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CHAPTER 41
41.1
Copyright © 2006, ASHRAE
41.2 2006 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration (SI)
side and a condenser on the high-pressure side. They are usually of • Noncondensable separation and storage tank(s), located in the
the shell-and-tube type and operate similarly to indirect-fired gen- absorber tube bundle or external to the absorber/evaporator vessel
erators of single-effect machines. The heat source, which is inside • A vacuum pump or valving system using solution pump pressure
the tubes, is high-temperature refrigerant vapor from the primary to periodically remove noncondensables collected in the storage
generator shell. Materials of construction are mild steel for absor- tank
bent containment and usually copper-nickel alloys or stainless steel
for the tubes. Droplet eliminators are typically stainless steel. Some variations include jet pumps (eductors), powered by
Evaporators are heat exchangers, usually shell-and-tube, over pumped absorbent solution and placed downstream of the vapor
which liquid refrigerant is dripped or sprayed and evaporated. Liq- pickup tubes to increase the volume of sampled vapor, and water-
uid to be cooled passes through the inside of the tubes. Evaporator cooled absorbent chambers to remove water vapor from the purged
tube bundles are usually copper or a copper-nickel alloy. Refrigerant gas stream.
containment parts are mild steel. Mist eliminators and drain pans are Because of their size, smaller units have fewer leaks, which can
typically stainless steel. be more easily detected during manufacture. As a result, small units
Absorbers are tube bundles over which strong absorbent solu- may use variations of solution drip and entrapped vapor bubble
tion is sprayed or dripped in the presence of refrigerant vapor. The pumps plus purge gas accumulator chambers.
refrigerant vapor is absorbed into the absorbent solution, thus Palladium cells, found in large direct-fired and small indirect-
releasing heat of dilution and heat of condensation. This heat is fired machines, continuously remove the small amount of hydro-
removed by cooling water that flows through the tubes. Weak absor- gen gas that is produced by corrosion. These devices operate on the
bent solution leaves the bottom of the absorber tube bundle. Mate- principle that thin membranes of heated palladium are permeable
rials of construction are mild steel for the absorbent containment to hydrogen gas only.
parts and copper or copper-nickel alloys for the tube bundle. Corrosion inhibitors, typically lithium chromate, lithium
Condensers are tube bundles located in the refrigerant vapor nitrate, or lithium molybdate, protect machine internal parts from
space near the generator of a single-effect machine or the second- the corrosive effects of the absorbent solution in the presence of air.
stage generator of a double-effect machine. The water-cooled tube Each of these chemicals is used as a part of a corrosion control sys-
bundle condenses refrigerant from the generator onto tube surfaces. tem. Acceptable levels of contaminants and the correct solution pH
Materials of construction are mild steel, stainless steel, or other cor- range must be present for these inhibitors to work properly. Solution
rosion-resistant materials for the refrigerant containment parts and pH is controlled by adding lithium hydroxide or hydrobromic acid.
copper for the tube bundle. For special waters, the condenser tubes Performance additives are used in most lithium bromide equip-
can be copper-nickel, which derates the performance of the unit. ment to achieve design performance. The heat and mass transfer
High-stage condensers are found only in double-effect coefficients for the simultaneous absorption of water vapor and
machines. This type of condenser is typically the inside of the tubes cooling of lithium bromide solution have relatively low values that
of the second-stage generator. Refrigerant vapor from the first- must be enhanced. A typical additive is one of the octyl alcohols.
stage generator condenses inside the tubes, and the resulting heat
is used to concentrate absorbent solution in the shell of the second- Single-Effect Lithium Bromide Chillers
stage generator when heated by the outside surface of the tubes. Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of a commercially available
Pumps move absorbent solution and liquid refrigerant in the single-effect, indirect-fired liquid chiller, showing one of several
absorption machine. Pumps can be configured as individual (one configurations of the major components. Table 1 lists typical char-
motor, one impeller, one fluid stream) or combined (one motor, acteristics of this chiller. During operation, heat is supplied to tubes
multiple impellers, multiple fluid streams). The motors and pumps Fig. 2 Two-Shell Lithium Bromide Cycle Water Chiller
are hermetic or semihermetic. Motors are cooled and bearings lubri-
cated either by the fluid being pumped or by a filtered supply of liq-
uid refrigerant. Impellers are typically brass, cast iron, or stainless
steel; volutes are steel or impregnated cast iron, and bearings are
babbitt-impregnated carbon journal bearings.
Refrigerant pumps (when used) recirculate liquid refrigerant
from the refrigerant sump at the bottom of the evaporator to the
evaporator tube bundle in order to effectively wet the outside sur-
face and enhance heat transfer.
Dilute solution pumps take dilute solution from the absorber
sump and pump it to the generator.
Absorber spray pumps recirculate absorbent solution over the
absorber tube bundle to ensure adequate wetting of the absorber sur-
faces. These pumps are not found in all equipment designs. Some
designs use a jet eductor for inducing concentrated solution flow to
the absorber sprays. Another design uses drip distributors fed by grav-
ity and the pressure difference between the generator and absorber.
