Unity in diversity

Sanatan (eternal) dharm, vedic dharm, Aryan (noble) dharma: Hinduism

Who were Hindus: Those people who were residing near Sindhu River, such land was called
Hindustan.
 Religions have a propounder, but Hinduism does not have a single authority
 Holy scriptures is present in religions, but such scriptures cannot be traced in
Hinduism
Such pointer suggests that Hinduism is a way of life having certain directions and code of
conduct guiding the life of an individual (dharamsashtra).
Hindusim is a an ancient religion
It is religion as there is belief in supernatural power and having certain faiths. However, such
belief is not in one single supernatural power. In other religions, the belief is in a particular
human beings. Hinduism believes in abstract reality whereas other religions do not.
It is a synthesis of different sections: vaishnavism (Vishnu followers), shaevism (shiv), Shakti
(goddesses like durga, kali)
Ishth devta/ kul devi: it is peculiar to Hindu culture. Ishth are those who are subject of
worship. Gotra is an endogamous group which is a composition of certain groups. Every
gotra have a particular god or goddess that they worship.
Nature worship [though not accept as unique to Hindu] is found in Hinduism
Abstract reality: nirgun, none attributes are provided
Concrete reality: personified god (sagun, certain attributes are provided, god as a creator,
sustainer and destroyer is presented)

Theological ideas:
Concept of karma and reincarnation: unique to Hinduism, ultimate goal of life is moksha;
though other religions talk about it, they does it in different ways. E.g. Max Weber’s : people
are more concentrated for future life instead of present life owing to the concept of karma.
[citing Karl Marx’s economic theory]
Concept of dharma
Concept of purusharth: moksha is an ultimate goal
Concept of moksha

Purity and polluted: if one takes a birth in higher class (Brahmin, shatriya, vaishya), they are
pure bloods. Gradation of individual on the basis of caste in which he is born. Polluted are
shurdras and untouchables.

Hindu ethics: Varna system and ashram system

Varna is a sociological aspect
Ashram is a psychological aspect: if the life span is of 100 years, 4 stages are considered with
different psychological development [brahmacharya, grahsth, vanaprasth (duty towards
socity), sanyas (all obligations of life are completed)]

Jeevan mukti: detachment from desires

Vidhaye mukti: leaving your body

Philosophical literature and doctrines:

SHRUTI (heard) AND SMRITI (remembered)
 SHRUTI: Vedas (considered as beliefs and as divine words, they are apaurusheya)
o Rigveda (2500 – 500 BC): it was composed first of all vedas. Each veda have
a subject matter to discuss. The subjects which are discussed here is eternal
truth (Sat). it is having a composition of prayers addressed to gods and gives
information of the socio-political life of early Aryans.
o Yajurveda: it is in prose form and is a guidebook of rituals.
o Samveda: melodies_ here the mantras are in the form of the songs.
o Atharvaveda: marriage, home construction, medicines; it is concerned more
about the present life, whereas the above three are talking more about the next
life
o Each veda have four parts:
 Mantras
 Brahman
 Aranyaka (forest)
 Upnishad
o We considered the ashram system. Each of the above is the guiding book for
the four stages. Mantras is the guiding book for brahmacharya and contains
materialistic aspects and so on. Brahman contains various rituals of sacrifices.
Arankya are a philosophical doctrine and concerned with vanprastha arshram.
Upnishads have metaphysical discussion and is knowledge part and is related
to the sanyas ashram.
o Veda have three types based on subject matter
 Karmkanda: rituals
 Upasanakanda: worship
 Jnanakand (gyan): highest knowledge about sole, rebirth etc.
 Rishis who heard these divine works complied them into smriti
o Dharamshastra: compilation of different codes of conduct and norms of the
society
 Manusmriti: norms of people owing to Varna system and duties owing
to human relations.
 Naradasmriti
 yajnavalkya
o Epics: ramayan, Mahabharata, Bhagwat geeta {provides directions as to how
to live life}
 o Aagams: compilation of the short stories. The idea is to make people make
aware the ethos and moral teachings.
o Darshan
 Vedic, aastik (who have belief in veda)
 Nyaya (epistemology part)
 Vaisesika (metaphysical and ethical part)
 Sankhaya
 Yoga
 Mimansa
 vedanta
 Avedic, (nastik)
 Charvaka (materialism)
 Jainism
 Buddhism
Traditional characteristics of Hindu society:
 There is a hierarchical arrangement based on the ascribed status (caste system, based
on age, based on gender).
 Social organisation:
o It is based on Varna system. One can change his Varna by achievement.
Swabhav or natural personality can change swadharm. Each personality is
composed of satva (white, intellectual), raja (red color; aggression, continuity,
productivity, creation), tama (black,). Each one is present but one dominates.
Based on one’s personality trait, one has to choose his occupation.
o Aashram system: more related to human psychology. Ashram means to hold.
 One after another come
 One can skip one asharm and go into next ashram
 Purusharth: objectives and the aims of the life.
o Dharam (spiritual aspect, performance of duty)
o Artha (wealth collected from rightful means, materialistic aspect)
o Kama (satisfaction desires, materialistic aspect)
o Moksha (spiritualistic aspect, merging one’s identity with the parmatma)
o Moksha is the ultimate aim of life and other 3 are the means to attain that
o Dharma is the means to attain moksha; artha is the means and kama is the end
 Wrina:
o Dev wrin: towards ultimate authority, sanyas ashram
o Pitra wrin: duty of procreation, grahasth ashram
o Rishi wrin: giving back in the brahmacharya ashram by doing good deed
 Concept of karma

Buddhism:
Post dharamshastra, lot of social evil started entering into the Hindu society. Main focus was
on karam kand. As a reaction to this, Buddhism and Jainism emerged. The later evil which
emerged caused the development of these religion. Main evils are the supremacy of the
Brahmins and the rigid caste system. When the Brahmins occupied the prime importance,
they wanted to continue it and for the same they ensured that the other people are deemed
impure and suppressed. So, these religion were advocated common people as well. These are
simple religion and talk about equality of people.
Main impacts of Buddhism:
 They attacked the social inequality and helped in reducing the caste inequality.
 There were lot of complexities in the Hindu religion like how to perform rituals and
its complixities, which created lot of tension among the common people, so the
people wanted simple form of religion. Buddhism have talked about things simply
e.g. Nirwana concept [the life is full of sufferings but it also give the path to reduce
such sufferings and they also provide the way by which one can stop such suffering]
 Buddhism is responsible for development of organisational structure in the Hindu
society. It was developed in the form of sanghas and different forms of schools of
thoughts. Following this, Hindu also started adopting it.
 Most of the teachings were given in the regional languages and the language of people
as more people can be approached and they can even adopt such teachings. E.g. pali
for Buddhism and prakrat for Jainism
 Encouragement of the formal education: nalanda and takshashila were developed
during these time only because kings also taking interests in Buddhism and therefore
they created such institutions.
 Development of logic: epistemology deals with knowledge and logic, which was
developed in Buddhism and this contributed in philosophical studies. Metaphysical
and ethical aspects were already present in Hinduism. Logic as a separate branch of
knowledge was developed
 Art and architecture: Sanchi Stoops and pillars were developed during these times.
Idol worship was also started during these times. Paintings were even developed
 Contact with the foreign countries: kings took interest in developing this religion and
they sent messengers to other contries. And the people from other countries even
came here to study the religion
 Impact on government policies and administration: panchsheel concept was given by
Buddhists. It talks about peace movements.
Impact of islam:
 Being outsiders, hindus were not able to accept them in the society.
 Person belonging to one culture looked others as enemies.
 Positive impacts:
o The most of the muslims settled in the urban cities as they felt that if they
settle in those cities, being minorities, they will be in position to protect them,
Due to which many cities were developed. Urban development was the
consequence. Urban planning, urban administration, development all are the
consequences of the islam invasion
o Rigidity started entering Hindu culture and bhakti cult developed. Most of the
poets of this had belief in the oneness of the god. The concept of monotheism
developed and the equality of the individual was endorsed. More
concentration was given to the weaker section.
o Education: the education system of the ancient India was collapsing. Muslims
gave emphasis on education, they had madrasas with mosques which provided
religious teachings. Gurukuls did not provided the religious teaching, only
Hinduism was taught. Gurukuls were not connected with temples Lot of
development happened in academics during Muslim rule and the translation of
 the various ancient texts happened. Sanskrit work was translated into Arabic
and Farsi. Agra university was established.
o Art and architecture: combination of the Hindu and Muslim architecture can
be seen. Red fort, Taj Mahal, etc. invaders took interest in the architecture of
India
o Music: saragni, table,
o Gardening: development of the unique gardens. Nishadbag of Kashmir,
Mughal garden etc. Rectangular and square gardens outside the buildings.
o Materialism: hindus focussed more on the spiritual side and focussed more
upon next life and moksha. Muslims believed more on materialistic approach
and had vision of enjoyment of life, which attracted hindus as well.
o Administration: unique style of administration, deewan e aam during akbar’s
period. Equality of the people and using the best brains in the courts. People of
different castes were included in the administration.
o Different vernacular languages developed: different regions and communities
developed their own languages. Different languages flourished.
 Negative impacts:
o Caste rigidity increased in the Hindu society. Hindus now started focussing on
their own identitify and therefore they rigidified their norms.
o Parda system: it was started as the impact of Muslim culture. Hindus started
this to protect from the eyes of Muslim people. It was also there to isolate the
women.
o Child marriages: in one do the child marriages, there are less chances that the
muslims can capture such women. Even muslims had a practice of marrying
girls when they enter puberty.
o Johar and sati endorsed. As Muslim would have taken them once husband
died.
o Slavery: Hindu had a system of jajmani, where the lower caste people used to
serve upper caste, but slavery system wasn’t there.
o Communalism: they came, they settled, they fought, hindus focussed more on
non-violence. Communal tension started.
o Conservatism: more rigidity in social norms, not ready to dilute them.
Therefore, to protect their own norms, hindus even became more conservative.

