3 - (Principal of Engineering) PDF

Principles of
Engineering
Thermodynamics
Principles of
Engineering
Thermodynamics
- - - 2nd Edition - - -
PAUL J. KIEFER, A.B., B.S., J\I.E., D.Se.

Professor of l\Iechamcal Engmeermg
U S Naval Poatgradu8.w School
GILDEllT FORD KINNEY, A.n., M.S., Ph.D.

Pror(..~sor
of ChemlCal Engmeermg
U. S. S aval Postgraduate School
J\IIJ,TON C. STUART, U.S. in M.E., M.E.

Professor of Mechanical EngweerlUg
Lehigh University
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., NEW YORK

CHAPMAN & HALL, LIMITED, LONDON
CoPTJUOHT, 1930
By
PAUL J. KIEFER AND MILTON C. SWART
CoPYRIGHT, 1954
By
JOHN WUEY & SONS, INC.
All R,ghts Reserved

This book or any part thereof must no~
be reploduced in any form W'L~hout the
wnllen permW8wn of the publ18her.
85'03
LLbrary of Congress Catalog Card Number: 54-10031

Printed In the Umted States of America
Preface
The advances in thermodynamic thought smce publication of thc
first edition of tins material have necessitated a complete revIsion.
Features and approaches which cllaractenzed the earlier ed,tlOn are,
however, retained These include the distinction between the ener-
gIes stored In and as matter and tho~e in transItion as heatl the mtro-
ductlOn of a steady-flow energy equatJOn and the enthalpy function,
and an emphasIs on the entropy of energy and the entropy functIOn as
an index of mechanical unavailabihty. Current acceptance of such
considerations 11a8 enabled thelT more concise presenwtion; this in
turn permIts a more comprehensIve coverage of practlcal thermo-
dynamic applications within the same space limitations.
The emphasIs is on the prmClples of engmeering thermodynamics,
endeavoring to Implant a rccogmtlOn both of the ideal capabilities and
of the inherent limitations of power-plant and similar equipment. Wc
have endeavored also to make more understandable the nature and
consequences of the inescapable departures from thc ideal in actual
operating installatIOns. The now almost exclusive use of turbo-type
machinery, with attendant high-veloClty flow, requires that the steady-
flow energy equatIOn be supplemented by relatlons wlllch provide
more specIfically for the influence of fnctional effects. A SImple but
adequatc dynamIC equatlOn IS dcveloped for this purpose from force
consideratIOns TIlls dual approach enables a more adequate analysis
of high-velocIty flow phenomena m general. A new type of flow chart
is introduced whICh, along with the convenicnce provIded by use of
the Mach number, greatly facihtates the study of the thermodynamICs
of compressible flow. A further inno"atlOn is the development of
SImple but valid means for the accountmg for the variatIOn of the
speCIfic heats of gases with temperature.
Instead of the material in the earher edltlOn pertainmg to the gen-
eral relationships between the thermodynamIC properties of fluids,
equivalent material IS prescnted and utliized m dIrect expositIOn of
technics for aseertammg and aSSocllltmg those properties for hlgher-
pre'8ure gases TIllS has seemed desirable because these non-ideal
gases are of concern in chcmlcal engmeering. In tillS matenal the
concept of the partIal derlvative is neccssarlly employed, and It is
utilized in other instances when advantageous. For those students
v
VI PREFACE
who may be unfaIl1lhar WIth the eoncept It is adequately developed in
an appendical article.
The ear her material rclatlllg to the mass and energy accountIng In
combustIOn processes IS now supplemented by attention to the cause
and consequences of the chemlcal eqmhbnum enconntered m combus~
tIOn products at elevated temperatures.
For the benefit of the begmning student it may be saId that in the
study of thermodynamIcs some unfamIli.u and somewhat abstract
concepts wIll oe encountered c'nrly. These may seem to attach a tlOge
of mystery or imprncticaoihty to the subject We would assure him,
however, that these oecome of greatest practIcal importance, and that
the gIVIng of thoughtful attentIOn to them is grcatly repaId by an early
realizatIOn of theIr blgnificance and by theIr subsequent utilIty But
he needs to realIze that the subject is one whIch may not be learned
merely by rote, but instead demand::.. thoughtful con~lderfitlOn
throughout.
For the teacher It needs to be saId tlla!. although portIOns of the
matenal go well beyond undergraduate needs, by the sUItable selectIOn
of materIal the treatment oecomes adapted to both undergraduate amI
graduate u;e. It has been employed" Ith gratilymg results with stu-
dent group> of qUIte \'aned backgrounds and who reqUIre dn'erse but
bpcciahzed subsequent capabilibe..~. In tlllS connectIOn we would ex-
press Qur convlCtlOn that the real purposes of engmeermg educatIOn
are, better sen'ed by careful conSIderatIon of the fundamentals of II
.science such as thennodynamlcs rather than by cursory and superfiCial
attentIOn to numerous speCIfic apphcatlOns.
The_origin.xl &uthaf'6~ wish ta expR"SS theIr .:5WCCil? .l[JPiCuaCiatl of the
Invaluablc cooperatIOn and contributIOns of then newer colleague
In the preparatIOn of thIS edition as m the first edItion the work
devcloped fr0ll11ts continued usc and. many lCVISlOns at the U S. Naval
P08tgraduate School The new featureb 01 th" work have been devel-
oped by thc two hsted semor authors These uuthors acknowledge
the very large contflbutlOn made by the t1md author when he was
a member of the U, S. Naval Postgraduate School All desire to
acknowledge most gratefully the many suggestIOns of Professors H :II.
Wflght, D. Kavanaugh, und E, E Drucker, and of many others of
theIr associates.
PJ K.
GFK
]\1 C.S
Jfoniere1l. CaliJorma
Belhlehem, Penns1l1vama
June, 1054
\
Contents
PART I. ENERGY, ITS CLASSIFICATION AND ,\CCOUNTING
CH<\PTER 1 ENERGY IN TRANSITIOX

I
1-1 Foreword 1
1-2 The Concept and General Cla~JficatJ(m .. of Enclgy 2
1-3 Heat Energy 3
1-4 'York Energy 6
1-5 .MechuDlcal Work 6
1-6 ',,"ark ngamst Gravity 6
1-7 Work agamst Inertlnl ReSIstance 8
1-8 ',,"ark of CompressIOn or Expa~sIOn 9
1-9 Flow Work 13
1-10 Shalt Work 14
1-11 ElectrIcal ',"ork 15
1-12 Engineenng Untts of Energy 15
)-13 Fundamental DimensJ01l.5 oj Energy 17
1-14 Problems 19
CH'P". 2, STORED EXERGY

2-1 Foreword 21
2-2 Mechanacal Potential Energy, or GeopotenhaJ 21
2-3 MechanIcal Kmetic Energy n
2-4 Internal Energy 21
2-5 ConvectIOn 26
2-6 ThermodynamIC :-State and Properhes 26
2-7 Temperature 27
2-8 Pressure 28
2-9 DensIty ami Specific Volume 28
2-10 Problems 29
CHAPTER 3 ENERGY EQUATIONS

3-1 Foreword 31
3-2 Systems and Plocesses 31
3-3 The Gcnernl Energy Equation 32
3-4 Steady-Flow Processes 33
3-5 Steady-Flow Energy Equahon 34
3-6 The Enthalpy Function 37
3-7 ApplIcatIOns of the Steady-Flow Energy Equation 38
3-8 Dynamic AnalYSIS of Steady Flow 41
3-9 .[2 vdp and _.[2 pdt, 46

3.. 10 Non-Flow Energy Equation 49
3-11 CharacterIstic State Changes 50
3-12 SpeCIfic Heats 53
vii
viii CONTENTS
3 13
4
Energy EquatIons, ChemIcal Processes 54
3414 Semi-Flow Processes and Energy Equation 57
3-15 Problems 59
PART II THE AVAILABILITY OF ENERGY

CmPTER 4. REVERSIBLE PROCESSES AND CYCLES
4-1 Foreword 62
4-2 ReversJbIhty Aspect of IdealIzed Processes 63
4-3 Heat Engme Cycles 68
4-4 Reverslble Heat-Engme Cycles; The Carnot Cycle 70
4-5 Reversal of the Carnot Cycle 73
4-6 Problems 75
CHAPTER 5 THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE

&-1 Foreword 77
5-2 The Carnot PrInciple 77
CHU'TER 6. THE ABSOLUTE TE~IPERATURE SCALE
6-1 Foreword 82
6-2 A ThermodynamIc Scale of Temperature 82
6-3 ReahzatlOn of the ThermodynamIC Scale lD Prachcal Thermometry,
Absolute Temperature 84
6-4 Efficiency and Performance, Camot Engine and Pump Cycles 87
6-5 Appendix, VahdatIOn of the Ideal-Gns Temperature Scale as the
Energy ScnIe, and Related Technics 8S
6-6 Problems 90
CHA,fT"R 7 ENTROPY
v'7 -1 Foreword 91
1%-2 The Entropy of Energy 91
7-3 En tropy Changes of FIUlds 92
7-4 Entropy as a ThermodynamIc Property; IsentropIC Process 93
7-5 State-Change RepresentatIOns, 1'-8 and h-s Coordmates 96
'--'1-6 General ExpreSSIOns for Entropy Change 100
7-7 Influence of Irreverslblhttes 103
./7-8 Second Law of Thermodynamics 109
0-9 Third La,~ of Thermodynamics 110
7-10 Darfleus or "AvailabilIty" FunctIOn 111
7-11 Entropy Equations 113
7-12 Helmholtz and GIbbs Functions 114
7-13 Several Maxwell ReIo.bons 116
7-14 AppendIX, MathematICal Aspects 120
7-15 Problems 121
PART III PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

CHAPTER 8 PROPERTIES AND PROPERTY RELATIONS, SOLID,
LIQUID, AND VAPOR STATES
8-1 Foreword. 124
CONTENTS lX
8-2 Phase Rul~ 125

8-3 Sohd, LiqUId, and Vapor Phasc& 125
8-4 Propertws at SatUi Rted Stales 128
8-5 Properties of Saturated LiqUid-Vapor MIxtures 131
8-6 Properties of Superheated Vapor < 132
s-7 Properties of Compressed LiqUId 132
8-8 Thermodynamic DIagrams 133
8-9 Metastable Stales 139
8-10 Representative Processes 142
8-11 Constant-,Volume Process 143
8-12 Constant-Pressure Process 144
8-13 ReversIble-AdiabatIC Process 145
8-14 IrreversIble-AdiabatIC and Throttlmg Processes 147
8-15 SemI-Flow ProcchlI, The Steam Accumulator 149
8-16 ProbleITlS 150
CHAPTER 9 PROPERTIES AND PROPERTY RELATIONS, IDEAL GASES

9-1 Foreword 155
9-2 Ideal-Gas EquatIOn of State 155
9-3 Ideal-Gas Energy CharacterIstICs 157
9-4 Enthalpy a.nd Internal Energy Changes The SpeCific Heats 160
9-5 Cp - c~, Rile p , flnd cp/cu 165
9-6 Entropy Change 165
9-7 T-h-s DIagram, Low-Ple&8ure Gases 167
9-8 Tables of the ThermodynamiC Properties of Gases 169
9-9 RepresentatIve Processes 172
--9-10 Constant-Volume Process 173
L.O"lI Constant-Pressure Process 174
~
Isothermal Processes (Mechamcally Reversible) 175
Reversible AdIabatIc or IsentropIc Processes 175
11! Comparative Work Qunnhlies, hothermal and IsentropIc
CompressIOns 178
v~5 Reversible PolytropIC Compi eSSIOn 181
9-16 Influences of FrictIOn 185
9-17 Semi-Flow Process; The Air Bank 190
9-18 Problems 192
CHAPTER 10 PROPERTY AND PIWPERTY RELATIONS;

LOW-PRESSURE GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES
10-1 Foreword 196
10-2 Partial and Aggregate Pressures 196
10-3 Equn"alent Gas Constant and EqUlvalent Formula. Mass 199
104 SpeCific Heats, Gas Mixtures 200
10-5 Enthalpy. Internal Energy, and Entropy of Gas Mixture 202
10-6 Gas-Vapor Mixtures 204
10-7 Humidity Indices 204
10-8 Enthalpy and Entropy Changes, Gas-Vapor l\hxLure 208
10-9 Constant-Volume Process, Gas-Vapor MIxtures 209
10-10 Isobanc Cooling or Warmmg j Dew Pomt 210
x CONTENTS
10-11 A(habatlC-I.:-.oban<, SaturatlOn by EvaporatlOn 212
10-12 Psychromelllc Chtlrt 216
10-13 Adiabatic-Isobaric ReyerSlOn from SupelsaturatlOn 217
10-14 IsentropIc Proce.s:5eS, Humid and Wet l\Intures 218
10-15 T-t Diagram, Ail_and-Water-Vapor Mixtures 222
10-16 Air ConditIOning, Energy and Mass Accountmg 224
10-17 Almosphenc Thermodynamics 229
l~\S Gtnerahzed EneTg)" R't!:\'3.\ltri}., UU\1\...d 'U.u'!\ We.-t thxtu'i~ 137
10-19 Problem<i 238
CIHPTE" 11 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES, :\'ON-lDE,\L
GASES AND I'APORS
11-1 Foreword 242
11-2 p-v-T CorrelatIon hy Formula 243
11-3 Graphical p-v-T Correlations 247
11-4 GeneralIzed Z-p-T Charts 249
11-5 Non-Ideal Gas Mixtures 252
11-6 ThermodynamiC Properties, Non-Ideal Gases 254
11-7 ReSIdual Enthalpy, from p-v-T Data 255·
11-8 ReSidual Enthalpy. (rom Z-p-1' Dtagrams 257
11-9 Residual Entropy , 260
11-10 Conventional Processes 263
11-11 Jonle-Thomson Data 266
11-12 Pressure-Influence on Cp 269
11-13 GeneratJOn of ThermodynamIC Dmgrnms 271
11-14 The FugaCIty and the ACtiVIty CoeffiCIent 273
11-15 General Thermod.}namic Relations 273
11-16 Problems 275
CHAPTeR 12 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTIO:\,

12-1 Foreword 277
\2-1 Genern\ Nature of YU'eo\B an.'J. OcmbUf>\m-n. 177
12-3 Matenal Balance, Ideal CombustIOn 279
12-4 InterpretatIOn of the AnalYSIS of Combustion Products 283
12-5 Healmg Values of Fuels 288
12-6 . Enelgy Balance, and Loss Distribution 291
12-7 Chemical EQUIlIbrtum III Combustion 293
12-8 "Rich-MIxture" and "Lean-l\Inture" Combm~tlOn 300
12-9 CombustIOn (Flame) Temperatures 304
12-10 Problems 309
PART IV ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 13 POWER-GENERATION CYCLES, CONDENSING FLUIDS
13-1 Foreword 312
.....r.3-2 Rankme Cycle 313
\J<I'3 Performance CharacteristIcs and IndIces, Rankille Cycle 317
13-4 Reheatmg Cycle 323
.A3-5 Regeneratn'e Feed-Heatmg Cycle 325
13-6 "First-Law" Energy Balance 332
CONTENTS Xl
13.7 Availability Accountmg 337

13-8 Problems 339
CHAPTER 14 POWER-GE:\,ERATION CYCLES, NON-CONDENSING

FLUIDS
14-1 Foreword 341
14-2 Elementary Open-Cycle Gas-Turbme Power Plant 342
14-3 Regene~atl\-e Air Preheatmg 350
14-4 Air Intercoohng and Reheatlllg 353
14-5 Semi-closed and Closed Cycles 355
14-6 Energy and AvailabilIty Accountmg 357
14-7 CompressIOn-IgnitIOn-Type Internal-Combustion EngInes 359
14-8 "Atr-Standard)) AnalysIs, Diesel Cycle 366
14-9 Spark-IgnitIOn-Type Internal-CombustIon Engines 370
14-10 "Au-Standard" AnalYSIS, Otto and Dual-CombustIOn Cycles 374
14-11 Throttled Otto Cycle 376
14-12 Problems / 379
CHAPTER 15 HEAT-PUMP AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

15-1 Foreword 380
15-2 The Ideal RefrigeratIon Cycle 380
15-3 Refngeratmg CapaCIty 383
15-4 CompressIOn RefrIgeration Cycles With Condensmg Fhnds 384
15-5 ComparatIve Characten.stics of RefrIgerants 389
15-6 ModificatIOn of Elementary Condensmg-FIUid Cycle 392
15-7 The Steam-Jet System 396
15-8 Compression RefrIgeration, N on-Conden"mg FlUlds 397
15-9 Low-Temperature RefngeratIOn 399
15-10 RefngeratIOn through the Supplymg of Energy as Heat 402
15-11 Absorption RefrIgeratIOn System 403
15-12 Heat Pump as a Warmmg Machme 405
15-13 Problems 409
CHAPTER 16, FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

16-1 Foreword 412
16-2 Kmellc Aspects of a Flwd t-;tream 412
10-3 General ThermodynamIc ConsideratIOns 414
10-4 The SODlC VelOCity and the Mach Number 416
16-5 The Iueal Nozzle 417
16-6 Flow RelatIOns, Ideal Gases 424
16-7 Flow Nozzle, Venturi Meter, and (Subsomc) Impact Tube 433
16-8 Performance Indices for :Nozzle and Flow Meter 438
16-9 Supplementary Isentropes, Flow Chart 442
16-10 ShockWlse Irrenrslbihtles, Supersoruc Nozzle 443
16-11 Normal, or One-DImenslOnal, Shock 445
16-12 Obhque, or Two-Dimensional, Shock 449
16-13 CompressIOn by Dlffuse1, Ram Effect 450
16-14 Ejectors 456
16-15 Flow through Constant-Alea Channels 461
16-16 Conventional ApproximatIOns, Duct Flow 464
CONTENTS
16-17 AUlRbatic Flow in Ducts 466
16-18 Isothermal Flow in Ducts 473
16-19 Rayleigh-Type Flow and the RayleIgh Equation 474
15-20 AppendIX; Normal-Shock Analyms 477
16-21 Problems 480
CIHPTEH 17. DYNAMIC FORCES

