CHAPTER IV

GAS LOOP SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
A Gas Loop has the function of creating the proper conditions for combustion,
of supplying the ingredients for combustion in the proper proportions, and of moving
the products of combustion to the atmosphere (Morse, 1953).

The equipment considered as Gas Loop has the function of creating the proper
conditions for combustion, of supplying the ingredients for combustion in the proper
proportions and moving of the products of combustion to the atmosphere (Morse,
1953).

4.1. GAS LOOP SYSTEM

The gas loop system is consisted of the gas passages, the chimney, and the
arrangements for supplying fuel and air to combustion equipment and removing ash
from it, together with control and regulatory apparatus. The furnace, burner and stoker
are considered as portions of the gas loop system. Elements of the gas loop system
is shown in the figure below.

Source: Black, 1996

Figure 4.1. Schematic Diagram of the Gas Loop System

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 However, these sets of equipment are discussed in the next chapter since they
are closely related with the steam generating unit.

4.2. PRODUCT OF COMBUSTION

Combustion is the rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible

elements of a fuel, resulting in the production of heat. Combustion is accomplished
by mixing fuel and air at elevated temperatures. The air supplies oxygen, which
unites chemically with the carbon, hydrogen, and a few minor elements in the fuel to
produce heat (Woodruff et al., 2004).

In order to determine the requirements of the gas loop system, combustion

analysis is made. Theoretical air-fuel ratio, actual air-fuel ratio, and gas-fuel ratio are
computed to determine the capacity of the gas loop equipment. For the basis of
combustion analysis, ultimate analysis of BUMI coal considered as shown in the table
below.

Table 4.1: Ultimate Analysis of BUMI Coal

Carbon 71.21%
Hydrogen 6.8%
Oxygen 9.51%
Nitrogen 3.88%
Sulfur 0.60%
Ash 11.2%
TOTAL 100%
Source: BUMI, 2013

The ultimate analysis, as shown in the table above, is the one that specifies the
various percentages by mass of the elements in the fuel, typical for solid and liquid
fuels (Faires, 1978). During the combustion process, the fuel constituents will be
oxidized, and the respective chemical reactions can be described using equations as
shown in the table below. Molecular weight of each coal constituent is also included in
the table.

Table 4.2: Molecular Weight and Combustion Equation

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 COMBUSTION
COAL CONSTITUENT MOLECULAR WEIGHT
EQUATION
Carbon (C) 12 C + O2 CO2
1
Hydrogen (H2) 2 H + 2 O2 H2O

Oxygen (O2) 32 ---

Nitrogen (N2) 28 ---
Sulfur (S) 32 S + O2 SO2
Source: Morse, 1953

THEORETICAL AIR

The minimum amount of air required to oxidize the coal constituents is the
theoretical air (Burghardt & Harbach, 1993). The air considered in the combustion
process is assumed to have a volumetric air proportions of 21% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen. Keep in mind that for 100mol of air, there are 21mol of oxygen and 79mol of
nitrogen.

The required air will be calculated by weight and volumetric basis. The total
amount of oxygen per pound of fuel is determined by summing up the oxygen
requirement of each coal constituent except for nitrogen and ash – since these
components are considered as inert and oxygen will not react with them.

The oxygen required by each coal constituent is obtained by multiplying the

weight of the constituent to the ratio of the molecular weight of oxygen and the coal
component. On the other hand, the volume of required air is computed by multiplying
the weight of the coal constituent to the required volume of air per pound of the coal
constituent. Theoretical values of air requirement per coal constituent is shown in the
table below.

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 Table 4.3: Theoretical Air Requirement of BUMI Coal Constituents
ULTIMATE CORRESPONDING REQUIRED AIR
ANALYSIS EQUATION BY WEIGHT BY VOLUME
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑂2
(𝐶) ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
C + O2 CO2 32
= 0.7121 ( )
12
= 𝟏. 𝟖𝟗 𝒍𝒃 𝑶𝟐
For volume of air per pound of Carbon:
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 + 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 + 3.76𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
= 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2 + 3.76𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
𝑓𝑡 3
For C = 12; any gas 1mol = 379ft3 (0.7121) (150.4 )
C = 71.21% 𝐶
379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑂2 (3.76)(379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2 )
1𝑙𝑏 𝐶 + + = = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒂𝒊𝒓
12 12
379𝑓𝑡 3 𝐶𝑂2 (3.76)(379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2 )
+
12 12

1𝑙𝑏 𝐶 + 31.58𝑓𝑡 𝑂2 + 118.75𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2 =

3

31.58𝑓𝑡 3 𝐶𝑂2 + 118.75𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2

𝑉𝐴𝐼𝑅 = 31.58𝑓𝑡 3 𝑂2 + 118.75 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2
𝑉𝐴𝐼𝑅 = 150.4𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
∴ 1lb C requires 150.4ft3 air
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑂2
(𝐻2 ) ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑓𝑡 3
1 (0.068) (451.01 )
H = 6.8% H + 2 O2 H2O 16 𝐻
= 0.068 ( )
2 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒂𝒊𝒓
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝒍𝒃 𝑶𝟐

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 For volume of air per pound of Hydrogen:
1
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 + 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 + 1.88𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 =

1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂 + 1.88𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
For H2 = 2; any gas 1mol = 379ft3
1 379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑂2 (1.88)(379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2 )
1𝑙𝑏 𝐻2 + (2) ( )+ =
2 2

379𝑓𝑡 3 𝐻2 𝑂 (1.88)(379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2 )
( ) +
2 2

𝑉𝐴𝐼𝑅 = 94.75𝑓𝑡 3 𝑂2 + 356.26𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2

𝑉𝐴𝐼𝑅 = 451.01𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
∴ 1lb H2 requires 451.01ft3 air

O2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑂2
−(𝑂2 ) ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
Note: Oxygen is 𝑓𝑡 3
32 (−0.0951) (11.84 )
O = 9.51% subtracted in order to = −0.0951 ( ) 𝑂2
32
eliminate the excess = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓𝟏 𝒍𝒃 𝑶𝟐 = −𝟏. 𝟏𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒂𝒊𝒓
oxygen in the fuel.

N = 3.88% --- --- ---

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑂2
(𝑆) ( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆
𝑓𝑡 3
32 (0.006) (56.34 )
S = 0.60% S + O2 SO2 = (0.006) (32) 𝐶
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝒍𝒃 𝑶𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒂𝒊𝒓

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 For volume of air per pound of Sulfur:
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆 + 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 + 3.76𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
= 1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆𝑂2 + 3.76𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
For S = 32; any gas 1mol = 379ft3
379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑂2 (3.76)(379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2 )
1𝑙𝑏 𝑆 + + =
32 32
379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑆𝑂2 (3.76)(379𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2 )
+
32 32

1𝑙𝑏 𝑆 + 11.84𝑓𝑡 3 𝑂2 + 44.53𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2 =

11.84𝑓𝑡 3 𝑆𝑂2 + 44.53𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2
𝑉𝐴𝐼𝑅 = 11.84𝑓𝑡 3 𝑂2 + 44.53𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2
𝑉𝐴𝐼𝑅 = 56.34𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
∴ 1lb S requires 56.34ft3 air
ASH = --- --- ---
11.2%
TOTAL 𝒍𝒃 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒂𝒊𝒓
2.3449 136.98 𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍
𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

THEORETICAL AIR-FUEL RATIO

Air fuel ratio defines if the proportion of the constituents of the reactants are
such that there are exactly enough molecules of oxidizer to bring about a complete
reaction to stable molecular forms in the products (Faires & Simmang, 1978). The
theoretical air-fuel ratio is determined in terms of weight and volume.

A. BY WEIGHT

Air-fuel ratio is obtained by summing up the exact amount of oxygen

requirement of coal constituents and the amount of nitrogen associated with air. In
practical engineering calculations, assumptions are made that air is mechanical
mixture of various gases, but is principally composed of Oxygen and Nitrogen,
having a percentage of 23.2% Oxygen and 76.8% Nitrogen by Weight (Gaffert,
1952).