Purge systems are required on lithium bromide absorption
equipment to remove noncondensables (air) that leak into the
machine or hydrogen (a product of corrosion) that is produced dur-
ing equipment operation. Even in small amounts, noncondensable
gases can reduce chilling capacity and even lead to solution crystal-
lization. Purge systems for larger sizes above 359 kW of refrigera-
tion typically consist of these components:
Table 1 Characteristics of Typical Single-Effect, Indirect- solution to the heat exchanger, where it accepts heat from the strong
Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller absorbent solution returning from the generator. From there, the weak
solution flows into the generator, thus completing the cycle.
Performance Characteristics
These machines are typically fired with low-pressure steam or
Steam input pressure 60 to 80 kPa (gage) medium-temperature liquids. Several manufacturers have machines
Steam consumption (per 1.48 to 1.51 kW with capacities ranging from 180 to 5840 kW of refrigeration.
kilowatt of refrigeration) Machines of 18 to 35 kW capacities are also available from interna-
Hot-fluid input temp. 115 to 132°C, with as low as 88°C for some
smaller machines for waste heat applications
tional sources.
Heat input rate (per kilowatt 1.51 to 1.54 kW, with as low as 1.43 kW for Typical coefficients of performance (COPs) for large single-
of refrigeration) some smaller machines effect machines at Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute
Cooling water temp. in 30°C (ARI) rating conditions are 0.7 to 0.8.
Cooling water flow (per 65 mL/s, with up to 115 mL/s for some
kilowatt of refrigeration) smaller machines Single-Effect Heat Transformers
Chilled-water temp. off 6.7°C Figure 3 shows a schematic of a single-effect heat transformer (or
Chilled-water flow (per 43 mL/s, with 47 mL/s for some smaller Type 2 heat pump). All major components are similar to the single-
kilowatt of refrigeration) international machines
Electric power (per kilowatt 3 to 11 W with a minimum of 1 W for some
effect, indirect-fired liquid chiller. However, the absorber/evaporator
of refrigeration) smaller machines is located above the desorber (generator)/condenser because of the
higher pressure level of the absorber and evaporator compared to the
Physical Characteristics desorber/condenser pair, which is the opposite of a chiller.
Nominal capacities 180 to 5800 kW, with 18 to 35 kW for some High-pressure refrigerant liquid enters the top of the evaporator,
smaller machines and heat released from a waste hot-water stream converts it to a
Length 3.3 to 10 m, with as low as 0.9 m for some vapor. The vapor travels to the absorber section, where it is absorbed
smaller machines
Width 1.5 to 3.0 m, with 0.9 m minimum for some by the incoming rich solution. Heat released during this process is
smaller machines used to raise the temperature of a secondary fluid stream to a useful
Height 2.1 to 4.3 m, with 1.8 m for some smaller level.
machines The diluted solution leaves the bottom of the absorber shell and
Operating mass 5 to 50 Mg, with 320 kg for some smaller flows through a solution heat exchanger. There it releases heat in
machines counterflow to the rich solution. After the solution heat exchanger,
the dilute solution flows through a throttling device, where its pres-
of the generator in the form of a hot fluid or steam, causing dilute sure is reduced before it enters the generator unit. In the generator,
absorbent solution on the outside of the tubes to boil. This desorbed heat from a waste hot-water system generates low-pressure refrig-
refrigerant vapor (water vapor) flows through eliminators to the erant vapor. The rich solution leaves the bottom of the generator
condenser, where it is condensed on the outside of tubes that are shell and a solution pump sends it to the absorber.
cooled by a flow of water from a heat sink (usually a cooling tower). Low-pressure refrigerant vapor flows from the generator to the
Both boiling and condensing occur in a vessel that has a common condenser coil, where it releases heat to a secondary cooling fluid
vapor space at a pressure of about 6 kPa. and condenses. The condensate flows by gravity to a liquid storage
The condensed refrigerant passes through an orifice or liquid trap sump and is pumped into the evaporator. Unevaporated refrigerant
in the bottom of the condenser and enters the evaporator, in which collects at the bottom of the evaporator and flows back into the stor-
liquid refrigerant boils as it contacts the outside surface of tubes that age sump below the condenser. Measures must be taken to control
contain a flow of water from the heat load. In this process, water in the refrigerant pump discharge flow and to prevent vapor from
the tubes cools as it releases the heat required to boil the refrigerant. blowing back from the higher-pressure evaporator into the con-
Refrigerant that does not boil collects at the bottom of the evapora- denser during start-up or during any other operational event that
tor, flows to a refrigerant pump, is pumped to a distribution system causes low condensate flow. Typically, a column of liquid refriger-
located above the evaporator tube bundle, and is sprayed over the ant is used to seal the unit to prevent blowback, and a float-operated
evaporator tubes again. valve controls the refrigerant flow to the evaporator. Excess refrig-
The dilute (weak in absorbing power) absorbent solution that erant flow is maintained to adequately distribute the liquid with only
enters the generator increases in concentration (percentage of sor- fractional evaporation.
