Module 4 JAR 66 PDF

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 4

uk MODULE 4
ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS
ELECTRONIC
engineering FUNDAMENTALS
Index
1 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES...................................................... 1-1

1.1 RECTIFIER DIODES ................................................................. 1-2
1.1.1 Circuit Symbols & Identification .............................. 1-2
1.1.2 Operating Characteristics....................................... 1-3
1.1.3 Parallel & Serial Arrangements of Diodes .............. 1-4
1.1.4 Rectification............................................................ 1-5
1.2 SIGNAL DIODES ...................................................................... 1-10
1.3 ZENER DIODES ....................................................................... 1-10
1.4 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES.......................................................... 1-11
1.5 PHOTOCELLS ......................................................................... 1-11
1.5.1 Photoconductive Cells............................................ 1-11
1.5.2 Photovoltaic Cells................................................... 1-12
1.6 PHOTODIODES ....................................................................... 1-12
1.7 VARACTOR DIODE .................................................................. 1-12
1.8 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER ............................................. 1-13
1.9 TRANSISTORS ........................................................................ 1-13
1.9.1 NPN Transistor....................................................... 1-14
1.9.2 PNP Transistor ....................................................... 1-16
1.10 TESTING SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ........................................ 1-18
1.10.1 Testing Diodes ....................................................... 1-18
1.10.2 Testing Transistors................................................. 1-19
2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS...................................................... 2-1
2.1 THE PERFECT AMPLIFIER ........................................................ 2-1
2.2 OP AMP SPECIFICATION .......................................................... 2-1
2.3 POWER REQUIREMENTS.......................................................... 2-2
2.4 PIN OUTS & CIRCUIT SYMBOL .................................................. 2-2
2.5 OPERATION ........................................................................... 2-3
2.5.1 Negative Feedback ................................................ 2-3
2.6 OP-AMP COMPARATOR ........................................................... 2-5
2.7 OP AMP SUMMING AMP ........................................................... 2-6
3 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS....................................................... 3-1

3.1 BASE MATERIAL ..................................................................... 3-2
3.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL .......................................................... 3-2
3.3 BONDING OF CONDUCTOR MATERIAL ........................................ 3-2
3.3.1 Inspections & Tests ................................................ 3-3
3.4 MACHINING OF BOARDS .......................................................... 3-4
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3.5 CIRCUIT ARTWORK ................................................................. 3-4

3.6 PRINTING OF CIRCUITS ........................................................... 3-5
3.6.1 Etching Process ..................................................... 3-5
3.6.2 Additive Process..................................................... 3-6
3.6.3 Inspection............................................................... 3-7
3.7 SOLDERING METHODS ............................................................ 3-7
3.7.1 Hand Soldering ...................................................... 3-7
3.7.2 Mass Soldering ...................................................... 3-7
3.8 SOLDER SPECIFICATION .......................................................... 3-9
3.9 FLUXES & THEIR APPLICATION ................................................. 3-9
3.10 SOLDER RESISTS ................................................................... 3-10
3.11 PLATING OF PRINTED WIRING CIRCUITS .................................... 3-10
3.11.1 Through-Hole Plating ............................................. 3-10
3.12 ORGANIC PROTECTIVE COATINGS ............................................ 3-11
3.13 FLEXIBLE PRINTED WIRING CIRCUITS ........................................ 3-11
3.14 HANDLING OF CIRCUIT BOARDS ............................................... 3-12
3.14.1 Electrostatic Discharge Sensitive Devices ............. 3-12
3.14.2 Removal & Installation of ESDS Printed Circuit Boards 3-15
3.14.3 Removal & Installation of Metal-Encased ESDS LRU's 3-16
4 SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION................................... 4-1
4.1 DESYNN SYSTEM .................................................................... 4-1
4.1.1 The Basic Desynn .................................................. 4-1
4.1.2 Slab Desynn........................................................... 4-4
4.2 SYNCHRO SYSTEMS ............................................................... 4-4
4.2.1 Synchro Types ....................................................... 4-5
4.2.2 Synchro Schematics............................................... 4-7
4.2.3 XYZ Synchro system.............................................. 4-9
4.2.4 Synchro Supplies ................................................... 4-9
4.2.5 Torque Synchro System......................................... 4-10
4.2.6 Electrical Zero ........................................................ 4-13
4.2.7 Differential Torque Synchro System....................... 4-14
4.2.8 Control Synchro System......................................... 4-16
4.2.9 Differential Control Synchros.................................. 4-20
5 SERVO SYSTEMS........................................................................ 5-1
5.1 CATEGORIES OF SERVO SYSTEMS ............................... 5-1
5.1.1 open loop ............................................................... 5-1
5.1.2 closed loop ............................................................. 5-2
5.2 REMOTE POSITION CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS ..................... 5-3
5.2.1 Positional Feedback ............................................... 5-3
5.3 TYPES OF INPUTS .................................................................. 5-5
5.3.1 Step Input............................................................... 5-5

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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ELECTRONIC
5.3.2 Ramp Input............................................................. 5-5

5.3.3 Accelerating Input................................................... 5-5
5.4 SYSTEM RESPONSE ............................................................... 5-6
5.5 DAMPING .............................................................................. 5-7
5.5.1 Frictional Forces which Produce Damping ............. 5-7
5.5.2 Velocity Feedback Damping................................... 5-9
5.6 VELOCITY CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS ................................. 5-11
5.6.1 Residual Error ........................................................ 5-11
5.6.2 Velocity Lag............................................................ 5-11
5.7 A.C. SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS ..................................... 5-12
5.7.1 E & I Bar Transducer.............................................. 5-12
5.7.2 A.C. Tachogenerators ............................................ 5-13
5.8 PRACTICAL SERVO SYSTEMS ................................................... 5-15
5.8.1 Direct Servo Current System.................................. 5-15
5.8.2 Alternating Current Servo System .......................... 5-16
6 OTHER TRANSDUCERS ............................................................. 6-1
6.1 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER ....................... 6-1
6.2 ROTARY VARIABLE TRANSFORMER ........................................... 6-2
6.3 INDUCTIVE TYPE TRANSDUCERS .............................................. 6-2
6.3.1 Induced EMF Type ................................................. 6-2
6.3.2 A.C. Current Control............................................... 6-3

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ELECTRONIC
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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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ELECTRONIC
1 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
The early discoveries in the field of electricity made by Volta, AmpHata! Yer işareti
tanımlanmamış.ere, Gains, Faraday, Hertz and others raised fundamental
problems concerning the nature of matter.
The first breakthrough came in 1897, when Sir J.J. Thompson discovered the
electron, a discovery soon verified by other investigators. In 1913 Bohr evolved the
basic theory of atomic structure, and that theory has been developed to our present
concept of the nature of matter.
The electrical characteristics of an atom are determined by how tightly the nucleus
holds on to its outer electrons. If the outer electrons are easily removed from the
atom, the material will conduct easily and is known as a conductor. If the outer
electrons are difficult to dislodge from their orbits, the material is known as an
insulator.
The material used in diodes and transistors is known as 'semi-conductor' material.
One of the attributes of this material is that the number of free electrons in any given
area can be fixed during the manufacturing process.
Interest in semi-conductors began in 1873, when it was discovered that the
resistance of rods and wires of selenium decreased as they were heated. This was
surprising because the resistance of metals normally increased with an increase in
temperature. Furthermore, some lowering of resistance was noted when the rods
were exposed to light. Later investigations found similar effects in other materials,
but the change in resistance was so small that no practical applications could be
found.
By 1906 a number of crystalline semi-conductors were being used as radio signal
detectors, but the introduction of thermionic valves put an end to them. The valves
were more reliable and had the advantage of being able to amplify the signal as well
as detect it.
During the development of radar systems in WWΙΙ, it was discovered that valve type
mixers would not operate at the high frequencies being used. Research turned to
semi-conductor type mixers, and silicon proved the most successful. After the war,
the peculiar properties of Germanium and Silicon were rigorously investigated, and
a germanium diode detector was made and used extensively in radio and television.
During development of the Germanium detectors an important discovery was made.
It was found that when two very close contacts are made with a piece of germanium,
the current flow through one of the contacts affects the amount of current flow
through the other.
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Bell Telephone Laboratories latched onto this phenomena and eventually in 1948
they announced the manufacture of the first solid-state amplifying device, the
transistor. This triggered renewed interest in semi-conductor diodes, resulting in the
development of a huge variety of semi-conductor devices that we now take for
granted.
1.1 RECTIFIER DIODES
A rectifier diode is the electrical equivalent of a one way valve, it is a semiconductor

device which allows current to flow in one direction but not in the other.
When conducting, the diode is said to be 'forward biased'. Under these conditions
the diode offers little resistance to current flow.
When opposing current flow, the diode is said to be 'reverse biased'. Under reverse
biased conditions the diode has a high resistance.
1.1.1 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS & IDENTIFICATION
The various symbols used for diodes are shown below.
Whether the triangles are filled or unfilled depends only on the drawing office
preference. Where it is considered necessary, it is possible to show that one of the
electrodes is connected to the case of the device by adding a dot to the symbol, but
this is not often used. In every symbol, the arrow indicates the direction of
conventional current flow.
The base of the triangle is the end where conventional current enters the diode, this
end is called the anode. The end through which current leaves the diode is the
cathode. In some cases the arrow symbol is marked on the diode, where it is not,
the cathode is identified by a band or distinctive shape as shown above.
Two identification codes are used for diodes. In the American system the code
always starts with 1N and is followed by a serial number, i.e. 1N4001. In the
continental system, the first letter gives the semiconductor material; A for
germanium; B for silicon, and the second letter identifies the use; A - signal diode; Y
- rectifier diode and Z for zener diode. To complicate the situation some
manufacturers have their own codes.

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1.1.2 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
Most semiconductor diodes are made from silicon or germanium, these two
materials have different operating characteristics, although the principle of operation
and circuit symbols are both the same.
1.1.2.1 Biasing
A diode is said to be 'biased' when a voltage is applied between the terminals such
that the diode operates as required.
An external voltage applied so that the anode is positive and the cathode negative is
called 'forward bias'. There are many ways of achieving this, for example:
• Connect the anode to +3V and the cathode to 0V.
• Connect the anode to +1V and the cathode to -1V.
• Connect the anode to -50V and the cathode to -52V.
So far as the diode is concerned, it is the voltage of the anode with respect to the
cathode which determines the bias.
If the voltage is applied so that the anode is negative with respect to the cathode,
the diode is ‘reverse biased’, again, there are many ways of achieving this.
The forward voltage required to make the diode conduct depends on the material it
is made from. Germanium diodes require a voltage of approximately 0.1 to 0.2 volts
and silicon diodes 0.6 to 0.7 volts.
1.1.2.2 Forward Voltage Drop
Ideally a diode should have zero resistance when conducting and should cause no
voltage drop, unfortunately this does not happen. Germanium diodes create a
voltage drop of approximately 0.6V and silicon diodes a drop of approximately 1.1V.
This needs to be taken into account when doing circuit calculations.
1.1.2.3 Reverse Leakage Current
When a diode is reverse biased, it should ideally have infinite resistance and no
current should flow. Unfortunately when a diode is reverse biased, a small current
called 'reverse leakage current' flows, generally this is too small to be of
significance, however, it should be noted that the value of this current increases with
an increase in diode temperature. The reverse current of silicon diodes is much
smaller than that of germanium diodes, (approx. one thousandth), therefore silicon
diodes can be used more successfully at high temperatures (150º - 200ºC) than
germanium diodes (80º - 100ºC).