𝑟𝑎𝑓 = 𝑂2 + 𝑁2

𝑁2
𝑟𝑎𝑓 = 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 ( )
𝑂2

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 𝑙𝑏 𝑂2 𝑙𝑏 𝑂2 76.8%𝑁2
𝑟𝑎𝑓 = 2.3449 + 2.3449 ( )
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 23.2%𝑂2

𝒍𝒃 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒓𝒂𝒇 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟏
𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

The computed amount of air contains the exact oxygen requirement for
complete combustion of each combustible constituent of coal.

BY VOLUME
Air-fuel ratio in terms of volume can be obtained by simply summing up
the required air (by volume) that has been computed earlier. Computation of
the air-fuel ratio is shown as follows:
𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑟𝑎𝑓 = (∑ )
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
107.1 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 30.67 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1.13 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 0.34 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑟𝑎𝑓 = + − +
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒓𝒂𝒇 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔. 𝟗𝟖
𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

ACTUAL AIR-FUEL RATIO

In practice, to assure a complete reaction of the fuel, an excess of air or oxygen

is supplied (Faires & Simmang, 1978). Additional oxygen is required to achieve
complete combustions of the reactants. The excess air is needed because the finite
fuel is of finite size, and each droplet must be surrounded by more than the necessary
number of oxygen molecules to assure oxidation of all the hydrocarbon molecules.
This excess air is usually expressed as a percentage of the theoretical air (Burghardt
& Harbach, 1993). Suggested amount of excess air for power plant furnaces are
shown in the table below.

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 Table 4.4: Ranges of Excess Air Requirements for Various Fuel and Methods of
Firing

FUEL/FURNACE EXCESS AIR, % BY WEIGHT

Pulverized Coal 15 – 20
Fluidized Bed Combustion 15 – 20
Spreader Stoker 25 – 35
Water-cooled Vibrating Grate Stoker 25 – 35
Chain and Travelling Grate Stoker 25 – 35
Underfeed Stoker 25 – 40
Fuel Oil 3 – 15
Natural Gas 3 – 15
Coke Oven Gas 3 – 15
Blast Furnace Gas 15 – 30
Wood/Bark 20 – 25
Refuse-derived Fuel (RDF) 40 – 60
Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) 80 – 100
Source: Babcock & Wilcox, 20087

Given the range of 15% to 20% excess air, an average value 17.5% will be
used for the pulverized coal-fired power plant. Using the excess air, the actual air-fuel
ratio, both by weight and by volume can be obtained as follows:

Air-fuel ratio in terms of weight:

𝑟𝑎𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 𝑟𝑎𝑓 + 𝑟𝑎𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑟𝑎𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 10.11 + 10.11 (0.175)
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙

𝒍𝒃 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒓𝒂𝒇(𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍) = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖
𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

Air-fuel ratio in terms of volume:

𝑟𝑎𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 𝑟𝑎𝑓 + 𝑟𝑎𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

ft3 air ft3 air

𝑟𝑎𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 136.98 + 136.98 (0.175)
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙

𝒍𝒃 𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒓𝒂𝒇(𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍) = 𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟗𝟓
𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

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PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

After the oxidation of coal constituents, final substance or product will develop.
The actual path forming products of combustion involves molecular rearrangement of
fuel and oxidant atoms (Keating, 2007). The combustion gases, which is generally
called as flue gas, are composed of various gases including the amount of excess air.
Computation of weight and volume of the flue gas components are shown in the table
below.

Table 4.5: Products of Combustion

ULTIMATE PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION

ANALYSIS
(% BY WEIGHT) BY WEIGHT BY VOLUME
44 𝐶𝑂2 379
C = 71.21% 0.7121𝐶 ( ) = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟏𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝑪𝑶𝟐 2.6110 𝐶𝑂2 ( ) = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟗𝟎𝟐𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝟐
12 𝐶 44

18 𝐻2 𝑂 379
H = 6.8% 0.068𝐻2 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟐 𝒍𝒃 𝑯𝟐 𝑶 0.612 𝐻2 𝑂 ( ) = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖𝟖𝟔 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
2 𝐻2 18

O = 9.51% --- ---

%𝑁 + (𝑅𝑎𝑓 𝑥 𝑁𝑓 ) = (0.0388) + (10.11𝑥0.768) 379
N = 3.88% 7.7956 𝑙𝑏 𝑁2 ( ) = 𝟏𝟎𝟓. 𝟔𝟐𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝑵𝟐
28
= 𝟕. 𝟖𝟎𝟑𝑵𝟐
64 𝑆𝑂2 379
S = 0.60% 0.006 𝑆 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒍𝒃 𝑺𝑶𝟐 0.012 𝑆𝑂2 ( ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟏𝟏 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝑺𝑶𝟐
32 𝑆 64
𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒈 𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒇𝒈
Gas-Fuel Ratio 𝒓𝒈𝒇 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟒 𝒓𝒈𝒇 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟎𝟕
𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

ACTUAL GAS-FUEL RATIO

Using the same method from the actual Air-Fuel ratio (in terms of weight and
volume), the actual Gas-Fuel ratio can be obtained. The equation in terms of weight
and volume is presented below.

By Weight:

𝑟𝑔𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 𝑟𝑔𝑓 + 𝑟𝑔𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

𝑟𝑔𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 11.04 + 11.04 (0.175)

𝒍𝒃 𝒇𝒈
𝒓𝒈𝒇(𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍) = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟗𝟕
𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍
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 By Volume:

𝑟𝑔𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 𝑟𝑔𝑓 + 𝑟𝑔𝑓 (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑖𝑟)

𝑟𝑔𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) = 141.07 + 141.07(0.175)

𝒇𝒕𝟑 𝒇𝒈
𝒓𝒈𝒇(𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍) = 𝟏𝟔𝟓. 𝟕𝟓
𝒍𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍

The quantities involved in the combustion of coal are summarized in Table 4.6
as shown below.

Table 4.6: Summary of the Computed Results

REQUIRED PRODUCTS OF
CORRESPONDING
AIR COMBUSTION
REACTION
BY WEIGHT BY VOLUME BY WEIGHT BY VOLUME
C ~ C + O2 → CO2 1.89 𝑙𝑏 𝑂2 107.10 𝑓𝑡3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 2.6110 𝑙𝑏 𝐶𝑂2 22.4902𝑓𝑡 3 𝐶𝑂2
H ~ 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O 0.544 𝑙𝑏 𝑂2 30.67 𝑓𝑡3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 0.612 𝑙𝑏 𝐻2 𝑂 12.886 𝑓𝑡 3 𝐻2 𝑂
O~ --------------- −0.0951 𝑙𝑏 𝑂2 −1.13 𝑓𝑡3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 ---- ---
N ~ Inert Gas ---- --- 7.803𝑁2 105.62𝑓𝑡 3 𝑁2
S~ S2 + 2O2 →
0.006 𝑙𝑏 𝑂2 0.34 𝑓𝑡3 𝑎𝑖𝑟 0.012 𝑙𝑏 𝑆𝑂2 0.0711 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑆𝑂2
2SO2
𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Theoretical A-F Ratio 10.11 136.98 ---- ---
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
𝑙𝑏 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Actual A-F Ratio 11.88 160.95 ---- ---
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑔 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑓𝑔
Theoretical G-F Ratio ---- --- 11.04 141.07
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑔 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑓𝑔
Actual G-F Ratio ---- --- 12.97 165.75
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙

SO2 CONCENTRATION
SO2 is an acid gas formed by combustion of sulfur in the fuel with oxygen
(Black & Veatch, 1996). Deciding whether the power plant should provide a sulfur
dioxide removal depends upon the amount of plant’s emission. If the emission
exceeds the standard value of 1500 mg/ Nm3, the power plant is obliged to provide
SO2 reducing equipment to control the amount of pollutant being released in the

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atmosphere. Computation of SO2 concentration is shown as follows:

𝑓𝑡 3 1
𝑆𝑂2 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (% 𝑆) (379 )( ) (106 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆 𝑟𝑔𝑓(𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙)

379𝑓𝑡 3 1
𝑆𝑂2 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (0.006) ( )( ) (106 )
32 𝑓𝑡 3 𝑓𝑔
165.75
𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
𝑆𝑂2 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 428.733𝑝𝑝𝑚

428.733𝑝𝑝𝑚(64)
𝑆𝑂2 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝐿
24.45
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝒎𝒈
𝑺𝑶𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟓
𝑵𝒎𝟑
𝒎𝒈 𝒎𝒈
𝟏, 𝟏𝟐𝟐. 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝟑
< 1500
𝑵𝒎 𝑵𝒎𝟑

The concentration SO2 does not exceed the standard value which is 1500
mg/Nm3; thus, SO2 removal system is not necessary for the power plant.