bent in the water) as it boils and releases water vapor. The resulting
strong absorbent solution leaves the generator and flows through Double-Effect Chillers
one side of a solution heat exchanger, where it cools as it heats a Figure 4 is a schematic of a commercially available, double-effect
stream of weak absorbent solution passing through the other side of indirect-fired liquid chiller. Table 2 lists typical characteristics of this
the solution heat exchanger on its way to the generator. This chiller. All major components are similar to the single-effect chiller
increases the machine’s efficiency by reducing the amount of heat except for an added generator (first-stage or primary generator), con-
from the primary heat source that must be added to the weak solu- denser, heat exchanger, and optional condensate subcooling heat
tion before it begins to boil in the generator. exchanger.
The cooled, strong absorbent solution then flows (in some designs Operation of the double-effect absorption machine is similar to
through a jet eductor or solution spray pumps) to a solution distribu- that for the single-effect machine. The primary generator receives
tion system located above the absorber tubes and drips or is sprayed heat from the external heat source, which boils dilute absorbent
over the outside surface of the absorber tubes. The absorber and evap- solution. Pressure in the primary generator’s vapor space is about
orator share a common vapor space at a pressure of about 0.7 kPa. 100 kPa. This vapor flows to the inside of tubes in the second-effect
This allows refrigerant vapor, which is evaporated in the evaporator, generator. At this pressure, the refrigerant vapor has a condensing
to be readily absorbed into the absorbent solution flowing over the temperature high enough to boil and concentrate absorbent solution
absorber tubes. This absorption process releases heat of condensation on the outside of these tubes, thus creating additional refrigerant
and heat of dilution, which are removed by cooling water flowing vapor with no additional primary heat input.
through the absorber tubes. The resulting weak absorbent solution The extra solution heat exchanger (high-temperature heat ex-
flows off the absorber tubes and then to the absorber sump and changer) is placed in the intermediate and dilute solution streams
solution pump. The pump and piping convey the weak absorbent flowing to and from the primary generator to preheat the dilute
41.4 2006 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration (SI)
refrigeration effect; however, the required heat input remains the These machines are typically fired with medium-pressure steam
same. The COP is not improved by condensate exchange. of 550 to 990 kPa or hot liquids of 150 to 200°C. Typical operating
As with the single-effect machine, the strong absorbent solution COPs are 1.1 to 1.2. These machines are available commercially
flowing to the absorber can be mixed with dilute solution and from several manufacturers and have capacities ranging from 350 to
pumped over the absorber tubes or can flow directly from the low- 6000 kW of refrigeration.
temperature heat exchanger to the absorber. Also, as with the single- Figure 5 is a schematic of a commercially available double-
effect machines, the four major components can be contained in one effect, direct-fired chiller with a reverse parallel flow cycle. Table 3
or two vessels. lists typical characteristics of this chiller. All major components are
The following solution flow cycles may be used:
Series flow. All solution leaving the absorber runs through a pump Table 3 Characteristics of Typical Double-Effect, Direct-
and then flows sequentially through the low-temperature heat Fired, Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller
exchanger, high-temperature heat exchanger, first-stage generator,
Performance Characteristics
high-temperature heat exchanger, second-stage generator, low-
temperature heat exchanger, and absorber, as show in Figure 4. Fuel consumption (high heating value of fuel) 1 to 1.1 kW
(per kilowatt of refrigeration)
Parallel flow. Solution leaving the absorber is pumped through
COP (high heating value) 0.92 to 1.0
appropriate portions of the combined low- and high-temperature
Cooling water temperature in 30°C
solution heat exchanger and is then split between the first- and
Cooling water flow mass 79 to 81 mL/s
second-stage generators. Both solution flow streams then return
to appropriate portions of the combined solution heat exchanger, Chilled water temperature off 7°C
are mixed together, and flow to the absorber. Chilled water flow (per kilowatt of refrigeration) 43 mL/s
Electric power (per kilowatt of refrigeration) 3 to 11 W
Reverse parallel flow. All solution leaving the absorber is pumped
through the low-temperature heat exchanger and then to the second- Physical Characteristics
stage generator. Upon leaving this generator, the solution flow is Nominal capacities 350 to 5300 kW
split, with a portion going to the low-temperature heat exchanger Length 3.0 to 10.4 m, with minimum of 1.5 m
and on to the absorber. The remainder goes sequentially through a for some machines
pump, high-temperature heat exchanger, first-stage generator, and Width 1.5 to 6.5 m, with minimum of 1.2 m
high-temperature heat exchanger. This stream then rejoins the solu- for some machines
tion from the second-stage generator; both streams flow through the Height 2.1 to 3.7 m
low-temperature heat exchanger and to the absorber, as shown in Operating mass 5 to 80 Mg, with a minimum of 1.5 Mg
Figure 5. for some machines
similar to the double-effect indirect-fired chiller except for sub- in the generator to produce a given refrigeration effect), thereby
stitution of the direct-fired primary generator for the indirect-fired improving part-load efficiency.