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1.1.2.4 Reverse Breakdown Voltage
If the reverse bias voltage is increased, eventually the diode breaks down and
current flows in the wrong direction through the diode. This causes permanent
damage and the diode has to be replaced.
The breakdown voltage can have any value from a few volts, up to 1000V for silicon
diodes and 100V for germanium, depending on the construction and forms of
material used.
The maximum reverse voltage is an important diode characteristic. Under normal
conditions this value should not be exceeded.
1.1.2.5 Graphical Representation
Shown below is a graphical representation of the operating characteristics of a

typical silicon and germanium diode.
1.1.3 PARALLEL & SERIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF DIODES
It is possible to operate silicon rectifier diodes in parallel or in series to provide

respectively, higher current or higher voltage capabilities.
1.1.3.1 Parallel Arrangements
In parallel arrangements used for higher currents, some method must be used to
ensure that the current divides equally through the individual diodes. This is difficult
to do.

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ELECTRONIC
1.1.3.2 Series Arrangements
Series arrangements can be used if the applied voltage is greater than the
maximum rated value of a single diode. Some method must be used to ensure the
applied voltage divides equally among the individual diodes. Resistors or capacitors
in parallel can be used in an effort to achieve this.
1.1.4 RECTIFICATION
Rectifier diodes are designed to convert ac to dc. To do this effectively and

efficiently they must have:
• Low resistance to current flow in the forward direction.
• High resistance to current flow in the reverse direction.
Almost all semiconductor rectifier diodes are silicon, junction types. The symbol
used in circuit diagrams can be any of those shown earlier in the notes.
1.1.4.1 Basic Rectifier Circuit
A basic rectifier circuit is shown below. The diode is inserted in series between the
a.c. supply and the load.
The diode only passes current when forward biased. Thus when an a.c. signal is
applied, pulses of uni-directional (d.c.) voltage are developed across the output load
resistance.
Note from the diagrams that the d.c. polarity can be reversed by reversing the diode
connections.
If the average value of ½ wave rectified a.c. is calculated it will be found to be 32%
of the peak value of the output voltage.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1.1.4.2 Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier
In full wave rectification, both halves of every cycle of input voltage produce current
pulses through the load resistor.
In the circuit shown above, two diodes D1 and D2 and a transformer with a centre-
tapped secondary are used.
During the positive half cycle of the input waveform, A is positive with respect to O
and D1 conducts, the current flowing top to bottom through the load resistor. During
this time diode D2 is reversed biased and does not conduct.
During the negative half cycle of the input waveform, B is positive with respect to O
and D2 conducts, the current again flowing top to bottom through the load resistor.
During this time diode D1 is reverse biased and does not conduct.
In effect, the circuit consists of two half wave rectifiers working into the same load on
alternate half cycles of the input. The current through R is in the same direction
during both half cycles and a fluctuating d.c. is created across R.
The average value of this full wave rectified a.c. is 64% of the peak value of the
voltage across the load resistor R.
The output frequency is double that of the input frequency.

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1.1.4.3 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
The circuit of a Full Wave Bridge rectifier is shown below. The rectifier has 4 diodes
as opposed to 2 and does not have a centre tapped transformer.
During the positive half cycle diodes D1 and D2 conduct, the current flowing top to
bottom through the load RL. During the negative half cycle D3 and D4 conduct, the
current again flowing top to bottom through the load. The output from this rectifier is
the same as that obtained from the centred tapped transformer type. The average
value again being 64% of the peak voltage across the load resistor.
It should be noted that in this rectifier, the peak voltage across RL is equal to the
whole of the secondary transformer output voltage, whereas in the previous rectifier,
the peak voltage across RL is only half the transformer secondary voltage.
1.1.4.4 Smoothing
The rectifier circuits previously discussed produce pulsating d.c. outputs. A

smoothing circuit changes these outputs into a steady d.c. voltage level.
1.1.4.4.1 Half Wave Rectifier
The diagram below shows a simple half wave rectifier with a reservoir capacitor, C,
connected in parallel with the load RL. The capacitor charges towards the peak
value of the input voltage whenever the input voltage is greater than VC and the
diode is conducting. When the input voltage is less than VC the diode cuts-off and
the capacitor discharges through the load.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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ELECTRONIC
This results in a mean d.c. output level less than the peak of the input, with a ripple
superimposed at the input frequency.
1.1.4.4.2 Full Wave Rectifier
The diagram above shows a centre tapped full wave rectifier with a reservoir
capacitor. The charge is now topped up twice during each cycle of the input
waveform which results in:
• A lower amplitude ripple, at twice the frequency of that from the half wave
rectifier.
• A higher mean d.c. output than that from a similarly loaded half wave rectifier.

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1.1.4.5 Ripple Factor
A measure of the amount of ripple present at the output of a d.c. supply is given by
the ripple factor, which is usually expressed as a percentage and defined as:
Ripple factor = Hata! × 100%
1.1.4.6 Peak Inverse Voltage
The peak voltage across a rectifier diode in the reverse direction is known as the
'peak inverse voltage'. In a half wave rectifier with a reservoir capacitor, the peak
inverse voltage is twice the amplitude of the peak voltage across the load. i.e. mean
d.c. level to maximum negative peak. The diode must be able to withstand this
voltage without breaking down.
1.1.4.7 Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is a measure of the ability of a power supply to provide an

increased load without a fall in output voltage.
Regulation = Hata! × 100%
1.1.4.8 Filter Circuits
Smaller ripple factors and improved voltage regulation is obtained by using R-C and
L-C filter circuits across the output of the rectifier.
1.1.4.9 Ripple Frequency
The ripple frequency on the d.c. output from a half wave rectifier is equal to the
supply frequency. For a full wave rectifier, the ripple frequency is double the supply
frequency.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1.2 SIGNAL DIODES
Signal diodes are used to detect radio signals (a process similar to rectification in
which radio frequency a.c. is converted to d.c.), because of their very low
capacitance. A capacitor passes a.c. The higher the frequency of the a.c. and the
greater the capacitance, the less opposition it offers. At radio frequencies, a normal
diode would be of little use as a detector because of its large junction area. The
large junction area resulting in a large capacitance value and little opposition to
current flow.
A point diode type signal diode has a very small junction area resulting in a low
value of capacitance and a large opposition to current flow.
Germanium is used for signal diodes since it has a lower 'turn-on' voltage than
silicon, and so lower signal voltages start it conducting in the forward direction.
1.3 ZENER DIODES
In an ordinary diode, if the reverse bias is increased, the diode breaks down and the
diode suffers permanent damage. A zener diode is designed to be used in the
breakdown region. The zener diode looks like a rectifier diode, the cathode often
being marked by a band. Its symbol is shown above.
From the characteristic graph, it can be seen that the reverse current is negligible as
the reverse bias is increased until the breakdown voltage is reached, then it
suddenly increases. The breakdown voltage is called the zener or reference
voltage.

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ELECTRONIC
The important thing is that the voltage across the diode remains almost constant
over a wide range of reverse currents. It is this property of a zener diode that makes
it useful in stabilised power supplies.
To limit the reverse current at breakdown and prevent overheating, the power rating
of the diode must not be exceeded. This is achieved by using a resistor in series
with the diode.
1.4 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
A light emitting diode is a specially constructed and doped diode type device which
emits light when operated in the forward bias condition. The colour of light emitted
depends on the semi-conductor material used.
Gallium arsenide phosphide - red light
Gallium phosphide - green light
Symbols used are similar to the photodiode.
Unless an LED is of the constant current type, which incorporates an integrated

circuit regulator, it must have an external resistor connected in series to limit the
forward current which typically may only be 10mA. The voltage drop across a
conducting LED is about 1 to7 volts.
In seven segment LED displays, each segment is a separate LED and depending on
which segments are energised, the display lights up the number 0 to 9. Such
displays are usually designed to operate from a 5V supply - each segment needs a
separate current limiting resistor and all the cathodes or anodes are joined together
to form a common connection.
1.5 PHOTOCELLS
Photocells change light into electrical signals. There are two basic types,
Photoconductive cells and Photovoltaic cells.
1.5.1 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS

The resistance of certain semiconductors decreases as the intensity
of light falling on them increases. They are therefore light sensitive
resistors and sometimes referred to as light dependent resistors.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1.5.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
When illuminated, a photovoltaic cell produces a voltage. If an

external circuit is connected to the cell, current flows through it. The
source of energy is the light.
The voltage available depends on the material used, the intensity of the light and the
amount of current drawn from the cell. For a silicon cell in full sunlight the voltage
on open circuit is 0.45V. With a maximum current of 35mA for each square cm of
cell. Only about 10% of the light is turned into electrical energy.
1.6 PHOTODIODES
Photodiodes are operated under reverse bias conditions. The
leakage current increasing in proportion to the amount of light falling
on the device. Photodiodes are used as fast counters and light
meters.
1.7 VARACTOR DIODE
A varactor diode is a special type of diode constructed to act as a voltage controlled

capacitor. It is also known as a varicap diode. The diode is operated under reverse
bias conditions, with an increase in bias decreasing the value of capacitance. The
circuit symbols are as shown below.
There are 3 main uses for varactor diodes:

• As remotely controlled capacitors in RF tuned circuits.
• As variable capacitors in amplifiers.
• As variable capacitors in frequency modulator circuits.

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1.8 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR's) are now more commonly known as thyristors.
They are semiconductor devices which rectify a.c. and control the power supplied to
a load in a way that wastes very little energy. They are commonly used in
household lighting dimmer switches. The general symbol is shown below, together
with the symbol for 'P' and 'N' types.
SCR's normally block the flow of current in both directions, but can be triggered so
as to allow current to flow in the forward direction as in a normal diode, whilst still
blocking current flow in the reverse direction. In the triggered condition the
characteristics are similar to rectifier diodes.
An SCR will continue to conduct until the load current is reduced to zero, or until it is
reverse biased, when it automatically returns to the blocking state.
The SCR is triggered by applying a pulse to a third terminal called the gate. The
duration of the pulses can be extremely short.
1.9 TRANSISTORS
Transistors are the most important device in electronics today. Not only are they
made as discrete components, but integrated circuits may contain several
thousands on a tiny slice of silicon. They are 3 terminal devices used as amplifiers
and as switches, and are classed as active devices.
Hundreds of different transistors are available. The same identification code is used
as for diodes, but in the American system transistors always start with 2N followed
by a number. In the continental system the first letter gives the semiconductor
material and the second letter gives the use:
• C indicates an audio frequency device.
• F a radio frequency device.
• S a switching transistor.
An example being BC108, a silicon audio frequency amplifier device.

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The two basic types of transistors are:

• The bipolar or junction transistor.
• The unipolar or field effect transistor.
In this element of the course we concentrate on bipolar transistors, of which there
are two basic types. The NPN and the PNP, both of which are active devices
having three terminals labelled; Base, Collector and Emitter.
1.9.1 NPN TRANSISTOR
NPN transistors are made from 3 pieces of semi-conductor material joined together
in a manner similar to two diodes, as shown in the diagram below. Also shown is
the circuit diagram with each terminal identified.
If the base is made positive with respect to the collector, the diode, or junction as it
is called, is forward biased and current flows (conventional current flows from base
to collector).
If the base is made positive with respect to the emitter, again the junction (diode) is
forward biased and conventional current flows from base to emitter.
If the collector is made positive with respect to the emitter, or the emitter is made
positive with respect to the collector no current will flow, because in either direction
one of the junctions (diodes) is reverse biased and will prevent current flow.
The last three paragraphs should be noted, as their contents is invaluable when it
comes to determining the terminals and testing transistors. This will be discussed
later.