SUMMARY OF COMBUSTION ANALYSIS

Summary of combustion analysis are shown in the table below. Air fuel ratio
both theoretical and actual; excess air; and gas-fuel ratio are included in the table.
Also, concentration of pollutants such as particulate matter and SO 2
concentrations are shown below.

Table 4.8: Summary of Combustion Analysis

THEORETICAL AIR-FUEL RATIO (BY WEIGHT) 10.11lb air/lb coal

THEORETICAL AIR-FUEL RATIO (BY VOLUME) 136.98ft3 air/lb coal
AMOUNT OF EXCESS AIR 17.5%
ACTUAL AIR-FUEL RATIO (BY WEIGHT) 11.88lb air/lb coal
ACTUAL AIR-FUEL RATIO (BY VOLUME) 160.95ft3 air/lb coal
THEORETICAL GAS-FUEL RATIO (BY WEIGHT) 11.04lb fg/lb coal
THEORETICAL GAS-FUEL RATIO (BY VOLUME) 141.07ft3 fg/lb coal

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 ACTUAL GAS-FUEL RATIO (BY WEIGHT) 12.97lb fg/lb coal
ACTUAL GAS-FUEL RATIO (BY VOLUME) 165.75ft3 fg/lb coal
SO2 CONCENTRATION 1,122.25mg/Nm3
GAS LOOP COMPONENTS

The primary components of the gas loop system that will be considered are
air preheater, air pollution control facility, draft system and stack. Discussion and
selection of these of components are shown in the following subsections.

4.3 AIR PREHEATER

Air preheater is an auxiliary heating device designed to increase the
temperature of the air used for combustion by transferring heat from the products
of combustion. This equipment is simply a heat transfer surface, enclosed in a
casing which has proper connections for the air and the flue gas (Morse, 1953).

Through the use of air preheater, the high temperature of exit gases can
be used in heating the air supplied for the combustion of fuel. The use of hot air
makes the combustion process more efficient by making it more stable and
lessening the energy losses due to incomplete combustion and unburnt carbon.
The application of hot air also leads to increase in theoretical flame temperature
and to the intensification of radiant heat transfer in the furnace. The gas
temperatures exiting the air preheater vary from 135 to 180°C, not only for the
prevention of acid corrosion problems but also for propr dispersion of exhaust
gases from the stack to atmosphere (Nag, 2001).

While flue gases enter the air preheater at temperatures varying between
315 to 450 °C and are cooled to 135 to 180°C, air is heated from the FD fan outlet
temperature (40 to 60 °C) to 280 to 400 °C and sometimes higher. For the same
energy input to the furnace, the preheating of air saves fuel. This saving in fuel
and consequent increase in boiler efficiency are approximately proportional to the
air temperature rise in the air preheater. Typical fuel savings are 4% for 110 °C
rise in air temperature and 11% for a 280 °C rise in air temperature in pre heater
(Nag, 2001).

Air preheaters are classified in accordance with its the method of

transferring heat and it is generally divided into two classes: recuperative and
regenerative. These two types of air preheaters are compared and the equipment

[Type here]
with the most suitable specifications will be selected.

A. RECUPERATIVE AIR PREHEATER

Also known as tubular air preheaters, Recuperative air heaters are those
which continuously recuperate the cool side of the transfer surface by heat transfer
from the hot side (Morse, 1953). The heat is directly transferred from the hot gases
to the air across the heat exchanging surface. They are commonly tubular,
although some plate types are still in use. Tubular units are essentially counter-flow
shell-and-tube heat exchangers in which the hot gases flow inside the vertical
straight tubes and air flow outside and baffles are provided to maximize air contact
with the hot tubes. Cost, cleaning requirements and fuel type determine the
diameter of the tubes used. Modern steam generators use 50-65 mm OD heater
tubes (Nag, 2001).

Table 4.9: Recuperative Air Preheater Characteristics

PROCESS FLOW RATE Low to medium

OPERATION Continuous
THERMAL ENERGY RECOVERY EFFICIENCY Up to 80%
MAINTENANCE Low Maintenance
COST High capital cost
OUTPUT TEMPERATURE No specific requirement

Source: Epcon Industrial Systems LP, 2015

[Type here]
 Source: Power Plant Engineering by Nag, 2001

Figure 4.2: Photo Showing a Tubular/Recuperative Air Preheater

B. REGENERATIVE AIR PREHEATER
Regenerative air preheaters, known as storage type heat exchangers, have an
energy storage medium, called the matrix, which is alternately exposed to the hot and
cold fluids. When the hot flue gases flow through the matrix in the first half of the cycle,
the matrix gets heated and the gas is cooled. In the next half of the cycle when air
flows through the matrix, air gets heated and the matrix is cooled. The cycle repeats
itself. The heat transfer from gas to air is thus periodic, the amount depending on the
number of heating-cooling cycles executed per second. The most common type is the
rotary air preheater, known as Ljungstrom air preheater, which consists of a rotor
driven by an electric motor through reduction gearing at low speed with 2-4 rpm. Rotary
air preheaters are compact heat exchanger with large heat transfer surface being
accommodated in small volume. They are relatively cheap and have good heat
transfer characteristics. However, there are certain drawbacks such as (a) flow
openings being plugged by fly ash, (b) sealing of gas to air path and vice versa and
(c) large pressure drops for both gas and air. If air is required to be heated to 400 °C or
above, two stages of air preheating are used with the economizer installed in between
the two air preheaters (Nag, 2001). Common characteristics of a regenerative type air
preheater are shown in the table below.

PROCESS FLOW RATE Low to high

OPERATION Periodic/ Cyclic
THERMAL ENERGY RECOVERY EFFICIENCY 80% to 95%
MAINTENANCE High maintenance
COST High maintenance cost

[Type here]
 OUTPUT TEMPERATURE 400 ° C Maximum
Source: Epcon Table
Industrial Systems
4.10: LP, 2015
Regenerative Air Preheater Characteristics

Source: Power Plant Engineering by Nag, 2001

Figure 4.3. Photo Showing a Rotary/Regenerative Air Preheater

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 C. AIR PREHEATER SELECTION

Comparison of the air preheaters is shown in the table below. Criteria for
comparison are the process flow rate, types of operation, thermal energy
recovery efficiency, maintenance and cost. The equipment having the most
positive remarks will be chosen.
Table 4.11: Comparison of Air Preheater

RECUPERATIVE AIR REGENERATIVE AIR

CRITERIA PREHEATER PREHEATER REMARKS

Regenerative Type has the

PROCESS FLOW Low to medium Low to high process
highest range of flow rate;
RATE process flow rate flow rate
which is most ideal for the
power plant.

Recuperative Type is more

OPERATION Continuous Periodic/ Cyclic efficient in terms of operation.