17-1 Foreword 4B3
17-2 D}'llanuc Forces 483
17-3 Dynamic-Force GeneratlOn, by Diverted Stream 489
17-4 Turbme Bladmg 491
17-5 lmpuLse-Turbme Bladmg a.nd CharacterIstics 497
17-6 Reaction Turbine Bladmg a.nd CharacterIStics 504
17-7 Compressor Blading 507
17-8 MultIple St.agmg of Turbine or CompreSSOTj Condition Cun'e and
"Reheat" Factor 511
17-9 PropulsIOn by Thermal Jet 514
17-10 Problems 523
INDEX 527
Symbols
A area; Helmholtz function, E - T S ..
a acceleration; acoustic or sonic velocity.
b Darrieus availability function, h - Tns.
C molar specIfic heat.
C.P. critIcal point.
C.R. clearance ratio.
specific heat per unit mass at constant pressure.
r T
c.dT .
Jr, T - To
r T e. d In T
Jr, In (TITo)
c, specific heat per unit mass at constant volume.
E mternal energy.
e internal energy per unit mass, Elm.
(- Ll.eO) standard internal energy change on combustion
F a force; wall force or Impulse function.
F. acceleratmg force, equivalent to inertial resistance
F, force overcoming frictional resistance.
F, gravitational force, equivalent to weight w.
G Gibbs free energy function, H - TS; flolV density or mass
velocity, miA.
flJJ"Ce oJ gr.ovity per unit m.2S8, e.qllivaJent to tbe al"l'eJeJ"BtiDJ)
of gravity
JJ enthalpy, E + PV.
h enthalpy per unit mass, e + pvl J, = Him.
( -Ll.hO) standard enthalpy change on combustion.
J Joule's equivalent, a conversion factor for energy units.
K. equilIbrium constant in terms of partial pressures.
" L
numencal proportionality constant; ratIO of speCIfic heats,
C.IC. or e.lc,.
Length of duct.
!If formula mass; Mach number, ula.
m mass.
m mass rate of flaw, dmldt.
N number of molecules.
n number of moles; arbitrary number in exponent.
p total pressure (absolute).
xill
xiv SYMBOLS
p (absolute) pressure, or, with subscript, partial pressure of.
Q energy in transitIOn as heat
Q heat flow per umt time, liQldt.
q heat energy transition per unlt mass.
R gas constant per umt mass.
Ro molar or universal gas constant.
R.H relative humidIty.
r radial distance; radius
volumetrIC CDmpreSSIOn ratio.
hydrauhc radiu~. -
entropy.
s entropy per umt mass
T (absolute) temperature
Td dew pomt.
t time
velocity.
volume
molar volume, or lIfv.
specific volume, or volume per unit mass, lip ~ Vim.
ener~ in transltion as work
w work energy per umt mass, IV1m.
x distance; quahty of steam; mixture ratio, mvapor/malro
Z compressIbility factor, puiRT.
z· elevation
a angle.
• effectiveness of heat exchanger
• rate of water-vapor emissIOn or departure .
effiCiency.
mdex of relative hotness.
visc()sity
density, 1/v
T surfnce tensIOn
fC.d(ln T).
frictional influence.
SYMBOLS xv
SUJ)er~cripls and Subscripts
o zero-pressure value; pertains to reference of standard' state.
• ideal-gas value, refers to value at unit Mach number .
a refers to air or dry air component.
c refers to crItIcal state; refers to combustlOn products
F Fanno·value.
! pertams to saturated hqUld; refers to fuel.
g pertains to saturated vapor.
i pertains to saturated solid (ice).
o stabrnation. value
P refers to products.
R refers to reactants, pertams to the lower of t"t'O temperature
levels
T indicates reduced value, ratIO of actual to critical; mdlcates
residual corrective term.
s isentropIC value.
sat refers to saturatIOn conditions
S8 pertains to supersaturatIOn.
V refers to condenSIble (vapor) component
X,Y refer to upstream and downstream faces of shock plane
Operators
d exact differential of a property .
.6. fimte increment of
a partial differentIal of.
o small quantity of a path functIOn.
PART I . ENERGY
Its Classification 'and Accounting
1 . ENERGY IN TUANSITION
1·1. Foreword. In historical records the IndustrIal RevolutlOn of
the eighteenth century marks the beginning of the present era in which,
through the introduction of machmes of progressIvely greater produc-
tive abIlity, the supplymg of the materIal wants of man has become no
longer dependent on hand-productlOn methods. Instead a transItion
to the vastly more effective factory type of mdustry has become pos-
sible. Little more than the beginnings of such a transition could have
taken place, however, if the meager quantIties of energy obtainable
through the muscular efforts of man or beast had remained the only
means for actuating our machmes. It was essential that such energy
resources be greatly supplemented.
A first step in this general direction had in fact occurred much earlier,
when through the dIscovery of fire man learned to release the energy
that passed seasonally from the sun to the earth and was there stored
in current vegetable life. Subsequently he had realized that great
addItional quantities of energy had simllarly been accumulated m the
residues of past vegetable and marine life, m materials such as coal
and petroleum. Through the combustlOn of these matenals he had
procured hot products which served various useful purposes Dut
there remained the Immeasurably important need for means whereby
some portion of the releasable energies might be so transformed as to
become capable of actuatmg his machines.
Fortunately the eighteenth century marked also the first practical
accomplishment of such tronsformatlOns' through the furnace, steam
generator, and steam pumping engine of Ncwcomen, and later improve-
ments by Watt in an engme utilizing the expansIve ablhty of steam.
Then m the nineteenth century means were devIsed for the transforma-
tion of mechanical mto electrical energy, for its easy transmission to
preferred locations, and for its reconversion there into mechanical
forms for machine actuation In the present century further means
have been found for the controlled release of nuclear energy in atomic-
fission processes.
1
2 ENERGY IN TRANSITION CnAP. 1
QUlte sUItably these developments have been accompamed by con-
tinued mvestlgatlOns aimed at the dIsclosure of those physical prin-
cIples which control the transformatIOns of the natural energy resOurces
into forms in which a physical force becomes capable of operation, i.e ,
into mechanical manifestatIOns of energy For effecting such trans-
formations no practical means have yet been found other than ones
mvolvmg an intermedIate phase in WhICh some fiUld or flUIds are
caused to acquire a superior tcmperature. Through the agency of
a resulting pressure superIOrIty they become capable of generatmg
desired mechanical forces and effects Stud,es relatmg to this phase
and to vanous mtlmately related matters have become known as the
study of the sCIence of engineenng thermodynamics, and IS the major
purpose of the following materIal. Tins constItutes, however, only a
portIOn of a more general thermodynamic science which deals with
broader aspects of all phenomena mvolving energy storage, transitions,
and transformations. In many of these, temperatures are still a major'
influence.
In the study of thermodynamIcs It may often be helpful to pIcture
molecular or atomic mechamsms by whIch encrgy transitIOns may be
effected or by which energy. may be stored III matter. It IS, however,
Important to observe that the science is essentially independent of such
hypotheses concerning the intimate aspects of cnergy and matter, and
may for the most part fun chon effecbvely m theIr absence, that is, the
science is fundamentally empirIcal rather than theoretICal, and has
developed from the observation of large-scale phenomena of nature.
By analyhcal survey of these phenomena It detects basic laws that
control thelf operatlOll, and also recogmzes cert~un features III which
,.the PllY"omena may be Idealized. But the study remains primarily
one whereby mformahon relatmg to phenomena of macroscopic range,
and involvmg energy and its transformation, may be organized to opti-
mum practICal advantage.
1-2. The Concept and General Classifications of Energy. Smce
thermodynamics IS so fundamentally a study of energy and energy
transformatIOn, It is deSIrable to revIew and coordinate our under-
standmg of the energy concept. It will be recalled that in more
elementary analyses, and m an endeavor to introduce the concept
through direct reference to our physical senses, energy IS frequently
defined m a narro,yer sense as "the capacity for performing work"
through the actIOn of a potential which is identified as a mechanical
force. A broader definition of the concept IS, however, required for
present purposes; that IS, energy may better be deflned as the "capacity
for producing effects," no longer lImiting the effect to the performance
ART. 1-3 HEAT ENERGY 3
of work or the potential to a mee.hameal force, but recognizing that
the effects may instead be of widely varying character.
It now becomes necessary to recognize some of the characteristic
forms III which energy may be dIsplayed, distinguishing among them
by the type of effects that may produce or be produced oy an event.
In thIS connectIOn it WIll further be observed that the extent of such
effects may well provide the means for expressing the magnitude of the
energy quantitIeS Illvolved. An essential first step in our study will
be to observe various forms in which energy may exist, to classIfy
these when advantageous, and to note methods for evaluating the
amount of energy in any of Its forms.
For purposes of systematic study It is deSIrable initially to classify
the varIOus manifestatIOns of energy into the two general categories of:
(a) Energzes that are in processes oj transition between substances
or regions through the agency of some actuating potential, such as a
difference or gradient of force, or of temperature, or of electrICal
potential.
(b) Energzes that are stored in a particular mass of substance or an
aggregation comprising a system of such masses. A pertment attribute
of these stored energies IS that theIr relative amount is dependent on
the condition or state of the substance.
In the first category are such energies as that which is in transition
as heat from any warmer region to a cooler one; as work through a
movmg shaft or piston rod; or as electrIC energy through an electric
conductor. In the material immediately following certain attributes
of such energies are considered and more specific attention is given
tD the two transitiol111) 8.'t]8rg.ies, heat 3lW u\?,-k, th.gt tll'e the it.e~rn,j of
primary concern m the study of engineering thermodynamics.
In the second category we shall consider such items as the potential
(geopotential) and kinetic energies assocIated with masses that are
elevated or moving with respect to the earth, and that energy which
is stored Within a mass and IS associated with molecular and sub-
molecular aggregatIOns of matter.
1-3. Heal Energy. In the literature of physics, and in the litera-
ture of thermodynamics until about 1930, the word heat was used with
two different meanmgs; that is, It was employed for identification both
of the energy which IS in passage from one region to a second by reason
of a superior temperature in the first, and of certain components of
the energy that may be stored in matter. However, this dual usage
of the word contributes to confusion that may best be avoided by a
single-meaning usage of the term.
In consequence, the present literature of thermodynamics attaches
4 ENERGY IN TRANSITION CHAP. 1
to the term heat energy, or heat, the significance solely of energy which
is in passage between a fluid or region and its environs by reason of a
superior temperature in one Or the other." The general symbol Q will
be employed for identifymg heat energy as so defined. Energy transI-
tions that occur in thIs manner through the action of the temperature
potential are accomphshed by either or both of the agencies known as
(a) conduction and (b) radiotion.t
(0) Conduction. Everyone is familiar with the phenomenon of the
warming of an object when it is in contact with 8 hotter one, or the
progressive warmlOg of cooler portions of an object when any part
of it is warmed. This phenomenon may well be considered in the
light of the molecular compositlOn of matter, and of the accumulated
evidence that the molecules comprising matter are in a perpetual state
of agItation the intensity of which is a direct function of temperature.
Heat transfer by conduction may thus be conceived to operate through
the agency of real or virtual molecular collIsions, rather as kinetic
energy is imparted on the collision of a faster-moving bIlliard ball
with a less active one. Any phenomenon of this character, in which
a transfer of energy takes place from a body or part of a body at
higher temperature to another at lower temperature through a tangible
intermedIary and by reason of the temperature difference, is descrIbed
as that of heat conductwn.
(b) RadUltion. We are equally familIar with such phenomena as
. the warming of an object when it is exposed to the sun or is before
an open furnace door, phenomena in which energy transition through
space occurs because of a temperature dIfference, but occurs between
separated objects and wIthout a tangible transmitting medium. Such
energy tmnsfer is identified in general by the term radiotion, and has
been described as taking place by the actlOn of electromagnetic waves
which travel through space with the speed of light. A great gamut
of such waves exists, components of which are distinguished by their
wave length, by the situations which produce them, or by the effect
they produce on encountering a given substance. Table 1-1 exhibits
various categories into which these waves may be grouped.
The general source in each case can be regarded as fundamentally
electrical in nature However, thos~ of a limited range (about 10- 3 to
• In the literature of phYSICS, exactly and solely this Blgmficance is in fact m-
valved when the term 8pecific heat is used
tIn Dl!lnY instAnces energy transItion IS effected by physical transport of a
fluid ThIS energy transport by flUld flow IS identlfied by the name convection.
Although it becomes an important agency facIlitatJng conduction or radiatIon,
ft 18 advantageous for present purposes that energy transfer as heat be regarded
as limited to conduction and radlation phenomena
ART. 1-3 HEAT ENERGY 5
Table 1-1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wave Length
Type (meters, approximately)
General Source
Radio we. ves '" to 1 Electric oscIllatIOns In large

systems
Ultra-high-frequency 1 to 2 X 1()-4 Electric oscIllatIOns in mi-
radio wa. \-~es nute systems
Infra-red waves 2 X 10-' to 7 X 10-' OsCIllations and '\'i.brations of
atoms and molecules
Visible hght 7 X 10-' to 4 X 10-' Electron transitions of outer-
Ultra-violet 4 X 10-' to 2 X 10-' shell electrons
X-rays 2 X 10-' to 10-11 Electron transItIOns of mner-
shel1 electrons
Gamma rays 10- 11 to 10- 14 Nuclear changes
10- 7 meters in wave length) are incited by and inCIte the agitation
of the systems we know as atoms and molecules. This agitation, it
WIll be recalled, has been Identified as 11 function of temperature, so
that energy radIated withIn this limited range is responding to the
temperature potential, and is regarded as radiant heat. A not un-
related phenomenon OCCurs In the industrial processes of inductIOn
heatIng and dielectnc heatIng ThIS energy radiahon IS classified as
electromagnetic work, rather than as radiant heat, as the driving
potential is not thermal in nature.
For accounting purposes it wIll be necessary to recognize means
whereby amounts of energy that are transferred as heat may be evalu-
ated. We shall find occasion to emphaSIze that all the various mani-
festatIOns of energy are mamfestatlOns of the same entIty, and that
by the same token these quantitIes must be capable of evaluation
by common measures. However, the heat-energy magnitudes were
earlier expressed solely III terms of the temperature rise that a unit
quantity of some selected standard SUbstance (notably water) would
exhIbit when receiving the energy as heat. This situation resulted
in various associated units of energy, such as the British thermal umt
and the calorie, that have essentially thermal antecedents. Subsequent
material will indIcate reasons for the employment also of the umts
of energy of essentially mechanical antecedents, such as the loot-
pound, and wIll prOVIde accepted multipliers whereby converSIOn may
be made from anyone to any other 01 such energy measures.
Although we regard a temperature gradIent as the basic attribute
01 energy transfer as heat, an acceptable idealism III such transfer
is a necessity for only mlmmum temperature dIfference to effect active
energy passage, qUIte as a minimum electric potential drop (minimum
6 ENERGY' IN TRANSITION CHAP. 1
IR drop) ideally accompames active energy transfer through an elec-
tric transmission lme.
We shall have frequent occaSIOn to consider other 'sItuatIOns in
which accompanying energy transfers as heat are effectively zero, for
reasons BUCn as the rapidlty with wluch a process occurs or tne provi-
sion of heat "insulatIon." These are known as adiabat'" processes
1-4. Work Energy. In the category of energy transition as work
are included the many familiar processes that are characterized by
the accomplishment of mechanical effects by the action through a
linear distance of the potentIal described as a tangIble phYSICal force.
Such energy is known as mechanical work, and IS here assigned the
symbol lV. Energy transfers occurring through the agency 01 certain
other driving potentIals, such as the difference of electric potential
and associated flow of electrIC energy, are also known as work, and
are identified by subscript, such as IV, for electrical work,
1-5. lIIechanical Work. The transfer of energy as mechanical
work is well exemplIfied m processes such as (a) the lifting of a mass
against graVItational force or accelerating It agamst ItS inertia, and
(0) the movement of a pISton in a cylinder by or against the action
01 a pressure force on the piston face, or (c) the rotation of a shaft
by or agamst the action of an applIed torque.
Let us recall that, In gcneral, the quantity of energy that is trans-
ferred in such circumstances is measured by the product of the force
. F times the dIStance (in the dIrection of the force) through which the
iOIce acts, 01'
Work = JFdx (1-1)
or lV = F(x - xo) for a constant force (l-la)
In consequence of this familiar relation, amounts of energy in transi-

tion as mechanical work are commonly expressed in terms 01 seli-
defining units such as the loot-pound, foot-poundal, dyne-centimeter
(erg), or newton-meter (joule, 10 7 crgs, watt-second).
1-6. Work against Gravity_ Work agamst gravity is that work
Ideally required for lIfting a mass vertICally against the mutually
attractIve gravitational force (Fu) between it and the mass compns-
ing the earth. ThIS force we also describe as Weight. The work
equals in prmciple i'Fu dz, where z represents the relatIve elevation,
..
but for ilngineering purposes may be expressed simply as Fu (z -zo)
as Fu varies negligibly with changes in either geographical or vertical
ART. 1-6 WORK AGAINST GRAVITY 7
locations that may be encountered in practICe. Note that this last
expreSSlOn might have been written as gm (z - zo), where g is the
force of gravity per umt mass, and m IS the mass that is being elevated
For the purposes of thermodynamic analyses facilIties will -be re-
qUIred for expressing the various energy quantitIes, such as those of
mechamcal work, in terms of their amo·unt per tlntt mass of the
materIal. The term "mass" is here regarded as the Illdex both of the
effective quantIty of the material concerned and of its inertIal resIst·
ance to acceleratIon, the second of which, it wIll be recalled, is III
effect defined by Newton's second law of motion, which states that
Force (F) a Mass (m) X Acceleration (a) or F = kma