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1.9.1.1 NPN Transistor as a switch
If the NPN transistor is

connected as shown, it can be
used as a switch.
In this diagram the transistor is

being used to turn on a lamp, it
could however be used to
operate any type of d.c. device
such as a relay, solenoid,
another transistor or an LED.
When the base is made positive with respect to the emitter, the junction is forward
biased and current flows in through the base and out of the emitter. The flow of
current from base to emitter creates a reaction in the transistor that causes the
reverse biased collector/base junction to break down and conduct. Current can then
flow from the battery positive terminal, through the lamp, through the reverse biased
collector base junction, through the forward biased base emitter junction and back to
the battery, illuminating the lamp.
When the base is made sufficiently positive with respect to the emitter (approx. 0.6V
for silicon, 0.2V for germanium) so that current flows from collector to emitter
through the transistor, the transistor is said to be switched or turned 'ON'.
If the base / emitter potential is reduced below the switch 'ON' potential, or removed
totally, the collector / base junction will return to its reverse bias condition and will
prevent current flowing around the circuit through the lamp. Under these conditions
the transistor is said to be switched or turned 'OFF'.
If should be noted that it may be necessary to limit the current through the transistor
when it is switched on, this can be achieved by a series resistor as in the LED
circuit.
1.9.1.2 NPN Transistor as an amplifier
When the base is made positive with respect to the emitter so that the transistor is
switched 'ON', the amount of base emitter current required is very small. If the base
/ emitter current is increased slightly, by increasing the base emitter voltage, the
transistor will turn 'ON' more, its effective resistance will decrease and the collector /
emitter current will increase.

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If the base / emitter current is decreased

slightly by reducing the base / emitter
voltage, the transistor will turn 'OFF' more,
it's effective resistance will increase and the
collector / emitter current will decrease.
The transistor can therefore be likened to a variable resistor. As the base / emitter
bias increases, the resistance of the transistor effectively decreases and more
current flows from collector to emitter. The change in current and resistance causes
the output voltage to decrease.
As the base / emitter bias decreases, the effective resistance of the transistor
increases and less current flows from collector to emitter. The change in current
and resistance now causes the output voltage to increase.
When set up correctly, millivolt changes across the base / emitter junction produce
changes at the output of 10's or even 100's of volts, depending on the collector
voltage.
If a small sinusoidal a.c. signal is applied to the base / emitter junction, the bias will
vary sinusoidally as will the resistance of the transistor and the output voltage,
however the output voltage will vary sinusoidally 10's of volts for millivolt changes in
the input signal. (Using the example voltage in the diagram).
It should be noted, that although the changes in output voltage are much greater
than the changes in input voltage, the bipolar transistor is a current device.
Small changes in base / emitter current result in large changes in collector / emitter
current. It is these changes in collect / emitter current that produce the large output
voltage swings.
1.9.2 PNP TRANSISTOR
PNP transistors are made in a similar manner to NPN transistors, except the
direction of the junctions is reversed.
If the base is made negative with respect to the collector, the diode, or junction is
forward biased and current flows.

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If the base is made negative with respect to the emitter, the junction is forward
biased and current flows.
Current cannot flow between collector and emitter, because irrespective of the bias
applied, one junction will be reverse biased.
Again these three statements are worth remembering when it comes to determining
the terminals and testing transistors.
1.9.2.1 PNP Transistor as a switch
When connected as shown, the PNP

transistor can also be used as a
switch, however, for the transistor to
be tuned 'ON', the base must be
made negative with respect to the
emitter. For a silicon transistor the
base needs to be about 0.6V
negative with respect to the emitter,
for a germanium transistor 0.2V
negative.
Once turned 'ON', conventional current flows from the emitter to the collector, which
is in the opposite direction to that in the NPN transistor.
1.9.2.2 PNP Transistor as an amplifier
The PNP transistor can also be used an amplifier. It operates in a similar manner to
the NPN transistor except the transistor must be turned 'ON' by making the base
negative with respect to the emitter, as seen above. If the base / emitter potential is
increased by making the base more negative with respect to the emitter, the
transistor turns 'ON' more, its effective resistance decreases and more emitter /
collector current flows. If the bias potential is decreased, by making the base less
negative with respect to the emitter, the transistor turns 'OFF' slightly, the effective
resistance increases and less emitter / collector current flows.
A small sinusoidal signal applied to the base will vary the effective resistance of the
transistor and produce much larger changes in the output voltage as with the NPN
transistor. Again it must be realised that the transistor is a current device. The
small changes in base emitter bias potential created by the input signal results in
small changes in base emitter current, resulting in large changes in collector /
emitter current.

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1.10 TESTING SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
1.10.1 TESTING DIODES
Diodes only conduct in one direction, it is therefore relatively easy to determine the
terminals and serviceability using a multimeter, however, 2 points need noting:
• When AVO's are used on a resistance range, the black terminal is positive with
respect to the red terminal.
• The potential difference between the red and black terminals of a digital meter
may be insufficient to forward bias a silicon diode (remember: requires 0.6V).
This would indicate that the diode was non conducting in both direction leading to
the false assumption that the diode is unserviceable.
1.10.1.1 Determining the Terminals
When forward biased, a diode has a resistance of approx. 1kΩ. When reverse
biased the resistance is in the order of megohms. To determine the terminals of a
diode, it is simply a matter of connecting the meter across the diode to see if it will
conduct, if it will not, the terminals should be reversed to confirm conduction and
serviceability. When conducting, the black terminal of an AVO, or the red terminal of
a digital meter, is connected to the anode (flat end of symbol).
1.10.1.2 Confirming Serviceability
The serviceability of a diode is determined by ensuring it has a resistance in the

order of 1KΩ in one direction and a resistance in the order of megohms in the
opposite direction. Remember the points made about the two types of meter.

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1.10.2 TESTING TRANSISTORS
As we have seen, transistors basically comprise 2 back-to-back diodes, therefore

the process of confirming the serviceability and determining the terminals is similar
to that used for diodes.
1.10.2.1 Determining the Base
The base of the transistor can be found by considering the transistor as two back-to-
back diodes, and using a multimeter set on ohms.
1.10.2.1.1 NPN Transistors
Connect the positive terminal of the meter to one of the three transistor terminals.
Measure the resistance between this terminal and the other two. If both indicate a
low resistance then the positive terminal is connected to the base. If the resistance
to the other two terminals is not low, the positive terminal is not connected to the
base. Connect the positive terminal of the meter to another terminal and repeat the
process until the base is determined.
1.10.2.1.2 PNP Transistors
The procedure used to identify the base of a PNP transistor is the same as that
used to determined the base of the NPN transistor, except that the negative terminal
of the meter is connected to each transistor terminal in turn, and it is this negative
terminal that indicated the base.
1.10.2.2 Confirming the Serviceability
Both types of transistor are serviceability tested by confirming that each forward
biased junction (Diode) has a low resistance, and each reverse biased junction a
high resistance. The high resistance between collector and emitter should also be
confirmed. Remember the points made about AVO's and Digital meters, otherwise
incorrect conclusions may be drawn from the observations.

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NPN Base to Emitter - forward biased - low resistance

Base to Collector - forward biased - low resistance
Emitter to Collector - reverse biased - high resistance
PNP Emitter to Base - forward biased - low resistance
Collector to Base - forward biased - low resistance
Emitter to Collector - reverse biased - high resistance

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2 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Operational amplifiers are integrated circuit devices designed to be a close
approximation to the perfect amplifier.
2.1 THE PERFECT AMPLIFIER
Although a theoretical device, the specification of a perfect amplifier would be as

follows:
• Gain infinitely high. This has to be controlled in some way otherwise the
smallest input would result in maximum output.
• Input impedance. Infinitely high so as not to load the source.
• Output impedance. Zero, so that the amplifier can be connected to any load
without the output voltage being affected.
• Bandwidth. Infinite, so that signals from d.c. to infinite frequency are all
amplified by the same amount.
• Supply voltage. The amplifier should be unaffected by variations in the power
supply voltage.
2.2 OP AMP SPECIFICATION
The following specification is for a SN72741 operational amplifier. This is a very

popular operational amplifier generally simply referred to as a 741 op-amp.
• Gain - 200 000 voltage gain (106db approx.)
• Input impedance - 2MΩ.
• Output impedance - 75Ω
• Bandwidth - d.c. to 1MHz.
• Supply voltage - The op-amp will operate with a supply of plus and minus 5 to
15 volts, and take a quiescent current of about 2mA. The output voltage will
change less than 150μV per volt change in supply voltage.
It can be seen that the 741 Op Amp approximates the specification of a perfect
amplifier.

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2.3 POWER REQUIREMENTS
Operation is most convenient from a dual balanced d.c. power supply giving equal
positive and negative voltages (+ Vs) in the range +5V to +15V. The centre point of
the power supply, i.e. 0V is common to input and output and is taken as their voltage
reference.
The input signs on the circuit symbol for an Op Amp should not be confused
with those for the supply polarities.
An op-amp can be operated from a single power supply. The voltage difference
available from, for example, a 0V to 18V supply is the same as that from a +9V to
0V to -9V one, however, if a single power supply is used, extra components are
required.
2.4 PIN OUTS & CIRCUIT SYMBOL
The circuit symbol and pin outs of a typical operation amplifier are shown below.
Most of the terminals are self-explanatory or will be explained in the course of these
notes. Terminals 1 and 5, the offset null terminals however require further
explanation.

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If the same input signal is applied to the input terminals 2

and 3 the output (terminal 6) should be zero, in practice it is
not. For d.c. amplification this not acceptable. The output
is zeroed by connecting a resistor between terminals 1 & 5
as shown, and adjusting it until the output falls to zero. For
a.c. amplification a coupling capacitor in series with the
output removes any unwanted d.c. offset.
2.5 OPERATION
An operational amplifier has one output and two inputs as seen on the circuit and
pin-out diagrams. The two inputs are referred to as, the non-inverting input, marked
with a +, and the inverting input, marked with a -.
If the voltage applied to the non-inverting input (+) is positive relative to the other
input, the output voltage is positive. If the voltage applied to the non-inverting input
is negative relative to the other input, the output voltage is negative. That is, the
non-inverting input and the output are in-phase.
If the voltage applied to the inverting input (-) is positive relative to the other input,
the output voltage is negative. If the voltage applied to the inverting input (-) is
negative relative to the other input, the output voltage is positive. That is, the
inverting input, and the output are anti-phase.
Basically an op-amp is a differential amplifier. It amplifies the difference between
the two input voltages.
There are 3 cases:
• If V+ > V- the output is positive
• If V+ < V- the output is negative
• If V+ = V- the output is zero
In general to output is given by V0 = A0 × ((V+) - (V-)) where A0 is the gain.
2.5.1 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
As already mentioned, and as can be seen

from the transfer characteristic to the left.
There is only a very small range of input
values giving an output that is directly
proportional (A to B). It takes very little
input to drive the amplifier into saturation
due to its extremely high gain.

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Assuming a gain of 105, the maximum input voltage swing (for linear amplification) is
±9V/105 = ±90μV. This is of little practical use.
To reduce this gain and allow larger input signals, requires the use of negative
feedback. Part of the output is fed back to the input in such a way that it produces a
voltage at the output that opposes the one from which it was taken. This basically
means taking part of the output and feeding it back to the inverting input. (Feedback
applied to the non-inverting input would be positive and would increase the output).
The application of negative feedback also gives greater stability, less distortion and
increased bandwidth, it also becomes possible to exactly predict the gain of the
amplifier. The relatively small loss in gain is far outweighed by the advantages
obtained.
A simple feedback network is shown in the diagram of an inverting amplifier below.
The signal to be amplified is applied to the inverting input via the resistor, the output
is therefore antiphase with respect to the input. The non-inverting input is
connected to ground. Negative feedback is provided by resistor Rf, called the
'feedback resistor', it feeds back a certain amount of output voltage to the inverting
input.
Using this arrangement the gain can be calculated from;
-Rf/R1 if Rf = 1MΩ and R1 = 10kΩ
the gain A = Hata! = -100 and,
an input of 0.01V will cause an output change of 1.0V.
It should be noted that the gain depends entirely on the values of resistors Rf and
R1, and is totally independent of the parameters of the operational amplifier.