primary generator and elimination of the steam condensate sub- Operation of lithium bromide machines with low entering cool-
cooling heat exchanger. Operation of these machines is identical to ing water temperatures or a rapid decrease in cooling water temper-
that of the double-effect indirect-fired machines. The typical direct- ature during operation can cause liquid carryover from the generator
fired, double-effect machines can be ordered with a heating cycle. to the condenser and possible crystallization of absorbent solution
Some units also offer a simultaneous cycle, which provides about in the low-temperature heat exchanger. For these reasons, most
80°C water, via a heat exchanger, and chilled water, simultaneously. machines have a control that limits heat input to the machine based
The combined load is limited by the maximum burner input. on entering cooling water temperature. Because colder cooling
These machines are typically fired with natural gas or fuel oil water enhances machine efficiency, the ability of machines to use
(most have dual fuel capabilities). Typical operating COPs are 0.92 colder water, when available, is important.
to 1.0 on a fuel input basis. These machines are available commer- Use of electronic controls with advanced control algorithms has
cially from several manufacturers and have capacities ranging from improved part-load and variable cooling water temperature opera-
350 to 5300 kW. Machine capacities of 70 to 350 kW are also avail- tion significantly, compared to older pneumatic or electric controls.
able from international sources. Electronic controls have also made chiller setup and operation sim-
pler and more reliable.
Operation The following steps are involved in a typical start-run-stop
Modern water/lithium bromide chillers are trouble-free and easy sequence of an absorption chiller with chilled and cooling water
to operate. As with any equipment, careful attention should be paid flows preestablished (this sequence may vary from one product to
to operational and maintenance procedures recommended by the another):
manufacturer. The following characteristics are common to all types
1. Cooling required signal is initiated by building control device
of lithium bromide absorption equipment.
or in response to rising chilled water temperature.
Operational Limits. Chilled-water temperature leaving the
2. All chiller unit and system safeties are checked.
evaporator should normally be between 4 and 15°C. The upper limit
3. Solution and refrigerant pumps are started.
is set by the pump lubricant and is somewhat flexible. The lower
4. Heat input valve is opened or burner is started.
limit exists because the refrigerant (water) freezes at 0°C.
5. Chiller begins to meet the load and controls chilled-water tem-
Cooling water temperature entering the absorber tubes is gener-
perature to desired set point by modulation of heat input con-
ally limited to between 7 and 43°C, although some machines limit
trol device.
it to between 21 and 35°C. The upper limit exists because of
6. During operation, all limits and safeties are continually
hydraulic and differential pressure limitations between the genera-
checked. Appropriate action is taken, as required, to maintain
tor-absorber, the condenser-evaporator, or both, and to reduce
safe chiller operation.
absorbent concentrations and corrosion effects. The lower temper-
7. Load on chiller decreases below minimum load capabilities of
ature limit exists because, at excessively low cooling water temper-
chiller.
ature, the condensing pressure drops too low and excessive vapor
8. Heat input device is closed.
velocities carry over solution to the refrigerant in the condenser.
9. Solution and refrigerant pumps continue to operate for several
Sudden lowering of cooling water temperature at high loads also
minutes to dilute the absorbent solution.
promotes crystallization; therefore, some manufacturers dilute the
10. Solution and refrigerant pumps are stopped.
solution with refrigerant liquid to help prevent crystallization. The
supply of refrigerant is limited, however, so this dilution is done in Limit and Safety Controls. In addition to capacity controls,
small steps. these chillers require several protective devices. Some controls keep
Operational Controls. Modern absorption machines are equipped units operating within safe limits, and others stop the unit before
with electronic control systems. The primary function of the control damage occurs from a malfunction. Each limit and safety cutout
system is to safely operate the absorption machine and modulate its function usually uses a single sensor when electronic controls are
capacity in order to satisfy the load requirements placed upon it. used. The following limits and safety features are normally found on
Refrigerant flow between condensers and evaporators is typi- absorption chillers:
cally controlled with orifices (suitable for high- or low-stage con- Low-temperature chilled water control/cutout. Allows the user
densers) or liquid traps (suitable for low-stage condensers only). to set the desired temperature for chilled water leaving the evap-
For solution flow control between generators and absorbers, use orator. Control then modulates the heat input valve to maintain this
flow control valves (primary generator of double-effect machines), set point. This control incorporates chiller start and stop by water
variable-speed solution pumps, or liquid traps. Refrigerant flow temperature. A safety shutdown of the chiller is invoked if a low-
between condensers and evaporators is controlled with orifices temperature limit is reached.