THERMAL Regenerative Type has higher

Up to 80% 80% to 95%
ENERGY thermal energy recovery
RECOVERY efficiency.
EFFICIENCY
Low Maintenance since High maintenance since the
MAINTENANCE Recuperative Type is more
the whole assembly is preheater needs regular
economical for long term
stationary adjustment
operation.

COST High capital cost High maintenance cost Recuperative Type is more
economical for long term
operation.

400 ° C Maximum for a Regenerative Type is not

OUTPUT No specific requirement single-stage air preheating economical for output
TEMPERATURE temperature that is higher than
400° C.

[Type here]
 Based from the comparison tabulated above, the regenerative type of air
preheater is the most suitable in terms of process flow rate and thermal energy
recovery efficiency; without citing its low capital cost. However, if the long-term
advantages are considered, the recuperative type is the best option. Economically,
the recuperative type is beneficial for its low maintenance cost and its competence to
reduce fuel consumption. Also, only a single-stage of air preheating will be needed,
unlike the regenerative type that requires two-stage of air preheating to meet the
desired output temperature which is larger to 40 °C. Considering the long-term
advantages, the tubular/recuperative air preheater is selected for the proposed
power plant.

4.3.2. PARTICULATE CONTROL EQUIPMENT

In order to control the pollutants being emitted by the power plant, installation
of an air pollution control facility is necessary. The kind of air pollutants that must be
given consideration are the particulate matter, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxide
(NOX). Based from the computations shown previously, SO2 emission is below the
maximum standard value provided by the government and regulation is not
necessary. The regulation of NOX, on the other hand, is under the steam generation
system. Hence, only the particulate control equipment is required for the air pollution
facility.

When coal is burned in conventional boilers, a portion of the ash drops out of
the bottom of the furnace (bottom ash) while the remainder of the ash is carried out
of the furnace in the flue gas. It is this remaining ash (fly ash) that must be collected
after the furnace and before exhausting the flue gas to the atmosphere. Particulate
emissions from the combustion process are collected by particulate control
equipment. This equipment must remove the particulate from the flue gas, keep the
particulate from re-entering the gas, and discharge the collected material (Kitto &
Stultz, 2005). Fly ash can be collected with either an electrostatic precipitator or a
baghouse.

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 A. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
Electrostatic precipitation is a technique to remove suspended particle in a
gas using an electrostatic force. Electrostatic precipitator can be operated with high
collection efficiency and a low pressure drop. The collection efficiency is usually less
than 99% while the pressure drop is normally less than 1000 Pascal (Mizuno, 2005).
The principal components of an electrostatic precipitator are two sets of electrodes
insulated from each other. The first set is composed of rows of electrically grounded
vertical parallel plates, called the collection electrodes (CEs), between which the
dust-laden gas flows. The second set of electrodes consists of wires called the
discharge or emitting electrodes (DEs) that are centrally located between each pair
of parallel plates (Nag, 2001).

During the operation of the electrostatic precipitator, an electric field is

established between the collection electrodes and the discharge electrodes will
exhibit an active glow, or corona. As the flue gas passes through the electric field,
the particulate takes on a negative charge which is accomplished by field charging or
diffusion. Then, the negatively charged particles are attracted toward the grounded
collection electrodes and migrate across the gas flow (Kitto & Stultz, 2005). Common
characteristics of an electrostatic precipitator are shown in the table below.

Table 4.12: Electrostatic Precipitator Characteristics

ASH COLLECTION EFFICIENCY [1] Less than 99 %

GAS TEMPERATURE [2] 662 °F to 842 °F

PRESSURE DROP [2] 497.68 Pa to 2488.4 Pa

COAL PREFERENCE [3] Medium or High Sulfur Coal

[1]
Source: Mizuno, 2005
[2]
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1999
[3]
Kitto & Stultz, 2005

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 Source: Kitto & Stultz, 2005

Figure 4.4: Photo Showing an Electrostatic Precipitator

B. FABRIC FILTERS AND BAGHOUSES

Fabric filters are used in power plants to remove dust particles from a gas
stream. They are made of porous material which retains particulate matter while the
carrier gas flows out through the voids. The fabric filter element is usually made in
the form of a long, hollow cylindrical tube that provides a large surface area per unit
of gas volumetric flow rate (m2/m3 gas flow). The reciprocal of this parameter, called
the air-to-cloth ratio (A/C ratio). It is fundamental fabric filter descriptor denoting the
ratio of the flue gas flow to the amount of fabric, or filtering surface area. It ranges
between 5 to 40 mm/s (Nag, 2001).

A fabric filter system usually contains a large number of fabric filter elements
arranged in parallel rows that is called a baghouse. A power plant baghouse might
contain several thousand vertical hollow cylinders, each ranging in diameter from

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 125 to 350mm, up to 12.5 m in height. The elements have, in general, an open
bottom and closed top. They rest on a tube sheet above a dirty air plenum (Nag,
2001).

Table 4.13: Baghouse Characteristics

ASH COLLECTION EFFICIENCY 99 % to 99.99%

GAS TEMPERATURE 500°F to 550°F

PRESSURE DROP 1244.2 Pa to 4976.8 Pa

COAL PREFERENCE Low Sulfur Coal

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1998

Source: Power Plant Engineering by Nag, 2001

Figure 4.5: Photo showing a Baghouse

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 C. PARTICULATE CONTROL EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Comparison of the particulate control equipment is shown in the table below.
Criteria for comparison are the ash collection efficiency, gas temperature, pressure
drop and coal preference. The equipment having the most positive remarks will be
chosen.

FABRIC
ELECTROSTATIC FILTERS
CRITERIA PRECIPITATOR AND REMARKS
BAGHOUSES

The baghouse
has the highest
ASH COLLECTION ash collection
EFFICIENCY 99 % 99 % to 99.99% efficiency and is
the most ideal for
the power plant.

The
electrostatic
precipitator has a
higher range of
gas temperature
GAS TEMPERATURE 662 °F to 842 °F 500°F to 550°F compared to that
of fabric filters
and baghouses
compared to that
of fabric filters
and baghouses.
The electrostatic
precipitator has
the lowest
pressure drop.
1244.2 Pa to Hence, lower
PRESSURE DROP 497.68 Pa to 2488.4 Pa
4976.8 Pa energy is
required for the
exhaust system.
The electrostatic
precipitator is
more suitable for
COAL PREFERENCE Medium or High Sulfur Coal Low Sulfur Coal the coal, which
has a high sulfur
content.
Table 4.14: Particulate Control Equipment Comparison

[Type here]
 The equipment that will be selected for the particulate matter control is the
Electrostatic Precipitator. Based from the comparison above, Electrostatic
Precipitator has the upper hand in terms of the allowable temperature range of the
flue gas that is entering; not mentioning the low pressure drop that occurs during the
process. Even though it has a major drawback in terms of the low sulfur coal having
high resistive ashes, the weakness of the equipment can be easily overcome by
providing a larger capacity to meet the standard emission level.

D. PARTICULATE MATTER EMISSION

Given the range of the ash collection efficiency, which is 99%, the particulate
matter that will be emitted can be computed. The concentration of the outlet
particulate matter can be solved using the equation shown below (John Wiley &
Sons, 2002).
𝐶𝑂 = 𝐶𝐼 (1 − 𝐸)
Where:
𝐶𝑂 = outlet connection
𝐶𝐼 = inlet connection
𝐸 = ash collection efficiency of the equip,

𝐶𝑂 = 8,220(1 − 0.99)
𝑚𝑔
𝐶𝑂 = 82.20
𝑁𝑚3
𝒎𝒈 𝒎𝒈
𝑪𝑶 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟐𝟎 𝟑
< 150
𝑵𝒎 𝑵𝒎𝟑

Based on the computation above the Total Suspended Particulate is lower than
the required by the Philippine Clean Air Act, since 82.20mg/Nm3 < 150 mg/Nm3,
therefore the Electrostatic Precipitator can reduce the amount of ash effectively in
compliance with the standards set by the government.