Here k denotes merely any numerical proportlOnality constant that
may be required for accommodatlllg the units in which the magnitudes
of the several physical terms of the relatlOn are expressed." If the
force that IS operating is the local force of gravIty (Fu), the accelera·
tion III question is also the local acceleratIOn of gravity (g). Note in
thIS connectIOn that, as the above relation may be written III the form
g = (Ilk) (Palm), the gravItational force per unit mass and its symbol
may alternatively, and frequently with considerable advantage, be
interpreted as an acceleratlOn .
... QUIte senSibly the phYSICIst employs force, mass, space, ond time Units whICh
are described as comu;tent In the feature of bemg so reIuted In magmtudes that
the proportionalIty constant k is unity Such umts are (a) the dyne force-gram
mass, centimeter, and second; (b) the newton force-kllogram mass, meter, and
second, (c) pounda! force-pound mass, foot, and second; and (d) pound force---
slug mass, foot, and second Perhaps unfortunately, but as a result both of habIt
and of necessitIes assocIated With hIS closer relatIOn with Industry and the lay-
man, the engineer regularly employs unit combinatIons whIch in the above sense
are tnconsistent.
Some JustIficatIon for thIS practice hes In the InabIlIty to package and store
a standard force, as IS pOSSible WIth the internationaJIy standard kIlogram mass
or meter length. However, It may be done IndIrectly through utIlIzatIOn of the
earth's graVItatIOn force on a standard mass, provided location, etc, are sufficiently
speCIfied. If that force 18 adopted WI a umt force, numerIcal satisfaction of the
above relation, involving both force and mass, then reqUIres D. proportIOnahty
constant such as 1/9807 If the gram-force and gram-mass UnIts are employed
SImultaneously, or 1/32174 If the pound force (lbO nnd the pound mass (Ibm)
are used.
Although dual usage of the word pound, In evaluatmg the wholly dIstmct
concepts of force and mass, is unfortunate and confusmg, it is employed in the
following because of the almost im'anable usage by the Enghsh-speakmg layman
and engmeer But observe that the associated quotient ma&'l (Ibm) 13$174 is an
evaluatIon of the mass 10 slugs, or the product 32174 X force (ibn IS an evalua-
han of a force in poundals.)
Wrlt.mg the above expression Fp(z - zo) m terms of per unit mass,
and mcludmg a proportionality constant k to provlde for various
systems of umts,
Work agamot gravity = kmg(z - zo) (1-2)
Magnitudes of the numerical constant k as required when using vanous

combinations of umts for evaluating the physical items of this relation
are lllu5tmted in Table 1-2.
Table 1-2
~Iass Unit for Umt for Umt Value
Work Unit Unit of k
DIstance Veloclty 01 g
It-Ibf Ibm It fps fps' 1/32.174
ft-It! slug it fps fps' unity·
ft-pounda} Ibm It fps fps' unity
erg ( = dyne-cm) gm em em/sec cm/sec 2 Unity'
joule (=newton-meter) gm cm em/sec em/sec' 10-'
Joule (=newton-meter) kg meter meter/sec meter/scc 2 unity
In engineermg practlCe in the United States the mechanical unit of

energy that is most frequently employed lS the foot-pound (force).
The pound (mass), the foot, and the second are the most usual units,
respecbvely, of mass, "pace, and tlme. Employing this combination
• of umts relation 1-2 would appear as
. Mass (Ibm)
Work agamst graVlty (ft-Ib) = 32.174 g(fpS2)(Z - zo)(ft) (1-2a)
A slgmficant observation pertaining to any of the above relations

is that they express only the work which lS ideally required for lifting
a mass through a sluted vertical distance, or wDieh would oppositely
but ideally be sccurable If the mass were pcrmltted to subside through
that d,stance. It IS equally noteworthy that these relations will give
an msufficient result If any fnctional resistance should hamper the
ascent of the body, or, opposltely, that the result WIll exceed the
securable work if such resistance hampers the descent.
1-7. Work against Inertial Resistance. The work ldeally re-
quired for acccJeratmg a mass again equals in prinClple J Fa ax,
where F. is the force that effects the acceleration against the mertia
of the mass. But it will be advantageous If this work energy is
expressed in terms of the mass and some pertment characterisbc of
Its state of motion. For accomplishmg this, recall (Newton's second
ART. 1-8 COMPRESSION on EXPANSION 9
law) that F. ~ kma, where F. is the force causing an acceleration a
of mass m, hnd k is tlIe numerical proportionality constant required
to accommodate the sy~tcm of umts employed Smce by defimtlOn
a = du/dt and u = dx/dt, where u = veloCIty and t = time, _if these
are combined to eliminate dt, then a dx = u duo
By mtroducing this last rel~tion .nd the express,on for F. into the
work equation 1-1,
Work again.t inertlal resistance = J F, dx = k J

nta dx
=k r
J., mud"
= k m(u' - uo')
and (1-3)
2
where 1t appears that the work is uniquely expressed in terms solely
of the mass anu the terminal veloc1tics, ,dtheu! concern as to any
variation of the causative force.
NumericalsolutlOn of equatlOn 1-3 will ugam give results m different
umts 3S various units are employed for expression of the mass and
the veloClty, and as various values of the proportionahty eonstant k
are introduced Table 1-2 lllulcates the consequence of such varIations.
As this material Wlll in general follow the practice of the engineermg
profession m the United States, employmg the pound as the name of
a unit of mass and also one of force, equation 1-3 will hereinafter
appear as
Work against inertml resistance (ft-lbf) =
m (Jbm)(u2 - uo 2 )(fps)
(1-3<1)
64.35
A sigmficant observation pertaimng to these relations 1S that they
express only the work ideally required for effecting a given change
of veloc1ty of a mass, or, oppos1tely but 1deally, that which would
be seeurable in causing the mass to decelerate from a greater to a
less veloc1ty. It is equally noteworthy however. that they will give
an insufliClent result if any frictional resi.tance .hould hamper the
movement of the body during its acceleration, or, oppositely, that
the result will exceed the securable work ,f such resistance accompanies
a deceleration.
]-8. Work of Compression or Expansion. A technically 1m-
portant phenomenon in many engineering processes is one in wlllch
work is supplied to effect the compression of a fluid, or is secured by
its expanslOD. Tin. may typically occur in a cylinder and through

the agency of a plston (WIth pIstGn rod) which moveS along the
cylinder and exerts a progressively varying pressure OD the fluid
Such a cylinder and piston are represented in Fig. 1-1.
In principle, the work of compression is again equal to f F dx.
The force F upon the piston face resulting from an absolute pressure
II P-
II
I I FC=pA) I I
A
I I
I f---,_
~--
-:: ~~
11----"
II
! I -
- : 1: I
W=JFrt.
(=-Jp dV)
P --
Po
oL_~V~~~~~~v,~-
-j I(=~~ <Is) 0
FIg. 1-1
p existing in the fiUld becomes equal to pA, where p conforms to the

accepted definition of pressure as force per unit area, and A is the
area of the piston surface upon whICh the pressure acts. The work
so required for effecting the movement of the piston and compression
of the fluid becomes
(1-4)
It will be advantageous, however, if the work is expressed in terms

ART. 1-8 COMPRESSION OR EXPANSION 11
of items relating to the fluid and to their change during and in con-
sequence of the energy supply. One wny of accomplishing'this is by
noting that the distance advanced by the piston times its area wIll
be equal in amount, although OpposIte in algebraic sense, to the de-
crease In volume of the confined flUId, or A dx - -dV - -m dv,
where the negative sign mdICates that advance of the piston in the
direction of applIcation of the force is accompamed by decrease in
volume of the fluid.' Here the symbol V Identifies the fluid volume,
the symbol m identifies the mass of the confined fluid, and the symbol
v identifies the volume per unit maS8 of fluid, or its specific volume.
Introducing the above consideration into equation 1-4, the work of
('ompre~sion becomes
lV,om. = - (V P dV
JV D
= -mi' U"
p dv (1-5 )
A frequently useful graphical facility associated with relatIOn 1-5 is

exhibited in the sketch in the lower part of FIg. 1-1, In whICh, to
coordinates of absolute pressure p and volume V, the record of a
simultaneous change of these durmg c01"presslOn is depicted, and the
- (V P dV is represented by the hatched area of the figure. Note
Jvo
that, for a compression process, as V is smaller than V o, the area
sweeps toward the axis and is negatIve In sign. The work of com-
pression -lV dV
Yo
p therefore has a positive value, indicating that
work energy is .upplied to the fluid system. A negative value of
work of compression would, of rourse, SIgnify lin exp.nsion process
witb lts associated work-energy departure from the fluid system.
An evident mathematIcal consIderatIOn is al.o that the integral may
be evaluated only if a functIOnal relatIOn between the variables p
and V is known. The unit of the resulting work of compression when
several conventional units are employed for evaluatIOn of pressure
and of volume (or of pressure, mass, and specific volume) IS shown
in Table 1-3.
"A further aspect of the a.lgebraic Sign IS that, from the VIewpoint of the direc--
tion of the energy transition as work, the negative sign serves to reconcile the
situa.tion tha.t the supplying of eDcrgy to the flmd IS associated wIth decrea3e of
Its speclfic volume. The authors belIeve there WIll be less confusion if m all
instances energy supply to 8. deVIce or flUId IS regarded as algebralca,lIy positive
In sense, followmg the conventIon employed by Planck. However, many wrlters
prefer the oPPoslte practlCe of regardlng the slDgle ClTcum.stance of energy supply
as work to be algebra.lcally negatIve, and would thus omit the minus sign in equa-
tioll 1~5.
Table 1-3
Pressure Volume :1\1ass SpeCIfic Volume
Work Ulll~ Unit Umt Unit Urnt
ft-Ibf Ibf/sq It cu It lb cuft/lbm
dyne-cm (erg) dynes/sq cm cuem gm cucmjgm
lIter-atmospheres atmospheres hteta
It is to be noteo, however, that equation 1-5 for work of compres-

sion will give an insufficient result for the work input to the pIston,
or, oppOSItely, that the result WIll exceed the work output via the
pIston rod, if fnction hampers piston movement.
p'-..
/
FIg. 1-2.
A parallel and important precautIOnary observation, but one that

may not be immedIately evident, is aSSOCIated WIth real circumstances
in which fnctwnal resIstances come mto actIOn m conjunction with
• movement of a flUld For mdlcatmg this considewbon let the device
of FIg I-I be modified in the feature that the pIston (real or
imagined) is separated from the cyhnder by an extended and perhaps
constricted or tortuous channel wlthm which the flUId must advance
or retreat as Its volume changes FIgure 1-2 illustrates this point.
Experience establishes that in such circumstances and as a result
of fluid friction or turbulence there will be /l.o sensible decrease of
fluid pressure in the direction of its motIOn. Consequences of thIS
SItuatIOn may be expressed from either of two viewpomts:
a. The work energy which must arrive via the piston face will differ
appreciably from the - J p dV if the pressure is interpreted as that
within the cylmder Itself.
b The non-homogeneity of the fluid filling the channel and cylinder
will in Itsell invalidate even the employment of any specific magnitudes
of the fluid pressure at any instant, and will so make meaningless any
mtegral such as the above .
. The action of frictIOn in this case, whether as mechanical friction
hampermg the movement of the piston or as frIctIOn or turbulence
ART 1-9 FLOW WORK 13
acting within the body of the fluid, can be seen to be parallel to fric-
tion effects in the foregoing IDstances of work against gravity and
work against inertial rcs,stance. The dlstmctJOn that has heen made
between real mechanical processes as they occur m nature and "those
that are ideahzed JD the feature of prcsummg that frIctional reSIStances
of any character are negligible, or non-exIstent IS descnbed m thermo-
dynamIC parlance as the distmction between mechamcally ,rreverS'ble
and reversible processes. The tecbmeal slgnificance and advantages
of thIS manner of designation IS indIcated In Art. 4-2
l.9. Flow Wurk. A further form of energy transltlOn as work is
im·ariably associated with the mere fact 01 the maintenance of the
w~
=P"
I
y
flow of a fluid along a channel, or its introduction mto any region,

against the pressure then existing In the flUId Dr region. The concept
may be developed by reference to Fig. 1-3 Here the boundaries of a
stream (of transverse area A) are represented by the solid hOrizontal
lines, and a partICular mass dm of the fluid which forms the stream IS
represented us being about to pass along the ehannel past the line y-y
and into the regIOn to the left of that line. The mass dm is of volume
dV, the specific volume of the fluid v thus being dV Idm. An absolute
pressure p exists at section y-y. A moving piston, which may be
regarded as real or imagined or III fact as formed by the fluid to the
right of mass dm, is the agency OJ' ,,·hieh the flow is maintained.
For effecting the entry of fluid of mass dm and volume dV into the
region, a force pA must have acted through a distance dx which will
equal dV I A, Designating as flow ,,;ork the mecllBDlcal work so
required for effecting the entry of the mass into the region, the amount
of such work per unit ma.s of fluid entering becomes
. (pA) dx (pA) (dVjA)
Wnow (per umt mass) = dm = dm = pv (1-6)
Suitable umt combinations for evaluation of the flow work are evi-
dently identical with tbose mdicated in Table 1-3 of the preceding
article.
Noteworthy observations concerning thIs energy quantity are as
follows:
a. The magnitude of the item, per umt mass of fluid, IS uniquely
expressible by the szmple product of the two attributes of the fluid,
pressure and speCIfic volume.
b This product may, however, be aSCrIbed energy significance only
in associatIOn wIth flow phenomena and in the flow-energy significance
that has been indicated.
c. The Item is not a measure of the energy that has been requzred
for prior compression of the fluid to the existing pressure, and is inde-
pendent of any energy that may have been required to give the fluid
veloczty. Instead, It relates solely to the work that m some manner
must be furnished for effecting the advance of tbe fluid stream against
the restrammg pressure during that advance'
1-10. Shaft Work. In much of the equipment for which the engi-
neer needs to provide thermodynamlC analyses, such as the vaflOUS
'types of engmes, the major purpose is t<l provide a torque which will
rotate a shaft against a restraming torque exerted by some externally
lmposed "load." Or, the equipment may be a pump or compressor
for the operation of which an externally supplied torque will oppositely
be reqUlred. In eIther situation the energy which so departs or enters
through the agency of a stressed and rotating shaft becomes an item
of primary concern. This energy wzll be referred· to as shaft work and
represented by the general symbol 11', or pOSSIbly by symbols such as
TV. or 1 TV2 when a dzstingUlshmg subscript is advantageous.
It may well be noted in these connections that much of the following
• This consideratJon may be illustrated by reference to FIg ]~1 if the confiDed
fluid, after compression, flows from the cylinder through some delivery pIpe by
reason of further advance of the piston The work required for compre~ion of
the fluid in the cylinder was - f p dV, but that required for sub!;equent delivery
of the fluid from the <'ylinder against re.strslDlDg pressure is expressed by the
product pV. It is to be noted in this connection that these severa] processes of
compreS~!lon and delivery ma.y also be a.ccomplished concurrently in cOmmon
types of machmes, m winch event the aggregate work reqUlred for compression
and delivery becomes the sum of the above quantltleB.
ART. 1-12 ENGINEERING UNITS OF ENERGY 15
material will relate to the more or/less devious manners In which energy
that has been supplIed as heat to some fluid medium may be converted
at least in part to tbe highly essential form of shaft-work energy,
and to limitations in the extent to which such conversions may be
accomplished.
1-11. Electrical Work. In association with such devlCes as engme-
dnven generators or 'motor-driven compressors, and also when ther-
modynamic analyses arc applied to electrochemical processes, it is
evidently necessary that attention be gIven to energies that are in tran-
sition through the actuating agency of electric potenhaJ and that are
identIfied as electrical work. Accounting of such energy may be made
in terms of the product of the electric potential in volts hmes the
quantity of electricity expressed in coulombs (i.e., ampere-seconds),
giving It result in joules. One Joule equals 0 7376 it-Ibf
1.12. Engineering Units of Energy. Perhaps because of his
associatlOn both with the layman and WIth the various sciences, and
undoubtedly also for historical reasons and consequent habits, the
engmeer burdens himself WIth a multipliClty of energy umts. As has
been noted, certain of these units origmated in association with meas-
urements of heat energy by observation of the effects of its reception
by some substance such as water. These units are regarded as having
thermal antecedents A second group of units have mechanical ante-
cedents and follow from the primary aspect of mechamcal work as
the product of a force times a distance. Certain subsidiary units
originate in the aspect of work as the product of pressure times volume.
A fourth group of energy units has electrical antecedents, and a fifth
derives from certain conventional units of power (i.e., the rate at which
energy is being transmitted).
As energy manifestations in any such forms are simply varlOUS
aspects of the same entity one must be able to convert from anyone
to any other 01 these umls. To that end suitable conversion factors
are collected In Table 1-4, as provided on page 18. It will be well,
however, to note briefly or to recall more concretely the background
of the various units.
The units with electrical antecedents are at present accepted as
suitable primary ones, by reason of the greater ease or exactness with
which energy quanhtles may be measured by certain elect~otechnic.l
processes and with electric mstruments. Such a unit is the Joule (or
watt-second), which is in effect defined as the energy that is assocIated
with an electromotive Iorce of 1 volt and the passage of 1 coulomb
of electricity. The joule is also defined mechanically as 10' ergs.
where the erg may be described alternatively as the work done by a
16 ENERGY IN TRANSITION CHAP. '1
force of 1 dyne achng through" distance of 1 cm. The two definitions