(suitable for high- or low-stage condensers) or liquid traps (suitable Low-temperature refrigerant limit/cutout. A sensor in the evap-
for low-stage condensers only). orator monitors refrigerant temperature. As the refrigerant low-limit
Solution flow control between generators and absorbers typi- temperature is approached, the control limits further loading, then
cally requires flow control valves (primary generator of double- prevents further loading, then unloads, and finally invokes a chiller
effect machines), variable-speed solution pumps, or liquid traps. shutdown.
The temperature of chilled water leaving the evaporator is set at a Chilled water, chiller cooling water, and pump motor coolant
desired value. Deviations from this set point indicate that the flow. Flow switches trip and invoke chiller shutdown if flow stops in
machine capacity and the load applied to it are not matched. any of these circuits.
Machine capacity is then adjusted as required by modulation of the Pump motor over-temperature. A temperature switch in the
heat input control device. Modulation of heat input results in pump motor windings trips if safe operating temperature is
changes to the concentration of absorbent solution supplied to the exceeded and shuts down the chiller.
absorber if the pumped solution flow remains constant. Pump motor overload. Current to the pump motor is monitored,
Some equipment uses solution flow control to the generator(s) in and the chiller shuts down if the current limit is exceeded.
combination with capacity control. The solution flow may be reduced Absorbent concentration limit. Key solution and refrigerant tem-
with modulating valves or solution pump speed controls as the load peratures are sensed during chiller operation and used to determine
decreases (which reduces the required sensible heating of solution the temperature safety margin between solution temperature and
Absorption Cooling, Heating, and Refrigeration Equipment 41.7
solution crystallization temperature. As this safety margin is the corrosion inhibitor, causes corrosion of internal parts, contam-
reduced, the control first limits further chiller loading, then prevents inates the absorbent solution, reduces chiller capacity and effi-
further chiller loading, then unloads the chiller, and finally invokes ciency, and may cause crystallization of the absorbent solution.
a chiller shutdown. • Sample absorbent and refrigerant periodically and check for con-
In addition to this type of control, most chiller designs incorpo- tamination, pH, corrosion-inhibitor level, and performance addi-
rate a built-in overflow system between the evaporator liquid stor- tive level. Use these checks to adjust the levels of additives in the
age pan and the absorber sump. As the absorbent solution solution and as an indicator of internal machine malfunctions.
concentration increases in the generator/absorber flow loop, the
refrigerant liquid level in the evaporator storage pan increases. The Mechanical systems such as the purge, solution pumps, controls,
initial charge quantities of solution and refrigerant are set such that and burners all have periodic maintenance requirements recom-
liquid refrigerant will begin to overflow the evaporator pan when mended by the manufacturer.
maximum safe absorbent solution concentration has been reached
in the generator/absorber flow loop. The liquid refrigerant overflow AMMONIA/WATER ABSORPTION EQUIPMENT
goes to the absorber sump and prevents further concentration of the
absorbent solution.
Residential Chillers and Components
Burner fault. Operation of the burner on direct-fired chillers is In the 1950s, under sponsorship from natural gas utilities,
typically monitored by its own control system. A burner fault three companies developed a gas-fired, air-cooled residential
indication is passed on to the chiller control and generally invokes chiller. Manufacturing volume reached 150,000 units per year in
a chiller shutdown. the 1960s, but only a single manufacturer remains at the start of
High-temperature limit. Direct-fired chillers typically have a the twenty-first century; the product line is now being changed
temperature sensor in the liquid absorbent solution near the burner over to the GAX cycle, described in the section on Special Appli-
fire tube. As this temperature approaches its high limit, the control cations and Emerging Products.
first limits further loading, then prevents further loading, then Figure 6 shows a typical schematic of an ammonia/water
unloads, and finally invokes a chiller shutdown. machine, which is available as a direct-fired, air-cooled liquid
High-pressure limit. Double-effect machines typically have a chiller in capacities of 10 to 18 kW. Table 4 lists physical character-
pressure sensor in the vapor space above the first-stage generator. istics of this chiller. Ammonia/water equipment varies from water/
As this pressure approaches its high limit, the control first limits fur- lithium bromide equipment in three main ways:
ther loading, then prevents further loading, then unloads, and finally • Water (the absorbent) is also volatile, so the regeneration of weak
invokes a chiller shutdown. absorbent to strong absorbent is a fractional distillation process.
The performance of lithium bromide absorption machines is • Ammonia (the refrigerant) causes the cycle to operate at condenser
affected by operating conditions and the heat transfer surface cho- pressures of about 1930 kPa (absolute) and at evaporator pressures
sen by the manufacturer. Manufacturers can provide detailed perfor- of approximately 480 kPa (absolute). As a result, vessel sizes are
mance information for their equipment at specific alternative held to a diameter of 150 mm or less to avoid construction code re-
operating conditions. quirements on small systems, and positive-displacement solution
Machine Setup and Maintenance pumps are used.