4.4. STACK
The natural draft needed for the power plant is produced by a chimney or a

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 stack. The natural draft is caused by the density difference between the
atmospheric air and the hot gas in the stack. Within the gas loop system, function
of the stack can be divided into two: (1) To assist the fans in overcoming pressure
loss and (2) to help disperse the gas effluent into the atmosphere at a sufficient
height to cause minimum atmospheric pollution (Nag, 2001).

Source: Power Plant Engineering by Nag, 2001

Figure 4.6: Photo Showing the Draught Produced by a Stack

The actual height of a stack is obtained by dividing required chimney draft

by the available draft per 30 m of chimney (D30) and multiplying by 30 as shown in
the equation below (Morse, 1953).

𝐶ℎ𝑖𝑚𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝐻𝑆𝑇𝐴𝐶𝐾 = 𝑋 30
𝐷30
Where:
𝐻𝑆𝑇𝐴𝐶𝐾 = actual height of the chimney/stack
𝐷30 = available draft per 30m of chimney

For the computation of draft per 30m of stack height (D30), the following
formula is used (Morse, 1953):

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 𝑉5
𝐷30 = 𝑘(𝑑𝑎 − 𝑑𝑔 ) − 0.007578𝑑𝑔 √
𝑄𝑔

Where:
𝐷30 = available draft per 30m of chimney
𝑘 = 2.7 for brick of chimney and 2.4 for steel stack
𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝑎 = density of air, 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝑔 = density of flue gas, 𝑚3
𝑚
𝑉 = gas velocity of the chimney, 𝑠
𝑚
𝑄𝑔 = gas flow, 𝑠

Steel stack is considered for the design; hence value of 2.4 is considered
for the constant k. On the other hand, the density of the flue gas is determined
using the chart shown below. Using the typical flue gas temperature of 260°C
(Morse, 1953), corresponding density of the flue gas is determined which is 0.69
kg/m3.

[Type here]
 Source: Morse, 1953

Figure 4.7: Photo Showing the Variation of Air and Flue Gas Densities with
Temperatures

Considering the standard atmospheric conditions, air density of 1.2 kg/m 3

will be used. The volume of the gas flowing through an induced fan, on the other
hand, depends primarily on density, and further more with gas temperature. Given
the density of flue gas (0.69 kg/m3), the gas-fuel ratio (12.97 kg fg/kg coal) and the
coal consumption (36.14 kg/s) gas flow (𝑄𝑔) can be computed using the following
equation (Morse, 1953).

𝑀𝑓𝑔
𝑄𝑓𝑔 =
𝑑𝑓𝑔
Where:
𝑚3
𝑄𝑓𝑔 = gas flow, 𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑓𝑔 = mass flow rate of the flue gas, 𝑠
𝑘𝑔
𝑑𝑓𝑔 = density of the flue gas, 𝑚3

[Type here]
 For the mass flow rate of the flue gas:
𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑀𝑓𝑔 = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑠 − 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑥
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙
𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑔 36.14
𝑀𝑓𝑔 = 12.97 𝑥 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑎𝑙 1 𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟
𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑔
𝑀𝑓𝑔 = 468.736
𝑠
Therefore:
𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑔
468.736
𝑄𝑓𝑔 = 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑔
0.69
𝑚3
𝒎𝟑
𝑸𝒇𝒈 = 𝟔𝟕𝟗. 𝟑𝟐𝟕
𝒔

The economical velocity for stack design ranges from 50 fpm to 60 fpm (15.24
m/s to 18.29 m/s; where height is proportional to velocity and diameter (Potter, 1959).
For the initial computation, velocity of 15.24 m/s will be used. Given the constant k
(2.4); air density (1.2kg/m3); flue gas density (0.69kg/m3); velocity (6.1m/sec) and
flue gas mass flow rate (679.327m3/s), the draft for every 30m of stack height (𝐷30)
can be computed as follows.

𝑚 5
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 (15.24 𝑠 )
𝐷30 = 2.4 (1.2 3 − 0.69 3 ) − 0.007578 (0.69 3 ) √
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚3
679.327 𝑠

𝑫𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟐𝟏 𝒄𝒎 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝟑𝟎𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒎𝒏𝒆𝒚

Using the aforementioned formula, the equivalent draft for every 30m of stack
height for each corresponding velocity were calculated, which is shown in Table 4.15.

[Type here]
 Table 4.15: Equivalent Draft for every 30m of Stack Height

Velocity (m/s) D30 (cm)

15.24 1.042103

1.034551
15.49
15.74 1.026814

15.99 1.018891

1.010779
16.24
16.49 1.002478

16.74 0.993987

16.99 0.985303

17.24 0.976425

17.49 0.967351

17.74 0.958082

17.99 0.948614

18.29 0.938947

For the required draft of the chimney, sum of all friction losses plus the
velocity head loss of gas discharging is considered. For the stack design, a static
draft of 2.007 cm water is maintained, and velocity head is given by: D 1=0.004
V2dg. Therefore, stack height can be computed as follows:

[0.004(15.242 )(0.69) + 2.007]𝑐𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐻𝑆𝑇𝐴𝐶𝐾 = 𝑥 30
1.0421𝑐𝑚 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑯𝑺𝑻𝑨𝑪𝑲 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟐𝟑 𝒎

Based from the computation above, it is seen that the higher the gas
velocity, the higher the chimney. Then, a relation between diameter and velocity
can be developed and the formula is shown as follows:

𝑄𝑔
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 1.13 𝑥 √( )
𝑉

[Type here]
 𝑚3
679.327 𝑠
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 = 1.13 𝑥√( 𝑚 )
15.24 𝑠

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒌 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟒𝟒 𝒎

Use the minimum product of the height and diameter of the stack as an
index to economic proportions of a steel stack (Morse, 1953). Table 4.12 shows
the computed height and diameter based from the recommended velocities.

Table 4.16: Computed Stack Dimensions

Velocity (m/s) Height (m) Diameter (m) H x D (m2)

15.24 76.23 7.54 574.8992

77.40 7.48 579.003

15.49
15.74 78.62 7.42 583.3862

15.99 79.87 7.36 588.0549

81.17 7.31 593.0157

16.24
16.49 82.52 7.25 598.2761

16.74 83.92 7.19 603.8443

16.99 85.37 7.14 609.7293

17.24 86.87 7.09 615.9412

17.49 88.43 7.04 622.4907

17.74 90.04 6.99 629.3897

17.99 91.72 6.94 636.6511

18.29 93.46 6.89 644.2888

Based from the table above, the minimum product is 574.89 m2. Hence the
most economical stack dimensions are 76.23 m in height and 7.541 m in diameter
with a flue gas velocity of 15.24 m/s.

4.4.1. INDUCED DRAFT FAN

After combustion of fuel, combustion products, hot flue gas with dust particles,

[Type here]
 is to be evacuated continuously from the furnace during continuous combustion
process. This flue gas passes through different zones due to the suction of Induced
Draft Fan. Heat of flue gas is then transferred to different heat transfer elements.
Finally, the gas at low temperature is escaped to the atmosphere through the stack
or chimney. ID fan is placed between the air heater and chimney (Mallik, 2015).

Source: Mallik, 2015

Figure 4.8: Schematic Diagram Showing the Location of Induced Draft Fan

Draft fans are classified either centrifugal or axial, according to the direction
of air or gas flow through the fans. Centrifugal fans move air or gas perpendicular
to the impeller shaft. Axial fans move air or gas parallel to the impeller shaft (Black
& Veatch, 1996). These type of fans are discussed below.

A. CENTRIFUGAL FAN
Centrifugal fan blades are mounted in an impeller (or rotor) that rotates
within a spiral housing. The performance characteristics of centrifugal fans are
highly dependent on the type of blade used. Basically, three types of blades are
used on centrifugal fans in power plant applications: backward curved, straight, and
radial tip (Black & Veatch, 1996).