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2.6 OP-AMP COMPARATOR
If both inputs of an Op Amp are used together, then V0, the output voltage, is given
by:
V0 = A0 × (V2 - V1)
Where V1 is the inverting input and V2 the non-inverting input. (Note: no feedback is
used).
The difference in voltage at the input terminals is amplified and appears at the
output, however the gain is so large, that about 90μV difference in the two inputs will
cause the output to fall or rise to the +ve or -ve supply voltage.
When V1 > V2 the output is almost -Vs, when V1 < V2 the output is almost +Vs. The
op-amp basically behaves like a two state switch, switching 'high' or 'low' depending
on the difference in the inputs.
By connecting a reference voltage to the inverting input and a signal to the non-
inverting input, the output will swing to +Vs when the signal is greater than the
reference voltage and to -Vs when the signal is smaller than the reference signal.

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2.7 OP AMP SUMMING AMP
When connected as multi-input inverting amplifier (see previous topic on feedback),

an op amp can be used to add a number of voltages, either a.c. or d.c.
In the above circuit, 3 input voltages, Vin 1, Vin 2 and Vin 3 are applied through
resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
Hence: Hata! = Hata! + Hata! + Hata!
V0ut = - Hata!
Thus the input voltages are added and amplified if Rf is greater than each of the
input resistors.
If R1 = R2 = R3 = Rin, the input voltages are amplified equally
and V0ut = Hata! (Vin 1 + Vin 2 + Vin 3)
If R1 = R2 = R3 = Rin = Rf
then V0ut = (Vin 1 + Vin 2 + Vin 3)
The output voltage is the sum of the input voltages but is of opposite polarity.
This device can be used as a digital to analog converter by making R2 twice the size
of R1, and R3 twice the size of R2. If a 3 bit digital word is then be applied to the
resistors, with the least significant bit applied to R1 and the most significant bit
applied to R3, the output will be the analogue equivalent of the binary word.

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3 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

The assembly of the various circuits which form part of the units employed in aircraft
electronic systems, necessitates the interconnection of many components by means
of electrical conductors. Before the introduction of printed wiring, these conductors
were formed by wires which connected to the components either by soldering, or by
screw and crimped terminal methods.
In the development of circuit technology, micro-miniaturisation, rationalisation of
component layout and mounting, weight saving, and the simplification of installation
and maintenance become essential factors; and as a result, the technique of printing
the required circuits was adopted.

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In this technique, a metallic foil is first bonded to a base board made from an
insulating material, and a pattern is then printed and etched on the foil to form a
series of current conducting paths, the pattern replacing the old method or wiring.
Connecting points and mounting pads, for the soldering of components appropriate
to the circuit, are also formed on the board, so that, as a single assembly, the board
satisfies the structural and electrical requirements of the unit which it forms a part.
If the circuit is a simple one, the wiring may be formed on one side of a board, but,
where a more complex circuit is required, wiring is continued on to the reverse side,
which also serves as the mounting for components. In addition, complex circuits
may be incorporated in multi-layer assemblies.
3.1 BASE MATERIAL
The base material, or laminate as it is sometimes called, is the insulating material to

which the conducting material is bonded. The base material also serves as a
mounting for the components which comprise the circuit. The base material is
commonly made up either of layers of phenolic resin impregnated paper, or of epoxy
resin impregnated fibre glass cloth which has been bonded to form a rigid sheet,
which can be readily sawn, cut, punched or drilled. The thickness of the base
material depends on the strength and stiffness requirements of the finished board,
which, in turn are dictated by the weight of the components to be carried, and by the
size of the printed conductor area.
3.2 CONDUCTOR MATERIAL
The most commonly used conducting material is copper foil, the minimum purity
value of which is 99.5%.
3.3 BONDING OF CONDUCTOR MATERIAL
For the manufacture of a typical circuit board, the base material and copper foil are
cut into sheets, and are then inspected and assembled inside a clean room in
alternate layers with stainless steel separator plates (known as cauls) interposed
between the layers, as shown below. The steel plates, which are accurate in
thickness to within 0.001 inch, are very hard, and have a delicately grained surface
which is imparted to the finished boards.

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The layered sheets (the assembly) are then passed out of the clean room to be
bonded in a hot press. During the pressing operation, the heat melts the resin in the
base material , so that it flows and fully wets out the material and the copper foil.
The pressure applied is adjusted so as to exclude all air and vapour from any
residual volatiles. As polymerisation of the resin mix proceeds, each layer of the
base material reaches the fully cured state with the copper foil firmly bonded to it.
After cooling has taken place, the individual copper-clad boards are trimmed to the
required size, inspected, and packed in sealed polythene bags.
3.3.1 INSPECTIONS & TESTS
After manufacture, all boards are inspected, and tests are carried out on selected
samples, in accordance with the relevant specifications. Tests will include:
• Inspection of appearance
• Checks on thickness
• Measurement of bow and twist
• Measuring the peel strength of the foil
• Checking the heat resistance by solder
• Measurement of pull-off strength
• Electrical tests

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3.4 MACHINING OF BOARDS
All boards require machining, e.g. guillotining, sawing, punching, and drilling during
the various stages of production.
Guillotining is one of the quickest and most economical methods of cutting sheets
of copper-clad laminates into strips and panels, and it is frequently employed in
conjunction with subsequent punching operations. Correctly performed guillotining
results in a clean, burr-free edge, with no wastage of stock.
Cutting with a circular saw is superior to guillotining as it gives a cleaner edge,
especially so as the thickness of the laminate increases. Wood-cutting machinery is
satisfactory for laminates.
The type of resin, base material and the degree of cure, are the main factors
affecting the drilling characteristics of a laminate. All laminates are abrasive
particularly those with glass fibre base material, and drilling techniques should be
adapted to suit.
Where large quantities of laminates are required, and cost of tools is acceptable,
punched parts can be produced by conventional pierce and blank methods, such
methods are most commonly adopted for copper-clad phenolic / paper base
laminates.
3.5 CIRCUIT ARTWORK
The quality of a printed wiring board is, in the fist instance, dependent on the
production of master artwork which must show precisely the circuit conductor
pattern required, where components are to be located, circuit module designations
and other essential references. Artwork production requires the use of
dimensionally stable base materials, and the application of skilled drafting
techniques, because, unlike conventional electrical drawings, which are used as a
guide to the build-up of an assembly of wiring and connections, a printed wiring
board is an actual reproduction of the original artwork produced for it.
Human error in drafting can be reduced, and, in certain cases, eliminated, by the
use of numerically-controlled drafting machines. These are accurate X and Y co-
ordinate plotting machines which are capable of automatically plotting a point, or
line, on a surface whether it be on a film or glass base.

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3.6 PRINTING OF CIRCUITS
The printing of circuits is carried out using either an etching process or an additive
process. Both of these processes, are briefly described in the following paragraphs.
3.6.1 ETCHING PROCESS
In this process the copper foil is first cleaned, either chemically or mechanically, and
is then coated with a photo-sensitive solution known as a 'resist', which has the
property of becoming soluble when exposed to strong light.
A photographic positive of the circuit artwork is then placed over the sensitised
board and time-exposed in a special printing machine. After exposure, the resist is
washed away to leave unprotected areas of copper around the circuit pattern. The
board is dried by a clean, oil and water free air blast. The complete board is then
inspected to ensure that no resist has been removed from any part of the conductor
pattern itself, and that no resist particles are present in areas which are to be etched
away. The board is then placed in a bath which contains an etching solution, such
as ferric chloride or ammonium persulphate, which etches away all the unprotected
copper.
When the etching process has been satisfactorily completed, the board is thoroughly
washed in water in order to remove all traces of etching solution, and is then dried
and given a final inspection.
As printed circuit boards with the same circuit pattern are often required in large
numbers, the simple 'print and etch' process is generally superseded by a screen
printing process.

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3.6.2 ADDITIVE PROCESS
In this process, copper is deposited only in the areas where conductors are
required. To achieve this the base material is pre-coated with a suitable adhesive,
the circuit holes are pre-fabricated, and the board is sensitised with a photo-resist
solution. A negative of the circuit pattern is then screen printed onto the board so
that the exposed areas define the conductor network. These exposed areas are
chemically activated, and the board is then immersed in an electrolyses copper
plating solution. After a period of time consistent with the deposition of the required
thickness of copper, the board is removed from the bath. The major advantages of
the additive process are: no chemical etching takes place, thereby eliminating
wastage of copper, the thickness of the deposited copper can be reduced and made
more uniform, the conductor widths and spacing are less restricted, and the hole
diameter can be reduced, thereby increasing the board area available for routing of
conductors.

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3.6.3 INSPECTION
After printing, circuit patterns are inspected with particular attention being paid to the
following:
• Dimensional Accuracy and Condition of the Edges of Conductors
• Condition of the Pattern Surfaces
• Particles of Copper in Unwanted Areas
• Insulation Areas
• Lack of Resin Bond in etched Areas
3.7 SOLDERING METHODS
There are two main methods of soldering employed in connection with printed
circuits boards, (a) hand soldering and (b) mass soldering.
3.7.1 HAND SOLDERING
This method is used for soldering joints separately, e.g. in limited batch production,
and when a component or a wire is replaced after a test or a repair has been carried
out. This method involves the use either of electrically heated hand irons, or of
resistance type hand tools when the use of these is permitted.
3.7.2 MASS SOLDERING
In this method, all joints of a finally assembled board are soldered simultaneously,
by bringing the board into contact with an oxide-free surface of molten solder, which
is contained in a special type of bath. Mass soldering may be carried out in any one
of five different ways:
Flat or Static Dipping - one edge of the board is first lowered on to the solder and
the other edge is then lowered slowly to allow flux and solvent vapour to escape.
Wave Soldering – solder is pumped from the bottom of the solder bath through a
narrow slot, so that a symmetrical 'standing wave' of solder is produced across the
width of the bath. The circuit board after being fluxed, is then either manually or
automatically passed against the crest of the solder wave by a conveyor.

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Weir and Cascade Soldering systems are of the moving solder type, the solder
flowing down a trough by gravity, and then being returned to the main bath by a
pump. In weir-soldering (diagram (a)) a circuit board is lowered on to the solder;
while in cascade soldering (diagram (b)) a board is conveyed across the crests of
solder waves in a direction opposite to the solder flow.
Reflow soldering is an automated process also known as 'heat cushion' soldering.

It is applied particularly to circuit boards on which microcircuits and associated
devices are to be assembled. These efficient but costly components require a
special soldering technique, so that their full potential as surface-mounted devices
can be realised. The reflow technique is generally recognised as the best method,
since the soldered joints are easier to inspect and to remake when a faulty
component has to be replaced. In addition, soldering times and the risk of
overheating sensitive components are reduced, and distortion of leads is prevented.
The sequence of reflow soldering is shown in the diagram on the following page.
The leads of the circuit or component and the relevant lands on the circuit board,
which have been pre-tinned by such methods as wave soldering or dip soldering,
are first brought into contact with each other and accurately aligned. The sequence
is then initiated by lowering the electrode on the lead to be soldered.

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Shortly before the electrode makes contact with the lead, the pre-set heating power
is automatically switched on. The electrode is then pressed on to the lead under a
load which gradually increases until the pre-selected value is reached. The solder
melts, and in reflowing, it forms a 'cushion' through which the lead is pressed
against its corresponding land of the circuit board. As soon as the cushion is
formed, the timing device cuts off the heating supply. After a 0.75 second delay, an
air blast is delivered to cool the soldered joint, this accelerates the completion of the
soldering process, and also improves the quality of the joint. At the end of the
cooling period, the load is relieved, and the electrode is automatically raised ready
for the next operation.
3.8 SOLDER SPECIFICATION
For the mass-soldering of printed wiring boards, solder complying with BS 219
Grade K (60/40 tin/lead) is the one most commonly used, since it has a free-flow
characteristic which permits good joint formation in the short period during which
boards are in contact with the solder.
The solder temperature is chosen for each individual combination of board and
types of material being processed, but it should normally be within the range 220°C
to 260°C.
3.9 FLUXES & THEIR APPLICATION
To assist in the wetting of surfaces by molten solder, a flux must be used both to
prevent oxidation during joint formation, and to dissolve the thin oxide films which
may already be present on the surfaces which are to be joined, and on the solder
itself.