• Air cooling requires condensation and absorption to occur inside
Large-capacity lithium bromide absorption water chillers are the tubes so that the outside can be finned for greater air contact.
generally put into operation by factory-trained technicians. Proper
procedures must be followed to ensure that machines function as The vertical vessel is finned on the outside to extract heat from the
designed and in a trouble-free manner for their intended design life combustion products. Internally, a system of analyzer plates creates
(20+ years). Steps required to set up and start a lithium bromide
Fig. 6 Ammonia/Water Direct-Fired Air-Cooled Chiller
absorption machine include the following:
1. Level unit so internal pans and distributors function properly.
2. Isolate unit from foundations with pads if it is located near
noise-sensitive areas.
3. Confirm that factory leaktightness has not been compromised.
4. Charge unit with refrigerant water (distilled or deionized water
is required) and lithium bromide solution.
5. Add corrosion inhibitor to absorbent solution if required.
6. Calibrate all control sensors and check all controls for proper
function.
7. Start unit and bring it slowly to design operating condition
while adding performance additive (usually one of the octyl
alcohols).
8. If necessary to obtain design conditions, adjust absorbent and/or
refrigerant charge levels. If done correctly, this procedure,
known as trimming the chiller, allows the chiller to operate
safely and efficiently over its entire operating range.
9. Fine-tune control settings.
10. Check purge operation.
Recommended periodic operational checks and maintenance
procedures typically include the following:
• Purge operation and air leaks. Confirm that the purge system
operates correctly and that the unit does not have chronic air
leaks. Continued air leakage into an absorption chiller depletes Fig. 6 Ammonia/Water Direct-Fired Air-Cooled Chiller
41.8 2006 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration (SI)
intermediate point of the evaporator (3). A liquid trap between the flame. The low-temperature thermostat then changes the input to the
condenser section (2a) and the evaporator prevents hydrogen from main burner in a two-step mode. A pilot is not required because the
entering the condenser. Ammonia vapor that does not condense in main burner acts as the pilot on low fire.
the condenser section (2a) passes to the other section (2b) of the Low-Temperature Thermostat. This thermostat monitors tem-
condenser and is liquified. It then flows through another trap into perature in the cabinet and controls gas input.
the top of the evaporator. Safety Device. Each unit has a fuse plug to relieve pressure in the
The evaporator has two sections. The upper section (3a) has fins event of fire. Gas-fired installations require a flue exhausting to out-
and cools the freezer compartment directly. The lower section (3b) side air. Nominal operating conditions are as follows:
cools the refrigerated food section.
Hydrogen gas, carrying a small partial pressure of ammonia, Ambient temperature 35°C
enters the lower evaporator section (3) and, after passing through a COP 0.22
precooler, flows upward and counterflow to the downward-flowing Freezer temperature −12°C
liquid ammonia, increasing the partial pressure of the ammonia in
the vapor as the liquid ammonia evaporates. Although the total pres- Heat input 1.0 kW/m3 of cabinet interior
sures in the evaporator and the condenser are the same, typically
2000 kPa, substantially pure ammonia is in the space where conden-
Industrial Absorption Refrigeration Units
sation takes place, and the vapor pressure of the ammonia essen- Industrial absorption refrigeration units (ARUs) were pioneered
tially equals the total pressure. In contrast, the ammonia partial by the Carre brothers in France in the late 1850s. They were first
pressures entering and leaving the evaporator are typically 100 and used in the United States for gunpowder production during the Civil
300 kPa, respectively. War. The technology was placed on a firm footing some 20 years
The gas mixture of hydrogen and ammonia leaves the top of the later, when the principles of rectification became known and ap-
evaporator and passes down through the center of the gas heat plied. Rectification is necessary in ammonia/water cycles because
exchanger (8) to the absorber (4). Here, ammonia is absorbed by liq- the absorbent (water) is volatile.
uid ammonia/water solution, and hydrogen, which is almost insol- Industrial ARUs are essentially custom units, because each ap-
uble, passes up from the top of the absorber, through the external plication varies in capacity, chilling temperature, driving heat, heat
chamber of the gas heat exchanger (8), and into the evaporator. rejection mode, or other key parameters. They are almost invariably
Some ammonia vapor passes with the hydrogen from absorber to waste-heat-fired, using steam, hot water, or process fluids. The eco-
evaporator. Because of the difference in molecular mass of ammo- nomics improve relative to mechanical vapor compression at lower
nia and hydrogen, gas circulation is maintained between the evapo- refrigeration temperatures and at higher utility rates. These units
rator and absorber by natural convection. can produce refrigeration temperatures as low as –57°C, but are
Countercurrent flow in the evaporator allows placing the box more commonly rated for –29 to –46°C.
cooling section of the evaporator at the top of the food space (the Industrial ARUs are rugged, reliable, and suitable for demanding
most effective location). Gas leaving the lower-temperature evapo- applications. For example, they have been directly integrated into
rator section (3b) also can pick up more ammonia at the higher tem- petroleum refinery operations. In one early example, the desorber
perature in the box cooling evaporator section (3a), thus increasing contained hot gasoline, and the evaporator directly cooled lean oil
capacity and efficiency. In addition, liquid ammonia flowing to the for the oil refinery sponge absorbers. In a recent example, 138°C
lower-temperature evaporator section is precooled in the upper reformate heated the shell side of the desorber, and the evaporator
evaporator section. The dual liquid connection between condenser directly chilled trat gas to –29°C to recover liquified petroleum gas
and evaporator allows extending the condenser below the top of the (Erickson and Kelly 1998).
evaporator to provide more surface, while maintaining gravity flow
of liquid ammonia to the evaporator. The two-temperature evapora- SPECIAL APPLICATIONS AND
tor partially segregates the freezing function from the box cooling EMERGING PRODUCTS
function, thus giving better humidity control.
