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Fig. 2 Body three: 3-1-2 cardan angle rotations of the right leg about the hip joint: (a) 45° about the
z-axis (flexion); (b) -30° about
the x-axis (abduction); (c) -45° about the y-axis (external rotation) and (d) the leg in the final position with cardan
angles
(45°, -30°, -45°)
Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing September 1987 529
The last rotation about the y-axis corresponds to internal- tional cosines, then these vectors become the columns of
external rotation at the right hip or shoulder (see Fig. 2c). the transformation matrix C in order from left to right of w,
For the example shown in Fig. 2, the cardan angles, a, f3, y, u and v (PAUL, 1981). Cis therefore given by
are 45°, -30° and -45°, respectively.
wl ul v1
C = w2 u2 v2 (3)
2.3 Transformation between space fixed and body fixed LW3 u3 v3
co-ordinates using cardan angles
The cardan angles are calculated by matching the matrix
It is often desirable to be able to express the orientation
elements of the segment's directional cosines given in eqn.
of a rigid body B either in terms of its body-fixed axes and
1 to those in eqn. 3 (KAI. et al., 1983). Element u3 is used
its cardan angles (a, /3, y) or in space-fixed co-ordinates of
the reference system A. The two systems are related by a to calculate the adduction angle f between -90° and 90°.
transformation matrix C consisting of the direction cosines 3/ = arc sin u3 (4)
between the bases vectors a1, a2, a3 and b1, b2, b3 The flexion angle a is calculated using element u1 to yield
such
an angle between and including - 90° and 90°. Element u2
that
is used to determine if the supplementary angle of a is
a = Cb (1) more appropriate.
where if the sine and cosine of an angle are denoted by s a = arc sin (- u1/cos /3) (5)
and c, respectively, then C is given by:
a=a ifu2>0
- sac$ sas f3cy + syca
I- saslsy + cyca
C = casf3sy + cysa cac/3 - cas/3cy + sysa =180-a ifu2<0
-cfsy sf3 cf3cy
Similar calculations determine the internal rotation angle y
Similarly, a rigid body B's body-three: 3-1-2 cardan angle by employing elements w3 and v3 .
velocities B1, 02, 63 can be transformed to angular velo-
cities 0)1, Qw2, (03 in reference system A by:
y = arc sin (- w3/cos /3) (6)
cos Y =Y ifv3>0
wl = -01 cos $ sin y + 02 y
=180-y ifv3<0
w2
= 01 sin f3+63 (2)
For those cases where 13 = ±90°, a is calculated using w2
(03=01cos cosy+02siny
and w1 and y is set to zero.
Time differentiation of eqn. 2 would yield the relationship a = arc sin w2 (7)
between the tangential angular acceleration components of a
body B in reference system A and the differentiated com- a=LX ifw1>0
ponents of a set of body-three: 3-1-2 cardan angles.
=180-a ifw1<0
the accuracy of three transformation elements u3 , ul and spatial location of its endpoint Q and directional vector
w3 . For rigid body segments on which many fixed markers endpoint R can be found using the above matrix C and
are evenly distributed, these errors may be minimal. eqn. 1. Let the proximal endpoint of the segment in the
However, in human motion research, body segments are standard vertical position be represented by the vector
not rigid and considerable movement of the markers may p = (0, 0, 0). By definition the endpoint of the segment Q
occur due to subcutaneous tissue movement or shifts of the can be represented by the vector q = (0.0, -0.4, 0.0) and
skin over the underlying skeletal structure. Furthermore, the endpoint of the directional vector R can be represented
movement patterns may obscure markers such that by the vector r = (0.0, 0.0, 0.4). Then the location of the
minimal numbers of markers are seen or that the distribu- points Q and R in reference system A, P' and Q', respec-
tion of known marker locations is bunched or localised. tively, can be found using eqn. 1.
Moreover, the longitudinal rotation of segments which
have a large length-to-diameter ratio may contain more q'=Cq
error due to the smaller inter-marker differences in the
0.2500 -0.6124 -0.7500 0.0
plane normal to the longitudinal axis. Finally, the trans-
formation matrix T calculated from R OGERS and ADAMS 0.7500 0.6124 -0.2500 -0.4
(1975) performs translation, rotation, scaling and shearing 0.6124 -0-5000 0.6124 0.0
on the segment.