[Type here]
 Source: Black & Veatch, 1996

Figure 4.9: Photo Showing the Centrifugal Fan

Among the three types of centrifugal fans, Backward curved blade has the
highest static efficiency as shown in the figure below; not mentioning its several
advantages over the other types of blades which includes the its very stable
operation; low-noise level characteristics; ideal capabilities for high-speed service
and Non-overloading horsepower characteristics. Hence, Backward curved blade
centrifugal fan is going to be compared with the axial fan for the selection.

[Type here]
 Source: Black & Veatch, 1996

Figure 4.10: Photo Showing the Fan Blade Types and Performance Curves

A. AXIAL FANS

In an axial flow fan, the impeller is predominantly parallel to the axis of

rotation. The impeller is contained in a cylindrical housing. Axial fans for industrial
use are normally of the vane axial type, meaning they have either inlet or discharge
guide vanes, or both. Axial fans can maintain higher efficiencies at various steam
generator loads than can constant-speed centrifugal fans controlled with inlet
dampers or vanes. As fuel costs continue to rise, the higher capital cost of axial
fans over centrifugal fans frequently can be offset by operating cost savings over
the life of the plant (Black & Veatch, 1996). For the comparison of fans, Variable
pitch axial fan is considered. In Variable pitch axial fan, impeller blade angle can
be mechanically or hydraulically altered while the impeller is rotating.

[Type here]
 Source: Black & Veatch, 1996

Figure 4.11: Photo Showing the Axial Fan

B. FAN SELECTION

The selected induced fan is the Variable pitch axial fan. One of the main
criteria in choosing the Variable Pitch Axial Fan over the Backward Curved Blades
Centrifugal Fan is the efficiency. As shown in the table below, axial flow fan has the
highest efficiency, ranging from 85% to 90%; compared with the Backward Curved
Blades Centrifugal Fan which only have an efficiency range of 75% to 85%.

Table 4.17: Fan Efficiency

FAN TYPE FAN EFFICIENCY

Paddle Blade Centrifugal Fan 45% to 60%
Forward Curved Blade Centrifugal Fan 45% to 60%
Backward Curved Blades Centrifugal Fan 75% to 85%
Radial Tipped Blades Centrifugal Fan 60% to 70%
Air Foil Centrifugal Fan 80% to 90%
Axial Flow Fan 85% to 90%
Source: Kitto & Stultz, 2005

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 Fan efficiency usually indicates the actual energy consumed by the
equipment. And based from the table above, Variable Pitch Axial Fan is the most
cost-effective type of fan that is ideal for the power plant. Variable pitch axial flow
fans can be more energy efficient than equivalent centrifugal type fans. Energy
savings can be further shown in the figure below.

Source: Kitto & Stultz, 2005

Figure 4.12: Photo Showing the Energy Saving

Figure 4.12. compares the power consumption of the primary air, forced
draft and induced draft fans for a typical 500 MW coal-fired unit using variable pitch
axial flow fans with the same unit using backward curved, inlet vane controlled
centrifugal fans. At 100%- unit load, auxiliary power savings using a variable pitch
axial flow fan occurs to be 4000 kW, or about 7% of the total auxiliary power
consumption.

C. FAN COMPUTATION
Aside from the volume flow rate, selection of fan specification must also
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consider the total head and brake power requirement. The volume flow rate
computed in the stack is same with the volume flow rate in fans.

VOLUME FLOW RATE

For the volume flow rate, 𝑄𝑔 :

𝑚3 3.28𝑓𝑡 3 60𝑠
𝑄𝑓𝑔 = 679.327 ( ) ( )
𝑠 1𝑚 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑸𝒈 = 𝟏, 𝟒𝟑𝟖, 𝟑𝟎𝟕. 𝟕𝟐𝑪𝑭𝑴

TOTAL HEAD
The total head of the fan is equal to the static head plus the velocity head developed
by the flue gas. Computation is shown as follows:

𝐻𝑇 = ℎ𝑣 + ℎ𝑠

Where:

𝐻𝑇 = total head of the fan, cm of water

ℎ𝒗 = velocity head of the flue gas, cm of water
ℎ𝒔 = draft loss in the gas loop equipment, cm of water

Since the velocity and pressure are frequently partially interchanged along the gas
conduit, it is the final velocity of gas exit from the chimney that should be considered in the
total draft requirement (Morse, 1953). Velocity head is determined by considering the velocity
of flue gas used in the stack computation, which is 11.3 m/s. Computation is shown as follows:

Where:

ℎ𝑣 = static head, cm of water

𝑣 = velocity of the flue gas, m/s

𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

(15.24)2
ℎ𝑣 =
2(9.81)

𝒉𝒗 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝒎

[Type here]
 The calculated velocity head in meters of gas must be converted into centimeters of
water in order to be consistent with the unit used on the total head. The velocity pressure of
the flue gas can raise a water column on a manometer to a certain height until the pressure
exerted by the water column is equal to the velocity pressure of the gas. The height of the
water column in centimeter is equal to the velocity head developed by the gas measured in
centimeters of water.

Pressure gas = Pressure Water

(𝜌gas)(g)(hv) = (𝜌Water)(g)(hWater)

kg m kg m
(0.69m3 )(9.81s2 )(11.84 m) = (1000m3 )(9.81s2 )(hWater)

100 cm of water
hWater = 0.00817𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟× 1 m of water

hWater =0.817 cm of water

The draft loss caused by friction and turbulence of gas flow through the
equipment of the gas loop are based on the manufacture’s data. However, since
the manufacturer’s data for the steam generating units are not yet available, typical
draft loss of equipment provided by Morse is considered the and shown in the table
below. The average pressure drop of 1493.04 Pascal of the electrostatic precipitator
will also be considered in the draft requirement. The conversion from Pascal to cm
of water is shown below.

1 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 0.0101972 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

0.0101972 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 1493.04 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 ( )
1 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙
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 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟑 𝒄𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Table 4.18: Draft Requirements of Induced Draft Fan

EQUIPMENT DRAFT LOSS

Boiler And Superheater[1] 2.73 cm of water

Economizer[1] 2.54 cm of water

Air Heater[1] 3.81 cm of water

Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) 15.23 cm of water

Flue Gas Duct to Air Preheater[2] 2.54 cm of water

Flue Gas Duct to ESP[2] 2.54 cm of water

Flue Gas Duct to Stack[2] 2.54 cm of water

TOTAL DRAFT LOSS (𝒉𝑺) 31.93 cm of water

Source: [1]Morse, 1953
[2]
Black and Veatch, 1996

Computing for the velocity head, considering 10% additional static head for
fittings and miscellaneous losses:
𝐻𝑆 = 1.1(31.93 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)

𝑯𝑺 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟐𝟑 𝒄𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

Calculating for the Total Dynamic Head,

𝐻𝑇 = 0.817 + 35.123

𝑯𝑻 = 35.94 cm of water

The total head calculated must be converted to its equivalent pressure in kPa.
The total pressure (𝑃𝑇) can be obtained by multiplying the specific weight of water to

[Type here]
the total head computed. The specific weight of water (𝛾𝑊𝐴𝑇𝐸𝑅) at standard condition is
9.81 kN/m3. Computation is shown as follows.
Pt =𝛾WATER X Ht

1𝑚
Pt= (9.81 kN/m3 ) (35.94 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟) (100 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)

Pt = 3.53 kPa

Considering an average efficiency of 87.5% for the fan, calculating for the
power requirement of the fan using the equation below,

Air Power
𝑒𝑚=Brake Power

Qg x Pt
𝑒𝑚 =Brake Power

679.327 x 3.53
0.875 = Brake Power

Brake Power = 2,735.26 kw

D. FAN SPECIFICATIONS
Based from the computed values, specifications of the actual induced draft
fan are selected. Computed and selected specifications of fan is shown below.