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3.10 SOLDER RESISTS
There are organic coatings which are designed for use on both rigid and flexible
printed circuit, to mask off those areas where soldering is not required. Some
important advantages of the use of solder resists are as follows:
• Elimination of bridging and icicling between closely spaced conductors and
mountings.
• Protection is afforded against corrosion and contamination during storage,
handling subsequent life of the circuit.
• Flexibility of circuit patterns is maintained since a resist flexes with the
conducting material.
• The surface resistance values of the circuit patterns are improved.
• Minimising of solder contamination from large surfaces of copper and other
plated materials, thereby maintaining a high level of solder purity and an
extension of bath life.
• Heat distortion is minimised, since a resist acts as a heat barrier.
3.11 PLATING OF PRINTED WIRING CIRCUITS
Plating finishes for printed wiring circuits are used as aids to the performance of
circuits under specific conditions of use, and are not intended to be decorative. The
choice of finish is, therefore, governed strictly by the functional and environmental
conditions in which the circuit will be used. In many cases, the different parts of a
circuit may be subjected to different conditions of use, and provided there is cleat
demarcation between these parts, they can be plated with the appropriate finishes.
A typical example of this differential plating method, is a circuit that is tin/lead plated
for solderability over the component area, and nickel/gold plated for durability on
edge-connector finger contacts.
3.11.1 THROUGH-HOLE PLATING
Through-hole plating is a process which is widely employed to provide a conducting

surface in the holes of single-sided and double-sided boards, and also to provide a
land or pad for the connection of components.

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3.12 ORGANIC PROTECTIVE COATINGS
After printed wiring boards have been manufactured, organic coatings are applied to
their surfaces, to protect them from oxidation and contamination. The coatings
vary, depending on whether temporary protection is required, e.g. for maintaining
clean copper surfaces during normal handling prior to soldering, or, whether
permanent protection is to be applied after soldering for protecting the circuit and
components form subsequent environmental contaminants.
For temporary protection the coating is usually of a resin-based type which does not
require removal before soldering, since it also serves as a flux. Permanent
protective coatings are usually epoxide or polyurethane-based resin, having
exceptionally low oxygen absorption, high humidity resistance, and resistance to
cracking and discoloration.
3.13 FLEXIBLE PRINTED WIRING CIRCUITS
Unlike rigid printed wiring boards, flexible circuits serve only as a means of
interconnecting units, particularly those which require to be moved relative to each
other, and those which may be mounted in different planes. Flexible circuits also
permit easier assembly and higher density packaging of units. Flexible circuits are
laminated form, consisting of a flexible base insulation material (e.g. polyester,
epoxy glass cloth and polyimide) copper foil, and an insulating coverlay of the same
material as the base.

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3.14 HANDLING OF CIRCUIT BOARDS
3.14.1 ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE SENSITIVE DEVICES
Many electronic Line Replaceable Units (LRU's) on aircraft contain printed circuit
boards containing components that are susceptible to damage from electrostatic
discharges. Such components are referred to as electrostatic discharge sensitive
(ESDS) devices. Decals installed on ESDS LRU's, indicate that special handling is
required. Some decals are shown below, the lower four are typical Boeing ESDS
decals.
3.14.1.1 Static Electricity & Electrostatic Discharge
The most common conception of static electricity and its accompanying discharge,
is the miniature lighting shock you receive when you touch a metal door handle
having walked across a nylon carpet. If the door handle is touched with a key first,
the discharge will be seen but not felt.
The discharge occurs because different materials receive different levels of charge
as materials are rubbed together or pulled apart. The different charge levels create
potential differences between the different materials, and when materials of different
electrical potential are brought into close proximity with each other, a discharge
occurs as the potentials equalise.
The different levels of charge with respect to cotton (the reference material) are
shown on the following page, in what is known as the Triboelectric Series.
The further up or down, the greater the charge and hence the greater the discharge
when the two materials are brought together.

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Triboelectric Series
Material
Air
Human Hands
Asbestos
Rabbit Fur
Glass
Mica
Human Hands
Nylon Increasingly Positive
Wool
Fur
Lead
Silk
Aluminium
Paper
Cotton
Steel
Wood
Amber
Sealing Wax
Hard Rubber
Nickel Copper
Brass Silver
Gold Platinum
Sulphur
Acetate Rayon
Polyester Increasingly Negative
Celluloid
Orion
Saran
Polyurethane
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
PVC (vinyl)
Kelf (ctfe)
Silicon
Teflon

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The typical voltages that can occur are shown in the table below, note the
importance of humidity.
Electrostatic Voltages
Means of Static
10 to 20 Percent 65 to 90 Percent
Generation
Relative Humidity Relative Humidity
Walking across carpet 35,000 1,500
Walking over vinyl floor 12,000 250
Worker at bench 6,000 100
Vinyl envelopes for work

7,000 600
instructions
Common poly bag picked
20,000 1,200
up from bench
Work chair padded with
18,000 1,500
polyurethane form
The last table shows a list of static sensitive devices and the voltages that can
cause damage. The damage may vary from a slight degradation of performance,
giving rise to intermittent and spurious indications, to complete destruction, giving
rise to total system failure. The amount of damage varies with the amount of energy
that strikes the component.
The less obvious damage can cause considerable and expensive maintenance
headaches which may lead to lack of confidence in the equipment.
Sensitivity Range
Static Sensitive Device where damage can
occur
Field Effect Transistor (MOS /
150 - 1000 volts
FET)
CMOS 250 - 1000 volts
Bipolar Transistors 4,000 - 15000 volts
Silicon-Controlled Rectificers
4,000 - 15000 volts
(SCR)
Thin-Film Resistors 150 - 1000 volts

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3.14.2 REMOVAL & INSTALLATION OF ESDS PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
Equipment and Material

• Conductive bags
• Wrist straps
• 100% cotton twine - commercially available
• ESDS Labels
Removal of Boards
1. Remove system electrical power.
Warning: use only wrist straps with a grounding lead resistance of greater
than 1 megohm. Inadvertent contact between a low resistance wrist strap
and a high voltage, is a shock hazard to personnel.
2. Connect wrist strap assembly to a convenient ground on component containing
PC board and to skin of person removing PC board.
3. Gain access to printed circuit board.
4. Remove printed circuit board using extractors provided.
5. Immediately insert static sensitive board into a conductive bag and identify with
an ESD label. Use an ESDS label or 100% cotton twine to close the conductive
bag.
Caution: Do not use staples or adhesive tape to close conductive bag.
Damage to bag will expose contents to electrostatic discharge.
6. Close and secure unit unless replacement card is to be installed immediately.
7. Disconnect wrist strap from ground and operator.
8. Place bagged printed circuit card in a rigid container to maintain integrity of
conductive bag during transportation.
Installation of Boards
1. Check that system electrical power is off.
Warning: use only wrist straps with a grounding lead resistance of greater
than 1 megohm. Inadvertent contact between a low resistance wrist strap
and a high voltage, is a shock hazard to personnel.
2. Connect wrist strap assembly to a convenient ground on unit where the printed
circuit board is to be installed and to skin of person installing PC board.
3. Gain access to receptacle that PC board is to be installed into.
4. Remove static sensitive PC board from conductive bag.

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Caution: Do not touch connector pins or other exposed conductors.

Damage to components can result.
5. Install PC card in position using extractors provided. Lock extractors.
6. Close and secure unit.
7. Disconnect wrist strap.
3.14.3 REMOVAL & INSTALLATION OF METAL-ENCASED ESDS LRU'S
General
8. Metal-encases ESDS units can be either rack mounted, panel mounted or bolted
on.
Equipment and Material
9. Dust caps.
Note: Conductive or anti-static dust caps should be used when available. If

conductive or anti-static dust caps are not available, non-conductive dust caps
may be used but with caution, since they do not provide complete ESDS
protection during handling.
Remove metal encased LRU's with ESDS labels
10. Remove system electrical power.
11. Remove ESDS labelled unit from rack, panel, or mounted position.

Damage to components may result.
12. Install dust caps on all connectors. Do not touch electrical pins in connectors.
Note: Dust caps from unit being installed may be used on the unit being
removed.
13. Transport unit per standard practices with dust caps installed.
Install metal encased LRU's with ESDS labels

14. Check that system electrical power is off.

Damage to components may result.
15. Remove all dust caps from connectors of unit being installed. Do not touch
electrical pins in connectors.
16. Place unit in position and secure.

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4 SYNCHRONOUS DATA TRANSMISSION

Synchronous data transmission systems are designed to indicate the position of a
component or control surface that cannot be directly observed. The systems fall into
one of two categories; d.c. systems called 'Desynn Systems' and a.c. systems which
are generally grouped under the heading of 'Synchro Systems'.
Both a.c. and d.c. systems comprise two main components, a transmitting element
and a receiving element. The two being interconnected by wiring that provides the
signal path. The word 'synchronous' means 'happening at the same time', which
infers that when the transmitter is moved, the receiving element, normally an
indicator, will follow that movement instantly.
4.1 DESYNN SYSTEM
There are a variety of different types of Desynn systems available:

The Basic Desynn is generally operated by a rotary motion, however linear
versions are also found. The conversion from linear to rotary motion being achieved
by a push rod and gear wheel.
The Micro Desynn was designed to magnify the small movement obtained by such
items as pressure measuring devices. They are operated by linear motion.
The Slab Desynn was designed to overcome signally errors inherent in the basic
Desynn system. In the vast majority of instances the errors in the basic Desynn
could be considered insignificant.
4.1.1 THE BASIC DESYNN
4.1.1.1 Construction
In the basic Desynn system the transmitter comprises an endless resistance wound
on a circular former, this arrangement being referred to as a 'Toroidal Resistance'.
Equally spaced at 120° intervals around the resistor are 3 tappings, it is to these that
the signal wires are connected. Running on the resistor are two wiper arm type
contacts that are spaced apart by 180° and insulated from one another, it is to these
that system power is applied.

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The indicator comprises a two pole permanent magnet rotor, pivoted to rotate inside
a soft iron stator, the pointer being attached to the spindle. The stator carries three
star connected windings that are connected to the three wires coming from the
tappings of the transmitter.
4.1.1.2 Operation
When dc power, is applied to the wiper arms of the transmitter, current will enter the
positive wiper arm and divide to flow in both directions, left and right, around the
torroidal resistor. Both halves of the resistor have the same resistance, therefore
the current in each path will be equal.
The resistance of the resister varies linearly. That is, the change in resistance for
every degree of movement around it will be the same, therefore when 28 volts is
applied to the system as shown in the diagram, the voltage at tapping 2 will be
approx. 9.3 volts, as will the voltage at tapping 3. The voltage at tapping 1 will be 28
volts.

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The differences in potential at the three tappings cause currents to flow in the wires
that connect to the receiver. The flow of current creates magnetic fields around the
3 stator windings in the receiver, which combine to produce a resultant field across
the stator. The permanent magnet aligns with the resultant stator field, in turn
aligning with the wiper arms of the transmitter.
If, for ease of explanation, the transmitter wiper arms are rotated by 120° clockwise,
the potential at tapping 2 will increase to 28 volts, the potential at tapping 3 will
remain the same at 9.3 volts and that at tapping 1 will decrease to 9.3 volts. Current
will now flow out of the transmitter at tapping 2 into the indicator at terminal 2,
through the first winding where it will divide equally, half returning to the transmitter
via terminals 1, the other half via terminals 3. The resultant field now produced
across the stator will be in line with stator coil 2, this will cause the permanent
magnet rotor, band pointer, to swing around 120° clockwise to once again align with
the wiper arms of the transmitter.
Irrespective of the position of the wiper arms in the transmitter, the current flow
between transmitter and receiver will always create a field across the stator that
aligns with their position.
4.1.1.3 Fail Safe Devices
A problem with the Desynn as shown, is that should the d.c. power to the system
fail, the pointer will remain in its last position. This is not a satisfactory situation, the
instrument should 'fail safe', that is it should respond in such a way that the fault will
be identified. This is achieved by fitting a small permanent magnet in the indicator.
Under normal operation, the field of the permanent magnet is weak in comparison to
the fields produced by the coils and therefore has no effect. When power is
removed, the small permanent magnet attracts the permanent magnet rotor, moving
the pointer off scale.