of the joule have been sbown to be in effective agreement. The Joule
IS also identIfied as the newton-meter.
An associated energy unit is the walt-hour and equals 3600 Joules.
The watt IS the power umt defined as the tr"nsfer of energy at the
rate of 1 Joule per sec, and the watt-hour IS the amount of energy
mvolved in Its translhon at the rate of 1 watt for a period of 1 hour
The common energy unit WIth entIrely mechanical background is the
foot-pound. An associatcd unit is the horsepower-hour (hp-hr) and
equals 1,980,000 ft-lb, the horsepower being defined as the transfer of
energy at the rate of 33,000 It-Ib per mm (550 ft-lb per scc) and the
horsepower-hour being the amount of energy involved m Its transItion
at that rate for a penod of 60 mm
Umts of energy that have essentIally thermal antecedents are the
calone, the British thermal umt (Btu) and the Cent.orade thermal umt
(Ctu). They evolved initIally III assoCIation with endeavors to measure
energy in transition as heat by observation of the effects of such energy
receptIOn by some substance. Thcy were origmally defincd In terms
of the tcmperature rise exhIbited by a unit mass of water m conse-
quence of the energy reception. Thus the calone was defined as the
energy required under certain condItions for warmmg 1 gm of water
through 10 Centigrade,· the Drihsh thermal unit. as the energy simI-
larly required for warming 1 Ibm of water through 10 FahrenheIt, and
the Centigrade thermal unit as that required for warmmg 1 lb of water
through 10 Centigrade.
Many experiments have been performed for determination of the
quantitative relation between the varIOUs energy umts. Notable
among these were the pioneer work of Dr. Joule, and later SImIlar
experiments, 10 WhICh a measured temperature rIse of a known mass
of water in a container was produced 'by violent agitation by means
of a paddle wheel drIven in such a manner that the work input might
be measured. In later experiments the energy mput was electrical
and was accomplished by a su bmergcd resistance coil. The results of
all were, however, more or less varIable and uncertain, due in the main
to characteristIC dIfficulties associated WIth the assurance that no
energy passed to or from the water and its container in unaccounted
manner or amount, as by radiatIOn.
In consequence an international conference convened in London in
1929, primarily for the purpose of coordinating the available data on
* There are a variety of calories differing slightly from one another. The 4°
calone and the 15" calone are based on measurements at those particular CentI-
grade temperatures, the mean calorIe all measurements over the range O-IOO"C, etC.
ART. 1-13 FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS OF ENERGY 17
the thermodynamic properties of steam The confcrence concluded
that the relation between the/vanou. energy units of mechanical,
thermal, electncal, or electrochemical antecedents should be estab-
lished by agreement, rather than by an attempt at estab]J,hment" by
experiment. Such a procedure IS analogous to the legal establishment
of the pound mass as 0.4535924 kg The 'actIOn of the conference was
III effect to define a~ international C'IT" or "steam-table") calorie as
4 18674 absolute Joules (i e , 4,18674 X ]07 dyne-cm) or 3 08797 It-lb,
and a corresponding international ("IT") Bntish thermal unit as
1055,04 absolute joules or 778.165 ft-lb, These are the energy units
employed m the United States 'm the major current tables of the
thermodynamic propertIes of engmeermg fluids For most other
scientific purposes a cal one defined as 4"1840 absolute joules is used
The symbol J is quite regularly employed to designate these or
analogous multipliers which serve to convert energy magnitudes in
thermal units to theIr eqUIvalent m mechamcal umts, the multIpher
also bemg referred to as Joule's equwalent. When the symbol occurs
m a relatIOn in which energy Items of dIfferent antecedents appear
jomtly it may be regarded m genera'l as a mental remmder that, for
the energy evaluatIOns, the same units, must be employed throughouL
Table 1-4 prOVIdes numerical factors that serve for converSIOns
between energy umts.
1-13. FUlld31nental Dimensions of Energy. In several subse-
quent circumstances It will be helpful to recogmze primary at1nenSlOns
thot ore associated .nth the energy entity, lrhere the term dlmenslOn
IS used as a generic synonym for certam fundamental phYSIcal concepts
that are mvolved m processes of nature and are more or less directly
eVIdent to our physical senses, Among such are those of space, time,
and force, represented by respectIve symbols, I, t, and f, Thus, from
its mechamcal antecedents, the concept of energy would be said to
"have the dImenSIOns of" force times space, or, dImenSIOnally, fl.
However, due in part to the ease of storage of a unit mass and dIffi-
culties in the storage of a unit force, the concepts of space, time, and
mass (1, t, and m) may properly and WIth some advantages be taken
as an alternatIve trio of fundamental dImenSIOns. To express the
concept of force m terms of these three dimenSIOns It may be noted
that, ID conformity WIth the second law of motIOn, force is to be
regarded as proportional to and so having the dImensions of mass
bmes acceleration, But acceleration IS a space-time concept whICh
IS readIly seen to have the dimensions of space/(time)2, or It- 2 , Con-
sequently a lorce IS to be regarded as havmg the dImensions mlt- 2 ,
and energy so has the alternahve dlmensio 2t- 2 "
~~].5~ '"gJ
0-.. 00
:g en
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ART. 1-14 PROBLEMS 19
Notmg that the dImensions of velocIty are (lIt), or It-', the rela-
tIOn of equation 1-3 is so seen to be dImensionally suitable for· energy
expression. WIth reference to equation 1-2, if the dimenSIOns of g
are taken to be either It- 2 or Jim, that relation IS also seen to be dimen-
sIOnally suitable With reference to equation 1-5 or 1-6, if it IS recog-
nized that volume has the dimenSIOns of j3, and pressure bas the
sIgnificance of force per" UnIt area and thus the dimensions of Ill' or
alternatIvely mlt- 2 11 2 - ml- 1 t- 2 , any pV product is seen to have
again the dImensions of Il or ml 2 t- 2.
A ratIO between quanhhes that are dImensIOnally identical would
be WIthout dImenSIOn, or dtmenstonless. Examples of such dimenSIon-
less ratIOs are wlpV, (wlm)/u 2 , and (wlm)lgz.
1.14. Problems. 1 Dynamometer tests on a shIp model 20 it Long show that
a. force of 941 lb was reqUIred to maintaIn a speed of 3578 knots (1 knot IS
6080 it/hr, closely). Under these conditions what was the work energy Input
per 100 yd? Wllat was tne horsepower requirement? A1l3. 2823 ft-lbf. 0.104 hp
2. A spring requues a final force of 1000 lb to accomplIsh a compreSSIOn of
6 In from lU;! free state, but the force reqUITed is proportional to the amount
of compreSSIon. Draw a. force-<hsta.nce diagram for the process; show by an area.
on the diagram the work requIred; and compute the amount of work.
An. 250 ft,.lb
3. (a) A 200-lb hammer of a piledriver is lafted 20 ft. What 15 the work done
against gravity? (b) The 200-lb hammer of the piledriver IS restncted III both
lift and fall by a 20--1b frictional force If bft and fall are each 20 ft, how much
work 113 requll'ed to hft the hammer, and how much energy is returnable at the
Instant of the blow? Am. 4400; 3600
4. An object the mass of whlCh is 70 lb is acted on by n. constant forca of
70 lb. What wlll be the acceleration m feet per second per second? What is
the work done against the merbal reSIStance if the force acts through a honzontal
diStance of 10 it? What 1$ the velocity aehleved If frictlonai effects are absent,
the object havmg InitIally been at rest? Am. 3217; 700, 25.3
5 An object 113 dragged from rest up a rough InclIned pla..ne. The mass of the
object 113 27 lb, the lInear distance moved IS 50 ft, and m that dIstance It IS
elevated 10 ft and acqUIrea a velOCIty of 600 fpm; the mean force or pull wa.s 12 lb.
(a) What IS the tot.a.l work energy mput? (b) How much work is done agamst
gravity? now much work is done a.gainst inertIAl reSlStance? (c) What may
aCCOunt for the dIscrepancy between the total work enelgy input and the total of
the 'Work done? Am 600' 270· 42
6 A corustant force of 306 lbf is exerted (tangentia.lly) by a mo~itl.g fluid
stream on the blades of a turbme wheel WhICh have an (effective lmear) velOCity
of 824 fps What is the work-energy effect per second"
7. A gas, mamtained under condlllons of con~tant pressure Qf 147 psin., under-
goes a volume change from 650 cu ft to 667 cu ft (as effected perhaps by he9.t-
energy supply) (a) What IS the nssocw.ted work effect? (b) What 15 the
algebraiC sign of the integral - f p dV, and IS the work-energy transItIOn mto or
out of the flUId system? Would thiS work be srud to be that of an eXpSDEIOn
Or a. compreSSIon? Am _ 36,000
8. What is the flow work reqUIred for the entry of 1 Jb of water (foot-pounds
per pound, and Btu per pound) mto ll. low-pressure uOller at 20 pSla? Into 8
hIgh-pressure boder at 750 pSla7 AriB 00594; 1730
9. The expenmental pressure-volume relation of propane at 212°F was deter-
mined as tabulated Pressures are III standard atmospheres of 14696 pSI, specIfic
volumes m cubic feet per pound. (a) Plot these data, and find - £2 P dv for
the compression of 1 Ib of propane from 10 atm to 60 atm under condItIons such

that the p-v relatIOns as given wIll hold. (b) \Vhat flow work IS reqUired for
the delIvery of 1 Ib of propane at 60 atm pressure and 212°F? What flow work
accompameB the llltroductlOD of 1 Ib of propane mto the compressor at 10 atm
and 212°F? (c) Notmg that flow work of entermg propane effectively transports
energy to the compressor, but that energy 18 reqwred for the compreSSIOn and
subsequent deLIvery, what is the algebraIC sum of the flow work of mtake, work
of compression, a.nd flow work of delivery per pound of propane under the condl-
tlOns above? An'. 41.500 ft-Ib; 5730; 21,500; +28,730
p 10 15 20 30 40 50 60
v 10170 06429 04531 02597 01483 00801 0.0451
10 Veruy the conversion factor 2544 that appears in Table 1-4 for mtercon-
versIOn of Btu and horsepower-hour When IS the factor a multiplIer? When
a dIVisor?
11 An mternal-combustlOn engine uses 011 of 19,000 Btu per Ib calOrIfic value
and consumes 100 Ib per hour when developmg 200 hp What IS the ratIO of
work energy out to energy supplIed for thls engrne? Ans. 26.8%.
12. A fundamental relation used m the study of rocket motors states that the
thrust (i e, force developed by the motor) is proportIOnal to the piOduct of the
mass-rate of fuel-flow lD the Jet and the effective Jet velOCity. (a) Show that
thiS relation IS dImenSIOnally vahd. (b) If Jet velocity were expressed in feet
per second and mnss-rate of flow m pounds per second, thrust would be gIVen
directly in what umts? (c) Develop an equatIOn expressmg thrust (Ill pounds
force) as a funchon of flow rate (m pounw mass per second) and effective Jet
velocity Un feet per second) Ans. (b) Poundals
2 . STORED ENERGY
2·1. Foreword. An earlier article indicated the sUItable classIfi-

cation of energIes into (a) those in transItion through the agencies or
potentials identIfied as temperature, mech.mcal force, or electTlc
potentIal, and (b) those stored m and ascribable to a gIven mass m
definrte quantity when the mass is in a definite status Following
material will consider tbe manners of such energy storage, the determi-
nation of its amount, and items whereby the energy status of a given
mass may be described.
The general notion of energy storage is readily acceptable when one
observes the streams of energy, great and small, that continuously
pass in both natural and man-made processes, and one intuitively
entertams the thought of original, intermediate, and ultImate repoSI-
tOrles of that energy As a result of extended and critical analyses
of such observations there was establrshed the broad prmciple whIch
is known as the conservation of energy and wli,ch experience indICates
to be inVIOlate.· This prInciple IS a fundamental one in thermody-
namic studies and IS in fact known as the first law of thermodynamics.
A suitable manner of stating it is that
While energy may be transferred to or from a system in various
manners or be stored within the system in vaned forms, in so doing
It may not be quantItatively destroyed or created and its total
thus remains constant.
The first utility of this principle lies in its ability to provide means
for determining changes lD the amount of stored energy. The pro-
cedure, however, is mdlrect and depends on determination of the
amount of energy passing to or from a system as work or heat in bring-
ing the system to a given condition.
2-2. Mechanical Potential Energy, or Geopotcntial. The work
Ideally reqUIred for lifting a mass agamst the gravitational force was
formulated in Art. 1-6 III the relation
IV.... = kgm(z - zo) (1-2)
• Although modern phYSICS regards mass as also a. manifestation of energy, this
aspect of the conservatIOn pnnciple need not divert us from Its applica.tJon to
engineering processes.
21
22 STORED ENERGY CHAP. 2
But the work which is so expended may also be regarded as subse-
quently stored in the system consistmg of the elevated mass and the
earth. ThIs IS in accordance with the law of conservatIon of energy
and is verIfied by our experience that, m assocIation with an elevated
mass and by virtue of its elevatIOn, there is a potentiality for dcscend-
ing and for the consequent productIOn of effects which equal the energy
ideally required for the lifting. Such stored energy IS identified as
mechanical potentwJ energy, or geopotentwl.
In these connectIons a significant obscrvation is that it IS only
because of contiguity of the mass and the earth, and of a mutual attrac-
tion betwcen them, that a storage of potential energy may eXIst. In
other words, although \Ie may frequently say loosely that the cncrgy
is possessed by the elevated mass, in a stricter sense it must be recog-
nized as residmg in a system formed by the mass and the earth and
dependmg on their mutual attractIOn. Although sCIence has not
revealed the mechamsm whereby such forces may exist between
masses, it is fortunately sufficient for engineering purposes SImply to
realize that they eXIst, to measure them, and to predict qualItatively
and quantItatively what they will do. We should so be able subse-
quently to accept the parallel notion of a potential energy storage in
less eVIdent systems that are made up of parts between which mutual
al though less tangible forces exist.
A further observation is that, whIle equation 1-2 serves for evaluat-
ing the energy that has been stored III the process of lifting a mass to
elevation z, the magnitude of the geopotential as so evaluated still
depends on an arbItrary selectIOn of the elevation Zo of some reference
plane from which the lifting is presumed to have proceeded This
plane might perhaps be taken with equal propriety to be at mean sea
level or at some location such as the center of gravIty of the earth. In
this, and in subsequent analogous situations, we shall necessarily accept
the fact that any quantitative statements of stored potential energies
may well provide only a relative rather than an absolute measure of
the energy. But it is again fortunate that for engineering purposes
evaluation of such relative magmtudes will generally be sufficient, so
long as their change may be determined with confidence.
A final essentIal observation is that we may establish the relative
geopotential of a system from information concerning its mechanical
state as described simply by the relative elevation of the mass. Fur-
thermore, the same corresponding magnitude of the poten tial energy
. may persistently be ascribed so long as a given elevation exists or is
attained, irrespective of any partIcular manner or path by which
.a mass may, have arrived at the given state of elevation. Parallelob-
ART. 2-3 MECHANICAL KINETIC ENERGY 23
scrvations will become importan~ in relation to less tangible. systems.'
SUlllmanzmg, we may say that potentIal energy is charactenzed by
the followmg:
(a) It IS energy stored in a systcm rather than m a body.
(b) Its magnitude IS a function of the aggregatIOn of the parts of
the system.
(c) The energy stored III a system at a gIven state may be measured
and expressed only with respect to some reference state of the system.
(d) Descnption of the state and of the energy storage associated
wIth the state are effectIvely synonymous.
2.3. lIIechanical Kinetic Energy. Parallehng the development
of the concept of the storage of potential energy, hke observations
may be made concerning the work ideally required for accelerating a
tangible mass against its inertial resIstance, as expressed in Art. 1·7
by the rclatIOn
u2 - uo 2
W~ol=km 2 (1-3)
The work that is so expended must be regarded as subsequently stored

by vIrtue of the velocity acquired by the moving mass. This is well
venfied by our experience that, for example, very appreciable effects
are produced by the impact of a moving mass upon one of less velocity.
Such stored energy IS idenllfied as mechamcal kinetic energy.
Observe also that it is only by reason of a difference between the
,"clocIty of one mass and a second that effects are produced on collision,
and we so recognize that the concept of kmetic energy must be asso-
CIated with a system whose parts are at differing velocities. In the
tcrrestrial system we assIgn a zero relatIve velOCIty to any object at
rest relative to the earth, and so habitually but loosely assign the
kinetic energy solely to the moving mass. But it remams that kinetic
• An observation with Bome subsequent util-
Ity may be made in connectJon WIth the relatlOn ~
Wi .... = l' F, dz, of Art. 1-6, when this is

also regarded as a means for evaluating rela-
tIVe geopotc[lbal Here recall that the gravita-
honal force decreases wlth increased sepa.ra.tlon
1
between a given mass and the earth, so that a
graphICal record of F, versus z may appear as
in FIg. 2-1 u z became great with relatIon to
•
the size of the earth. The l' F, dz would be
'0 -
Fig. 2-1.
represented by the hatched area m the sketch A Significant feature IS that the
potentlal energy of the system approaches Its maximum as F, approaches zero
energy associated wIth a movmg part of a system is inherently evalu-
ated in terms of a relative velocIty of that part, and so any quantitatIve
statement of the encrgy is necessanly a relatIve onc.
A final observation from the above relation IS that we may evaluate
the kinctic energy of a system from mformatlOn concerning its mass
and the mechamcal state as descnbcd SImply by the velocity Also,
this partlOular relative magmtude may correctly be ascnbed so long
as a given velocity exists, irrespective of the manner or mcans whereby
that veloClty has been attained.
The aggregate potential and kmetlO energies stored m a system of
tangIble bodIes are describet! by the genene name (stored) ",echamca!
energy. One purpose of the followmg materJaI WIll be to mdicate
the close parallelIsm bctween the energy so stored in tangible macro-
scopic systems and that which may be stored in systems of elemental
particles of matter of mtOrascop'c order, such as moleculcs and atoms
2-4. Internal Energy. Passing from the consIderatIOn of mechan-
lOal energy storage assoCIated with the gross aspects of a system such
as its position or velocity, it becomes necessary to consIder the energy
that is 'stored internally withm matter and that is assoClatet! with the
elemental particles comprising matter The possibiltty of this internal
energy storage is well evidenccd from a mechamcal background by
such phenomena as the abilIty of a stressed sprmg to produce very
'tangIble effects upon release, or like abilIty of a prevlOusly compressed
gas. It is also illustrated by the varIed effects which may be produced
by a high-temperature body, a burnmg fuel or an explosive, a charged
storage battery, or the hIghly spectacular results of its release m the
"atomIC" bomb. All such stored energies will be identified here by the
general term internal energy: and represented by the symbol E, or
the' symbol e when expressing the internal energy per umt mass,
Although, as we noted earlier (Art. 1-1), thermodynamic studies
may proceed by recognition and analytical survey solely of energy
m"nifestatlOns of tangIble range, without attention to more intimate
aspects of matter, a bnef review of accepted ideas concerning facilI-
ties for storage of internal energy withm matter may still be helplul.
To such end recall that the molecules comprising matter exert strong
• As was noted 10 Art. 1-3, both energy whICh is in tranSItIon by reason of &
temperature gradient and certain of the mternalJy stored energies have been
IdentIfied. m some literature by the smgle word IIheat." Confusions that thereby
result are here aVOided by iJrnltmg the use of the term heat to the first BIg.
pificance, and using the term ~nternal energy for the internally stored energies
An instance where the dlstmctlOD IS Important is the adiabatic process defined in
Art. 1-3. Here no energy transition as heat occurs, hut the mternal energy may
very well be Bubject to change.
ART. 2-4 INTERNAL ENERGY 25
mtermolecular 'forces (analogous to the gravitatlOnal forces between
more tangible Items, such as the earth and moon). These forces serve
as a medium for potential-energy storage whenever the particles are
separated, as when a liquid evaporates or when the relabve positions'
of particles are changed accompanying the deformation of a material
by external energy supply. Furthermore, the ceaseless, haphazard
agItation of the molecules serves as the medium for storage of quantl-
tles of molecular kmetic energy. Supplementary mternnl facihties for
the storage of energy occur where the molecules are free to rotate or
components of molecules may vIbrate. Vast additional amounts of
energy are associated with the electron configuration withm the atoms,
and WIth the nuclear partICles It becomes evident, however, that
mternal energy, like the potential and kmetIC enelgy of tangible par-
ticles, may only be assigned relative rather that absolute magmtudes.
Although it IS not feasible to make preCIse differenti"tion between
the vanous forms or manners in whICh internal energy is stored or to
state preCIsely the types of technical processes in which these forms
find major ullhty, It may be said m general that thermodynamic
processes of engineermg character are in the main associated wIth
energies on the molecular plane (i e., the aggregate of the potenbal
and kmetic energIes of the molecules). The energleS of chemical
reactlOns may similarly be said to be aSSOCIated with changes in the
electronic configurallon of the atom, or to be on the atomIC plane;
and the nuclear energy released by atomic fission is associated with
nuclear changes at subatomic level At the present state of the art,
chemical and nuclear energies cannot ordmarlly be used dIrectly m
engineering processes without first bemg transformed to the molec-
ular plane.
In engineering processes the major immediate consequence of heat-
energy transltlOns is change in the internal energy of the substance to
or from which the energy passes, although volume change and asso-
ciated work effects may also account for 'a portion of the heat energy.
FnctlOnal effects between movmg parts of a mechanism likewise result
directly m increase of the internal energy of the affected parts, and
IImd frictlOn impeding the motion of a fluid stream also tends to
mcrease the internal energy of the fluid.
In the last connection it is well to note the distinctIOn between the
mechanical kinetic energy associated WIth an achvely moving stream
(such as an air jet), and ,the internal kmetic energy ascnbable to the
movements of molecules. It is essentially one of the degree to which
molecular motions may either have become somewhat organized or
may remain wholly haphazard. With organization sufficient that
mechamcal effects may be accomplished by the stream, the aggregate
of the unidirectional components of molecular motion becomes the
velocity of the stream. The kmetic energy associated with this
motion is denoted as mechamca! kmetic energy. The residual dis-
organized components of the molecular motIOn" represent molecular
kinetic energy, and as such is denoted as a portion of the internal
energy of the flUId. A middle situation of semi-organization is to be
recognized in that of fluid turbulence.
2-5. Convection. In technical hterature relating to and analyzing
heat transfer phenomena it is a customary and suitable practIce to
include, as agencIes by which the energy transition occurs, not only
radiation and conduction (Art. 1-3) but also convection. By this term
IS meant in principle, however, a physical transportation of energy
from one location to a second by the passage, between these locations,
of a fluld III which the energy is stored. Although the eonvedio)1
process is intImately associated with heat-transfer phenomena it has
seemed preferable in this book to recognize it as, fundamentally, the
above-described transportation of internal energy by the migration of
a fluid which serves as a carrier of stored energy.
2-6. Thermodynamic Siale and Properties. In earher articles
we noted the ab1hty to identify the mechanical state of a system of
masses, and simultaneously to express the relative amount of mechan-
ical energy stored in the system, merely from elevation and veloClty
. data. In the case of the complex systems such as the fluids employed
m engineering, a lIke abilIty to express the amount of energy stored
internally involves d1fficulties associated with inadequate mformahon
concerning molecular and atomic arrangements. Such dIfficulties must
be avoided by a procedure that 1S necessarily indirect.
In this situation it becomes necessary to
(a) Select measurable indices which, as external evidences of inter-
nal state 'and consequent internal ener.gy, will so serve (1) that the
same internal state is known to be reproduced" if in any manner a given
fluid is caused to re-exhib1t the same value of such mdices, and (2)
that one is aware that a change in the state has occurred If a different
value of any mdex is exhibited; and
(b) Provide facilities and data whereby the magnitude of change
in the mternal energy of a given fluid may be expressed with confidence
• When we cODBider that a gIven state of a flUId is reproduced, we imply not
that the conditIOn of each and every partIcle IS the same as prevIously but that
J
because of the complete haphazardness of the arrangement of the molecules the