Westernisation:
It was coined by M. N. Srinivas. He is limiting the application of this term to britishers. It
means the impact of the Britisher on the Indian culture owing to the indo-british contact.
Though other countries even invaded India, but were not able to settle their culture in India.
He has been criticized by yogendra singh as he says westernisation includes all western
countries and it is not restricted to just 150 years. Changes can be seen in:
 Technology:
o Positive:
 It changed the life style of the people owing to technological
development. It moulded the value system and ideology.
 Radio, gramophone were introduced.
 Social institutions:
o Positive:
  Intention was not to rule, but to do business but then they spread to the
administration with the object of social change in the institution and so
as to have people who can work for them.
 Education as an institution: they introduced the concept of the formal
education, the concept of school and colleges, the medium of
instructions was only English, mostly those people who were
professionals were able to grab this opportunity due to being part of the
administration and power sector, this lead to the development of the
middle class. This led to creation of a force for their use. People started
focussing on getting more and more education.
 Legal system: uniform legal system was introduced. Prior to this, caste
system was so rigid that the caste of the individual was even taken into
consideration. Punishment was more for lower caste people. Court
system was introduced by them. Distinction between civil and criminal
courts was introduced. Decline of the caste and village panchayats.
 Economy: even the caste system was recognised in the economic
system, e.g. jajmani system which was concerned with self sufficieny
of the village as the lower caste people were supposed to work for
upper caste, in return they used to supply necessaries to the lower
castes. People used to produce every required thing in the village itself
and exports and imports was less. Britishers introduced capitalism in
India. Bank system was introduced. Different finance systems were
introduced. Materialism as a concept emerged. This lead to
development of technology as well.
 Family system: they were having more faith in materialism so it lead to
industrialization which resulted in urbanization and capitalism. This
lead to shaking of the joint family system and the families started
moving out to cities for finding the jobs. Mind set, food habits, cultural
habits changed due to such migration. Caste system even got diluted.
Village culture slowly changed and urban people when went back to
village, influenced the residents thereon as well. Due to such cultural
divide, the nature of joint family system changed.
o Negative:
 Education: they generated people who were able to follow their
instructions and work for them.
 Ideologies:
o Materialistic approach of the Indian people was developed during the british
period.
 The life style changed to suit britishers. E.g. dressing style, club
concept
 Consumption of meat, alcohol, onion, garlic
 Inter caste marriages were allowed due to special marriage act
 Change to democratic system from monarchical sytem
 Secularism
 Human rights
 Values
o Negative points
 Divide and rule: division of society into small groups, divide between
hindus and muslims, regional conflicts
 Never allowed muslims to come in front and develop themselves
  Separatists tendencies emerged
Factors for continuity of changes on Indian society: industrialization, urbanization, legal
provision, education.
Most of the social changes occurred after French revolution and industrialization. People
started focussing upon the social problems prevalent in the society and what all changes are
required in the society. The essence of industrialization was brought by Britishers in India.
Whenever an industry is set up, either in the villages or on the periphery of cities, it requires
man power, so it explored the possibility of occupational opportunities. So the people living
nearby and remote as well moved to the cities which lead to the development of the cities. So
this lead to the urbanization of the sub-urban areas. This also resulted in the split of the joint
families. When people from different part of the country come and settle at a single place,
cultural transformation also takes place. Even the caste system and other taboos get diluted as
people need to follow the norms of the industry. Further, if women get more jobs, this would
lead to empowerment of the women and increase in the financial stability of the family.
Urbanization is the process of migration. Urbanism is the life style of the urban people.
Law even affects the society. Law is a tool to make social change. This is a human instinct
that one would be punished if they break law. Even social legislations cerate impact on the
society. Legislatures take into account the social changes while creating laws as well. It is a
formal means of control. Even include the solidarity wala concept.

Education and awareness: it brings varied kind of knowledge to an individual. Education

makes person informed and more stable in society. Even different cultured people study
under single roof which leads to social transformation. Different cultures influence the
individuals. One is in position to accommodate with different culture and it changes
personality of individuals. Person starts analysing situations with varied angles and
perspectives. It provides awareness to the individuals. Education leads to progress of the
country and empowerment of the weaker sections.

Theoretical perspective in Indian society:

 Functional: society have a structure same as a living person, every part of society
have specific function
 Conflict: it exists in the society, though not in manifest form but in latent form
 Interactionist: it is very minute detailed and in-depth study of any concept and part of
the society.
Holistic perspective of any issue can be taken only if we merge all three perspectives. These
three basic perspective (basic assumptions) bifurcate into five main perspective:
 Indo-logical or textual: whatever is there in the original text, interpretation of that
original text is this approach. One’s ideology is based on a particular description of
the original text. This is also called traditional perspective. Sanskrit scholar are found
under this. It is not based on the field experience.
o G S Ghurye: he mainly worked on the Indian caste system and the emergence
of the new organisation of the Indian system. He worked in the area of sadhus
and architecture style of Hindu in contrast of Muslim.
 Caste system: most of the assumptions and basic propositions drawn
by him are still accepted today. He wrote ‘caste and race’ in 1932, here
 he talked about the caste system that operated in India. He has
described the traditional system and not the modern system. It is a
hierarchical arrangement; it is also a segmental arrangement. E.g.
Varna system, there was a hierarchy but it was an open system as
anyone can move to any caste. It changed into rigid caste system. Caste
was a kind of a ascribed status. It is segmental division as whole
ancient Hindu structure is divided into different segments and the caste
system is also one of the segment. Whole social structure is divided
into different segments of caste and sub castes. What is happening in
the modern time, hierarchical system is diluting because of the efforts
of the social reformers and laws. Distance between different castes has
reduced which has shaken the rigidity as well. In reality, in some of the
places, it is still operating but not in a wide manner. But segmental
division is also there, identity of an individual is related with one’s
caste. Caste as an identity and caste loyalty and social structure divided
in different segments still there.
 Various kind of relationships operating among different castes: the
food restriction, occupation restrictions, marriage restrictions and civil
and social restrictions are also there. if a food is cooked in ghee, it is
more pure and it created a difference. Lower caste people’s food was
not accepted by the upper caste people as the lower caste people cannot
use the pakka food. Only Brahmins had a concept of pakka food or
food cooked in ghee and therefore most of the restaurants in south
India were opened by them. Occupational restrictions: if a family have
a particular occupation, then the new-borns were supposed to continue
such occupation. Even today in villages, children of lower castes are
supposed to continue the same occupation. but as per law, it is open of
individual to continue it or join any other occupation. civil and social
rights: untouchables and lower castes were not allowed to go the
temples and common wells. Persons belonging to lower castes were
not supposed to enter the house on certain time of the day as his
shadow of impurity could fall on upper castes. Even in penal offences,
lower castes were having high punishments than upper castes for same
offences. Marital restrictions: a person belonging to one caste has to
marry person of that caste only. Still, inter caste marriages are only the
accommodation but not priority because caste loyalty is still present in
the society.
 Indian sadhu: he wrote a book in 1953, which focussed on the change
in the Hindu organisational structure. He found that Hindu sadhus are
not detached personality, they are more engaged in developing the
Hindu organisations and the activities of the ashram which ultimately
attached them to the real world.
 Urbanization: general understanding is that it is a by-product of
industrialization. But he provided that existence of a urban system was
already there in the ancient Hindu system and even before
industrialization entered. During mauryan period, there were urban
cities, market system etc. the villages were self sufficient but gradually
they started growing more and surplus and therefore they started
moving to the cities and organized markets. He concluded that
urbanization was already there long back in the ancient Hindu period.
  Tribe: for tribal people he used the term backward Hindu. These tribal
people has slowing assimilated into the Hindu religion. The tribes
residing in the central region e.g. bhil, santhal started merging into
Hindu religion. But still they were backward Hindu if we see the
Hindu religion as a whole. These tribes either adopted Hinduism or
Christian relation. While merging, such people adopted every social
concept of Hindus. Some tribes even were contrary to such religions.
 Art and architecture: due to the impact of the Muslim architecture, new
style developed which was an assimilation of the Hindu and Muslim
architecture styles. He is contrary of this; he provides that Hindu
architecture style is closer of Jainism and Buddhist style. The garden in
front of the architectures is not there in Hindu monuments. But Hindus
had gumbads and other such structures which are inspired by
Buddhism and Jainism.
 Hindu social structure is based on caste and kinship system.
o Louis Dumont: caste system in India: the caste system in India is not a
representation of socio-economic prespective but is ideological perspective. If
one needs to understand the caste system of hindu society, it is not related to
the general understanding of the social stratification. It is more related to
ideological concept and values and beliefs. Here, caste identity is more of a
mental construction. He even visualized that the caste system will continue in
the indian society.
 Classification of the varna system or caste system: he is classifying on
the basis of purity and pollution. This concept is directly linked with
concept of twice born. Janeyu/upanayan ceremony is meant to purify
the body and soul and it signifies that such individual has born again.
Only those classes which can follw the concept of twice born are clean
castes (Brahmin, shatriya, veshya). The unclean castes are those who
are not eligible for twice birth and they render their services to the
upper class people such as tailor, cobbler, washerman (shudra). This is
also related to jajmani system. They rendered services to the upper
class people and get resources for livelihood from them. Then comes,
untouchable, they are like chamar, chandal. These are the child of
those people who have married against the socially unaccepted
practices.
 Structural functional perspective: how a particular social system is operating within
the broader framework of the Indian social system. Focus on a particular social
system and studying as to how they are contributing in the indian society. They do not
focus on caste conflict. Caste system has specific function and is functional to the
Indian society.
o M N Srinivas: he coined terms like westernization and sensitization (he did
certain field survey near Coorg, in Rampur village). It means imitation of the
life style by the lower caste people of the upper caste people. He provided that
such factor is present. Initially he mentioned that, generally the lower caste
people imitate the lifestyle of Brahmin. But later on, he broadened his
definition his to included that such imitation can even be of shatriya and
veshiya. Life style includes food habits, dressing styles, ideologies etc.
important practices like janeyu are even adopted by such people. By doing
that, they are not changing their status but they are just elevating their social
level and position psychologically. Then the upper caste people even started
 maintaining social relations with lower castes. In reciprocity, upper castes
even started imitating the lower castes. E.g. in the lower castes, widow
remarriage was allowed. Due to this reciprocity, such values transferred to the
upper caste people.
o Lower class imitate upper class, upper class imitate the western values.
o Sensitization is a universal pattern in India.
o It was critized by Yogendra singh.
 In areas like Punjab and Sindh, they have adopted the lifestyles of the
invaders instead of the upper castes. Therefore, sensitization (imitation
by lower castes the livelihood of upper castes) is not universal concept.
 Reservation policy is in contrary of the sensitization pattern. It compels
the lower castes people to stick to their own identities as they are
gaining fruits of being present in the lower caste category. They are not
imitating patterns of upper states, so that they can create their own
identity and establish as separate social strata.
o S C Dubey: he used a deductive approach while others have used inductive
generalization (on the basis of the field research, a generalization is formed). It
means the certain basic assumptions are postulated and then such assumptions
are verified. His major contribution is related to the village studies and his
research is based on Shamirpet, near Hyderabad.
 The basic assumption for villages is
 One single village of India is not representing the whole India.
There is cultural diversity due to which every village are unique
in itself.
 The indian villages were self-sufficient before the settlement of
britishers. Economy from self-sufficiency to industrialization
moved only after the coming of british.
 Main research:
 Influence on community development programmes on villages:
the basic objectives of these programmes are the economic
development. Villagers were self sufficient earlier, then
changed to industrialization due to britishers. More changes
happened due to community development programmes and
other programmes. He has done the complete assessment of the
community developmental programmes.
 Celebration of certain festivals in villages:
o Family festivals: only the near dear ones are invited,
close relative. Eg. Janeyu sansakar
o Community festival: e.g. Diwali, harvest festival
o Festivals of Hindus and Muslims in common, festival
based on interrelationship between religion: he
emphasis on the harmony between different religions
and how the festivals are playing their role in
maintaining such harmony. E.g. national festivals,
hindu festivals which is celebrated by the Muslims and
vice versa.
 Conflict or Marxian perspective: class conflicts in terms of economy. These people
have adopted this perspective but moulded that into the indian social realities and
culture.
 o D P Mukherjee: Marxism is not a methodology but is a tool to solve a social
problem. The objective of the Marxism can be adopted in Indian culture as
well only by understanding and accordingly adapting it in accordance of
Indian heritage and scenario. In India, to under the conflict perspective, the
different diversity which is present in India is to be understood. The conflicts
which are cultural in nature would be present in India e.g. south and north
India, inter religious conflicts. Such conflicts would be having different
background and would not be based on different classes. Re interpretation of
the original class conflict perspective is required.
 E.g. Hindu and Muslim religion have their own identities. Now the
conflicts can be understood by interpretation of the cultural identities
of the Hindus and Muslims.
 Conflicts can be resolved by Assimilation (complete merging of one
into another) and accommodation (one community accepts the
elements of the other community but one does not lose one’s own
identity).
o A R Desai : he gave the phenomenon called ‘social background of
nationalism.’ If one looks at the british period, things what britishers did lead
to rise of Nationalism. Even the means of transportation and communication
brought by them for their own benefits lead to the rise in nationalism as
Indians even were able to spread the national awakening. Further, it was not a
top to bottom modal but such nationalism was bottom to top modal.
Nationalism was not a political tool but was concerned with the social
realities. Class of people present at that time: Grass root level people 
zamindars and rulers  britishers. the social background of nationalism is that
nationalism emerged from the grass root level people. Those people wanted to
have those resources from which they could acquire basic amenities and the
zamindars wanted more fruits and profits of industrializations. Ultimately
britishers became the enemy of both the classes of people. so, there was
different kind of conflicts. Lower class people had conflict with zamindars and
the latters were having conflicts with britishers.
 Civilizational perspective: they have analysed the original texts. They want to analyse
is that the differentiation exists between different types of society and they see which
society is civilized or not. In this approach they are different from indo-logical
approach. They are differentiating on the civilized point of view e.g. tribal society and
the urban society. Due to lack of technology and other factors, tribal society is less
civilized than the urban society.
o N K Bose: he wrote: Nature of Culture: ethnography, Indology and history (3
parts of his book).
 In ethnography, he is concerned with field studies and he conducted his
research on Jung (orissa), munda and oraon tribes. While field studies,
he have taken into considerations two parameter: technological
development and the extend of geographical and social isolation. by
these parameters, he wanted to analyse the gap between tribal and
urban society and wanted to know whether the tribal society have
adopted the lifestyle of urban society. E.g. Jung is untouched to
civilization, they have not came into contact with the main stream
society. But contrary to this, munda and oreon had came into touch
with mainstream society and therefore are more integrated with the
mainstreams.
 Tribal policies: isolation (keep them in the way they are without any
interferences); assimilation (it is required that slowly the tribal people
should merge their identity with the mainstream society, it is losing of
their own identity); integration (they will keep their characteristics
intact and then come into contact with the mainstream society to get
the benefit of the advancement). He also talk about integration policy.
Munda have integrated but jung is still isolated.
 Indology: he take help of various texts to know about the concepts and
policies. He took help of the Ramayana and Smritis to understand the
varna system and village system. Earlier the village were self sufficient
but now, they have come into the contact of the urban society and lot
of advancement took place in villages. He depicted the earlier village
economy using those texts. He has explained the city life the vatsayna
and kamasutra. He has briefed about the influence of other religions
over hindu religion. Islam has less influence the hindu religion whereas
Buddhism and social movements like bhakti movement had more
influence over hindu religion.
 Social history: he has analysed that how the economic forces change
the social structure. In the caste system, we were having the tradition to
continue the family occupation. He has said that now during british
time and after that, the caste rigidity had shaken and the economic
forces have even influenced. Due to which, communities have also
explored other kind of business activities and the class structure has
also changed. E.g. Rajput community have moulded their economic
tendencies and joined different business and rose their class. Earlier the
caste system was controlling the class system. But now, class system is
developing inside the caste system. Different levels of classes in single
caste. In today’s society, the caste and class system has merged. Each
caste has witnessed different classes.
 British period is one of the period lot of development happened e.g.
new technologies, new laws, means of communication, urbanization
and industrialization. They made an impact on the Indian society.
 Indian civilization compared with western civilization: the western
civilization have witnesses many external wars, but in Indian
civilization has met with less number of external wars. Therefore, a
kind of assimilated culture in the Indian culture and we are ready to
merge other cultures. Indians prefers peace and harmony. But the
westerns had developed beliefs which were against peace and
harmony.
 He is rejecting the idea that caste has divine origin. Divine theory: in
Rig-Veda, purushsukta  it is mentioned there that a purush who is a
ultimate reality, from his different parts of the body different varnas
were developed. E.g. from head which represents intellect, brahmins,
from shoulder the shatriya as it stands for bravery, from thighs
vaishyas as it represents to hold and to sustain and from feet the
shudras (to serve for the whole body) got developed. He has rejected
this theory and he is saying that caste have been made for the
economic and social security. E.g. jajmani system. It is more of
cultural security and for the preservation of the social and cultural
heritage and therefore the caste system was made so rigid.
  They have worked for the tribal people and have favoured the policy of
integration and not assimilation.
o Surjeet Sinha: he has worked on tribal change in the central India. He has
worked on Bhumij and Maria Gond tribes. On the basis of his work , he has
differentiated between village society (it is having more heterogeneous
composition as more class and caste division is there, different economic
fragments and different religions are there); tribal society (more homogenous
composition); peasant society (it is also heterogeneous); urban society () on
the basis of which, he has coined tow terms:
 Tribal peasant continuum: continuum shows the interdependence of
two societies. Now a days, due to extension of cities and villages, the
interdependence of the villages and cities have increased. For the daily
livelihood, we are dependent on the village society and for
technological purposes, we are dependent on the urban society.
Between the village and the urban society, there is a peasant society
which forms a link between village and urban society. Similarly, there
is link of peasant society between tribal society and village society.
Tribal first come into contact with the peasant and then come into
contact with the village society.
 Tribal caste continuum: tribal were not earlier believes of the caste
system but once coming into contact with the Hindu religion, they have
adopted the caste system. E.g. bhil. Due to coming into contact with
the peasants and village society, caste system entered in the tribal
society. Now, they are also becoming heterogeneous.
 He also talked about the economic backwardness of the tribal people
and has advocated a policy of integration and not assimilation.
 Sub-altern: subordinate group. There is an hierarchy in the Indian social system and
due to which there is upper class and lower class. The thinkers have focussed on the
lower section of the society, may be caste or class and raised the voices of the such
deprived people. they study the social structures and factors which lead to such
deprivation and the suppression and exploitation of the lower class by uppers. E.g.
shudra and other upper castes. They make a difference between shudra (who provide
services to upper class) and untouchable (harijans). These people were exploited and
their problems are raised and recognized by these thinkers.
o David hardiman (lower class (based on economy) as well as caste): power
structures which are existing in the villages e.g. moneylenders, dealers of
liquors. These people are wealthy and powerful and due to which they are
exploiting the village people and the tribal people. as the villagers borrow
money from these and therefore they enter into a vicious cycle of exploited.
He has focussed on Devi Movement: raising the voices of the lower section
and revolting against the upper section. Girls of the age of 13 or 14 years are
taken as a symbol of power when such revolt is done and therefore it is called
devi movement. It was focussed on the tribal people. no religious connotation
is there with the word devi. This movement more focuses on the economic
exploitation. This movement is pointing towards the differentiation and
stratification based on economy in the Indian society due to which the lower
people face people
 The class division is not as developed as developed in the industrial
world. More civilized countries have higher degree of differentiation
between two classes. In india, there are no typical two categories such
 as have and have nots, the classes are fused. India have dominant caste
system, it is difficult to say that which particular class is more
powerful and upper. Brahmins may not be powerful. Wealthy or
educated persons may be powerful. May be people of lower castes but
in majority are powerful. [n s srinivasan]. Person belonging to lower
caste may be in upper class in the villages and they may be exploiting.
Stratification based on castes is not always present in Indian villages.
Another criterion can be politics as well. Any class which dominates
the others are called dominating caste or class. Class division and caste
division is fused together and therefore the Karl Marx system cannot
be applied. Class system is fused in the caste system.
o B R Ambedkar ( focus on lower caste):
 He has analysed the class system operating in the Indian society and he
provides that caste system should be abolished for the development.
 Stratification is unavoidable but exploiting on the basis of hierarchy
should be avoided.
 Radical progressive thinker
 Welfare of the primitive tribe and development of the untouchable and
shudras. Bhils and santhals were labelled as criminal tribes and
therefore were exploited, he has worked for them.
 Social transformation: it has crossed three stages
 Vedic society which is degenerated into the Aryan society. Post
vedic society witnessed the emergence of the evils in the
society. Prior to it, it was very harmonious. Invaders who came
to india, so in order to save our identity, we solidified our
societal regulations;
 Rise of Buddhism and social and moral transformation of the
India society: main pillar of Hinduism is caste system and
therefore he was more close to Buddhism as it emerged as a
revolt against the Hindu rituals and the caste system. Buddhism
believed in equality.
 Rise of Brahmanism: again Brahmin supremacy, as Buddhism
did not flourish in the indian society. To continue this
supremacy and privileges, they made the caste system more and
more rigid.
 Until and unless the lower section of the society are not conscious
about the reality, no one can uplift them
 Focussed on Endogamous nature of the caste system: the intercaste
marriages are prohibited to continue the purity. Late he shifted his
focus on the economic aspect of the class division and talked about
how exploitation is done by the upper class. Division of labor is also
being decided on the basis of the birth [son would have to join the
occupation of father].