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4.1.2 SLAB DESYNN
If the voltage at the 3 tappings of the transmitter of a basic Desynn are measured as
the wiper arms are rotated 360°, it will be seen that they produce a sawtooth
waveform as opposed to a sinewave. This results in the pointer of the indicator not
following the transmitter exactly. In most instances the difference is insignificant,
however their may be certain circumstances where it cannot be overlooked.
The solution is to use a modified Desynn transmitter called a 'slab Desynn'. In a

slab Desynn, the resistor is wound on a slab former and has the power supply
connected to it, whilst the wiper arms now provide the output to the receiver, there
being 3 wiper arms each displaced from the next by 120°. The output from this
device is a sinewave. It can be connected to the same type of indicator and
operates in the same way as the basic Desynn.
4.2 SYNCHRO SYSTEMS
Synchro's are electromagnetic devices used to transmit positional data electrically

from one location to another. They have an advantage over Desynn's in that they
can also be used to compute the sum of two rotations, or the difference in angle
between them. They are used in applications requiring low output torques.
Servo systems, which will be examined in the next section, employ synchros in
conjunction with an amplifier and a controlling motor to provide an automatic control
mechanism. They are used in applications requiring output torque's greater than
those which can be produced by a synchro.

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4.2.1 SYNCHRO TYPES
Synchro types may be classified as follows:

• Torque transmitter
• Torque receiver
• Torque differential receiver
• Torque differential transmitter
• Control transmitter
• Control transformer
• Control differential transmitter
• Resolver
4.2.1.1 Torque Transmitter - TX
Used to generate an electrical signal corresponding to the angular position of a

mechanical component. The rotor is connected to the component and the stator
kept stationary. The electrical signal is derived from the position of the rotor relative
to the stator. The TX is generally used as the transmitting element in a remote
position indicating system.
4.2.1.2 Torque Receiver - TR
The rotor of a torque receiver, which is free to turn, moves to a position dependent
on the electrical angular information received from its connected torque transmitter
or torque differential transmitter. The TR is generally used as the receiving element
(indicator) in a remote position indicating system.
4.2.1.3 Torque Differential Receiver - TDR
The torque differential receiver is electrically connected to two torque transmitters.

The rotor of the TDR, which is free to move, aligns with the stator field. The position
of the stator field depends on the inputs from the two transmitters, and the way in
which they are interconnected. By suitable connection, the TDR can be made to
indicate the sum of the transmitter inputs, or the difference between them.

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4.2.1.4 Torque Differential Transmitter - TDX
The torque differential transmitter has a stator that receives electrical positional
information from a torque transmitter, and a rotor which is mechanically positioned.
This enables it to transmit electrical information corresponding to the sum, or
difference, between the electrical input and its own rotor angle.
4.2.1.5 Control Transmitter - CX
Used to generate an electrical signal corresponding to the angular position of a

mechanical component. The rotor is connected to the component and the stator
kept stationary. The electrical signal is derived from the position of the rotor relative
to the stator. The TX is generally used as the position transmitting element in a
remote position control system.
4.2.1.6 Control Transformer - CT
A CT is electrically connected to a CX and is used to produce an electrical signal for

driving a servo system. The electrical signal produced, is an a.c. voltage with an
amplitude and phase dependent on the position of the rotor relative to the stator.
4.2.1.7 Control Differential Transmitter - CTX
A CTX receives electrical information from a CX and has a rotor which can be
mechanically moved. This enables it to transmit an electrical signal proportional to
the sum or difference in angle between the electrical input and its own rotor position.
4.2.1.8 Resolver
A resolver has two mutually perpendicular windings on the rotor and another two on
the stator (4 windings in total). It can resolve an input signal into its sine and cosine
components, perform the operations of vector addition and subtraction or convert
polar to cartesian co-ordinates and vice versa.

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4.2.2 SYNCHRO SCHEMATICS
All synchros are represented by the same basic schematic symbol which may be
drawn in any one of three different ways:
This is the simplest and possibly the most

commonly used representation in
maintenance manuals. The code letters are
inserted in the centre circle to identify the
type and function of the synchro.
Used when an explanation is given of the

operation of a synchro. The schematic
shows the rotor in the zero degree position.
This is now commonly used when an

explanation is given of the operation of a
synchro.
Note: By convention, the vertical winding in the last 2 schematics is identified as S2,
the lower right as S1 and the lower left as S3.

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Differential transmitter and receiver synchros can be represented schematically by

any one of the following symbols.
The resolver synchro can be represented schematically by any one of the following
symbols.

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4.2.3 XYZ SYNCHRO SYSTEM
Synchros often appear in aircraft wiring and schematic diagrams with the letters X,
Y, Z indicating the free end of each stator winding and the letters H and C indicating
the ends of the rotor.
S1 ----- X
S2 ----- Z
S3 ----- Y
R1 ----- H
R2 ----- C
When connections to earth are required, the stator wire designated S2 or Z is
earthed and the C end of the rotor winding is earthed.
4.2.4 SYNCHRO SUPPLIES
Synchros used in aircraft data transmission systems are operated from either 115V
400Hz or 26V 400Hz alternating current supplies. Radio systems commonly employ
26V 400Hz.

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4.2.5 TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM
Torque synchro systems are used where the turning force or torque required is very
small. The system only produces sufficient torque to move a pointer over a scale, or
to operate a micro switch, because of this they are limited to indicating systems.
The torque synchro system comprises a Torque transmitter (TX) and a Torque
Receiver (TR) interconnected as shown below.
In practice:
• R2 and S2 will be connected to earth.
• The rotor of the TX will be mechanically rotated by suitable means appropriate to
the system whose positional information has to be transmitted.
• A pointer, which will indicate the transmitted data, is normally attached to the
rotor of the TR.
The ac power supply is connected to both rotors, the rotors being connected in
parallel.

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4.2.5.2 Operation
With supply current flowing, voltages are induced is the stator winding of both the
TX and TR by transformer action. With the rotors in the same angular position, as
shown in the diagram, the voltages in the TX and TR will be equal and opposite,
hence no current will flow in the stator coils and interconnecting wires. The system
is said to be balanced or nulled.
The voltage induced in the stator coils will depend on:
• The ratio of the number of turns on the rotor to the number of turns on the stator
and,
• the angular position of the rotor with respect to the stators.
For the position of the rotors shown in the diagram, the voltages induced in the
stators of both transmitter and receiver would be:
• S1 half maximum voltage
• S2 maximum voltage
• S3 half maximum voltage
If the transmitter rotor is rotated through any angle, the voltages induced in the
stator coils of the TX will change. The voltages induced in the stator coils of the TR
will remain unchanged. This creates potential differences across the
interconnecting wires, and current flow in them. The current flows produce magnetic
fields around the stator windings which combine to form a resultant field across the
stator of both the TX and TR.
A torque reaction will now exist between the resultant stator field and the field that
exists around the rotor. This torque reaction will exist at both the TX and TR.
The rotor of the TX is held by the system whose positional information has to be
transmitted and cannot move. The rotor of the TR is however free to rotate and
moves around in response to the torque.
Once the TR rotor is in the same angular position as the transmitter rotor, the
voltages induced in the stators will again be equal and opposite, current will cease
to flow and the system will once again be balanced.
To ensure accuracy of the system there must be sufficient current flow to produce a
torque even for small changes in transmitter position. This requires the impedance
of the windings to be very small. Under normal operating conditions this is of no
concern, however, should the receiver pointer jam then a large potential difference
would exist between the TX and TR with resulting high currents. This can easily
lead to one or both of the synchros burning out.

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4.2.5.3 Synchro System Faults
A loss of supply to the TR rotor will result in Low Torque operation with possible
180° error.
A loss of supply to the TX rotor will result in no operation of the synchro.
An open circuit on one stator line will result in the receiver oscillating between 2
points approximately 75° apart.
A short circuit between 2 stator lines will result in the receiver being displaced by 0°,
60°, 120°, 180°, 240° or 300° and movement in 180° steps.
The table below shows the results or effects of a number of cross connections.
Cross Connections Fault Symptoms

Receiver indicates 120° and
S1 and S2 Reversed. rotates in opposite direction to
transmitter.
Receiver indicates 240° and
S2 and S3 Reversed. rotates in opposites direction to
transmitter.
Receiver indicates correctly but
S1 and S3 Reversed rotates in opposite direction to
transmitter.
Receiver indicated 180° error but
R1 and R2 Reversed rotates in same direction as the
transmitter.
R1 and R2 Reversed and
S1 and S2 Reversed
Receiver indicates 60° error and
or rotates in opposite direction to
R1 and R2 Reversed and transmitter.
S2 and S3 Reversed
R1 and R2 Reversed and Receiver indicates 180° error and

rotates in opposite direction to
S1 and S3 Reversed transmitter.

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4.2.6 ELECTRICAL ZERO
The electrical zero setting of a synchros provides a standard means of aligning

synchros units so they will all have the same position at the same instant. This
setting provides a common reference point at which all synchros are set before
being installed.
Electrical zero is defined as the position of the rotor with respect to its stator when
the voltage between S1 and S3 is zero and the voltage at S2 with respect to S1 or
S3 is in phase with that of R1 with respect to R2. It simply means that the rotor is
parallel to S2 and that R1 is at the top. By connecting the voltmeters as shown
electrical zero can be determined. V1 should indicate zero and V2 should indicate a
value less than the supply voltage. Remember that if R2 were at the top V1 would
still indicate zero but, if the voltage between R1 and S2 would be antiphase and V2
would indicate a value greater than the supply voltage.

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4.2.7 DIFFERENTIAL TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM
A differential synchro system consists of a differential synchro used in conjunction

with a synchro transmitter and receiver. It is electrically connected as shown in the
diagram below.
The first thing to notice is that the rotor of the differential synchro has three equally
spaced windings and is connected to the transmitter and receiver stators. When
connected as shown it will provide an output which is the difference between the two
inputs from the mechanical drives. It can also be wired to produce an addition of the
two inputs. There is no connection between the differential synchros and the
supply.
4.2.7.1 Operation
Consider the differential synchro to be three 1:1 transformers between the three
stator windings of the transmitter and the three stator windings of the receiver.

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When the system is set as shown in the diagram above, (the interconnecting wires
have been removed for clarity), the induced voltages in the stators and across the
transformers will be equal and no current will flow in any of the interconnecting
wires.
If the transmitter (on the left) is turned by 60º, the TX stator voltages will change and
current will flow around the stator windings. Resultant fields will be set up and the
TR rotor will feel torque, so the rotor will turn until, again, the voltages are equal and
current stops flowing.
An important thing to remember is that all three components feel the torque reaction
created by the interaction of rotor and stator fields, but because the transmitter
rotors are mechanically connected to other systems they will not be free to move.
Only the receiver rotor (on the right) is free to respond.
If the TX is left stationary and the TDX is rotated by 15º the voltages will be different
and current will flow around the stator windings. A torque reaction will occur and the
rotor on the receiver will turn until the voltages are equal and current stops flowing.
It should be noted that when the TDX is wired as shown, clockwise rotation of the
TDX results in anticlockwise rotation of the TR.
If both the TX and the TDX were rotated then the TR would show the difference
between the two movements.
The differential synchro need not always be a transmitting device. The system
could be arranged with two transmitting synchros and a TDR with a pointer
attached. Under these conditions, the torque differential receiver (TDR) is the
receiving element, but the system will respond as previously described to show the
difference in the two inputs.