In the absorber, strong absorbent flows counter to and is diluted Systems Combining Power Production with
by direct contact with the gas. From the absorber, the weak absor- Waste-Heat-Activated Absorption Cooling
bent flows through the liquid heat exchanger (9) to the analyzer (6) Most prime movers require relatively high-temperature heat to
and then to the weak absorbent chamber (1a) of the generator (1). operate efficiently, and reject large amounts of low-temperature
Heat applied to this chamber causes vapor to pass up through the heat. In contrast, absorption cycles are uniquely capable of oper-
analyzer (6) and to the condenser. Solution passes through an aper- ating at high second-law efficiency with low-temperature heat in-
ture in the generator partition into the strong absorbent chamber put. Thus, it is not surprising that many combination systems
(1b). Heat applied to this chamber causes vapor and liquid to pass up comprised of fuel-fired prime mover and waste-heat-powered ab-
through the small-diameter bubble pump (10) to the separation ves- sorption unit have been demonstrated.
sel (11). While liberated ammonia vapor passes through the ana- These systems come in many forms, usually in ad hoc, one-of-
lyzer (6) to the condenser, the strong absorbent flows through the a-kind custom systems. Examples include (1) engine rejects heat to
liquid heat exchanger (9) to the absorber. The finned air-cooled loop a heat recovery steam generator, and steam powers the absorption
(12) between the liquid heat exchanger and the absorber precools cycle; (2) steam boiler powers a steam turbine, and turbine extrac-
the solution further. The heat of absorption is rejected to the sur- tion steam powers the absorption cycle; (3) hot engine exhaust
rounding air. directly heats the absorption unit generator; and (4) engine jacket
The refrigerant storage vessel (5), which is connected between cooling water powers the absorption unit.
the condenser outlet and the evaporator circuit, compensates for Recent programs are under way to better integrate and stan-
changes in load and the heat rejection air supply temperature. dardize these combined systems to make them more economical
The following controls are normally present on the refrigerator: and replicable.
A related technology is derived from the effect of cooling on the
Burner Ignition and Monitoring Control. These controls are inlet air to a compressor. When the compressor supplies a prime
either electronic or thermomechanical. Electronic controls ignite, mover, the power output is similarly benefitted. Hence, applications
monitor, and shut off the main burner as required by the thermostat. are found where combustion turbine waste heat supplies an absorp-
For thermomechanical control, a thermocouple monitors the main tion refrigeration unit, and the cooling in turn chills the inlet air.
41.10 2006 ASHRAE Handbook—Refrigeration (SI)
Triple-Effect Cycles cycles are periodic in that the refrigerant is transferred periodically be-
Triple-effect absorption cooling can be classified as single-loop tween two or more primary vessels. Several concepts providing quasi-
or dual-loop cycles. Single-loop triple-effect cycles are basically continuous refrigeration have been developed. One advantage of
double-effect cycles with an additional generator and condenser. solid-vapor systems is that no solution pump is needed. The main
The resulting system with three generators and three condensers challenge in designing a competitive solid-vapor heat pump is to
operates similarly to the double-effect system. Primary heat (from a package the adsorbent in such a way that good heat and mass transfer
natural gas or fuel oil burner) concentrates absorbent solution in a are obtained in a small volume. A related constraint is that good ther-
first-stage generator at about 200 to 230°C. A fluid pair other than mal performance of periodic systems requires that the thermal mass of
water/lithium bromide must be used for the high-temperature cycle. the vessels be small to minimize cyclic heat transfer losses.
The refrigerant vapor produced is then used to concentrate addi-
Liquid Desiccant/Absorption Systems
tional absorbent solution in a second-stage generator at about
150°C. Finally, the refrigerant vapor produced in the second-stage In efforts to reduce a building’s energy consumption, designers
generator concentrates additional absorbent solution in a third-stage have successfully integrated liquid desiccant equipment with stan-
generator at about 93°C. The usual internal heat recovery devices dard absorption chillers. These applications have been building-
(solution heat exchangers) can be used to improve cycle efficiency. specific and are sometimes referred to as application hybrids. In a
As with the double-effect cycles, several variations of solution flow more general approach, the absorption chiller is modified so that
paths through the generators are possible. rejected heat from its absorber can be used to help regenerate liquid
Theoretically, these triple-effect cycles can obtain COPs of about desiccant. Only liquid desiccants are appropriate for this integration
1.7 (not taking into account burner efficiency). Difficulties with because they can be regenerated at lower temperatures than solid
these cycles include the following: desiccants.