Social change in India: process of universalisation; westernization; modernization;

sanskritization
 Universalization: since we had caste system, we talk about the ascribed system. But
social mobility concept can even be seen in the indian society. Social change happens
 due to various factors like technological factors, law, education, social awareness,
industrialization, urbanization. Social mobility: vertical and horizontal. Vertical
mobility means when status is getting change. But status is not getting changed in
indian society but social position can be changed. Vertical mobility is in the context
of class in the indian society. Horizontal social mobility means one is changing the
social position e.g. transfer of occupations. These processes bring the social changes
in the society.
 Universalisation and localization: Mckim Marriott: concept of little tradition and great
tradition. Village communities are also little tradition and urban are known as great.
Connection takes becomes these communities and many traits are exchanged between
these communities. This connection has been analysed in the context of religion and
this connection brings the changes. Cultural characteristic of the little tradition
transfer to urban society and vice versa. He has done his survey in Kishan gari of UP.
Universalization process means when localize culture elements transfers to the
broader cultural elements. There was a celebration of festival in which they used to
worship saruti and this slowly and gradually transferred to the urban culture and it
changed to the worship of Lakshmi. The opposite is that when universal elements
becomes localised. E.g. navratri, which is an universal festival which got transferred
into a localized festival lourtha. E.g. govardhan puja, it transferred from little tradition
to universal celebration. More examples could be of harvesting festivals. Little
tradition are those which have single cultural traits. As a matter of social fact a
religious festival exists, which brings solidarity and harmony in the society. Social
change can even be seen in adopting the food habit of other cultures. After few years,
adopting the personal cultural also starts and this starts the process of social changes.
Adoption and assimilation happens through such festivals.
 Westernization: how the westernization process made an impact on the society? It
first targeted the small sections of the society and then it became a universalized
concept. Such first groups were the small traders and business persons who were
having transactions with the britishers. to do business, one needs to know the culture
because it is necessity of the day to learn others’ culture: this is known as primary
westernization of sub-culture type.
o Primary westernization: impact of the westernization is on a small group
 Sub culture: one can witness the impact categorically on a particular
group which is small. E.g.
 commercial middle class like clerks and middleperson for the
purposes of trade and business and they need to be in contact
with the britishers;
 professional groups as they all were the consequences of the
changed education system and through such system lot of
English values and cultures also got adopted by such group,
apart from the language;
 Literary tradition: reading the literature of English people.
group which is more influenced by the English literature;
 social reformer: they were highly influenced by westernization.
They got training from the western culture. Concepts like
equality and human rights are brought from western culture
only.
 Diffusive: the impact is diffused. Westernization started making a road
in the Indian society which was widely accepted in the daily life and
the cultural life and customs of the society at large. E.g. food habit,
 dining pattern, dress habit, ideology. Generalization which lead to
influence on the common people.
o Secondary westernization: which happend at a level of great tradition. E.g.
universal and uniform legal system. Prior to british arrival, it was caste based.
E.g. Expansion of education, urbanization, industrialization. British brought
some concepts and which was further adopted by the society.
Daniel Learner has also criticised the concept of westernization as provided by M N Srinivas:
 Two are similar to yogendra singh
 Westernization and sensitization which is coined is to show only cultural change in
india and not the structural change in india. There is not a complete change in the life
style of the scoeity. Lower claases have adopted higher class habits so as to look
upper.
 When westernization is coined by m n srinivas, he coined another term
‘modernization’ and stated that westernization is not a correct term. Yogendra singh
has accepted this term to show the influence of the western people. now, m n srinivas
has preferred westernization because modernization is a value loaded term as by
labelling something as modernization which means that whatever they are doing is
correct and good. Yogendra singh has also criticized m n srinivas saying that
westernization concept is also value loaded term as he is accepting western values like
human rights, secularism, equality
 Modernization: initially it was used for economy only and used to show change from
agricultural economy to industrial economy. We were only focussing on the
technological advancement. This term was introduced by Daniel Learner for the
Middle Eastern countries. Modernization is an old process of social change whereby
less developed countries acquired the characteristics common the developed
countries. One is acquiring the characteristics of the developed society and such
development is mainly in the field of science and technology. Slowly, it has included
many aspects of the society like religion.
 Factors showing modernization: From agricultural to industrial economy; from
religious conservatism to secularism (read three modals of secularism); from ascribed
status to achieved status; increase in the technical education; work force in the
secondary and the tertiary sector; more public participation in the politics; increase in
the material standard of life.
 Westernization and sensitization is talking about cultural changes and not structural
changes. One of the major factor responsible for structural changes is industrialization
and urbanization. E.g. joint family to nuclear families.
 Sensitization system talks about the caste system but by copying the culture of the
upper class, it is not changing the ascribed status. But if by certain imitation, one is
changing the social structures or the status, then the structural changes happen.
 In modernization, structural changes are happening in the context of class but not in
the context of caste system. E.g. moving from ascribed to achieved system.
 From agriculture to industrial economy. Both of these economies are different
structurally. Self sufficiency is a factor in the agricultural economy in primitive
society, whereas the industrial economy is based upon market economy. There are
structural changes e.g. impact on family system, collapsing of the jajmani system (the
economic system of caste has changed, it has changed the relationship between the
upper castes and the lower castes people).
 From workforce in secondary and tertiary sector rather than primary sector: more
professional people are emerging in the former sectors. The middle class people are
becoming more and more powerful which is a structural change.
 5 stage society: Sub groups between upper and middle class and middle and lower
group: upper middle class belongs to the professionals. Whatever is the luxury for the
middle class becomes the necessity for the upper middle class. E.g. air conditioners.
This new group has made changes in the indian society as we have moved to the
market economy and therefore the tertiary group is also rising.
 7 stage society: upper upper, upper, lower lower, lower, upper middle, middle, lower
middle
 Increase in the material standards: It has more to do with the cultural changes. There
is a rise in the level of material standards, it shows cultural changes. Some of the
parameters to judge material standards shows structural changes e.g. when the
necessities are luxuries for the lower class.
 Modernization has to be do more with the structural changes in the indian society.
 Condition of the lower section of the society has changed; material aspect of the life
has come into focus rather than spiritual aspect; changes the cultural aspects can be
seen, religious intolerance has increased, changes in legal system: universalization,
modernization, westernization, sensitization.
 Advocating live in relationships, secularism, inter-caste marriages: impact of western
countries
 Giving property right has structurally changed the society as the relationship is
changing, however it is even leading to disintegration of families.
INDIAN SOCIETY
 Urban
 Rural
 Tribal
WHAT IS SOCIETY?
SOCIETY MEANS THE group of people and location in a particular geographical area is not
required. It is an abstract concept. It talks about the relationship between individuals of a
particular group. It is web of social relationships. There may similarities and differences
between people and every society have mechanism of social control, socialization and
cultural identity. Community may become a society.
In the very initial phase societal development of the Indian society was a time where there
was hunter-gatherer society. The basic activity was to hunt and collect in group whatever is
required for the survival. There was no proper language and communication system. Only
sign language was developed. From economic point of view, it was a self sufficient. They
formed the group and started living together. They were collecting food and were not
concerned with the preservation of food for future. This was transformed into the agricultural
society, e.g. Indus valley civilization. All the civilizations developed near the river bank as it
provided water for agriculture. Source of livelihood became agriculture. These societies were
developed around 20000 BC. Domestication of the animals was another characteristic of this
society. These communities were known as the rural societies or the village societies. These
communities transformed into industrialization and urban societies was the consequence of
the urban society. It took place nearly around 16th-17th century. These societies were urban
having more trading relationship, technologically advanced and more demographically
expanded.
THE DIFFERENCES WHICH EXISTS BETWEEN URBAN AND RURAL SOCIETIES?
Basis Urban Rural
Environment