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4.2.7.2 Sum of Two Inputs
If the S1 and S3 connections between the TX and TDX are crossed and the S1 and
S3 connections between the TDX and TR are also crossed, the system will
algebraically add the two mechanical inputs.
i.e. TX 30° clockwise TDX 15° clockwise moves the TR 45° clockwise.
TX 30° anticlockwise TDX 15° clockwise moves the TR 15° anticlockwise.
A similar arrangement of cross connections could be used on a TDR type system to
make the TDR show the sum of two inputs.
4.2.8 CONTROL SYNCHRO SYSTEM
Control synchros are used in electromechanical servo and shaft positioning

systems. They only produce a signal representative of the position of the
transmitter. This signal can then be amplified many times to power very large
motors that can move very large loads to a desired position.
In construction, control synchros are similar to torque synchros but because they do
not have to handle any motive power for driving a load they may be of lighter
construction. Also, because the signal from the receiver is going to be amplified to
drive an output, the impedance of the windings can be made much higher and there
is no danger of the system burning out. The control synchro system is the most
common of all synchros and has extensive use in aircraft instrument and
navigational systems.

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4.2.8.2 Operation
In a control synchro system the ac power supply is only connected to the rotor of the
transmitter, the CX. The signal representing the position of the transmitter is
obtained from the rotor of the receiving element, the CT. Note that in the balanced
or nulled position, the rotors of the CX and CT are at 90° to each other.
When the rotor of the CX is in the position shown, maximum voltage is induced in
stator S2 and half maximum voltage is induced in stator windings S1 and S3. No
emf's are induced in the stator windings of the CT, therefore a potential difference
exists between each stator winding of the CX and CT and currents flow in the
transmission wires.
The current flowing in the CT stator windings produce magnetic fields that combine
to form a magnetic field across the stator. This alternating field cut's the rotor
winding. The emf induced in the CT rotor winding depends on the position of the
rotor relative to the resultant field. When the rotor winding is parallel to the resultant
field, maximum voltage is induced in it, when the rotor is at 90° to the resultant field,
zero emf is induced in it.
The amplitude of the induced emf is proportional to the sine of the angle between
the rotor and resultant field. The phase of the induced emf depends on whether the
rotor is clockwise or anticlockwise of the balanced or nulled position. The control
transformer can therefore be considered as a null detector and is most often used in
servo systems.

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CT Rotor Position EMF Induced in CT

Rotor
90° clockwise
90° anticlockwise
5° clockwise
5° anticlockwise

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4.2.8.3 Control Synchro Servo System
The diagram below shows a control synchro system employed in its most common
role as part of a servo system.
As shown, the system is balanced, zero emf is induced in the CT rotor, there is no
output to the servo motor and the motor and pointer are stationary.
If the rotor of the CX is now moved clockwise, the resultant field across the stator of
the CT will also move around clockwise. The rotor of the CT is now no longer at 90°
to the resultant field and therefore has an emf induced in it.
The emf is applied to a discriminator amplifier to sense its phase relationship to the
excitation supply, to obtain direction information, and then applied to the motor. The
motor turns, driving the pointer and at the same time driving the rotor of the CT
towards the balanced position (90° to the resultant field).
When the rotor is at 90° to the resultant field, the induced emf falls to zero and the
motor stops, the pointer having moved to indicate the new position.
If the rotor of the CX had been moved anticlockwise, the error signal in the CT rotor
would have been of opposite phase and the motor would have turned in the
opposite direction to once again null or balanced the system.

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4.2.9 DIFFERENTIAL CONTROL SYNCHROS
These are in common use. Their operation is the same as for Torque differential
synchros, and they can also be wired to produce an electrical signal proportional to
the sum or difference between two inputs.

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5 SERVO SYSTEMS
Servomechanisms are a type of automatic control system. The action of the output
in slavishly following the demands of the input gives the system its name. (Servus is
the Latin name for slave).
Human operators are incapable of providing the degree of precision necessary to
operate complex machines requiring fast and accurate control. They are also
limited in the amount of power they can apply to a load. Servomechanisms provide
the precise control and power that humans are unable to provide.
Servomechanisms, or Servo’s possess the following properties:
• They are error activated.
• They have power amplification.
• They contain moving parts.
• They are automatic in operation.
5.1 CATEGORIES OF SERVO SYSTEMS
Servomechanisms can be classified according to two main categories:

• Open loop systems.
• Closed loop systems.
5.1.1 OPEN LOOP
In an open loop system, the input demand generates an electrical equivalent of

the demand position. This signal is amplified to the required power level and
applied to a motor to position the load. The speed of response and the final position
of the load depend on the following factors:
• Any variations in load conditions.
• Frictional forces within the motor and its load, and any mechanical
interconnections.

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• Variations in power supplies.

• The value of the demand voltage.
• Variations in amplifier gain.
As the open loop system suffers from the variable factors shown above, the output
is unlikely to follow the input precisely and cannot provide the close tolerance
required.
5.1.2 CLOSED LOOP
If the errors in the output of a system are detected and fed back to the input so that
the necessary corrections can be made to eliminate the error, the system is said to
be a closed loop system. A Closed loop system is shown below.
The essential features of a closed loop system are:

• Information concerning the behaviour of the load is fed back to the input. This is
called feedback.
• The position of the output (feedback) is compared to that demanded by the input.
Typically in a summing amplifier.
• The production of an error signal proportional to the difference between the
demand and feedback signals.
• Power amplification of the error signal to control the load.
• Movement of the load in such a direction as to reduce the error signal to zero, at
which point the output is the same as that demanded by the input.

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5.2 REMOTE POSITION CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS
One form of closed loop servo system is a Remote Position Control (RPC) servo
system. This system is used to control the position of a remotely located device in
response to a change in the demanded input. The essential parts of an RPC servo
are as follows:
• Transducers - In general, a transducer is a device for converting one form of
energy into another, for example, electrical to mechanical, heat to electrical or
light to electrical. In servo systems these are generally used to convert a
mechanical input to an electrical signal for the servo.
• Amplifier - The amplifier increases the power of the input signal to a level
suitable to drive the device being positioned. Large mechanical work outputs are
therefore possible for very small work inputs.
• Motors - Motors are used to move the device being controlled. They are
usually coupled to a gearbox and produce either a linear or rotary motion.
5.2.1 POSITIONAL FEEDBACK
As already mentioned. For a closed loop system to function correctly is requires the
use of Position Feedback (PFB). In a perfect system incorporating positional
feedback, the output shaft would exactly follow the input shaft position. The diagram
below shows a simple system using positional feedback.
Assuming the angular position of the output shaft corresponds exactly with the
angular position of the input shaft, the demand and feedback voltages from the
potentiometers will be equal. These voltages could be any value, we will assume
they are both 5 volts.

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In the summing amplifier, the feedback signal is subtracted from the demand signal
resulting in no error signal. With no error signal applied to the amplifier, the motor
will be stationary and the system is said to be at rest. This may be expressed
mathematically as:
Error = Demand - Feedback = 0
If the input shaft is now rotated clockwise through some angle, changing the
demand voltage from 5 volts to 6 volts, the difference between the input shaft
voltage, now 6 volts, and the output shaft, still 5 volts, will be:
Error = Demand - Feedback

Error = 6V - 5V = 1V
The motor now runs in the direction determined by the polarity of the error voltage.
As the motor runs to reposition the load, the wiper on the potentiometer is moved so
as to increase the feedback voltage. When the feedback voltage is again equal to
the demand voltage (6 volts), the error signal will be zero, the motor will stop and the
output shaft would be realigned with the input shaft.
If the input shaft had been rotated anti-clockwise through the same angle, instead of
clockwise, the demand voltage would have decreased from 5 volts to 4 volts, and
the error signal would have been –1 volt. This would have caused the motor to drive
in the opposite direction, decreasing the feedback voltage.
Error = Demand - Feedback
Error = 4V - 5V = -1V
The example uses a d.c. system but the same principles apply in the case of the
equivalent a.c. circuit, except that the direction of rotation of the motor is determined
by the phase relationship between the output and a reference phase.

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5.3 TYPES OF INPUTS
There are three possible types of inputs to a servo, these are:
5.3.1 STEP INPUT
This type of input can be achieved by switching off the servo power, moving the
input shaft and then re-applying power. The response of a servo system to this type
of input reveals a great deal of information about the servo system. It is therefore
used as a test signal.
5.3.2 RAMP INPUT
This type of input is created when the input shaft is suddenly rotated at a constant
angular velocity. The units would be radians / second. The diagram shows an
example of a ramp Input. Servo systems are subjected to this type of input during
normal operation.
5.3.3 ACCELERATING INPUT
An accelerating function is created when the input shaft is rotated with a constant
acceleration. The units would be radians / second2. The diagram shows an
example of an accelerating input. Systems are subject to this type of input during
normal operation.

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5.4 SYSTEM RESPONSE
How well a servomechanism responds to a particular change in input signal, in

terms of transient response and overshoot, is a measure of its overall performance.
Any servomechanism will take a finite time to start to move and also to settle down
at a new position. 'Settling Time' is defined as the time taken to approach a final
steady state within specific limits. The diagram below shows the response of a RPC
system to a step input.
Unless special precautions are taken a servomechanism will oscillate. The diagram
above, when the output response reaches the required value at point 'x', the load
has acquired considerable momentum and consequently overshoots. The error now
increases in the opposite sense and a reverse-torque is applied which brings the
load to rest at point 'y', and then accelerates it back in the opposite direction where it
again overshoots the desired position, at point Z. This process can continue
indefinitely if the frictional losses in the system are negligible, and system would
oscillate continuously. This is called 'hunting'. To avoid oscillation and subsequent
hunting, some form of damping is required.

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5.5 DAMPING
Different amounts of damping produces different response curves.

• Underdamped - When overshoots and transient oscillations are observed at
the output of a system the servomechanism is said to be underdamped.
• Critically damped - When the system responds to an error in such a way that
the output moves to the required position at the fastest possible rate without
producing overshoots it is said to be critically damped. This is a theoretical
position and provides the division between underdamping and overdamping.
• Overdamped - When no overshoots are produced, but a time lag is introduced
into the system, the servomechanism is said to be overdamped.
In practice, servo systems are designed to be slightly underdamped in order to
reduce response delays. This is shown by the dotted line in the diagram. This
degree of damping is often called 'ideal damping'.
Under ideally damped conditions, the system reaches the required position more
quickly than when critically damped, but it overswings the demanded position and
has to move back onto it. This means the system takes slightly longer to reach the
steady state.
5.5.1 FRICTIONAL FORCES WHICH PRODUCE DAMPING
There are frictional forces inherent in a servo system, which provide damping.
These are coulomb friction and viscous friction. Another friction present when the
servo is at rest is stiction.
5.5.1.1 Stiction
Stiction is present in the system when it is at rest. This initial friction must be
overcome in order for the system to move. Once moving, stiction falls to zero. The
name stiction comes from Static Friction.

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5.5.1.2 Coulomb Friction
Coulomb Friction is a constant force independent of speed and is demonstrated by

the rubbing friction between two plates. The diagram below shows a system both
undamped and damped with Coulomb friction. The number of overshoots in the
system using Coulomb friction is proportional to the size of the initial error, the larger
the error the greater the number of overshoots.
It will be noted that the response curve of the system using Coulomb friction brings
the system to a steady state but that a positional error is present. For this reason
coulomb friction is not used in practical systems, and although always present in the
form of inherent friction, good system design keeps it to a minimum.
5.5.1.3 Viscous Friction
Viscous Friction is proportional to velocity and provides satisfactory damping for

servo systems. When the velocity of the system is zero, viscous friction is zero, and
therefore it will not cause a position error. If the system moves more rapidly, the
viscous friction will increase, as necessary to provide the additional damping
required.