average and effective properties and state of any finIte mass made up of a
mynad of these partIcles WIll be the same.
ART. 2-7 TEMPERATURE 27
when a change in its internal state is eVIdenced by a change m the
identification indices The provision of such data IS the problem of
the physical laboratory; the organization of such data and facilities is
the subject of Part III of this book.
The concept that IS referred to above as internal state is expressed
technically as the thermodynamic state of a substance, or more sImply
as its state. Any index that serves as eVIdence of the thermodynamIc
state, or in fact any attnbute of a fluid which exhibits an invariable
magnitude whenever the flu,d may'in any manner arnve at a paritcular
thermodynamic state is known as a thermodynamlc property. As the
properties of a fluid are fixed when it is at a given state, these proper-
ties are frequently and aptly referred to in the language of mathematics
as state functions or point functions. Evidently the mternal energy
falls within the category of a thermodynamic property or state functIOn.
It IS important to note that, as a given magnitude of any property
for a fluid is an attribute only of a given state, a description of that
state in terms of the propertIes cannot in itself gIve any history of the
manner or processes whereby the state h~s been attained. Conversely,
however, a state change may be descnbed by giving the manner of
varIation of the properties durmg and in consequence of the proccss.
Those thermodynamic properties which in their role of Identification
indices act more directly as external evidences of the mternal condi-
tions of a flUId, and are also those for the measurement of which we
have available simpler engineering instruments, are the temperature
and pressure. In the following articles these and others are consid-
ered briefly from the viewpoint of the character of eVldence they
contribute.
2-7. Temperature. The concept of temperature was introduced
in Art. 1-3 as the potential, or dnving force, for the transfer of energy
as heat. This is of fundamental significance, but a further aspect of
the temperature concept needs to be introduced hcre. The imllal ideo
of temperature proceeded merely from man's ability to distingUIsh
"hotness" Qr "coldness," but physical experience and analyses have
well established the further consideratIOn that thcse characterlstic"
are fundamentally both a consequence and an eVIdence of the actIVIty
of the molecules of any substance. It is th,s aspect of the temperature
concept that validates it as an evidence of the state of a flUId and
thus of its internal energy store.
The practical utility of temperature as a thermodynamic property
results further from the fact that man has devised various laboratory
and field instruments whlCh are able to measure relallve hotness by
the observation of various secondary effects accompanying change of
hotness. Such are the mercury-in-glass and the gas types of ther-
mometers, the electrical-resistance or thermocouple types, etc. It
must be emphasized, however, that in gencml these instruments are
in themselves able to measure only relative hotness, whereas ther-
modynamic analyses both enable and reqUIre the use of temperature
evaluations with reference to an absolute zero of temperature. Due
attention is subsequently given to the thermodynamic significance of
this absolute-temperature zero
2-8. Pressure. In Art 2-4 it was noted that the molecules of a
fluid are in '8 state of great actlvlty. As a result they undergo a con-
tmuous series of real or vlrtual collisions with each other and wlth
the containing walls These walls (or a piston as part of these walls)
must withstand these impacts, and if mechamcal equilibrmm eXlsts
must exert equal but opposite forces on the flUld The external force
per unit 'area, or pressure, necessary to confine the flUId lS thus a reflec-'
tIon of molecular activity, and th,s aopcct of pressure occaswns its
use as a property that contnbutes to the descnption of the internal
energy store of a fluid
The practical utilIty of pressure as a thermodynamic property
results further from the fact that various l-aboratory and field instru-
ments have been devised which measure flUId pressure directly, Such
are the mercurlal and aneroid types of barometers for determining the
pressure of the atmosphere, and the vanouS sorts of pressure gages
that are employed in engineering work for determinmg the excess of
pressure in fluids above atmospheric pressure.
The two properties descnbed above, temperature and pressure, are
notable in thelr ability to provide vahd evidence of the state of a
fluid, and thus of its mternal energy per unit mass, from instrumental
data'that are independent of the quanbty of fiuui, These properties
can thus be measured by instruments of maximum simplicity and con-
venience For th,s reason temperature and pressure data become of
major practical utIlity m thermodynamle praetlCe,' In thelr feature
of mdependence of quantity of fiUld these properties are distmguished
as inteustVe propertIes, in contrast to extensive properties that are
inherently per-umt-mass attributes or whose magnltudes depend on
amounts of matter, '
2-9. Density and Specific Volume. The density of a material,
or its reciprocal, specific volume, conforms to the definitive specific a-
. • The sCience or engmeermg thermouynamlcs has been aptly descrIbed as a.
program of physical and mathematiclll analyses duectcd 10 the mam toward
enablmg a maXImum practIcal utIlIzatIOn of tempera.ture and pre~ure data,
supplemented by a ffillllffium of laboratory mformatIon which these analyses
show to be necessary (or the purposes of engmeermg practJ.ce.
ART 2-10 PROBLEMS 29
tion of a thermodynamlC property, and !liS such becomes capable of
association with other propertIes such as temperature, pressure, and
internal energy. From a molecular viewpoint, the volume occupied
by II matenal is a measure of the distance between molecules, and
thereby provIdes contributory eVIdence of their molecular energy store.
Smce specific volume is mherently a per-unit-mass characterIstic
property, instrumental faCIlItIes for its dIrect determination are in
general lacking Important as volume data are in engineering, their
chIef utility lIes III associatIOn with other properties such as tempera-
ture and pressure, and theIr use IS most conveniently accomplished
with tables, charts, or equations of state that represent in turn the
result of tedIOus laboratory measurements previously made.
2-10. Problems. 1 A muss of 10 lb is at an elevation of 40 ft above a given

plane, and another of 155 Ib is at an elevation of 35.8 It above a second plane
whIch IS 10 ft below the first. Compare the amounts of potentIal energy stored
ill each case, computmg each with reference to both planes.
2. An object, the mass of which is 2.00 lb, has a velocity relatIve to the earth
of 40.1 Ips What is its kinetIC energy in foot-pounds? 1f Its travel should be
resisted by a constant force of 10 lb, through what distance could it move before
cormng to rest and what would be the deceleration?
3 A Jet of water IS bemg dehvered m a vertical directIOn from a nozzle at the
earth's surfa.ce Wlth 8 velocity of 95 fps Neglecting any resistance due to air
friction, compute the relative potential, kinetic, and mechamcal energy of each
pound mass of the water m the Jet at eleva tiona of zero, 93, and 140 it above the
earth and the velOCity of the let at those planes. Base computatIOns on energy
relationB
4. An object is dragged from rest up a rough mc1med plane The rnnss of the
object is 27 Ib j the lmear distance It moved Wa!3 50 ft, and m that distance It was
elevated 10 it and acquired a velocity of 600 fpm, the mean force or pull exerted
was 12 lb. (a) How much work was done in the process; how much mechamcal
parentlsl energy WB.! stored as a result; how much kinetic energy; how much
mternal energy (provided no heat transitIOns occurred)? (Compare with prob·
lem 5, Chapter 1.) (b) What force or pull would have been reqUired were there
no hampering effect of frichon, and the same gam In elevatIOn and velocity
achieved? Under these ideahzed conditions, how much work would be done;
how tnuch mechanical potentIal energy would be stored as 8 result of this process,
how much mechanical kInetic energy; and how much mtemal energy?
5 Dunng the compreSSIon of a quantity of gas, 116,700 ft-Ib net work was done
on the gas, and 140 Btu heat energy were removed through an au cooler. What
is the resultill2 change m mternal energy of tlus gas? ,
6. The heat energy released when 1 Ib of steam is converted to water at a
pressure of 1 atmosphere IS 9697 Btu. Most of thiS heat energy is traceable to
a change in internal energy. but a minor portion corresponds to work of com-
pression associated with a volume decrease from 2678 to 001688 cu ft/lb, Using
these da.ta, compute (a) work effects, - J P dV; (b) interna.l energy change in
the process; (c) density of steam and wa.ter before and after the process.
7. Ten pounds of a certam gas were heated by addmg 170 Btu. During the
process the pressure was held constant at 150 psi, but the volume Increased from
131 to 148 eu ft. Compute (a) work effects. - f p dV. and the duection of the
energy transition as work; (b) mternal energy change of the ga.s. (c) deIlSlty and
specIfic volume of the gas before and after the process.
8. Ten pounds of a. certain gas were heated by adding 170 Btu. Durmg the
process the volume was held constant at 131 ell ft, but the pressure Increased from
150 psi to 17.8 psi. Compute (a) work, effects, - !PdV; (b) internal energy
change of the gas; (c) density and specIfic volume of the gas before and after the
process.
3 . ENERGY EQUATIONS
3·1. Foreword. In Chapters 1 and 2 were developcd concepts of

the manners in which energy may be in transition or may be stored,
and of general means and umts for its quantitatIve evaluatIon, utIliz-
mg the conservation of energy princIple to enable indirect evaluatIOns
of stored energy. With these concepts and facilitIes in mind we are
now in a posItion to extend their use in providmg comprehensive
energy accountmg, of simple bookkeeping nature, for the varied and
frequently complex processes and systems encountered in engmeermg
practice. The most convenient means for mdicatmg the basis of such
accountmg IS the energy equatton, the principles 'and methods of which
will therefore be indIcated.
For readier reference, the foregoing energy forms, and symbols or
relations applying to them are collected 'herewIth in tabular arrange-
ment (Table 3-1).
Table 3-1. Summary of the Forms of Energy
by radiation
l { by conduction
Energy III transition lHeat Q against graVIty,

agrunst mertIa,
kmg(z - zo) (Ideally)
km(u' - u,') (ideally)
Work, W of compreSSion, - Jv.r

Y
p dV (ideally)
flow work, pv (per umt mass)
shaft work, w (per unit mass)
electrical work, W.
geopotentlal, kgz (per unit mass)
MeChamcal {kmetlc, ku'/2 (per UnIt mass)
Stored energy {Internal {internal energy, e (per unit mass)
3-2. Systems ond Processes. The term system has already been
used in designating particular aggregations of tangible or intangible
objects which may receive energy from external sources, may store
that energy in various forms, or may serve as a source for the distribu-
tIon of energy to object. outside the partIcular system For those
purposes it was desirable on occasion to emphasize detailed features
of the system In subsequent studies of the more mvolved processes
31
32 ENERGY EQUATIONS 3CHAP.
occurring in actual machmes it may frequently be neIther convenient

nor necessary to inqUIre into the intImate character of the assemblagc
to or from whICh energy may pass or in whICh it may bc stored, and it
will be reqUlrcd only that the passage or storage be adequately recog-
mzed. We will therefore pass to the broader viewpoint of a system as,
sImply, a regton withm which some aggregation of matter or devices
are assembled, whu;h may act as a reservoir of energy, and to or from
which energy may be delivered. From this vIewpoint we observe that
a mass of fluid, an engme cylmder, a boiler, 'U crucible, a compressor,
or even a complete power or refngeratlOn plant may be selected as the
system for WhICh an energy accountmg IS proposed."
The word process has also been used In relatIOn to various specific
occurrenccs. In a similarly broad fashIOn we shall heremafter regard
a process as any occurrence during which, by any sort of transforma-
tton or redistributton of energy, an effect is produced.
3-3. TI,e General Energy Equation. The proposed quantItatIve
accounting of energy in more complex processes will necessarIly be
based on ,the conservation of energy prinCIple. For app1icatlOn of the
principle to that purpose It will, however, be advantageous to restate
It in an alternatIve but equivalent form:
Accounting for all forms m which the energy may appear, the
total amount of energy which enters 'any regIOn or system must
equal the amount whIch leaves the region plus any accumulatIOn
or minus any diminutIOn of the encrgy that is stored within the
system.
Or, for subsequent utIlIty, let this statement be WrItten in the direct
form of an equation, as follows:
Energy leaving the system,
plus any accumulation or minus
Energy entering a system (3-1)
any dimInution of the amount
stored within the system
ThIS relatIOn will be desIgnated as a general energy equatwn, but WIll
be recognized as beIng sImply a modIfied statement or adaptation of
the first law of thermodynamIcs, or the conservation of energy principle
In proceeding to practical application of this general relatIOn to
engineering purposes two primary or characteristIc types of processes
are encountered, and will here be distinguished as steady-flow processes
and non-flow processes. Other processes are encountered that become
• Still more sHnply and conCIsely. a system may be said to be whatever one
is talking about, and its enmrons a.re everythlllg else.
ART. 3-4 STEADY-FLOW PROCESSES 33
effectlVe eqUlvalents or compinations of these, and also some that are
not readIly placed m either category. We shall marc frequently be
concerned in practice wIth the effectively steady-flow processes.
3-4. Steady·Flow Processes. Through a majority of -the various
modern thermodynamic devICes Mth WhICh we shall be concerned
one or more fluids pass cohtmuously, under condItIOns that effectively
attam the speclfications of'steady fiow Examples are a steadily oper-
ating steam boiler, contmuous still, steam turbine, and centrifugal
compressor.
For the situations here m questIOn specificatIOns aod associated
attributes of a steady-flow process are about as follows:
(a) Any flUld stream at entry to a device or at dcparture therefrom
is suffiCIently homogeneous as regards thermodynamic propertles such
as pressure, temperaturc, and denSIty that representative ""lues of
these may suitably be ascribed at these locations.
(b) The flow IS steady III the sense that at a given location attri-
butes of the flmd and stream remmn the same from instant to instant
(1 e., are invanant with time), although permissibly 'and most probably
change progressively from point to POlot along the stream (1 e , may
be non-umform, or variant WIth location).
(e) Areas of the stream are determmable or expressible.
(d) The motion of the fluid at entry and departure Is continuously
progressive, rather than oscillatory, and the particles there compflS-
mg the fluid stream are sufficiently umdircctional in path and hke in
speed that a single velocity may be ascrJbcd and vahdly employed for
evaluatmg the kinehc energy.
A consequence of these reqUlrements is that one may express the
velOCIty (u) at entry or departure as
mv
U=- (3-2)
A
where Tn = the mass rate of flow of the ftUld through the system, as in
pounds mass per second, and the speCIfic volume (v) and stream area
(A) are at the location III questlon. Equation 3-2 is known as Ii
contmu,ty equatwn, expressing for one-dimenSIOnal flow the law of
conservation of mass.
There is no Implied requirement that energy may not pass steadily
to or from the system (and fluid) as heat or as work, or as both, whIle
the fluid IS en route from entrance to exit. Instead, the very purpose
of the device may well be to provide for steady transitIOns of energy
in such manner The above requirements do estabhsh, however, the
34 ENERGY EQUATIONS CHAP. 3
further one that there 1.8 no accumulatwn or depletion of e,ther fluid
or energy within the system. Neither is there any implied requirement
that turbulence or fluid frictIOn may not exist whIle the fluid is en route
from entry to departure points.
3-5. Steady.Flow Energy Equation. Several illustrative devices
to which steady flow may be ascribed were suggested above. A more
extensIve list follows.
Atmosphere oC the earth Engines, steam or mteroal-combus--
Blowers and compressors tion, and turbme or recIprocating
Boilers and furnaces (with qualificatIOns)
Condensers aDd evaporators Nozzles and Ventun meters
Combustion of fuel Power or refrigerating plants
ElectrochemIcal processes
These devices take quite diversified forms and perform quite

dIversified functions, but an objective will be to evolve a sufficiently
oomprehensive equation whIch, by suitable interpretatIOn, may be
employed for energy accounting With any of them. As such an equa-
tion must be one in which terms are provided for distinguishing and
evaluating all energy quantIties that may enter or leave the system,
one must have recognized clearly the various ways and forms in which
energy may be manifested.
Iq2
u
System. or
Entering stream
device
Section 1
I Leaving stream
. [ . L
»//V;//////)/.)/////////////////7///7//7///////P//d/////////////////)d////////)//l,
Reference plane
Fig. 3-1.
Figure 3-1 represents a device through whICh, for simplicIty, a single

fluid stream is passing steadIly. Entry IS via section 1 of the figure,
and attributes of the fluid and stream at entry condition are distin-
guished by subscrIpt 1; sImilarly subscript 2 denotes condItion when
departing via sectlon 2. Energy that may perhaps pass as heat to or
from the environs while the flUId is in passage between these sections
wIll be described as the "heat between 1 and 2," and indicated by a
symbol such as 1 q2; and energy that may similarly pass to or from
ART 3-5 STEADY-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION 35
the system as shaft work (or po.ssibly as electrical work) wIll be indi-
cated by a symbol such as 1 W2 The conventlDn that WIll be' contmued
with relation to the algebraic sense of these transitional forms of
energy is that of regarding entering energy as poslhve in sense and
departing energy as negahve
Energy is further conveyed to the system, through the agency of the
entering fluid, as:
(a) Its geopotential energy, as estabhshed by the elevahon
(b) Its kinetic energy, as estabhshed by the velOCIty
(c) Its internal energy, as established by the thermodynamic state
of the fluid and evidenced by the existing thermodynamIC properties.
(d) The flow work, transmitted through the medium of the fluid and
also established by the thermodynamic properties pressure and specific
volume.
In like manner, energy is conveyed from the system through the
agency of the departing flUId.
In the accountlng of these energies, as well as the heat and work, it
will be permissible and simpler to evaluate them per umt mass of fluid.
Recognize that the energy quantities\that are ascribable to the fluid
at entry or departure may be regarded "s pertaining eIther to a given
mass which enters at condition 1 but whIle en route experiences pro-
gressive modlfioations of state that cause it subsequently to depart at
condition 2, or as quantlties pertaining to d'fferent masses that at a
given instant are entering at sectIOn 1 and departing at section 2. The
first viewpoint becomes the mare genemlly useful zn fallowing analyses.
With the faCIlities that have been indioated one may readIly develop
the suitable energy equation relating to any steady-flow process or
device such as represented m FIg 3-1, as follows and per umt mass
of the fluid, but without immediate concern as to units.
Energies entering via Energy entering or Energies, departing

section 1 through departing as heat via section 2
the agency of the + or as work at through the agency
entering fluid points between of the departing
sections 1 and 2 fluid
Or, more specifically,
Stored energy + Flow+ Shaft
+ Heat = Stored energy +Flow
(Pot+ Km. + Int ) work work + Kin + lot)
(Pot work
(gZI +U~2 +e,)+ P,V, + ,W2(:::~') +,q2(:::~') = (gZ2+ ~2 +e2)+ P2V2