Village system in the Indian history: since the vedic period, such differences can be found.
The very early phase of development of the human society was in form of village system.
During Ramayana, Mahabharata, mauryan, gupta, Mughal period: a reference of the
existence of village system operating in broader scenario was operating. From economic and
administrative point of view, they were self sufficient. They were called small republic as
centralization was not working in the initial India. There was less dependence on other states
and villages. the culture was homogenous as the connection and talks with other villages was
not consistent. Each village was having gram panchayat and caste panchayat. They used to do
all kinds of administrative work from collection of taxes to dealing with criminal and civil
disputes. the village headman was having prestigious image in the village. As the britishers
came, many changes happened. All the administration became centralized and it induced to
declining the powers of the panhcayats. No financial help was given to them to operate the
panchayats. Further, through the introduction of the civil and criminal court system into a
formal court.
Decline of villages:
  Destruction of the zamindari system, zamindars lead to lessening the role of the
panchayats
 Administrative and financial and legal work by the britishers reduced the influence,
role and power of the panchayat.
 Britishers concentrated more on the urban people rather than the villagers.
 So, the villages become less important than the cities.
 No financial help
 Universal legal system
 Court system: earlier caste courts were there.

Village studies: for administrative purposes, executive purposes. The purpose of village
studies would be to collect the quantitative data and enumeration of the population when the
research is done by the administration. When economists undertake this, they try to collect
data and analyse it. When it comes to sociologists, they not only collect the data but even
analyse as to what are the social problems and the social structures prevailing in the society.
They try to find the social things hidden beneath the data. A sociologist research on a
situation on a holistic perspective. They even try to offer solutions to the problems. That is
why, policy makers try to take into account the research of the sociologists as their research is
social reality based.

Studies conducted by the sociologists:

S C Dubey,, Indian Village (shamirper, 1955): the integration in the indian society despite the
presence of varied caste ssytems and differneces.
M N srinivas India’s villages, 1955in Rampura village near mysore: sensitization, dominant
caste
Makim Marriot: village india, 1955: complicated social networks in the india villages.
universalization
D N majumdar: Rural Profiles: he has re-examined the basic concepts made by N M Srivasan
F G Bailey; Caste and economic frontier, 1957, Orissa: the fusion of class and caste systems
in the society.
A R Desai: rural sociology in india, 969: land reforns, farmers unrest protests ect. and it
touches various issues:
A R Desai: peasant struggle in india (orissa)
G S Ghury`e: after a century and a quarter, 1960:
Louis, village life in northern india, 1958.

How the study help?