Table 4.19: Fan Specifications

CRITERIA COMPUTED SELECTED

Volume Flow Rate 1,438,307.72 𝑐𝑓𝑚 1,500,000 𝑐𝑓𝑚

Power 2,735.26 kW 3,000 kW

Total Head 35.94 cm of water 40.82 cm of water

Source: Howden Group Limited, 2010

[Type here]
 Source: Kitto & Stultz, 2005.

Figure 4.13. Photo Showing the Variable Pitch Axial Flow Fan

4.5. DISPERSION OF EXHAUST FLUE GAS

If the power plant fails to properly dispose the expected pollutants that come
along with its flue gas, it could pose a serious threat or health hazard to the
personnel in the vicinity and community downwind of the release. So, in order to
protect the people from the corresponding harmful pollutants, an appropriate
dispersion of the flue gas must be deal with using a dispersion analysis.

When a pollutant is emitted from a stack, it is dispersed as it moves downwind

by atmospheric turbulence and, to a lesser extent, by molecular diffusion. The
ground-level concentration of a pollutant downwind the stack depends on how fast
the pollutant is spreading perpendicular to the direction of the wind and on the height
of plume above the ground. The rate at which pollutant is dispersing, in turn,
depends on such factors as the wind speed time of day, cloudiness and type of
terrain (Baukal, 2001).

One of the first models developed to estimate the Ground-Level Concentration

is the Gaussian dispersion model. This model assumes that the concentration of
the pollutants, in both crosswind and vertical directions, takes form of a Gaussian

[Type here]
 distribution about the centerline of plume as shown in the figure below.

Source: The John Zink Combustion Handbook, 2001

Figure 4.14: Photo Showing the Geometry for Dispersion Calculations

Gauss dispersion model is written as follows:

𝟏 𝒚 𝟏 𝒛−𝑯 𝟐 𝟏 𝒛+𝑯 𝟐
𝑸 − ( ) − ( ) − ( )
𝟐 𝝈𝒚
𝑪(𝒙,𝒚,𝒛) = 𝒙𝒆 [𝒆 𝟐 𝝈𝒛 + 𝒆 𝟐 𝝈𝒛 ]; Equation 1
𝟐𝝅µ𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒛

Where:
𝑪(𝒙,𝒚,𝒛) = concentration of pollutants at coordinates x,y,z, mg/m 3
𝑄 = the emission rate of pollutants, mg/s
µ = mean wind velocity, m/s
𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒛 = horizontal (crosswind) and vertical standard deviations of
pollutants concentration along the centerline of the plume
𝑥 = downwind distance along the centerline of the plume, m
𝑦 = horizontal distance from the centerline of the plume, m
𝑧 = vertical distance from the ground level, m
𝐻 = plume height, m
[Type here]
 The Gaussian dispersion equation is used to calculate the ground-level
concentration (GLC) and the maximum ground-level concentration (MGLC) along
the plume center line. In order to determine the horizontal and vertical standard
deviations of pollutants, atmospheric stability class must be acquired first. The
stability classes can be roughly and empirically related to the driving forces wind
and boundary layer energy budget through wind speed, solar radiation and cloud
cover. Based from the data provided by PAGASA (2017), mean wind velocity of 2
m/s can be considered. For the atmospheric stability, neutral condition is
considered. And based from the Pasquill Stability Class, neutral condition is
indicated as “Class D” as shown in the table below.

Table 4.20: Pasquill Stability Class

CLASS DESCRIPTION

A Very Unstable
B Unstable
C Slightly Unstable
D Neutral
E Stable
F Very Stable
Source: Turner, 1994

[Type here]
 Horizontal and vertical standard deviations of pollutants concentration (𝜎𝑦 ,
𝜎𝑧) can be determined using the Figure 4.15 and 4.16 respectively.

Source: lentech, 2009

Figure 4.15: Photo Showing the Horizontal Dispersion Coefficient

Source: lentech, 2009

Figure 4.16: Photo Showing the Vertical Dispersion Coefficient

[Type here]
 𝟏 𝒛−𝑯 𝟐
𝑸 − ( )
𝐶(𝑥,0,0) = 𝟐𝝅µ𝝈 [𝒆 𝟐 𝝈𝒛 ]; Equation 2
𝒚 𝝈𝒛

Equation 2 can be further reduced when the plume height H is set to zero. Thus,
Equation 2 is reduced in the form:
𝑸
𝐶(0,0,0) = 𝟐𝝅µ(𝝈 ; Equation 3
𝒚 𝝈 𝒛 )0

The 𝐶(0,0,0) considered as maximum concentration of chemicals or

substances, while (𝜎𝑦𝜎𝑧)0 is the horizontal and vertical deviations at x is equal to
zero. Equation 3 is use in estimating the maximum ground level concentration
(MGLC). To estimate the concentration at any distance x from the source, Equation
4 is introduced by combining Equation 2 and Equation 3 which can be written as:
−1
𝐶(0,0,0) (𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒛 ) (2)𝑥(
𝐻
)
0
𝐶(𝑥,0,0) = [𝑒 𝝈𝒛 ]; Equation 4
𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒛

Equation 4 is then used in estimating the concentration of chemicals 𝐶(𝑥,0,0)

at distance x from the source, along the plume centerline at ground level. The
equation does not take into account the dispersion of the air contaminants in the
crosswind direction (y- axis). Hence, it can be expected that the estimated values
will be higher than the actual concentration. Furthermore, in the last derived
equation, it is assumed that the stack height is equal to the plume height. The
assumption will also result to higher values, as plume rise is not considered.

Estimating the concentration of pollutants at various distance x from the

source can now be established. The Gaussian equation that will be used on the
computation includes both Equation 3 and Equation 4.
𝑸
𝐶(0,0,0) = 𝟐𝝅µ(𝝈 ; Equation 3
𝒚 𝝈 𝒛 )0

−1
𝐶(0,0,0) (𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒛 ) (2)𝑥(
𝐻
)
0
𝐶(𝑥,0,0) = [𝑒 𝝈𝒛 ]; Equation 4
𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒛

Concentration of Sulfur Dioxide and Particulate Matter from different

distance from the source will be computed. The acceptable distance x from the
source must obtain such that the concentration will meet the standard ambient air

[Type here]
 quality given in the table below.
Table 4.19: Ambient Standard Concentration for Pollutants

Source: Philippine Clean Air Act. Chapter 2-Article I-Section 12

According to the table above, the required concentration of Sulfur Dioxide shall
be 80microgram/Nm3 while 90 microgram/Nm3 is required for the total suspended
particulates.

A. CONCENTRATION OF SULFUR DIOXIDE

In determining the acceptable distance that will give the required

concentration of the Sulfur Dioxide, emission rate, mean wind speed, plume height,
vertical and horizontal dispersion coefficient are considered and shown in the table
below. In determining the acceptable distance that will give the required
concentration of the Sulfur Dioxide, emission rate, mean wind speed, plume height,
vertical and horizontal dispersion coefficient are considered and shown in the table
below.