(3-3)
Or J rearranging,
2
g ( Z2 -
.)
21 + U."-UI
2 +( P2V2-PIVl ) -lW2 (+.m)
-,out =el-e2
+lq2 (+-.ou~
.•• )
(3-3a)
In the last arrangement there have been collected to the left all terms
of equatlOn 3-3 that are essentIally mechanical in character (except
as the work might be in part electrical, magnetIc, etc.). The aggregate
as so collected has been 'aptly described as the aggregate mechanical
effects; and analogously the several terms to the right have on occasion
been identified individually as internal effects and heat effects
Referring particularly to equation 3-3, several working considera-
LIons require attention:
I. Following the previously mentioned practice in the United States
of expressing mechanical energies per unit mass in ft-lbf/lbm, the
kinetic and potential energIes will normally be written hereinafter as
u 2 /6435 and gz/3217
2. Changes in gcopotentIal energy frequently become 50 trivial In
comparison with other energy quantities tlrat are encountered in engi-
neering practIce (being of first-order concern only in instances such
.as ,atmospheric or hydraulic processes) that hereinafter the geopoten-
tial term will normally be omitted when writing the energy equation.
3. Recognizing a very common practIce of expressing internal energy
and heat effects in energy units of thermal antecedents, and for indi-
cating the necessity of employing the same unit throughout an equa-
tion if numerical balancing is to be had, the Joule equivalent (J) will
commonly be introduced hereafter in association with the symbols
for these items and they will be written as Je and Jq.
4 It will hereafter be assumed that proper algebraic significance
may automatically be attached to the q and w terms, if due attention
is given to the dIrection, relative to a system, of energy transition in a
given proces§and irrespective of the relative location in which the
symbols appear in an energy account. The notation (:'::~t) will there-
fore frequently be omitted.
Introducing these considerations in equation 3-3, that relation, when
written in terms of foot-pounds of energy per pound mass of fluid,
becomes
ART. 3-6 THE ENTHALPY FUNCTION 37
3-6. The Enthalpy Function. The partlCular combination of
terms that appears above as (pv + Je), or later as (e + pv/J), will
invarIably be present in any energy relation for flow phenomena All
components of the combination (I.e., p, v, and e) are furthermore
thermodynamic properties that are established as to magnitude by
the state of the fluid. Thus the magnItude of the indicated combina-
tion must also be a function that is established by the state, and III
that respect conforms to the speCIficatIOn of a (thermodynamIC) prop-
erty. The combmatlOn will appear in another connection, but its
utility is best regarded as originatIng wholly from the utility of the
pv product as a measure of flow work.
In consequence of these considerations, and also of the convenience
that WIll result when writing energy equatIOns If one may identIfy the
combmation property (e + pv/J) by a single symbol and name, this
composite function is regularly known as the enthalpy (en-thaI' py)
of a flUId and identified by the symbol h. ThIS item evidently has the
dimension of energy per unit mass, but magnitudes assigned to it are
necessarily relative.
Introducing the enthalpy function into equation 3-3b, a shorter
form in which the steady-flow energy equation WIll regularly appear
in this material IS as follows, in foot-pounds per pound mass of fluid:
U1 2 uz 2
64.35 + Jhl + J lq. + IW. = 64.35 + Jh. (3-4)
ThIS relation is so WIdely used in following analyses that its antecedents

and the sigmficance of each term need to be recognized fully.
In the frequent circumstances in which more than one fluid enters and
leaves a system, as mdicated for two fluids m FIg. 3-2, due provIsion
FlUid a
~~--~r-------~----
2
----,;f-------
2
.....,,_;.;.:=---
1
FlUidb
Flg.3·2
must be made for accountmg of the relative energy magnitudes asso-

CIated with the indIvidual masses of flUId. This may be done suitably
by expreSSIng the energies Involved in a specified period of t,me (or
perhaps in terms of energy per unit time, or of power); that is,
m.(U1 2/64.35 + Jhl}. + m.(u1 2/64.35 + Jh,}o + hQ2 + ,TV, =
m.(u,2/64 35 + Jh 2}. + m.(u2 2/64.35 + Jh,}o (3-5)
Or, rearranging,
u,2 - U2' ]
m. [ 6435 + J(hl - h2 } • + hQ2 + IIV, =
U22 - UI 2 ]
m. [ 64.35 + J (h2 - hl) • (3-5a)
where subscripts a and b identIfy the several flUids, and items 1 Q, and
,IV, are the tranSitIOnal energies that may have passed to or from the
system III the perIOd during which flUId masses m. and m, have entered
and departed. Observe that, as the last arrangement involves merely
changes rather than absolute individu<ll magmtudes of the enthalpy
for the fluids, it becomes immaterial what reference states may have
been used when expressing the relatIve enthalpy of the flUIds at theIr
several states. On occasion It is convenient to make use of this obser-
vation, and assign different and independent reference states to indi-
vidual fluids.
Frequent Instances occur in which the subsmnces leaving a steady-
flow system differ in composition from those entering, in consequence
perhaps of mixing and solution or of a separation by distillatIon, or
of chemical reactioIlS en route. In such instances the above simple
procedure IS unsuitable. A conventlOnal and suitable procedure IS
indicated in Art. 3-13.
3-7. Applications of the Steady-Flow ,Energy Equation. To aid
the, reader in acquiring suitable understanding of the steady-flow
energy equation several typical engineermg applications Will be mdi-
cated. The applications are made only with the purpose of exemph-
fying the general applicability of the equation, of indICating the
methods employed in adaptmg it to the p-artlCular circumstances under
which particular devices operate, and of Illustrating further abbrevia-
tions in the equation which may be permissible under those particular
Circumstances. Outstanding conditions of operation of the devices
will be noted with the view of ascertaining which terms of the com-
plete relation "re pertment and which may be omitted, thereby evolv-
mg appropriate adaptations of the complete equation
(a) Steam Boiler. The objective of the bOIler is to transfer energy
to ent~ring water, thiS energy having been supplied originally as
ART 3-7 APPLICATIONS, STEADY-FLOW EQUATION 39
chemical energy released by oombustlOn, but eventually delivered to
and through the bOller heating surfaces as heat (q,.) by radiation and
conduction. Although the entering feedwater and leaving steam pos-
sess some velocity and therefore mechanical kinetic energy, "these
energies may in practice be either relatively low or dIffer negligibly,
whence it is a permissible approximatIon to neglect them. There IS
no shaft among the appurtenances of 'a boiler through which energy
might enter or leave as shaft work, so that the work term IS iTTelevant
and to be omitted. With such conditIOns the particular adaptation
of equation 3-4 to the boiler becomes
Jh l + hg2 = Jh2 ft-Ib/lb of water
or Ig. = h. - hI Btu/lb of water
(b) Engme or turbme. The sole objective of the engine is to deliver
energy as shaft work. It is a permIssible approxImation to neglect
the mechanical kinetic energy terms if the velocities of the entering
and leaving steam or gas are not high or If they differ by a small
amount. With these considerations the energy equation becomes
Jhl + IW2 + JIg2 = Jh. ft-Ibf/lbm of fluid
or
If the engine 18 provided with thermal insulation, and Its bearmgs
are well deSIgned and lubricated, a relatIvely negligible amount of
energy leaves it as heat. In this sItuatIOn the process would be
said to be adiabatic, and the term I q2 would disappear from the last
relations.
(c) Nozzle, onfice or venturi meter. The outstanding character-
istIC of such devices is a large increase of velOCIty in conjunction with
the flow. The shaft-work term is, however, irrelevant, and any energy
emIssion or accession as heat pcr unit mass of flUId will normally be
negligible, due to the high rate of passage of the fluid. The energy
equation therefore becomes
(u. 2/64.35) - (uI 2/64.35):=·J(h l - h2) ft-lb/lb
(d) Throttle or reducmg valve. A throttle, or "reducing valvc,"
may be described 'as an obstruction or constrIctIon placed in a chunnel
through which a fluid is flowmg There IS no appreciable heat inter-
change to or from the fluid durmg its flow, and no shaft work is done
or is supplIed. Although there may well be 'a velOCIty increase at the
constricted point in the channel, that velocity is largely dIssipated by
turbulence directly thereafter. Thus, considermg sections in the
channel ahead of and after the throttle, the velocItIes and kinetic
energies may be taken ,as negligibly small or differmg negligibly, and
the energy equation becomcs
h. = h2 Btu/lb of fluid
(el Water-Jacketed Air Compressor. The essential c'hmacteristics
of the water-jacketed air compressor are that shaft work IS required
to drive It 'and that two fluids, the air and the water, enter and leave
the system. The velocities and kmetlc energies are normally quite
moderate and dIffer negligIbly. However, energy is normally d,ss,-
pated in apprecIable amount as heat from the cylinder walls and the
bearings. On th,s basis, equallon 3-5a becomes
m.J(h. - h2). +J I Q2 + ITV2 = m.J(h2 - hl). ft-Ib
where the masses of air (m.) and water (mw) and the energies in
transitIOn as heat and work relate to some specified time interval.
An alternatIve viewpoint III analyzing the compressor is to consider
only the arr and to regard thc energy which passes through the inner
cylinder walls to the cooling water as energy in transltron as heat from
the air. With that viewpoint, the last cquation becomes
The foregoing examples are typical of the many and Important

applications of the steady-flow energy equatIOn III engineering thermo-
dynamics. It will have been observed that the enthalpy is an intensely
valllable and SIgnificant property, its change being involved in every
process that occurs concurrently with flow. It may be anticipated that
the evaluatIOn of the enthalpy change for various processes with
various- flUIds wiN form an important part of the subsequent study 01
the apphcation of thermodynamics in engineering 'practice
(/) Appl1cation in hydraulics or hydrodynamics. The well-known
Bernoulli equation which 1S used so extensively in hy<lraulics is a
special form of the steady-flow energy equatwn as apphcd to the
flow 01 a liquid through a channel If in equatIOn 3-3 we wnte for
pv its equivalent pip (where p is the density in pounds per cub,c foot),
and omit the work term but collect the· terms e2, e" and ,Q2 on the
right side of the equatIOn, it becomes (in foot-pounds force per pound
mass)
2 2
gZl PI U1 gZ2 pz U2
32 17 +- Pi + 6435 = 32 17 + P2 + 6435 + J[ (e2 - eI) - Iq2]
Here the terms for geopotential energy are retamed.

ART.3-8 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF STEADY; FLOW 41
If we consIder the particular pro~ess of the flow of"aJiquid of effec-
tively constant densIty through a simple channel such as a pIpe or
orIfice in which there is no energy transItion as shaft work, and If we
agree to neglect any increase m mternal energy in the hqUld arismg·
from flUld fnction and turbulence as well as any heat loss from the
flUId, the last relation becomes
This IS a form of the famlhar Bernoulh equation. The terms of the

equation are traditIOnally referred to as Hhcads/' or, successively, the
statte head, pressure head, and velOCIty head, but are here recogmzed
as being measures of mechamcal energIes in foot-pounds force per
pound mass of hqUld. Correspondmgly, a "head loss" to which refer-
ence IS made m hydraulic hterature is the amount of mechanical
energy whIch is transformed to mternal energy beoause of frICtion and
turbulence.
3-8. Dynamic Analysis of Sleady Flow. For the evolution of the
foregoing faCIlities, the VIewpoint was essentially thermodynamIC
ConSIderable utIlity wIll, however, attach here 'and subsequently to
a parallel relation developed from an essentially dynamlc or mechan-
ICal viewpoint.
The development proceeds by an accounting of the forces that may
act upon an elemental portion of the fluid forming a stream and which,
through such actIOn, maintmn the fluid motion, possibly wIllIe IIscend-
mg or descending, acceleratmg or deceleratmg, etc. Present purposes
WIll be sufficlCntly served by attention only to a rectilmear motion of
an elemental shce across a stream, such as is represented by cross
hatching in FIg 3-3 A thIckness dx of the slice IS taken, which equals
also the linear dIstance it moves m tIme dt. The volume of the shce
equals A dX, and its mass (dm) equals pA dx The element is moving
at velocity u in a dIrection at angle a with the vertical, and m moving
through distance dx It wIll have ascended a distance dz such that
dz - dx cos a. It may simultaneously be accelerating. Pressure p
eXIsts on the upstream face of the element, and pressure (p + dp) on
the downstream face' Forces actmg in the directIOn of motIOn will
be regarded as positive m sense, and those 'acting in opposite direction
and opposing the motion are regarded as negative m sense
• Followmg the usual mathematlcsl convention the second pressure is repre-
sented as p plus dp, WIth no ImphcatIOn, however, that the pressure cha.nge (dp)
may DOt become a decrease and thus nega.tive
The sole force Mtmg in the direction of motion IS:
(a) A pressure force equal to Ap.
Forces that may act in opposIte dIrection are:
(b) A pressure force equal to A (p + dp).
(e) A gravity force whICh IS that component of the weight of the
element that lies along the lme of travel, or kg dm cos «, and thus
kgpA dx cos «, or kgpA dz.
(dl The inertial resIstance
of the element if it is accel-
erating, equal to ka dm. But
a = du/dt and u - dx/dt, or
a - u du/ dx Thus the iner-
tial resistance may also be
written as k(u du/dx)pA dx, or
ku dUpA.
(e) Any fnctional resistance
tending to restram the fluid
motion Flo reasonably thought
of as acting bctween the per-
Imeter of the element and
any adJ acent surf aces.
These mclude all mechani-
FIg 3-3. .
cal forces that require atten-
tion except as a passage of
energy from the parcel of fluid to the environs as external work may
in some manner accompany its motion. Such work-energy departure
from a fluid stream is regularly effected by deVICes such as the turbine
blade, but in ways too complicated for consideration here For
present· purposes it will be sufficient to conceive that such work out-
put may be effected through the agency of a hypothetical bridle or
harness that applIes a restraining force F w on the parcel and trans-
mits the force to some external rod or shaft.'
Writing the equilIbrium equation for these forces,
pA - (p +
dp)A - kgpA dz - ku du pA - F I - Fw ~ 0
or, combinmg and dividing through by -pA,
dp F,dx Fwdx
--;+kgdz+kudu+ pAdx + pAdx ~ 0
• The approach made in the above may be recognized as that leadmg to the
famiuar Euler equation of fluid mechanics, as written In relatlOn to one-dimen-
sional irrotabonal flow and except for mclusion of terms accountmg for frictIOnal
and work forces.
ART.3-8 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF STEADY FLOW 43
But the quaRtity pA dx is the mass of the parcel, and thus the quantity
F, dx/pA dx, or F, dx/dm, will be recognIzed as a measure, :per unIt
mass of fluid, of the frIctional effects associated with the motion of
the parcel through distance dx. Let this fluid frictional effect per
unit mass be represented by the symbol So/;, Similarly, observe that
the quantIty F.. dx/ pA ax,
or F.. dx/ dm, is the energy departmg as
work per umt mass of fluid and representable as -8w. Also, the term
dp/ p may be' wrItten as v dp.
Introducing these items in the last relation,
v dp + kg dz + ku du + 6", - 6w = O' (3-6)
As integrals of the exact dIfferentials dz and u du may be written

directly, this relation may be expressed in integrated form as
kg(Z2 - ZI) + k U2
2
-
2
Ur2
- IW2 = -
121 V dp - '"
or = - J2 Vdp if fluid frictIOn IS

I neglIgIble
(3-6a)
Recall that this relation was developed solely by survey of the forces
acting upon a moving parcel of fluid. However, by 'anthmetical
manipulations, terms were evolved whIch denote the potential and
kinetIC energy changes and any work entry or departure associated
WIth the motion of the parcel. The terms to the left are thus iden-
tICal in signIficance with those appearing in the steady-flow energy
relation of equation 3-3a
But note oppositely that the items to the rIght, although having
necessanly the dImensions of energy, do not represent energleS either
• A slgmficant dlStmctl0n that is here indlca.ted, by writmg the dIfferential
notation as d or 8S h, IS the distmctlOn between, respectlvely, a small chan(Je m
the magmtude of some attribute of thermodynamic or mechanical state, such as
pressure or elevatIOn or velocitYI and a. small quant'l,ty oj energy that IS ~soClated
WIth 0. process. WIlh given termmal states the change 10 any such attributes of
state IS not affected by intervenmg conditIOns, and 10 mathematical terminology
the dIfferential is therefore stud to be exact. For example, J2 dT""" T2 - Tl
I .
But in the situa.tion described ID equa.tlon 3-6, even If terminal states should
be the same In several Instances, the work output Will vary as the frictional effects
may differ, and for such reasons It would be said lD mathematical termmology
that the dIfTerentials are inexact and 12 liw may be represented only as lW2.
This dlstmction is necessary.

entering, departing, or stored durtng a process Indeed, the term .p
represents simply an influence which is aptly termed the fluid frictional
effects, and operates solely to modify the character of the state change
expenenced by a fluid durmg a process and so to alter any accom-
panying energy redIstrIbutions. To illustrate, consider the adIabatic
flow of a liqUId of negligIbly changing density through a horizontal
nozzle, for which condItIon equation 3-6a reduces to the form
k(U22-U,2)/2-v(PI-P2)-.p. ThIs relatIOn serves the useful
purpose of indicating that any frictional effects accompanying a given
pressure drop through the nozzle must operate to produce a less-than-
Ideal velOCIty increase. Or, alternatively, it indicates that, to obtain
a given kinetic energy increase, a greater-than-ideal pressure drop
will be required if friction accompanies the flow. A consequence of
such considerations is that the term f v dp may in prmciple serve to
evaluate the aggregate mechamcal effects (i.e., the items to the left in
equation 3-6a) only in the idealized situation of zero fnctional effects.
Recall tbat this is consistent WIth the observatIons of Art. 1-8. Al-
though there so appear to be definite limitations to the utility of equa-
tions 3-6 and 3-6a, they do however provide a useful facility when
brought together with tbe thermodynamic energy relation of equation
3-4. Thus
- J (h2 - hI) + J IQ2, by thermo-
dynamIC approach
and
-12 I
v dp -.p, by dynamic
approach
Equatmg the terms to the right,
J(h2 - hI) = hQ2 + 12 V dp +.p (3-7)
or = J I Q2 +.[2 V dp if frictional effects are negligIble (3-7a)
In some instances relations of parallel character but in terms of