 It provide us the ground social realities which can be used to reconstruct the society
from the social point of view.
 It helps in policy making, reconstruction and planning: such data is passed to the
government and administration. Administration does not act as social worker but they
 are only concerned only with collecting the numerical data with regard to the
problems and not in solution of the problem. When sociologists conduct the research,
they intend to know the reasons underlined such problems and finding the solutions.
 Give useful information to other departments and other disciplines. E.g. concept of
dominant caste given by M N Srinivas used by political parties to emphasis on the
vote banks. He conducted his study in Rampura village. Such caste can be any caste
and not only Brahmins. One of the major aspect of such caste is numerical advantage.
It helps us in understanding the dynamics of vote bank. Durkheim’s theory of suicide,
which is used to justify the decriminalization of section 309. There are certain social
facts which exert pressure on the individual, out of which an individual is ready to
sacrifice or it may even break that individual and out of which he may commit suicide
in isolation. Such individual can not alone be held responsible for the act of suicide.
The person who commits suicides is under various compulsion and punishments over
it would not be justified.
Drawbacks or limitations of village studies;
 Conducted in one village and it cannot be the representative of the entire country.
Factors may not be universal. So, generalization may be fatal as well.
 Most of them are influenced by foreign concepts. Sociology has developed more
in the western countries. So most of the time, Indian sociologies look the research
on the foreign researches and try to adopt the policies and changes that they had
suggested. But as the culture is different in India, it may not be appropriate to
apply such concepts.
Definition of village:
 5000 people depending on the agriculture and the allied occupation permanently
residing in a geographical area and participating in common socio-economic and
cultural practices. More or less, this population is homogenous is nature in
comparison to city.
Basic characteristics of the traditional villages:
 Small size: 5000 people is the limit
 More intimate relationship: more emphasis on the primary relationships (the
relationships which are based on kinship system [blood and marriage relations])
 Social homogeneity
 Informal social control: governed by the social practices more than. The community
presides over the formal means of control. E.g. khap panchayat
 Joint family system: functionally joint family system. Common property and common
worship is still common. Since economy of the Indian villages is based on agriculture
and it lead to the emergence of the joint family hands as more human were required to
do more agriculture. Additionally, if family have common business, they are majorly
compelled to live together.
 Less division of labor and specialization: most of the work is done by one individual
 More faith in religion: they do not look into the logic behind the religion, it influences
the behaviour of the individuals.
 Caste system: caste loyalty exists everywhere. Some of the hierarchy and rigidity in
the caste system is still prevalent in the villages. Caste based occupation is another
factor.
Social stratification in villages: Daniel Thorner gave us various principles to classify the
stratification pattern.
The principles are:
 Income obtained from the land: who is controlling that income;
 Nature of rights: possessing the land as daily worker or possessing it through
collection of rents;
 Extent of field work: who is doing the actual field work.
Caste system stratification was parallel with class system. Higher the caste, higher the class:
traditional stratification. Higher caste people had more land and control over the economic
resources. When zamindari system introduced and britishers came, this pattern changed. This
was further changed after the independence and land reforms. Now, higher caste people can
be in low class. During the british time, zamindari, ryotwar and mahalwari system was
introduced which changed this stratification system. Certain people had ownership of the
land, another group did work over the land but had no right over the land.
Three categories based on three principles:
 Maliks: having the control over the land. Right belongs to these people. They possess
the majority of the land in the village. They never used to do work on the land. They
can have two kinds:
o Absentee landlords: not used to live in the village, but had control over the
land. Majority of the land was possessed by them and therefore no
development took place on lands.
o Rich residents: those who used to live in the village
 Kisans: they used to have small share of the profits as most of the money used to go to
the landlords owing to rents, loans and other expenses. They were having right only
on the small pieces of land. They used to do the work on the field. They even used to
employ majdurs sometimes. it may be of two types:
o Some having small pieces of land: control of such land. Majority of the kisans
belongs to this group. For cultivation purpose, they used to take another
adjusting land from maliks.
o Not having any land but used to take land on rent from maliks.
 Majdurs: daily wage workers. They are not getting any income from the land. They
just get minimum daily wages from their employers. The money was very less
compared to the labor provided. Complete labor work. No rights over the land.
Types of villages:
 Widely accepted based on the principle on human settlement.
o Cluster: where the people used to live in one area. And their fields are bit far
from their homes.
o Dispersed: in Kerela and some portions of Punjab, one farm one family
resides. After some distances, along with next farm, other family resides. They
used to have temples in the farm only. Each farm is the modal of self-
sufficiency.
 A R Desai: It is based on agriculture and human settlement
o Migratory agriculture: they used to live in one particular place for some period
and then migrate. They used to live for very few days or months owing to
different seasons. They are especially found in tribal community.
 o Semi-permanent agriculture: from time period point of view, this is generally
more. They live for around 4-5 years in one land. Slash and burn cultivation is
an example of this.
o Permanent agriculture: those who permanently resides in one particular place.
 J B Chitambar:
o Isolated farms: same as dispersed village (farms with families)
o Line village: European countries, Canada, sri lanka
o Round village: Israel: market in the centre (not necessary), houses on the
circumference
o Cross roads, market centric settlements: definitely there has to be market it the
centre.
o Hamlets: bunch of houses in a place
o Village: same as cluster village
o Others: development of villages around a temple or religious centre. E.g.
pushkar and Fatehpur Sikri
Problems of Indian villages;
 Agricultural: people depend on traditional approaches rather than technological
resources. They do not have money to get latest technology. They remain ignorant of
the government policies. They are unable to get loans.
o Traditional and unscientific method of cultivation
o More dependence of nature due to lack of irrigation facilities
o Sub-division and land fragmentation due to rising awareness of the property
rights and changing patterns of the family (from joint to nuclear). Due to
increase in individualism.
 Economic:
o Bonded labor: lower caste people serve the rich landlords
o
o Landless labourers: they even take the loan from rich landlords and they are
not able to come out of vicious cycle of interests
o Burden of loans
o Defective marketing system: no proper store houses due to which they need to
sell the produce, therefore they even sell it at low costs, whoever purchases
such produce monopolise the profits.
o
 Social:
o Traditionalism
o Illiteracy
o Castism
o Low status of women: whatever is asked to them in name of tradition, they
accept it without questioning it.
o Difference between socialization of the women in urban and village societies
o Pardah and ghungat system
o Patriarchal system: they have no decision making on part of the women.
Government policies like panchayati raj system are helping the women to
come in front.
o Health and sanitization problems: due to lack of awareness. They believe in
superstitions and do not trust the scientific medicines. They even ignore
diseases and do not get it cured.
o Lack of medical facilities
 o Lack of civic facilities: many policies like darwaja bandh and swachh bharat
mission (gramin) system is introduced.
o Conservatism
o Influence and dominance of the religion
URBAM COMMUNITY:
Urban: city. In 1961 census, first definition. According of the 2001 census, City is constituted
by:
 Minimum 5000 people
 75% of the male worker is engaged in the non-agricultural occupations
 Density of the population is atleast 400 person per km.
 Municipal corporations has to be there
 Commissioner level administrative person
In Japan, 30000 population constitute city
USA=35000
Netherlands= 25000
Four categories of cities (based on population):
 Class IV: small towns (5000-20000)
 Class III: large town (20K-50K)
 Big Cities (50K-100K)
 More big cities (100K – 10 Lakhs)
 Class I: Metropolitan city (above 10 lakhs)
 Mega cities: Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai
Urbanisation: a process of migration of the villagers towards the city. People move because:
 Push factor: lack of occupational resources; lack of opportunities
 Pull factor: attraction from the cities’ life. Materialism.
Urbanism: the way of life. it is the indicator to understand the concept of urban. Cultural
traits of urban city. Subjective criterion. Urbanism:
 More formal control
 More influence modernization
 More importance on secondary relationship
 More individualism
 More influence of western culture
 Social heterogeneity
 Division of labor and specialization
 Social mobility
 Modern culture
Urban rural continuum: where the city begins and where the village ends, it is very difficult
to find the line of demarcation: MacIver. The city boundaries are difficult to found as they
have extended to such a manner that it includes village areas also. When the boundaries are
extending, the transfer of the cultural happens. The interdependence between rural and urban
societies increases, this is termed as continuum. Village people are attracted by the urban life
and the urban people are dependent upon the village goods. It affects the family system,
cultural system, way of life etc. the communication and the transportation facilities has
developed that has increased the interaction and interdependence.
Conflict between rural and urban society:
 Importance of the primary and secondary relationship
 Importance on the ascribed culture v. achieved status
 Contrasting environmental sub-culture
o More nature proximity is there and they are more close to the environment.
 Cultural differences
 Family system differences
 Sub culture of the village is different between sub-culture of the city
 Difference in the ideologies and ideas
 Females are inferior v. females are equal
 The approach of village people towards urban people is conflicting
 URBAN BIAS: though government has introduced lot of schemes which are for the
benefit of the villagers but still they have mindset that most of the schemes are
beneficial for the urban people and not the rural people. this is so because they are not
able to get the fruits of the schemes. Even the sociologists were very biased towards
village as most of the researches were done in the urban cities.
 Modernization also makes the demarcation in these two societies.
Problems in the Urban cities:
 Housing
 Traffic
 Pollution
 Water
 Drug abuse
 Slums (they have their own culture, health issues)
 Safety of women
Social problems:
 Increased crime rate
 Drug abuse
 Individualism and self centric nature (it may even lead to depression and to mental
illness)
Tribal:
For anthropologist (working in human culture aspect): a special group requiring more
attention in research work.
Administrator: more emphasis in formation of policies, declaring a community as tribal
community,
Sociologist: Majumdar: a collection of family wearing a common name [clan and kinship]
occupying the same territory, speak the same language, observe certain taboos regarding
occupation, marriage and have developed a well assessed system of reciprocity of obligation.
Simon commission for the first time gave the legal connotation for this term.
Policies of the britishers was not for development of the tribal and they wanted to keep them
in isolation.
Majority of the tribal people are not assimilated in the community [more than 80% have
adopted Hinduism and others have adopted Christian].
Sir Bain: the hill tribe
Hutton: primitive tribes: from cultural and origin popint of view, these are the person who are
primitive
G S ghurye: backward hindu
ILO: indigenous people
Gandhi: girijan [who live in the mountains]
Article 366(25): gives the authority to the president that he may name any community as ST.
public notification can be given under article 342(1).

Characteristics of the definition:

 Common territory: nagas from Nagaland; garo, khasi from assam; tribals belong to a
particular territory. Limitation of the definition: Bheel, Santhal, they are present in
entire central India and are not restricted to a particular area.
 Common name: it comes from the ancestry.
 Common language: a particular tribe was speaking a particular language. Even today,
such language may be one of the dominant language. But now due to assimilation
processes, people have started adopting different languages.
 Common religion: religion in the very primitive age, it developed as animism
(worship animals), toteism (considering an object as the object of worship, e.g. sickle,
tree, stone), or naturalism (sun, moon). The later development is Hinduism, muslim
religion etc. tribal people have more influence of the primitive religions but due to
assimilation, they are also influenced by the modern religions.
 Common political organization: tribal councils. These work as a political
organization.
 Common social practice: certain taboos and common practices in the field of
marriage, occupation. e.g. tribal craft. Certain forms of marriage is unique to them
like polygamy, polyandry, asur marriages (giving bride price), gandhav marriages,
Bheel (love marriages)
 Formal economic organization: many of these people are involved in the agricultural
activities. But now, due to assimilation, stratification is emerging in tribal society
also. Otherwise, they were homogenous.
 Organisation of clan: clan is the collection of families. It may be patrilennial or
matrilennial.
 Self sufficiency and endogamous group: they were self-sufficient. They were not
dependent on the outside world. Post-assimilation, they are dependent on other people
for transportations and other technological resources. One cannot marry within the
clan, so clan is exogamous group. Group of clans makes tribe and one needs to marry
in the tribe only. Clan is synonyms to gotra system of hindu system. Caste and clan
are also having same characteristics. Caste is more of social concept whereas tribal
people are more of a territorial feature.
  Concept of dormitories: Common living. Individual is considered as important in the
tribal society. When a child becomes of about 8-10 years, they send the child to
dormitory and there boys and girls live together and learn all things there.
Socialization takes place in a group. So tribal people learn the culture of the group and
not the culture of the particular family. Social agents take care of them and make them
learn about everything that is common to the tribe. Role of the family is minimal in
finding partners as well, individuals have the freedom to do so. One sociologist has
even suggested this system for the civilized societies. Group socialization is very
important and it would lead to less conflicts in the society.
 Unique culture: although tribals has a unique culture, and followed customs and
practices unique to them, as a result of cultural assimilation, there have been some
changes. At present, they have adopted the cultural practices of the great tradition and
vice versa.
Limitations of the definition:
 Geographical boundaries: not all tribes now live in the same territory
 Cultural, lingual boundaries: Now a day due to assimilation, cultural practices of
little tradition are governed by the great tradition and vice versa.
 Homogeneity: it is vanishing due to stratification.
Zones of Tribal Population [from characteristics and problems point of view]:
 Northern:
o Himachal Pradesh
o 7 sisters
o Northern part of U.P.
o People who are living here are Mongolians and speaking the tibto-chinese
language.
o Main tibes: garo, khasi and naga
o 10-15% of the tribal population
o The problem is political issues
 Central:
o Between narmada and godawari including Gujarat, southern Rajasthan, West
Bengal, Maharashtra, Bihar, Southern part of UP
o Majority of tribes: bheel, gond, Bhumij, jung,
o Approx. 80% of population live here
o Already adopted hindu religion and has assimilated
o The problem is of cultural assimilation.
 Southern
o South of Krishna river
o Andhra, kerela, Karnataka
o Toda, koya, urali
o 6-8% of the tribal population live here
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
o 7-8% of the tribal population. Some include it into the southern zone and some
treat them as fourth category due to certain cultural differences.
o Jarawa, andamanese, nicobarese
o They still believe in nature, they live naked, very hostile in nature, they live in
primitive culture, only 32-35 andamanese are left.
Interaction between tribal society and rural society:
  Tribal rural continuum
 Administrative officers and Christian missionaries were the first ones to come in
contact with tribal moneylenders.
Place to connect tribal and civilized people:
 British period: They sent Christian missionaries to these areas to spread their value.
Various administrators were sent over there. They even took their value in those areas
and the tribal started adopting such values.
 Post indepdendence era: administrators bring different cultural values to the tribal
people
 Businessmen and traders went there to extract the natural mineral resources found in
those areas.
 The traders and small merchants who go to these areas.
 Transportation, urbanization, communication facilities, spread of education: earlier
there were no means to go these areas, but now we are able to go these remote areas
and therefore outside world is coming in contact with them.
 Access to these areas by travellers.
 Sometimes, these people themselves come out in search of new job opportunities, its
not possible to depend on the natural resources entirely. When they go back, they take
different cultural expositions back to the tribal areas.
Relationship of tribal people with the Hindus:
 In some cases assimilation took place and in some cases integration took place
 All those who have simply accepted the hindu social order [acceptance of the caste
system, it was not popular in the caste system before assimilation] e.g. bhil and
bhumij
 Positively oriented the hindu religion but have not accepted caste system. e.g. santhal,
munda, gond
 Negatively oriented towards the hindu religion, or more influenced by Christian: most
of the tribes of the north east areas.
 Indifferent to social order: living in their own space. E.g. some of the tribes of
Arunachal Pradesh and tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Not yet integrated or
assimilated.
Problems which emerged between tribal people
1. Problem of administration- During British period they had sent administrators and the
Indian government also decided to send administrators but they were not effective
because they were not aware about the local language, social values and culture. Even
if they know Hindi they speak local language due to which administration becomes
difficult. Thus the government policies failed miserably due to the lack of mediators.
2. Some of the practices which was followed by these people were banned by the govt.
post- independence eg. Slash and Burn in agriculture to protect environment and
forests as it leads to harmful effects on forests and deforestation as well due to which
they had to come out of their areas and they had to work as labourers and lot of
exploitation happened with them. They suffered economical problems. There are
other practices of marriage also eg. Marriage by capture- If you like a girl then
capture her and marry her even without her consent. This was banned by government.
So this changed their cultural practices such as the way of solemnising marriage. This
was banned because most of the tribes because marriage by capture is not a
 recongnized form of marriage in Hindu religion or any other religions and if the
tribals convert themselves into such religions, they have to abide by the respective
laws.
3. Education related problems- Schools were opened in these areas but this was not
sufficient because they did not know the language and the teachers were not willing to
teach. Also the curriculum was not such that they wanted to study. Missionaries also
opened but even that was not sufficient so the reforms did not show much effects.
Language issues were also there.
4. Health problems- There was lot of exploitation of Female due to which many
reproductive health problems were suffered by female. Moreover, first they were very
much nature close and healthy but when they came in contact with us than they
suffered health problems as technology, urbanisation had attracted them and they
suffered from BP, Sugar etc. earlier they used to cure the diseases naturally.
Approach of the government:
 Isolation: when british started taking interest into administration process, one of the
major issue for them was the tribal communities and their culture. While
administering policies, they faced many problems. Their policies and laws might be
against the culture of the tribal people. so, they adopted the policy of isolation which
meant no interference in their life and keeping them isolated. They could not impose
national laws on them. Many anthropologists claimed that doing this tribal were kept
away from the fruits of development and technology.
 Assimilation: way to resolve the conflict. One party slowly losses its identity and get
involved into the other identities. sociologists and anthropologists like G S Ghurye
provided that efforts for assimilation need to be done in those areas. They wanted to
assimilate them into the front classes like Hinduism or Christianism. In the case of
Bheel and Bhumij, they have now adopted hindu ethos and hindu religion including
caste system. These sociologists provide that other tribal people should even adopt
such frontline and mainstream religions.
 Integration: let them bring to a place where we people are residing and let them in
separate areas and slowing they would integrate in the society. They will preserve
their identities along with integrating with the society.
A mixed policy is adopted now a days. E.g. in reserved areas, policy of isolation is adopted.
Government is not imposing any policy in furtherance of assimilation principle. Banning
captured marriages, slash and burn practices shows that they do not respect tribal culture.
This is an act of assimilating in the guise of integration.

TRIBAL MOVEMENT:
Each zone signifies different problems and issues. In north east, problem is political in nature
and is relating to freedom and liberties and autonomy. In central India, the issue is more
related to socio-culture aspects and religions. Issue is more regarding cultural assimilation.
Tribal revolts:
 Religious or social reforms: mostly in central India. Here majority of the tribes came
into the contract of Hindu religions and either they assimilated or were positively
oriented. Reforms movements due to assimilations and accommodations.
  Where the movement is for statehood or autonomy within India: demand of separate
states.
 Independence from India:
 Ascertaining the cultural rights: common in all zones. Cultural rights movements.
Movements for preservation of their cultural uniqueness and identities.
Causes of various tribal revolts:
 Administration or government failure: lot of different policies were adopted for
upliftment of these people. However, there were lot of lacunas in the implementation
of these policies. E.g. TRYSEM [Tribal Rural Youth skilled employment
Programme]: policy for skill development and vocational development of tribal
people. However, it was poorly implemented. It even had provision for providing
loans to youths, but they were not able to get real fruits of the policies. Lethargy of
the government, administration issues, corruption in implementation, people are not
able to get fruits of the policies due to lack of knowledge. It creates unrest in the tribal
society.
 Forest policy of the government: slash and burn method of cultivation was banned. A
certain areas were considered reserved areas. They were under the control of forest
department for reserving or preserving them. Here, tribal people used to live. In name
of conservation and preservation, tribal were asked to move out from their native
lands. This caused unrest in tribal group.
 Transfer of lands to non-tribal people: liquor merchants are powerful in tribal society.
As a matter of fact, they asked the tribal people to vacate their lands and transfer them
to the merchants.
 Political indifference: political party may be interested in these societies during
election time as many seats are reserved for tribal people in the legislative assemblies.
Once the seats are secured, the political parties shows indifference attitude towards
tribal people.
 Forceful cultural imposition: this was even the problem in north east. domination of
one cultural group over other in a particular area. Due to this, forceful religious
conversion takes place due to which one has to forcefully change their cultural
practices. It creates a lot of hostile problems in the affected groups.
Legal provision to safeguard the rights of ST:
 Article 15
 Article 16
 320(9)
 335
 330, 332, 334
 19(5)
 275
 338
 275(1)
 164
 46
 224
 342
Changes in the tribal society:
  Social stratification has entered: it came into the contract with hindu community and
adopted the caste system. Started dividing the society into caste and class system. It
vanished their homogeneity. The layering of the individual determining on the basis
of castes and castes is happening [munda, chowdhari of gujarat].
 Migration and the adoption of different occupations: due to ban on slash and burn,
due to urbanization, they started searching new occupations, now they are not merely
dependent on agriculture. Migration of people leading to adoption of new
occupations.
 Rajini kothoari: political awareness: they know the importance of vote banks, know
about rights and reservations, making political organizations, social activism.
Land Administration System:
Till mughul period, village system were very important. It declined due to universal legal
system and less finances. Earlier, the land belonged to the individuals, but after british period,
land was acquired by them and they introduced various system.
Zamindari System: they were intermediaries. They were even divided into small zamindars.
Zamindars used to collect taxes from the farmers. The major objective was to have control of
britishers over the land and agriculture and to increase the revenue. Lord Cornwallis
introduced this system and was having lot of drawbacks (absentee landlords, zamindars did
not live in the villages and they took no interest in the development of the land. There was lot
of exploitation of the farmers and the daily wagers. The taxes was very high, they used to be
1/3 or 1/6 of the system. Initially, taxes were collected in kind, but then it changed to money).
Objective was not to revive the agriculture system. This was done under permanent
settlement. Under this settlement, some portion of the product would be collected as tax from
a particular land (Bengal, Bihar). In temporary settlement, for a certain period of like 15 or 20
years, taxes are fixed. In real sense it is not temporary but as it is not tax forever, therefore it
is not temporary. The tax was not on the profit but it was fixed. Due to this, to look into the
issues of this system, another system was introduced.
Mahalwari system: a group of villagers were responsible to pay the taxes and was introduced
by William Bentinck in Agra and Awadh and later on in Punjab. The ownership of land was
with the entire group.
Ryot Wari system: individuals were supposed to pay taxes directly to the government. They
had the ownership and autonomy over the land. It was introduced by Munro. It was majorly
introduced in southern india.