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The response of a system to a ramp input is shown below. The oscillations of the
system are damped out, but a constant error is produced. This error is called
'Velocity Lag'. The amount of Velocity Lag is proportional to the amount of viscous
damping.
5.5.1.4 Efficiency of Output Damping
Both Coulomb and Viscous damping have the great disadvantage of being applied
to the output of systems. This requires large amounts of energy to control high
power outputs. This inevitably generates heat, which entails the provision of
complex cooling systems. It is more efficient to apply damping to the input of the
system, where power levels are much lower.
5.5.2 VELOCITY FEEDBACK DAMPING
A simple and commonly used method of providing damping at the input is to use
Negative Velocity Feedback (NVFB).
A system using NVFB damping is shown in the diagram below. The feedback is
applied to the input and therefore must be electrical. Velocity feedback provides
damping similar to viscous friction, but because it is applied to the input, little power
is required.

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In servomechanisms, velocity feedback is achieved by using a tacho-generator (TG)

driven by the output shaft of the system as shown above. A Tacho-generator is a
small electrical generator, which is either A.C or D.C. operated. The great
advantage of this type of feedback is that amount of voltage fed back to the system,
and therefore the amount of damping, can be controlled by using a simple
potentiometer.
5.5.2.1 Velocity Feedback Curves
The diagram below shows the result of applying Velocity feedback in the circuit
shown in above. As RPC servos are concerned with the position of the load, the
velocity lag will only be present when the load is moving and will therefore only
cause a slight increase in the response time.

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5.6 VELOCITY CONTROL SERVOMECHANISMS
In some applications it is the rotational speed of a shaft and not its position that must
be controlled. A Rate Servo is shown in the diagram on the following page. The
input demand signal is used to control the angular velocity of the output shaft and
not its position. To make the speed of the driving motor exactly proportional to the
input demand a servomechanism is essential. If a servomechanism were not used
the speed of the output motor would vary with changes in the supply voltage or any
changes of the friction in the motor or its load.
Note that there is no position feedback.
Movement of the speed control potentiometer produces a voltage proportional to the
demanded speed. The tacho-generator provides a voltage proportional to the
angular velocity of the output shaft. If there is a difference between these two
signals an error voltage will be fed to the amplifier. The output of the amplifier will
accelerate or decelerate the motor until the output of the tacho-generator produces
a voltage exactly equal to the input demand voltage and the motor will run at the
demanded speed.
5.6.1 RESIDUAL ERROR
Because of inherent frictional and damping losses, some torque is always required
to turn the motor and load at a constant speed and therefore a difference between
the input demand and the actual speed will always be present. By using high gain in
the amplifier this difference can be kept very low.
5.6.2 VELOCITY LAG
A Rate Servo using velocity feedback is just as prone to velocity lag as a RPC
Servo, but as it is only the speed and not the actual position of the output that is
measured, it may be ignored.

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5.7 A.C. SERVOMECHANISM COMPONENTS
The components associated with dc servo systems are simple in operation and
require no further explanation, however, some of the components in ac servo
systems require additional consideration.
5.7.1 E & I BAR TRANSDUCER
The E & I bar transducer is so called because of the shape of its component parts.
The diagram below shows the construction and operation of an angular
displacement E & I bar transducer. A winding on the centre limb of the E bar carries
an A.C. excitation supply. Secondary coils are connected in series opposition. With
the I bar in the centre position equal flux will flow in the outer limbs of the E bar, the
voltages induced in the two secondary coils will be equal and opposite and will
therefore cancel out and there will be no output signal. If the I bar is displaced from
the central position, more flux will flow in the limb of the E bar with the smaller air
gap and less flux will flow in the limb with the larger air gap. The induced voltages in
the two windings will no longer cancel out and an output voltage will be produced.
The phase of the output voltage is determined by the direction of movement of the I
bar. The magnitude is determined by how far the bar moves. In a servo system the
amount of movement will be kept small due to the follow-up action.

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The E & I Bar may also be used to convert linear movement to an electrical signal.
A practical application of this is shown in the diagram below. The I bar is moved
linearly by an evacuated capsule. Note that the diagram contains a complete servo
system.
5.7.2 A.C. TACHOGENERATORS
Tachogenerators provide the velocity feedback for servo systems. A tachogenerator

normally utilises the drag cup principle and will always produce a voltage with the
same frequency as the supply voltage.

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The diagram below shows the electrical components of the tachogenerator. With
the drag cup stationary no voltage is induced in the secondary winding as it is
placed at right angles to the primary winding and the output is zero.
As the output shaft drives the rotor, the current in the input coil produces a field that
induces a current in that part of the cup passing through the primary axis. As the
cup rotates, rotating eddy currents are induced and this will in turn induce a voltage
across the output winding. The amplitude of the voltage will be proportional to the
speed of rotation of the drag cup and the phase will be dependent on the direction of
rotation.
Ideally, the output of the tachogenerator would be zero when stationary but in
practical systems a small voltage is present.

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5.8 PRACTICAL SERVO SYSTEMS
The following are examples of typical servo systems, many more systems will be
encountered and examined during the course.
5.8.1 DIRECT SERVO CURRENT SYSTEM
The potentials at the 2 potentiometer wipers are proportional to the input and output
shaft positions θI and θo. Any difference in the relative positions results in a
difference of potential between the wipers which is the error signal applied to the
amplifier. The polarity of the voltage indicated the direction of the error. The signal
is amplified and produces a flux in the split field motor.
The motor armature carries current continuously, thus the presence of the field
produces a motor torque which drives the load in a direction corresponding to the
polarity of the error signal, towards alignment. When alignment is reached the error
signal falls to zero, the motor field disappears and the motor stops.

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5.8.2 ALTERNATING CURRENT SERVO SYSTEM
The input shaft fixes the position of the control transmitter (CX) rotor and hence the
position of the stator field of the control transformer. The output shaft fixes the
position of the rotor of the control transformer (CT). When the rotor of the CT is at
90° to the rotor of the CX, no emf's are induced in the rotor of the CT and the
system is stationary (nulled).
With a misalignment in the system an emf is induced in the rotor of the control
transformer, this is the error signal. The error signal is amplified and passed to the
motor, which with both phases excited drives the load in one direction or other
according to the phase of the rotor emf. When alignment is reached there is no
output from the CT, no input to the amplifier and the motor stops.

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6 OTHER TRANSDUCERS
6.1 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
Linear variable differential transforms (LVDT's) are used to produce an electrical

signal proportional to a linear movement. LVDT's consists of a moveable iron core
that is mounted inside three windings wound on a coil former. The centre winding is
the excitation winding and is connected to an a.c. reference voltage. The two outer
windings are connected in series opposition and provide the output.
With the core centralised and a.c. applied to the excitation coil, an emf is induced in
each of the output windings. The emf's induced in each winding are the same size,
but phase displaced by 180º, and therefore cancel out, producing no output.
When the iron core is moved, the emf induced in one output winding increases, and
in the other it decreases. The two voltages no longer cancel, and an output is
produced. If the core is moved the same amount in the opposite direction, an emf of
the same size, but of opposite phase will be produced.

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6.2 ROTARY VARIABLE TRANSFORMER
Rotary Variable Differential

transformers and E and I bar
transducers work on the same
principle as the LVDT. Each
device being used to produce an
electrical signal from a mechanical
movement. The RVDT produces
an electrical signal proportional to a
rotational movement, and the E
and I bar can be used to produce a
signal from both a linear and rotary
movement.
In the example studied, the excitation was applied to the single centre winding, this
is not always the case, the excitation can be applied to the two outer windings.
Each winding will induce an emf of opposite polarity in the centre winding. If both
emf's are the same size they will cancel, if not a resultant output voltage will be
produced. The phase of the output signal depends on which reference coil induced
the larger emf into the single output winding, which in turn depends on the position
of the core.
6.3 INDUCTIVE TYPE TRANSDUCERS
Inductive type transducers use the principles associated with inductance that were
discussed earlier in the course. Inductance is generally used in one of two ways in
aircraft transducers. Firstly a changing magnetic field is used as the transducer
output and secondly by using changes in flux density to control a.c. current flow.
6.3.1 INDUCED EMF TYPE
This type of transducer comprises a coil and a permanent magnet and requires a
steel target for its operation. When the target is displaced from the transducer the
field of the permanent magnet surrounds the coil, but does not induce an emf in it
because the lines of flux are not moving relative to the conductor.

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When the steel target is placed in close proximity to the transducer the magnetic flux
density increases due to the reduction in reluctance, again, although the flux density
increased, no emf is induced because there is no relative movement between the
conductor and coil.
If the target is moved continually back and forward past the transducer, the flux
density continually increases and decreases. This changing flux induces an emf in
the transducer. The frequency of the induced emf depends on the speed of
movement; the faster the target is moved, the higher the frequency.
This form of transducer is used to measure rotational speed of items such as engine
shafts.
6.3.2 A.C. CURRENT CONTROL
When a.c. current flows in an inductor, the continually changing flux produces a
continually changing back emf that opposes the current flow. This opposition to
current flow is called inductive reactance, and is dependent on the value of
inductance of the coil.
The inductance of the coil can be changed by changing the coil material, or by
placing a piece of steel adjacent to it. Placing a piece of steel near the coil
increases its inductance, which in turn increases the inductive reactance of the coil.
Increasing the inductive reactance reduces the a.c. current flow in the coil, which
can be detected and used to provide a signal to indicate when the steel is in close
proximity to the coil or sensor.
This form of transducer is used in proximity sensing systems such as those used to
sense the position of the undercarriage.

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 4

1 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES...................................................... 1-1

3 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS....................................................... 3-1

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1

3.5 CIRCUIT ARTWORK ................................................................. 3-4

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 2

5.3.2 Ramp Input............................................................. 5-5

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 3

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 4

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-1

1.1 RECTIFIER DIODES

A rectifier diode is the electrical equivalent of a one way valve, it is a semiconductor

1.1.1 CIRCUIT SYMBOLS & IDENTIFICATION

The various symbols used for diodes are shown below.

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-2

1.1.2 OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

1.1.2.2 Forward Voltage Drop

1.1.2.3 Reverse Leakage Current

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-3

1.1.2.4 Reverse Breakdown Voltage

1.1.2.5 Graphical Representation

Shown below is a graphical representation of the operating characteristics of a

1.1.3 PARALLEL & SERIAL ARRANGEMENTS OF DIODES

It is possible to operate silicon rectifier diodes in parallel or in series to provide

1.1.3.1 Parallel Arrangements

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-4

1.1.3.2 Series Arrangements

Rectifier diodes are designed to convert ac to dc. To do this effectively and

1.1.4.1 Basic Rectifier Circuit

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-5

1.1.4.2 Centre Tap Full Wave Rectifier

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-6

1.1.4.3 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

The rectifier circuits previously discussed produce pulsating d.c. outputs. A

1.1.4.4.1 Half Wave Rectifier

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-7

1.1.4.4.2 Full Wave Rectifier

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-8

1.1.4.5 Ripple Factor

1.1.4.6 Peak Inverse Voltage

1.1.4.7 Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation is a measure of the ability of a power supply to provide an

1.1.4.8 Filter Circuits

1.1.4.9 Ripple Frequency

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-9

1.2 SIGNAL DIODES

1.3 ZENER DIODES

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-10

1.4 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Unless an LED is of the constant current type, which incorporates an integrated

1.5.1 PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-11

1.5.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

When illuminated, a photovoltaic cell produces a voltage. If an

1.7 VARACTOR DIODE

A varactor diode is a special type of diode constructed to act as a voltage controlled

There are 3 main uses for varactor diodes:

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-12

1.8 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER

Issue 1 - 02 October 2002 Page 1-13

The two basic types of transistors are:

1.9.1 NPN TRANSISTOR