-12 p dv and (e2 - .,) may be advantageous. They are secured
by. noting that d(pv) - p dv +v dp, 60 that v dp - -p dv +d(pv),
orI I
2
v dp - -Iz
• I
p dv + (PZV2 - PIV,). By introducing this con-
ART.3-8 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF STEADY FLOW 45
Slderation in equatIon 3-6a, and by reference to equatIOn 3-3a,
U2 2 - Ut 2
kg(Z2-Zl)+k 2 -J(e2 - ell + hq2 (3-3a)
and
+ (P2V, - PlVl) - lW, =
Also,
lJ 2
pdv-", (3-8)
J(e2 - e1) = Jlq2 - J2 pdv + of (3-9)
or = Jlg2 - J2 pdv iffrictionaleffectsarenegEgible (3-9a)
In subsequent use of such associated but distmct relations, originat-

lDg lD thermodynamic and in mechanical (dynamic) analyses, several
following considerations become significant.
(a) The relations of thermodynamic background (3-3, 3a, and 4) are invariably
vahd. whether a process may be regarded as' mechanICally Ideal or is in actuahty
accompanied by fnctional effects They also involve only terminal values of the
properhes of a flUId engagmg In a process For both reasons these reiatlOIla are
particularly adapted to purposes of energy accountmg.
(b) Those of mechanical background (3-6a and 8) require for their use mforma-
tion concemmg both termmal conditIons and the slates of the flu~d throughout
the intervening proceS8 However, they enable specmc recognition of the lll-
iJuences of frwtioll1l1 effects on those states and on energy dlstnbuHons Also,
they become essentIal In later mstances where faclhties are to be developed for
anticipating the character of the process wllich may ideally result flom the given
physicaJ drcumstances.
The following example indiootes several of the above considerations

Example 3.1. An air stream ImtIally at about sea level and 70°F passes over
a mountalll barner and IS thereby caused to gam an elevatIOn of 10,000 ft Both
heat. and shaft-work effects are absent, and velOCity differences a~e neghglble
What IS the enthalpy change of the rur stream, and what IS the correspondIng
temperature change If Ah/ AT = 0.24 Btullb OF? How would the Introduction
of considerable frictIon affect values of entha.lpy. temperature, pre.!iSure. and
speCific volume change?
Sulutton By energy equation 3-3, but expressed in tenns of enthalpy,'
g(z. - z,)/3217 _ -J(h. - h,), whence h. - h, - -12.86 Btu/lb. LIkewise.
T. - T, = -1286/024 _ -53.5·F (decle ... ).
To achIeve this speCified mechanical effect Will reqUIre, by equation 3-Ca, a
greater-than-Ideal pressure drop If the frlctIona.l-lllfluence Item (y,,) is not negh~
gible, that is. the terminal pressure must be less than ideal Llkewise, by
eq 3-9 there is a greater-than-idelll volume lDcrease If fnction cannot be neglected.
However, the ffIctional Influence cannot modify the speCified geopotentia.l and
enthalpy change, or the accompanying temperature change. These remain at
+12.86 Btu/lb, -12.86 Btu/lb, and -531i'F, respectlvely
3-9. 1'v dp and -1' p dv. It will have become evident that
these in tegrals have special sigOlficances, partlCularly in connection
with processes III which fnctional effects are regarded as negligible.
It is of some present advantage to note briefly several considerations
relating to graphical aspects of these integrals and to means for their
evaluation.
Flg.3-4.
(a) The line 1-2 of FIg. 3-4 represents a typical manner of variation
of the pressure with the specIfic volume of a compressible fluid durmg
its compression, eIther while retained behind a moving piston in a
cylinder or whtle in steady passage through a device such as a cen-
trifugal compressor. A like Ime but with terminal points interchanged
would similarly represent an expansion, as in the cylinder of a recip-
rocating engine or en route through a turbine engi~c. In either orien-
tation the line would be described as representwg the state change
of the flmd to p-v coordinates.
(b) On such a figure the area a12b represents the -1' p du, and
thus (Art. 1-8) the work input for (reversible) non-flow compression
in a cyhnder. Or the 'area m12n represents the l' v dp, and thus
(equation 3-6a) the aggregate of the work input and any decrease of
geopotential or kinetic energies on frictionless compression during
pa~sage through a steady-flow type of compressor.
The area Om1a represents the product PI v" and thus the flow work
associated wit~ entry of the fluid into the system against pressure PI
ART. 3-9 v dp AND -p dv 47
Similarly area On2b represents the product P2V2, and thus the flow
work associated WIth the departure of the fluid. Observe that
On2b + al2b - Omla - ml2n, conforming Wlth the earlier observa-
tlOn that
P2V2 - PIVI _ . [ ' P dv = . [ ' V dp
Lmes ml, 12 and 2n may also be regarded as a progressive record of

the pressures withm the cylinder of" reciprocatmg compressor during the
SUCCeSSlVe events of (1) " constant-pressure entry of the fluid behind
the retreatmg piston, (2) compression durmg a portion of the return
stroke of the piston, and (3) a constant-pressure delivery of the com-
pressed fluid during the remainder of that stroke When so mterpreted
the family of hnes would be sald to provide the major portion of an
"indIcator card" of the compressor
P
P,
------r-- 2
(p,-p,) p
,
PI
_____ _l ________ ,,,
ii
,
,r--(u -u
2 1
)
0 u
0
v,
FIg 3-5.
'"
(c) If available pressure and specific volume data are sufficient to
have enabled representation of a process or state change by a line 1-2
drawn to p-v coordinates. the.[' V dp may be regarded "Iso as the
equivalent of the product V(p2 - PI), where i> is a mean value deter-
mined graphically by so locating a line ii (Fig. 3-5) that the two horizon-
tally hatched areas are equal Similarly, _.[2 P dv = P(VI - V2),
where P lS a mean value determmed graphically by so locating a line p

that the vertically hatched areas m the same figure are equal.
(d) For various ldeal or actual processes the p-v variation may be
expressed by an exponential relation of the form P2VZ' = plVl" = pv".
Graphical verification would be provided If, on plotting simultaneous
p and v vaJues to logarithmic scales, the points faU m an effectJvely
48 ENERGY EQUATIONS CUAP.3
straight line. In such a case, n = (In P2 - In P1l/(ln V1 - In V2).
Also, _12 pdv = -P1VI·1\-' d~ = nP:\ [(;:),"-1'" J
1
or = ~ [(~)"-l
V2
n - 1
- lJ
and ]2 v dp
I
= Pll/nVl]2 p-l/n
I
dp = n ~ [(P2)(n-U
n - 1 PI
n 1J
1
or = n ~ [(~)"-I
n - 1
V2
- 1J
except that, if n = 1,
_]2 P du =]2 V dp = Plvlln

I 1
(P2PI
or
With all due appreciation of the sill"ificances of the above mtegrals,

two restrlCtivc consideratIOns must, however, be recogmzed.
I
I
:,
I
I ,
,
I \ Ideal
I '
[ ~"~-..(""FrlctjOnal
I -... _. . __
P, ___ ~-------------'-~-~-~~~--~-~-~-~-----,
Fig. 3-6
L By equatIOns 3-6a or 3-9, the integrals are qmte unsuitable as

measures of the useful mechamcal effects associated with a fiow
process If accompanymg fnctional effects (.p) are appreciable
The impropriety may be Illustrated in the case of a turbine-type
engine, m whICh flUld friction and tl)rbulence are considerable. The
sohd line of Fig. 3-6 represents a fnctlOnl"", expansIOn of a workmg
fluid through the engine from an elltoring state to some departure
pressure and accompanying specific volume. FrictlOnal influences wlll
c~rtainly' cause a less-than-ldeal wor]1: output per umt mass, and eon-
sequent greater-than-ldeal energy retention m the departmg fluid
and corresQondmgly greater spPclfic volume. The broken Ime of the
ART. 3-10 NON-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION 49
figure Illustrates the last It al§o makes eVIdcnt- the impropflety of
the mcreased areas as measures 'of the decreased work output.
2. It IS in fact to be anticipatCll that fnctional efTects and accom-
panying turbulence will cause such non-homogeneity of states, at a
given section in the fluid stream, that definite magnitudes of Its thermo-
dynamIC properties may not be aSCrIbed to the passing flUld; nor can
a smgle linc,rigorously represent a mechanically IrreversIble flow
In many situations this conSldcration may not be ignored; mothers
a lme may justIfiably be drawn as an aId in recognIzmg general con-
sequcnces of fnctional effects, but nceds be recognizcd as e"entlally
unrealistic and having the nature only of a convement approximation
3-10. Non-Flow Energy Equation. Various engineering processes
may Oicur while a fluid is retained in a vessel, or m a cylinder equipped
WIth a' movable piston, and so is WIthout flow to or from the vessel.
They are correspondingly described as non-flow processes; also as
batch processes, or as occurrmg in a closed system. The possibilIty
of turbulent motions within the system need not be excluded.
The energy equation for such processes again develops from the
gcncral relation of equation 3-1, to th~ effect that
Energy leaving, plus any
accumulation or less any
Energy entering system = (3-1 )
diminution of the energy
stored within the system
The change of internal energy may be occasioned by energy entry or
departure as heat or as work or as both, the work taking place through
the agency of a piston (real or imagined) If volume change occurs, or
perhaps as electncal work as in an electrochemwal process such as the
charge or discharge of a storage battery. WIth these considerations
m mmd the general energy equation may be particularized for the non-
flow type of process in the following manncr.
W'D. + JQ", = IV,u. + JQ,ut + Jm(e. - Cl)
OT, combining terms and rearrangmg J
m(e. - eI) = Q + IV/J

where Q - Q'n - Q,ut and is the net energy tranSItion as heat, and
lV - lV•• - IV"", and is similarly the net energy transition as work,
whether by mechanical Or electrical agencies. The corresponding rela-
tion expressed in terms of a unit mass of the fluid is'
e. - el = q + w/J (3-10)
These arrangements agam reqUlre that energleS entenng as heat or
as work shall have algebraically positive sIgnificance, or negative
significance if departmg.
In the CIrcumstance of work entry or departure, expressing electrical
effects as w, and mechanical work as - £2 P dv if frictional effects are
negligible, the last relation becomes
e2 - e, = q + w, - 12 P dv/ J
or = q- 12 P dv/ J if electrIcal work IS not of concern
(3-l0a)
These relatlOns are used extensively hereafter and should be well

understood It IS convenient and oigmficant to note that equatlOn
3-10 is Identical wIth the steady-flow relations of equatIOn 3-3 or 3-3a
except for the absence of the now irrelevant flow work, and the
mechamcal effects involved in changes of geopotential and kmehc
energies. Also observe that equatIOn 3-lOa is identICal with equation
3-9a although the two resulted from analyses of quite different ehar-
ac~er and applicability.
3-11. Characteristic State Changes. In preceding analyses dis-
tinctions between steady-flow and non-flow devices and processes were
emphasized A basic but alternative basIs for classIfication relates to
the type of state change that a fluid is caused to expenence during any
process, by the operatIOn of what have been descnbed as partIcular
"condItions of restraint." Those charactenstic state changes whIch
may be cons!dered to some advantage at lJhis pomt" are ones in which
(a) the pressure of and on the fluid is caused to be constant, or the
state change may be described as isabanc, and (b) the volume and
specific volume of the fluid is maintained constant, or the change is
said to be UlOmetNc. Other characteristic state changes operate under
such restramts that (c) the temperature of the fluid IS constant, or the
change is said to be Uiathermal, (d) the enlJhalpy of the flUId is not
changed, or the process is SaId to be i8enthalpte, or (8) no energy tran-
sition as heat accompanies the process and It IS said to be adzabatte
(Art. 1-3). In analyses of these state changes a major purpose WIll
be the provislOn of facilItIes whereby accompanymg energy transItions
as heat or as work may be expres"ed rather dIrectly in terms of asso-
ciated changes of the thermodynamIC properties of the fluid
ART. 3-11 CHARACTERISTIC STATE CHANGES 51
(a) Isobartc (constant-pre.sure), state charge. Constant-pressure
conuitlOns may readIly and frequently be mamtamed III non-flow
devices such as an open vessel, or m a cylmder in which a piston (real
or imagmed) is penmtted to 'aurance or retreat m such a manner that
any tendency to pressure changes is counteracted. In steady-flow
com]Jtions constancy of pressure along the line of flow is in prmClple
less hkely to eXIst, but may frequently be approached sufficiently
closely that a process may be regarded as effectJvely isobaric. The
Isobanc characteristic may be attnbuted to flow processes if fnctional
effects or geopotential and kmetIc energy changes are uegligIble, and
there IS no energy entry or departure as shaft work (although electncal
work may be involved).
For a steady-flow process If Isobaric and effectively fflctlOnless
the energy relatIOn that is usually of major concern IS prOVIded by
equation 3-7a, or
(3-ll)
e"c~"t that a term for dectneal work (w,) would appear to the left If
such energy transfer accompanied the process. Subscript p denotes
the constancy of the pressure.
q --
-
PI.2 - 1'2_ _ _ _-;
"I
Fig 3-7.
For a non-flow Isobaric process, as Illustrated for a cylmder WIth