Land Reforms: initiatives which are taken by the government in the context of land holding
and the improvement in the agriculture. Bhoodan andolan by vinobha bhave was a movement
in furtherance of this objective. Certain social changes are intended to be brought in the
agricultural structure. To abolish the intermediaries. To bring about institutional change in the
agrarian sector. To prevent the exploitation of the tenants. To ensure the inclusion of
scientific methods in the agriculture.
 Abolishment of the intermediaries: because they were exploiting the kisans and
getting undue advantage. They had indirect ownership and therefore they were the
maliks of the majority of the land. It started in Madras. They were given
compensation against it.
 Tenancy reforms:
 o Permanent tenants: they used to pay the rent to zamindars and cultivated the
land for a very long period. The production is higher in this group. Indirectly
the ownership was with them, though direct ownership was with the
zamindars. They got the ownership at independence.
o Sub-tenants: they were not in position to return the rent. They facing lot of
problems as they were not able to pay back the rent. They were very poor and
had very less agriculture.
o Tenant at will: at will the people are taking the land and then returning it
voluntarily.
o The problems which these people were facing is that
 No regulation of rent rates and it was decided on the basis of
production and even on the social status of that particular person.
 The ownership was the issue.
 Security of work was not there
 Under tenancy reforms, ownership was given to the permanent tenants.
 Ceiling on the land holdings: a central land reforms commission was appointed in
1971 and then as per the 1972 legislation, a ceiling was fixed.
o For irrigated land: 10 to 18 acres
o Partly irrigated: 27 acres
o Dry land: 54 acres
 Consolidation of the land holding: to avoid the problem in agriculture due to sub-
division.
 Introduction of the co-operative farming: voluntary people come forward to have co-
operative farming. The ownership does not changes but it virtually consolidates the
land.
 Compilation of land records: we did not have updated data available. So that the land
reforms can be checked and made effective.

Why it was not a success in India:

 Lack of strong political will: the government generally advocates the rich landlords
which lead to disputes in the implementation of the land reforms. Even the central
government could not do much due to it being part of state list.
 Transfer of the land to the family members: rich landlords tried to find out loopholes
and they transferred the lands to the family members. Now, as the daughter do not
constitute family, therefore, they retained the property in actuality but it belonged to
their daughter on papers. They even transferred lands to the workers.
 Legal hurdles: the court system was supposed not to be involved in the land reforms.
Even for minute cases, it took very long for the resolution of the disputes. Such
disputes were mostly settled in the favour of the landlords. Even the farmers were not
legally claiming the lands being illiterate and ignorant of the transfer of land.
 Absence of updated land records: many schemes are introduced against caste or class
division. So, when rich landlords transfer it to lower caste people, they start availing
undue benefits. Even for scientific agricultural planning, the state needs updated land
records.
 Helplessness of the central government: they do not have any control over the land
reforms. Whatever the direction they give, they were not properly appreciated by the
state government. Due to which, central government interferes least so as to diminish
the friction between them and state.
  Problem of the voluntary surrender: in actuality, such surrender was happening
forcefully.
 Limits on the land that was for personal cultivation: a person can keep more land for
personal cultivation, apart from legal ceiling. In the name of personal cultivation,
farmers started availing more land and selling the produce of the land of personal
cultivation.
 Inefficient administration machinery: the actual benefits never reaches the common
people.
MARRIAGE AND FAMILY
Objective of hindu marriage:
 Union for forever
 It is not a contract unlike muslim marriage
They focus more on the dharma aspect, it is considered as a social duty, we give hierarchical
order to the objective: (ancient)
1. Dharma [performance of the social duty]
2. Praja [procreation]
3. Rati [sexual satisfaction, legitimising and giving social recognition to the relationship]
Two types of marriages:
 Anulom [where a boy of upper caste marry a girl of lower caste, marriage of Brahmin
to shatriya or vaishya; shudras are not included, this is accepted form of marriage
because after the marriage the gotra of woman changes and therefore it does not make
any difference]
 Pratilom [boy of lower caste marry to girl of higher caste, it leads to degradation of
the generation, if the girl marries shudras, the child would be referred to as
untouchables or chandals].
Eight form of the marriages [first four are approved, last four are not]:
 Prashasta [marriages which are desirable]
o Brahma: form of marriages which are mostly accepted now days. Clean and
desirable group, father searches for the match. Marriage solemnizes in the
form which is generally present today. Father gives the girl to the person who
is desirable and character wise he is acceptable. No concept of dowry.
o Dev: girl is given as a gift to a person who belongs to persons who performs
yagya for the family of girl or may be Brahmins. Later on, it was rejected
during post vedic period, because girl was being treated as an object.
However, it was acceptable because girl was getting married with a boy of
higher caste.
o Arsh: the father of the girl is receiving a pair of cow or bull. father of the girl
is receiving pari of cow from bridegroom. But this not bride price. This is just
a form of gift.
o Prajapatya: This was prevalent as man requires his wife during all the yagyas.
This used to happen between Brahmins and other varnas. As the father of the
girl is making a sacrifice, he is being paid the gift. Bride is given as a gift and
it is given so that the boy can perform his social and religious duties and
perfrom yagyas. This Condition is laid down.
  Aprashasta [non-desirable form of marriage]
o Asur: purchasing of a girl. Paying bride price. Prevalent in the tribal society.
However, they are more prevalent in the current society. In areas such as
barmer, Jaisalmer: girls are sold for bride price and sold to areas where sex
ratio is not balanced. Boy pay bride price and bring woman from other states.
o Gandharv: there is no involvement of the family, choice of boy and the girl,
girl selects the boy, analogous to live in or love marriage [both boy and girl
have right to select partners], analogous to swamwar. This is unacceptable,
because there is no ritual and is not social acceptance.
o Rakshash: forceful capture of the women. Common in tribal society. No
consent of the girl.
o Pishacha: if girl is not in her consciousness, in that state, making a relationship
with that girl, as a consequence, marriage is happening.
Rituals those are important in Hindu marriages:
 Vagdana/Panigrahan/hathleva: oral promises,
 Kanyadana: recognized as must. It helps in attainment of moksha. Father is giving his
daughter. This is considered as 1 of the 16 sanskars.
 Mangalya Dharma: tying a mangalsutra.
 Saptapati: seven phere, marriage is not held as solemnized if it is not performed.
Changes that we perceive in marriage:
 Form of mariiage:
o We are not accepting or talking about desiring marriages as given in the
categories. Only 1st form of marriage is performed now days. Gandharv is
performed but not widely accepted.
 Objective:
o Search of companion
o Performance of social duty is not the main or prime object now days.
o Social acceptance of relationship
 Age:
 Process of the partner selection
o Earlier arranged marriages took place. Parents, family or community played
the major role
o The role of these people are only supporting now a days and is no dominating
o Prime decision is that of the people concerned
o The minimum age has increased
o Professional skills of girls is also given considerations
o Social recognition of the family was given more preference in earlier time.
 Duration of the marriage:
o Sacrament: earlier belief, it is to be there for the coming 7 lives.
o Rate of divorces is increasing now a days
o Stability of the marriages [married for 7 lives] has changed.
 More preference to live in relationship than marriage
Factors that lead to these changes:
 Industrialization: people belonging to different culture have started living in a single
place. This provides a place for communication between different cultured groups.
 Urbanization
 Modernization
 Broadening of the mental outlook
 Autonomy and individual freedom.
 Social approval to inter caste marriages
 Education
 Dowry is more emerging due to more collection of degrees.
 Legislations: britishers changed the perception. Hindu widow remarriage Act [it
caused social awareness in the society, earlier such marriages were prohibited or not
allowed]; civil and special marriages act [inter religious marriages were allowed; inter
caste were also allowed; hindus were considered as endogamous community but due
to this legislation, changes occured]; child marriage restraint act, 1929 and Prohibition
of child marriage act, 2006 [due to the technical lacunas this act was enacted]; dowry
prohibition act, 1961 [increased awareness, it was started so as to give moral,
psychological and financial security to the daughter]; shares of the married women in
the property [it would bring economic stability to the women; power control theory:
male wants to dominate female but due to woman’s working life style, the women
have started coming in par with the men, thus, now the men again start domestic
violence: so cruelty against working women is more than non-working women;
therefore, the solution would be having property registered in women’s name so that
though she would not have money in her hand, however, she would be economically
stable]; prevention of sati act, 1929