[Type here]
 Table 4.21: Design Consideration for the Concentration of Sulfur Dioxide

EMISSION RATE OF SO2 (Q) 1,122.25mg/Nm3

VOLUME FLOW RATE OF FLUE GAS (Qg) 679.327m3/s
WIND SPEED (µ) 2 m/s
STACK HEIGHT (H) 76.23m
HORIZONTAL DISPERSION COEFFICIENT (σY)0 6m
VERTICAL DISPERSION COEFFICIENT (σz)0 3m
HORIZONTAL DISPERSION COEFFICIENT (σY)200 13 m
VERTICAL DISPERSION COEFFICIENT (σz) 200 7m

For maximum ground level concentration (MGLC):

𝑄
𝐶(0,0,0) =
2𝜋µ(𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 )0

𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 1000µ𝑔
1,123 𝑥 679.327
𝑁𝑚3 𝑠 𝑥 1𝑚𝑔
𝐶(0,0,0) = 𝑚
2𝜋 𝑥 2 𝑥 6𝑚 𝑥 3𝑚
𝑠
µ𝒈
𝑪(𝟎,𝟎,𝟎) = 𝟑, 𝟑𝟕𝟐, 𝟔𝟖𝟖. 𝟕𝟒
𝑵𝒎𝟑
For concentration if distance x is equal to 200:
−1
𝐶(0,0,0) (𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 )0 𝐻 2
2𝑥( )
𝐶(𝑥,0,0) = [𝑒 𝜎𝑧 ]
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

µ𝑔 −1
(3,372,688.74 3 ) (6𝑚)(3𝑚) 76.23𝑚 2
𝐶(𝑥,0,0) = 𝑁𝑚 [𝑒 2 𝑥 ( 7𝑚 ) ]
(13𝑚)(7𝑚)

µ𝒈
𝑪(𝒙,𝟎,𝟎) = 𝟔𝟔𝟒, 𝟑𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟕
𝑵𝒎𝟑

The procedure is repeated by continuously increasing the value of the

distance (x) until the resulting concentration of sulfur dioxide approach to the
required concentration. The acceptable distance from the source must give a

[Type here]
 pollutant concentration equal; or less than 80 micro-gram/Nm3. Table 4.22 gives
the summary of the computation.

Table 4.22: Concentration of SO2 with Respect to Distance

Distance x (m) σY (m) σZ (m) C (X,0,0) (µg/m3)

0 6 3
3,372,688.74
200 13 7 664318.5

300 20 9.8 307187.7

400 25 13 184098.5

500 30 17 116112.6

88498.76
600 38 19
700 40 20 73318.15

800 48 22 58820.32

900 50 25 46023.92

1000 55 27 38395.55

1100 100 43 12041.66

1200 120 50 8159.752

1300 160 60 4639.294

1400 190 70 2994.283

1500 250 80 1750.097

1600 300 90 1119.96

1700 360 110 541.2501

1800 420 125 301.447

1900 500 140 160.5955

2000 590 160 71.06408

Based from Table 4.22, the stack should be 2000 m away from any residential
area in order to meet the required ambient air quality.

[Type here]
 B. CONCENTRATION OF PARTICULATE MATTER

In determining the acceptable distance that will give the required

concentration of the Total Suspended Particles, emission rate, mean wind speed,
plume height, vertical and horizontal dispersion coefficient are considered and
shown in the table below.

Table 4.23: Design Consideration for the Concentration of Particulate Matter

EMISSION RATE OF PARTICULATE MATTER2 (Q) 82.20mg/Nm3

VOLUME FLOW RATE OF FLUE GAS (Qg) 679.327m3/s
WIND SPEED (µ) 2 m/s
STACK HEIGHT (H) 76.23 m
HORIZONTAL DISPERSION COEFFICIENT (σY)0 6m
VERTICAL DISPERSION COEFFICIENT (σz)0 3m
HORIZONTAL DISPERSION COEFFICIENT (σY)200 13 m
VERTICAL DISPERSION COEFFICIENT (σz) 200 7m

For maximum ground level concentration (MGLC):

𝑄
𝐶(0,0,0) =
2𝜋µ(𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 )0

𝑚𝑔 𝑚3 1000µ𝑔
82.20 𝑥 679.327 𝑠 𝑥 1𝑚𝑔
𝑁𝑚3
𝐶(0,0,0) = 𝑚
2𝜋 𝑥 2 𝑠 𝑥 6𝑚 𝑥 3𝑚
µ𝒈
𝑪(𝟎,𝟎,𝟎) = 𝟐𝟒𝟔, 𝟖𝟕𝟎. 𝟎𝟗
𝑵𝒎𝟑

For concentration if distance x is equal to 200:

−1
𝐶(0,0,0) (𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 )0 𝐻 2
2𝑥( )
𝐶(𝑥,0,0) = [𝑒 𝜎𝑧 ]
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧

[Type here]
 µ𝑔 −1
246,870.09 3 6𝑚 𝑥 3𝑚 76.23 2
𝐶(𝑥,0,0) = 𝑁𝑚 𝑥 [𝑒 2𝑥( 7 ) ]
13𝑚 𝑥 7𝑚

µ𝒈
𝑪(𝒙,𝟎,𝟎) = 𝟒𝟖, 𝟔𝟐𝟔
𝑵𝒎𝟑

The procedure is repeated by continuously increasing the value of the

distance (x) until the resulting concentration of particulate matter approach the
required concentration. The acceptable distance from the source must give a
pollutant concentration equal; or less than 90 micro-gram/Nm3. Table 4.24 gives
the summary of the computation.

Table 4.24: Concentration of Particulate Matter with Respect to Distance

Distance x (m) σY (m) σZ (m) C (X,0,0) (µg/m3)

0 6 3 246,870.09
200 13 7 48626

300 20 9.8 22485.16

400 25 13 13475.42

500 30 17 8499.07

6477.828
600 38 19
700 40 20 5366.655

800 48 22 4305.46

900 50 25 3368.805

1000 55 27 2810.432

1100 100 43 881.4114

1200 120 50 597.2679

1300 160 60 339.5816

1400 190 70 219.172

1500 250 80 128.1015

1600 300 90 81.97748

[Type here]
 Based from Table 4.24, the stack should be 1600 m away from any residential
area in order to meet the required TSP concentration. But considering the SO2
concentration, a distance of 2000m should be chosen.

[Type here]
4.6. SUMMARY OF GAS LOOP SYSTEM

Based from the discussions above the following summary can be drawn as follows.

Table 4.25: Summary of the Gas Loop System of the Pulverized Coal Power
Plant
COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
THEORETICAL AIR- BY WEIGHT 10.11lb air/lb coal
FUEL RATIO BY VOLUME 136.98ft3 air/lb coal
ACTUAL AIR-FUEL BY WEIGHT 11.88lb air/lb coal
RATIO BY VOLUME 160.95ft3 air/lb coal
EXCESS AIR 17.5%
THEORETICAL GAS- BY WEIGHT 11.04lb fg/lb coal
FUEL RATIO BY VOLUME 141.07ft3 fg/lb coal
ACTUAL GAS-FUEL BY WEIGHT 12.97lb fg/lb coal
RATIO BY VOLUME 165.75ft3 fg/lb coal
FLY ASH 8,220mg/Nm3
INORGANIC ASH BOTTOM ASH 2,163.16mg/Nm3
ECONOMIZER ASH 432.63mg/Nm3
SO2 CONCENTRATION 1,122.25mg/Nm3
AIR PREHEATER
TYPE OF AIR PREHEATER Recuperative/Tubular Air Preheater
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL FACILITY
PARTICULATE CONTROL
Electrostatic Precipitator
EQUIPMENT
EFFICIENCY 99%
TREATED FLY ASH OUTPUT 82.20mg/Nm3
FAN
PARAMETER COMPUTED SELECTED
VOLUME FLOW RATE (CAPACITY) 1,438,307.72CFM 1,500,000CFM
POWER 2,735.26kW 3,000kW
TYPE OF FAN Axial Flow Fan
STACK
VELOCITY OF FLUE GAS 15.24 m/s
HEIGHT 76.23 m
DIAMETER 7.54 m
DISTANCE FROM RESIDENTIAL
2000 m
AREA
SO2 CONCENTRATION 71.06 µg/Nm3
PARTICULATE MATTER
81.92 µg/Nm3
CONCENTRATION

[Type here]
 Velocity of flue gas = 15.24m/s
Treated Particulate Matter = 82.20mg/Nm3 Height = 76.23m
Efficiency = 99% Diameter = 7.541m

Volume flow rate

Power = 2,735.2
Recuperative Type Preheater

Figure 4.17: Schematic Diagram Showing the Summary of the Gas Loop
System

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