0.245
Shearing would affect mainly the directional vector v
and the calculated vector w and therefore eventually the -0.245
longitudinal angle y. PIERRYNOWSKI (1982), noting that the 0.200
rigid body segments could not undergo shearing and per- and r' = Cr
spective, eliminated the shearing and perspective com-
ponents from the transformation matrix T using a 0.2500 -0.6124 -0.7500 0.0
nonlinear best-fit solution. Similar problems may also exist 0.7500 0.6124 -0-2500 0.0
with scaling when transforming a segment to its real space
0.6124 -0-5000 0.6124 -0-4
location.
-0.300
-0-100
2.7 Generating segment locations using a best-fit 0.245
solution
The approach adopted here solves a nonlinear system of Translation of the vectors q' and r' would yield the final
M equations in N unknowns, where M is greater than or co-ordinates of points Q' and R' at (2.255, 2.755, 4.200)
equal to N, using the International Mathematical and Sta- and (1.700, 2.900, 4.255), respectively.
tistical Library (IMSL) subroutine ZXSSQ, which finds the
minimum of the sum of squares of M functions in N vari-
ables using a finite-difference Levenberg-Marquardt algo- 3.3 Generating cardan angles directly from the
rithm (IMSL, 1985). The method minimises the x, y and z transformation matrix
residuals of the set of L marker locations which are trans- From the segment position data of the proximal and
formed from their vertical position to their spatial location distal endpoints and the directional vector in real space it is
(eqn. 1) from their experimentally measured 3D location. possible to calculate the cardan angles. Recalling that
Each marker contributes three equations, one for each co- the transformation matrix is composed of columns of
ordinate, to the set of M functions which are minimised by directional cosines (eqn. 4), we define two vectors
ZXSSQ. Four additional equations are used to improve
the solution by exploiting the orthogonal relationships u [-0-245] 0-300
between the columns of the transformation matrix C. Six
= 0.245 and v = -0-100
unknowns (N = 6) are solved: the x, y and z co-ordinates
of the segment's proximal endpoint and the three cardan -0-200 -0.245
angles a, /3 and y (see Appendix for the functions which are
and calculate the third vector w
minimised). This approach minimises the error in deter-
mining the cardan angles better than the exact solution v= 0040
method as the calculations are dependent upon not just
three transformation elements but also upon the location
w=u x -0.120
of the L markers on the segment. 0.098
biomechanics community that body-three: 3-1-2 cardan F.(l, j) _ Y_ ali Cij + tj bij (8)
i=1
angles and translations of the proximal endpoint of a
where m = 1, M - 4
segment should always be used to define the location of a
l = 1, L (L = number of markers)
rigid body in space from its vertical orientation. Hopefully, j = 1, 3 (xyz co-ordinates of point l)
this paper has shown that such a scheme has anatomical
justification. Of more importance is the need for each bio- The second part of the set of functions to be minimised are
mechanics researcher, when reporting 3D rigid body data, determined by calculating the three dot products of the columns
to explain their method of locating human body segments of the cardan angle transformation matrix C and the determinant
in space. of C, which should be zeros and one, respectively.
FM-3= (U V)=0
Acknowledgment-The authors wish to gratefully
acknowledge Professor F. P. J. Rimrott for providing helpful FM-2=(u w)=0
(9)
comments on these ideas. = (v ' w) = 0
Fns-I
FM=DET(C)=1
References
ALEXANDER, M. J. L. and COLBOURNE, J. (1980) A method of
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DAPENA, J. (1978) A method to determine the angular momentum Graduate Department of Community Health,
of a human body about three orthogonal axes passing through Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto.
its center of gravity. Ibid., 11, 251-256. Her interests are in the area of sport bio-
DAPENA, J. (1981) Simulation of modified human airborne move- mechanics and in particular mathematically
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DUL, J. and JOHNSON, G. E. (1985) A kinematic model of the forming twisting somersaults. Ms Tupling has
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program- obtained his Ph.D. from Simon Fraser Uni-
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tion of individual muscle forces during normal walking. Ph.D. body. Dr Pierrynowski is a member of the Canadian Association
Dissertation, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British of Sport Sciences, the Canadian Medical & Biological Engineer-
Columbia. ing Society, the Canadian Society for Biomechanics and the
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