The desiccant dehumidifier dries ventilation air sufficiently that,
• High solution temperatures pose problems to solution stability, when it is mixed with return air, the building’s latent load is satis-
performance additive stability, and material corrosion. fied. The desiccant drier is cooled by cooling tower water so that a
• High pressure in the first-stage generator vapor space requires significant amount of the cooling load is transferred directly to the
costly pressure vessel design and high-pressure solution pump(s). cooling water. Consequently, absorption chiller size is significantly
A double-loop triple-effect cycle consists of two cascaded reduced, potentially to as little as 60% of the size of the chiller in a
single-effect cycles. One cycle operates at normal single-effect conventional installation.
operating temperatures and the other at higher temperatures. The Because the air handler is restricted to sensible load, the evapo-
smaller high-temperature topping cycle is direct-fired with natural rator in the absorption machine will run at higher temperatures than
gas or fuel oil and has a generator temperature of about 200 to normal. Consequently, a machine operating at normal concentra-
230°C. A fluid pair other than water/lithium bromide must be used tions in its absorber rejects heat at higher temperatures. For conve-
for the high-temperature cycle. Heat is rejected from the high- nient regeneration of liquid desiccant, only moderate increases in
temperature cycle at 93°C and is used as the energy input for the solution concentration are required. These are subtle but significant
conventional single-effect bottoming cycle. Both the high- and low- modifications to a standard absorption chiller.
temperature cycles remove heat from the cooling load at about 7°C. Combined systems seem to work best when about one-third of
Theoretically, this triple-effect cycle can obtain an overall COP the supply air comes from outside the conditioned space. These
of about 1.8 (not taking into account burner efficiency). systems do not require 100% outside air for ventilation, so they
As with the single-loop triple-effect cycle, high temperatures should be applicable to conventional buildings as newly mandated
create problems with solution and additive stability and material ventilation standards are accommodated. Because they always
corrosion. Also, using a second loop requires additional heat ex- operate in a form of economizer cycle, they are particularly effec-
change vessels and additional pumps. However, both loops operate tive during shoulder seasons (spring and fall). As lower-cost liquid
below atmospheric pressure and, therefore, do not require costly desiccant systems become available, reduced first costs may join
pressure vessel designs. the advantages of decreased energy use, better ventilation, and
improved humidity control.
GAX (Generator-Absorber Heat Exchange) Cycle
Current air-cooled absorption air-conditioning equipment oper- INFORMATION SOURCES
ates at gas-fired cooling COPs of just under 0.5 at ARI rating condi-
tions. The absorber heat exchange cycle of past air conditioners had The are four modern textbooks on absorption: Alefeld and Rad-
a COP of about 0.67 at the rating conditions. In recent years, several ermacher (1994), Bogart (1981), Herold et al. (1995), and Niebergall
projects have been initiated around the world to develop generator- (1981). Other sources of information include conference proceed-
absorber heat exchange (GAX) cycle systems. The best-known pro- ings, journal articles, newsletters, trade association publications, and
grams have been directed toward cycle COPs of about 0.9. manufacturers’ literature.
The GAX cycle is a heat-recovering cycle in which absorber heat The only recurring conference that focuses exclusively on ab-
is used to heat the lower-temperature section of the generator as well sorption technology is the triennial Absorption Experts conference,
as the rich ammonia solution being pumped to the generator. This most recently identified as the “International Sorption Heat Pump
cycle, like others capable of higher COPs, is more difficult to Conference.” Proceedings from these conferences are available
develop than ammonia single-stage and absorber heat exchange from Berlin (1982), Paris (1985), Dallas (1988), Tokyo (1991), New
cycles, but its potential gas-fired COPs of 0.7 in cooling mode and Orleans (1994), Montreal (1996), and Munich (1999).
1.5 in heating mode make it capable of significant annual energy Technical Committee 8.3 of ASHRAE sponsors symposia on
savings. In addition to providing a more effective use of heat energy absorption technology at least annually, and the papers appear in
than the most efficient furnaces, the GAX heat pump is able to ASHRAE Transactions.
supply all the heat a house requires to outdoor temperatures below The Advanced Energy Systems Division of ASME sponsors
−18°C without the use of supplemental heat. heat pump symposia approximately annually, with attendant pro-
ceedings.
Solid-Vapor Sorption Systems The International Congress of Refrigeration is held quadren-
Solid-vapor heat pump technology is being developed for zeolite, nially, under auspices of the International Institute of Refrigera-
silica-gel, activated-carbon, and coordinated complex adsorbents. The tion (IIR). IIR publishes the conference proceedings, and also the
Absorption Cooling, Heating, and Refrigeration Equipment 41.11