building process their role can become two fold. The safety and health

side can “provide information to top management on issues such as total recordable cases, lost

workday cases and workers compensation” (Taubitz, 2010, p. 40), while the environmental side

can provide key insight into green requirements. Design teams can also be mindful of the risks

associated with their design. For example: large daylighting windows can cause injuries to

workers during installation because of their size and weight. Air conditioning systems can

increase a workers potential for falls based on the installation.

With new construction technologies, come new and increased risks. EU-OSHA (2013)

defines these risks as:

• A risk that did not previously exist and is caused by new processes, new

technologies, new types of workplace, or social or organizational change

• A long standing issue is newly considered as a risk due to a change in social or

public perceptions

• New scientific knowledge allows a long-standing issue to be identified as a risk

• The number of hazards leading to the risk is growing

• The likelihood of exposure to the hazard leading to the risk is increasing

GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 13

• The effect of the hazard on workers’ health is getting worse (Green jobs and

occupational safety and health: Foresight on new and emerging risks associated

with new technologies by 2020, pp. 20-21)

LEED and Safety

Design can play a large role in consideration of worker safety. In the design of green

buildings, LEED is often the framework with which the design team works. There have been

some recent discussions of adopting a safety-rating system and incorporating it into existing

LEED rating systems to ensure worker safety as part of the green design process. These

discussions have been met with both positive and negative feedback.

Donna Heidel, the Prevention through Design (PtD) Program Coordinator for National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), told Inside OSHA that it would

probably be most effective to incorporate safety criteria into the existing LEED system

(Administrator, 2010)

Another source however, provided some concern over the integration of safety into the

LEED rating systems.

LEED’s measures have been trending heavily toward energy efficiency, and health and

safety measures are not dealt with very effectively in LEED right now. (Administrator,

2010)

As the debate over how safety should be implemented wages on, the process of

integrating safety seems to fall back on the designers and builders. Builders are reminded that

OSHA standards represent the minimum protections to be afforded to their workers and that a
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 14

comprehensive safety program dealing with green technologies, methods and materials should be

implemented by builders who wish to pursue such avenues. Designers are encouraged to include

safety consideration in the system design. Recently, there has been some encouraging progress

toward establishing safety guidelines in green building design. According to Matt Gillen, deputy

director in the NIOSH Office of Construction Safety and Health, “a team at the National Institute

for Occupational Safety and Health is developing worker protection measures that would be part

of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) green building code.” (NIOSH

team to reccomend worker safety requirements in LEED green building certification, 2012)

Conclusion

Designing, constructing and operating a building is a major undertaking. Years of design

and work will go into the completion of a building before it is occupied. Understanding all the

effort put into this process, one can see how worker safety could be overlooked. This however,

is not an acceptable result. Worker safety needs to be at the forefront of building design and

construction practices. Green or traditional, safety is a concern. With OSHA’s inability to adapt

to the current trends and adopt standards applied to green building practices in a timely manner,

another option needs to present itself. Integrating safety rules and regulations into green design

is a viable solution. According to Gambatese, Rajendran, & Behm, (2007) “if current green

design and construction practices have negative effects on worker safety and health, those

concerns can be mitigated through the integration of the sustainable construction safety and

health concept within green design and construction practices.” (p. 35) The sustainable

construction safety and health concept is an intriguing solution to quantifying worker safety.

This concept mirrors sustainable building by which the World Commission (1987) defined as

“sustainable development seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 15

compromising the ability to meet those of the future” (p. 39). Sustainable construction safety

and health “concept aims to sustain the construction worker’s safety and health 1)from start to

finish of a single project; 2)for each future project in which the worker is involved; and 3) during

the workers remaining lifetime after retirement, without any injuries or illnesses as a result of the

construction work.” (Gambatese, Rajendran, & Behm, 2007, p. 34)

As rules and regulations are written, enforced, and debated, safety can be maintained

throughout green building, by applying the same concepts to worker safety as to the building

design.
GREEN BUILDING DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND SAFETY 16

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