piston in Flg. 3-7, the energy relation lS provlded by equation 3-lOa,
that IS,
52 ENERGY EQUATIONS
(q). = eo - el + (I/J) 12 p dv
Of, as at constant pressure12 p dv = Pl,2(V2 - VI),
(3-11)
agam except for possible need for the term w,.
lt IS logIcal but noteworthy that the heat (and electrical) effect is
expressed by the change of the enthalpy of the flUId in both steady-
flow and non-flow condItions for ,"obanc state changes This sItuation
led to an earher but now obsolete practIce of identifying the enthalpy
functIOn as a "heat content" or "total heat." The practice is aVOIded
III order to escape the conluslOns arising from promiscuous use of the
word heat.
(b) Isometric (constant-volume) state change. Constant-volume
conditions are inherently Imposed in non-flow processes occurring in a
closed constaIner, such as a ,cylinder WIth piston locked In position
or a bomb calorimeter MaIntenance of constant volume durIng flow
processes with compressIble fluids IS normally impracticable The
energy relation for a non-flow isometric process is agam provided by
eq~ation 3-10a, but in thIS SItuation - J p dv = O. Thus,
(q). = e2 - el (3-12)
again ,except for possIble need for the term w, to the left.
To forestall subsequent confnslOn note here that pressure change
WIll normally accompany an isometnc state change, and thus a change
of the .enthalpy function of the flUId will occur whICh differs from the
Internal energy change. However the pressure fotce may not oper-
ate through it dIstance if the volume is maintamed constant, and there-
fore ID thIS SItuation the pv product does not carry work significance.
Recall that, in fact, It acqUIred significance in the foregoing only m
connectIOn WIth flow processes, and there for the speCIal purpose of
evaluatIng flow work. (In analogous manner, although torque has the
dimension of energy, it acqUIres energy significance only if permItted
to operate and produce angular dIsplacement) The thermodynamIc
function whose change is a measure of heat (or perhaps electrical
work) effects during an isometric state change is therefore only the
mternal energy.
An Important consIderation, introduced previously but of eontInumg
concern, is that the magnitude of a transitional-energy item accom-
panying a given process depends not only on the change in terminal
states but also on the oharacter of the process by whICh the state
ART. 3-12 SPECIFIC HEATS 53
change is effected To Illustrate, the temperature rise durmg the
Isobaric warming of a fluid could r~sult (1) from heat imput only, or
(2) from work input such as achleved ,by VIOlent stirrIng, or (3) from
any cOmbInatIOn of these In contrast, the ultimate change of any
property is definite, IS Independent of the type of mtervemng process,
and for a gIven fluid may be assIgned definite values when the termmal
states are known
3-12. Specific Heals. In precedmg material the energy transitIOn
as heat vhat accompanied varIOUS processes was correlated with other
energy items through the energy equations. In many instances It WIll
be convement also to express heat quantItIes m terms of the accom-
panying change of some significant thermodynamIc property of the
flUId that is engagmg in the process, doing so by use of a sUItable ratIO
A ratio between the heat quantity and the property change is known
m general as a thermal capac,ty of the fluid, but as a spec'fic heat when
tbe property in question is the temperature.
Tbe specific heat is thus defined as tbe ratio of the amount of heat
energy reception during a given process, and per unit quantity of the
fluid engaging in the process, dIVIded by the accompanying mcrease
of its temperature. The ratIO IS regularly represented by the symbol c
when the quantity in question IS umt mass, such as 1 lb or 1 gm, but
by symbol C if it is 1 mole (i,e, 1 formula mass, or "molecular
weight"). The last is referred to as the molar speCIfic heat Thus,
oq
c =-
dT
where Ilq is the heat per pound or per gram, and
C=Moq or oQ
dT dT
where IlQ is the heat per mole and M is the mass per mole. Differen-
tial notatIOn is employed as the specific heat may well vary'with the
temperature level at which the process proceeds. The heat quantIty
is customarily expressed in units of thermal antecedents, as the Btu
or the calone Conveniently, the specific heat as expressed in Btu per
pound, OF, or in calories per gr8m, °C, is numerical1y the same.
As a gas or vapor may be brought from one temperature level to a
second by a wide variety of processes, and the various processes may
be accompanied or effected by the transfer of heat in various amounts,
an infimte variety of specific heats mIght in principle attach even to
a single fluid Thermodynamic concern is normally limited, however,
to the specific heat for constant-pressure and constant-volume state
changes Values quoted in the hterature for solIds and liqUlds are
normally only for the state change at constant (atmosphenc) pressure
Distinguishing the constant-pressure and constant-volume specific
heats by subscripts p and v, and writmg (equations 3-11 and 3-12) m
the forms (8q). ~ dh and (8q), ~ de,
cp ~ (ah/aT)p (3-13)
and c, ~ (ae/aT), (3-13a)
Use of the subscnpt m connection with the partIal dIfferential nota-
tIOn is required for indICatmg which of the various thermodynamic
properties is in fact mamtamed constant dunng the heat supply. Note
that such a restraint on the manner in whioh a state change of a fiuid
occurs means also that, for that fiUld, all other propertIes may vary
in only a single corresponding manner Therefore, at 3 particular
state of a given fiUld, ratios such as (ah/aT)p or (ae/aT), may have
only single corresponding values and so become thermodynamic prop-
ertIes of the fiuid.
3-13_ Energy Equations, Chemical Processes_ In connection
with the energy relations of Art. 3-5, and particularly the multiple-
fiUld relatIOn of equation 3-5a It was noted that energy accounts are
necessanly expressed m terms of changes or relatwe magnitudes of the
enthalpy or the internal energy, as means are not available whereby
the absolute magmtudes may be deternllned. ThIS IS not a handICap
If only a single matenal is mvolved
Further considerations enter, however, in processes in which chem-
Ical reactions occur and the materwls resultmg from a reaction d,fjer
from those prevwusly eristmg. In thIS situation modIficatIOns in
the form of the energy relations become necessary, to provide for
the energy effects associated not only with change in the thermo-
dynamic states of mdivldual matenals but also with transformations
of materials.
For such a process, in whICh during steady fiow or at constant
pressure reacting materIals a and b are transformed into products-
matenals c and d, (perhaps wlth accompanymg energy transitions to
or from the system as heat or as work but with neglect of kinetIC and
geopotential energy terms) an energy equation mIght suitably appear
in the form:
Initial enthalpy + Transitional energy ~ Final enthalpy
or moh. + m"h, + Q + IV/ J ~ m,h, + m}!d
In this relatIOn, the enthalpy terms are now to be interpreted as
ART. 3-13 CHEMICAL PROCESSES 55
mcludmg not only the internal energy at molecular levels bu~ also
that at other levels, or the i/chemic~l energy.J1
But as It stands th,s relation IS mcapable of direct use, agam because
no informatlOn IS nvallable for evaluatmg absolute magnitudes of the'
enthalpy of any material. To transform it to terms of relative mag-
mtudes let Items be subtracted and added whlCh represent for each
substance Its enthalpy at Borne arbltranly selected reference state.
Iuentlfymg these by superscnpt 0, the relation becomes
m.(h, - hoe) +
mb(hb - hbO) + +
Q lV/ J =
m,(h, - h,O) +
m,(h, - h,o) - [(moh.o +
mbhbO) - (m,h,O + m.,h,O)]
The bracketed term evidently represents an enthalpy difference
that IS assocIated WIth the nature of the matenals involved in the
reactlOn, but WIth each at the selected reference state. If the term
is for slmphcity represented by the single symbol (- AHO), or
(-AW) = [(moh,O + m,hbO) - (m,h,O + m.,h.O)]
and if It may be antiClpated that It becomes capable of independent
determmatlOn, the precedmg relation may be restated in the advan-
tageous form
m,(h, - h.O) + mb(hb - hbO) + Q + W/J + (-t"W)
m,(h, - h,O) + m.(h. - h.O) (3-14)
Observe here that terms of the form m (h - h 0) are simply ones
whlCh correct for the mltlal states of reactants and the final states of
products when those states dIffer from the arbllranly selected reference
state Thelf evaluatlOns reqmre knowledge both of the masses in-
volved and of enthalpy dIfferences for the indIvidual matenals. The
masses are estabhshed by the quantltles of the matenals provided and
the mass relatIOns, or stowhwmetry, of the chemIcal reaction, as con-
sidered for the combustion reactlOn m Chapter 12. The enthalpy
dIfferences are functiuns pnmanly of the temperatures, actual and
reference, but are also infiuenced by the pressure levels and are subject
to mIxing effects.
Determination of the composIte term represented as (-AHO) is
made by calonmetric measurements. The procedure by whlCh th,s
IS accomplished 18 that of causmg the parllcular transformatlOn to take
place in a calorimeter under conditions which are so controlled that
reactants a and b enter, and products c and d leave, either at the
selected reference states or at states for whwh known corrections to
the reference state may be applied If the transformation releases
energy, or is an "exothermIC" reaction, the contraIlS in the main that
of removing energy as heat in required and measured amount by a
water jacket, if the reaction IS "endothermic" the control IS by energy
supply as heat or perhaps as electnClty
The quantIty (-tJ.HO) has been variously named In vanous circum-
stances, and as Its different aspects are more advantageously empha-
sIzed. Such dcslgnations include the followmg.
(a) The enthalpy of reactwn when pertaming to chemIC~1 tIansfor-
rnailOns in general, but wIth numerIcal evaluatlOn III relatIOn to umt
quantIty (usually 1 mole) of one of the reactzng material;
(b) The enthalpy of formatwn from Its elements of unIt quantity
(usually 1 mole) of a product.
(c) The enthalpy of combustion If the reactants are a fuel and its
necessary oxygen, and the products are those correspondIng to com-
plete combustIOn of the fuel. Such enthalpy change may be reported
eIther per mole (-ulJO) or per pound (or gram) of the fuel (-tJ.hO) ..
Terms such as the "heat of reactIOn" or "heat of combustion" have
been used to describe the above itcms, but are for the present aVOIded
A non-umformlty of usage with regard to the algebraIc sign needs to
be noted For a combustion process, which IS typICally exothermIC,
the enthalpy of the final products is less than that of the onginal
materials in an amount corre;ponding to lhe (heat) energy which
departs. In thIS case the entIre term (-tJ.HO) (as u,ed above) is posi-
tive lind corresponds to the posItIve values lIsted for the "heats of
combustIOn" that appear in older tabulatIOns.
The above analyses were evolved as for steady-llow or foJ' constant-
pressure -conditions For constant-volume conditIons parallel relatlOm;
may be wntten, but III terms of an mternal-energy dIfference (-tJ.EO) ,
where as before the superscrIpt refers to some arbItrarIly selected
reference conditions Note that by defimtIOn ,!.lI~ ~ tJ.E 0 + tJ.(pV) 0.
Exnmple 3-2 Illustrates the use of the foregoing energy relations
for a combustIOn process It IS noteworthy that III equatIOn 3-14
the term (-MiO) when relatmg to combustIOn processes IS usually
much the largeot Item. Hence correctIve dIfferences of the type
m(h _he) may usually be approximated with adequate precision on
the presumption that they arc functIOns only of temperature (except
for possible phase changes) and are relatIvely mdependent of pressure
and unaffected by mixing processes.
Example 3-2. A hqUId fuel exhlbits an enthalpy of combustion (- tlU")
of 18,500 Btu/lbm at 77°F (25"C). This fuel 18 supplIed to a burner at 77°F,
to"gether WIth 25 Ibm of aIr at 120"F per Ibm of the fuel The ploducts leave at
6OO"F
What amount of energy must have departed concurrently as heat? Base
ART. 3-14 SEMI-FLOW PROCESSES. 57
result on the presumptIOn that pressur.e and mIXIng effects are negbgtble, and
on enthalpy values as obtaIned from available tn.bles of the properties, of gases,
quoted below, both III Btu/mole anI} In Btu/pound mass for the prouucts, the
formula m88S oC whlCh may be taken to be 289 Ib/lb-mole.
Solution. The followmg enthalpy magnItudes are as obtained from gas tables.
Tempera.ture, Enthalpy of Enthalpy of Producta

of Air. Btuflbm Btu/mole Btu(lbm
77 128M 37749 1292
120 13866 40827 141.3
600 255 96' 76127 263 5
Enthalpy COrrectIOns'
For entermg air temperature = 25(13866 - 12834) '"'" 258 Btu
For entenng ruel temperature 0 Btu
For deparLmg productB ~ (25 + I) (263.5 - 129.2) - 3492 Btu
As W /J l.S zero, by equation 3-14 as wntten per pound of fuel,
258 + 0 + Q + 18,500 = 3492
or
Q = -15,266 Btu departing per pound of fuel
3.14. Semi·Flow Processses and Energy Equation. The term

sem'- fiow process here describes one in 'which both the mass and the
thermodynamIc state of the flUId WIthin a container is being changed
Flow channel
Container 7~=======::::==
Fig. 3-8.
progressively by inflow or outflow of fluid through a channel commu-

ntcating with the container. FIgure 3-8 represents the arrangement
The process IS also descnbed as one occurring In an open .ystem.
Many variants of this general sItuation may occur, dlffermg primarily
in the manner of control of the flow and the character of the source
of inflowmg flUId, or of the destination of outgoing The process may
be accompanied by the entry or departure of heat. Simpler iIIu~trative
processes are the dIscharge of compressed aIr from a tank to the
atmosphere, possIbly through a control valve, or the charging of a
tank by inflow.
The energy relation for the proce,. IS necessarily wfltten initially
in dIfferential form, in terms relating to (a) the mass and internal
energy of the fluid In the container at a given instant and those at an
instant infinitesimally later, or d(me); (b) the mass of flUId dm enter-
ing or leaving in the same time interval and the energy de]Jvered
through its agency; and (c) energy arriving or leavmg as heat during
that hme interval. The equation associatmg these items becomes, in
conformity with the law of conservatIOn of energy (first law) but
neglecting geopotential terms,
d(me) = (h o + uo'/64.35J)dm + 6Q (3-15)
where energy items without subscript relate to the llmd within the
container, and those with subscript 0 relate to a selected location out-
sIde the container, but in the communicating channel through which
the flUld is flowing The enthalpy functlOn (e + pv/J), which in-
cludes the flow-work component, properly appears to the right. In
the relation entries or increases would be regarded as posItive in sense.
This energy rclation normally provides only one of a number of
dIfferential relations which must be assocIated and solved simulta-.
neously for the complete analysis of the various actual processes that
may take place in open systems. Such analyses may become qUIte
complex. A simpler one Illustrating the use of this relation alone
may be made for the speCIal case of the supply of a fluid of constant
enthalpy (h o ), at negligible velocIty and passing to the container
which is being charged. These considerations make possible integra-
bon of the above relation to the form
(3-16)
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to initial nnd subsequent bmes and con-
ditions in the container. Solving for the internal energy of the fluid
in the container at the latcr time (e,), as an mdex of the final state
of the fluid,
ml Q
e2 = ho - (h o - el) _
m2
+ mz
_. (3-16a)
3-15. Problems. Tables of the thermodynamIC properties of steam quote

the [oHoWlng values for speCIfic volume, CUblC feet per pound, and enthalpy,
Btu per pound
v h.
Dry stea.m ut 500 pSla and 467°F 09278 12()14
Water at 500 psia. and lOO°F 00161 695
Compute the amount of energy which would need to be supplIed in a boller
per pound of dry steam delIvered at 500 pSIR if feed water entered at lOoeF
Separate this energy mto the amount of increase In mternsl energy per pound of
the fluid, and the excess of the flow work reqUIred to dehver the steam over that
required for the entry of the feedwater. Ans 11349, l0506j 858; 15
2. What amount of work would ideally be requmm to operate the feed pump
supplymg the bOiler of problem 1 If the water entermg the pump was at 100°F
ilDd 15 PSJ1! and the veloclty, eJevatJOD"lllternal energy, and volume of jthe 'Water
was changed negligibly by the compressIOn? Ana. 1.45 Btu/1b.
3 Steam enters a gIVen turbme as superheated steam at 500 psia and 850 F D
and leaves as dry steam at 20 ID. of mercury absolute pressure For these states
the steam tables quote enthalples of 14391 and 11057, and the mternal ene;gles
of 1299.8 and 10440 Btullb, respectively Compute the work output in foot-
pounds per pou'nd of steam pa.<;smg; (a) if any energy emission as heat may be
neglected, and (b) If such emi~lOn via the cllSmg and bearings IS 10 per cent of
the enthalpy decrease while en route through the turbine. Am. 259,400; 233,400.
4. A centnfugal compressor handles 72 Ibm/mm of dry au. The mlet au
temperature IS 540o R, and the delIvery temperature is 700oR. What is the sha.ft
work reqUired per pound of air, and what IS the total horsepower reqUlrement?
Heat effects are negligIble, per pound of air.
The gas tables hst the followmg (relative) values of enthalpy (h) and mterna.l
energy (e), in Btu per pound mass 6f alT.
T, OR h, Btullbm e, Btu/lbm
540 12906 9204
700 167.56 11958
5. A steam turbIne nozzle 18 supplted Wlth steam at 500 pSIS. and 850°F With
an enthalpy oC 1439 1 Btu!lb, and In expansion to a. pressure of 150 pSIS. 18 reduced
In enthalpy to 13350 Btullb. What Will be 'the velocity of discharge (a) If the
entenng velOCity is negligible, and (b) if It is 800 fpm? Am. 2280 fps
6. Test-stand measurements indIcate that the hot gases flowmg through a
rooket motor mcreB..~ in velOCity from effectively zero to 6100 ips. What IS the
accompanYlDg enthalpy change if the process 18 adlababc, and what additlOnal
ullormatlOll 15 required to compute the accompanymg temperature change?
7 In the test of a water-Jacketed atf compressor It was found that the shaft
work reqUlred to drive the compressor W88 60,000 ft-lb/lb of air delivered, that
the enthalpy of the air leaving WSf:! 30 Btu/lb grea.ter than that enterIng, and that
the energy removed by the cm,ulatlng water was 405 Btu/lb of atf, From these
data compute the amount of energy whIch must have been dissIpated as heat to
the atmosphere from the beanngs, cylinder walls, etc. Ans 5150 ft-lb/lb of air
8. The passage of a gus such 8.$ air through a centnfugal compressor is
effectively ru:habatic but will be accompa.nIed by appreciable flUid InctlOn and
turbulence effects Data taken on a test of a particula.r compressor when dehver-
ing air are shown in table followlDg problem. (a) ExclUSIVe of any work reqUIred
by bearing frictIOn, what amount of shaft-work iIlput would be necessary per
pound of rur delivered and what power would be reqUired if inductlOn and
delivery is at the rate of 2000 cu ft/mm (at supply conditions)? (b) The above
data and other taken along the alT~fiow path through the compressor Indicate
that the progressive change of stnte of the air en route may be reDresented WIth
reasonable proprIety by tbe relatIOn pv 1 6 .. Constant [or VdV2 = (p2/Pl)1/16]
Compute
2
- 12
1
P dv, £2 V dp,
1
PIV1, Ilnd P2V2; veniy that 11
1
v dp """
-
1
1 P dv + P2 V 2 - PIUl· (c) Plot to p-v coordmates the end pomte and
several intermediate points for a curve representmg the above state change
througb the compressor, and check your prior results for - f p dv and J v dp
60 ENERGY EQUATIONS CHAP, 3
Include the methods mvolvmg pm.aD and V mUD (d) Account for the dlScrepancy
between the requITed shaft work, as found in part (a), and the value of the mtegral
£2 v dp as found in part (b).
P. pSla T, DF v, eu ft/lb tt, fps h, Btullbm

In supply region 15 60 1284 negligible 1242
In discharge line 60 414 539 200 209B
Am, (a) 66,700 ft-lb; 315 hp; (c) 31,500; 50,300, 27,700, 46,500; (d) .p; 16,400,
9 It is found for effectively dry air at atmosphenc conditIOns tha.t the change
of enthalpy depends solely on change of temperature m conformIty wIth the
relatIon t!.hltJ.T .... 024 Btu/(1b, OF). (a) Determme by we of the steady-flow
energy equatIOn (thermodynamic background) the termmal temperature on
effectively aillabalic passage of an SIr stream InIhally at about sea. level and 70°F
over a mountain barrier to an altItude cf 10,000 ft, assummg the veloclty change
LS negliglble. Also determme the change of geopotenhal and of enthalpy
(b) Would fnchonal effects accompanymg the adiabatIC flow operate to modIfy
the temperature change? The pressure change? (c) Determme the change of
geopotentlal, enthalpy, and temperature 1f the ascent were accompamed by energy
loss as heat by radiation in the amount of 200 Btu/Ib
Ans. 16.5°F and 12.86; zero, and greater (decrease), 14.86 and SOF.
10. Two pounds of aIr are confined Wlthm a cylinder at an Irutial pressure of
15 psia, temperature of 60°F., and volume of 257 ell ft. (a) By what amount,
In Btu/1b, will the mternal energy be changed lf, by means of a pISton rod and
(frictionless) piston, work mput is caused to occur In the amount of 34,200 ft-Ib
(1) If DO energy is receIved or departs concurrently as heat, and (2) If 35 0 Dtu are
caused to depart concurrently by conductIon through the cylInder walls to a
cold-water Jacket? (b) By what amount, In Btu/lb, wIll the internal energy be
changed (1) If hent is supplIed In the amount of 40 Btu but the volume is not
permItted to change, and (2) If heat in the same amount IS supplied but pressure
nse IS prevented by pcrmlttmg the volume to Increase and It is found that a
progreSSIve increase to a volume of 29.8 cu ft 18 necessary?
AM, (a) +220, +45
. 11. The gas tables lIst (relatIve) values of enthalpy (H) and mternal energy
(E) for oxygen on the basIS of 1 pound-mole (32 pounds) as shown in the ac-
compariymg table 'Vhat are the corresponding mean values of C" and C.. be-
tween 500" and looO"R, and between 1000"R and 2000"R, m Btullb-Ibole/degree
and in Btullbm/degree?
T, OR II, BtulIb-mole E, Btu/lb-mole
500 3,4662 2,4732
1,000 7,087Ji 5,151 6
2,000 15,I6Hl Il,1923
12. The combustion chamber of a turbOjet IS to be supplied With air at 200°F
and 45.5 pSla Fuel IS nominal lIquid octane at HO°F, for whIch the enthalpy
of combustlOn (-.1.JlO) IS 19,100 Btu/lbm (at 77°F). Compute the amount of
fuel which must be supplIed per pound of air If the combustIOn IS adIabetic and
products leave at 1420°F Assume that 1 lb-mole of combustIOn products is 289
Ibm, and that pressure effects on enthalpy are neglIgible The followlIlg enthalpy
values are 'a.vailable. Am. 1/44.6
Tempera.ture, Enthalpy of Enthalpy of En thaJpy of products,
'F (ill, Btu/lbm fuel, Btu/lbm Btu/mole
77 128Jl 0 3'137
110 1315 16.5 3980
200 1579 615 4617
1420 3481 13,924
13. A bank of air tanks, total, volume 300 eli ft, contam.s 22.5 Ibm of air at
70°F. The:bn.nlt is to be charged from an air lIne at 90°F with 100 Ibm additional
&11'. What would be the temperature at the end of charging if the process were
entIrely a(habatIc? The accompanying data are avaIlable. For Blr under these
conditions, Ae/AT may be taken as 0171 Btu/lb-.aF, and AhlAT as 0240
Btu/lh-'F. Ans. 266'F.
Temperature, Internal energy, e, En thalpy. h,
OF Btu/lhm air Btu/Ibm arr
70 90Jl4 12666
90 9376 131.46
PART II . THE AVAILABILITY OF ENERGY
4 . REVERSIBLE PROCESSES AND €Y€LES

,1-1. Foreword. In the discussIOns of Part I the ,nIt,al objectIve
was to develop certam concrete concepts of energy as stored in a
system or a fluid and as in transition from one system to another.
Then, reasoning from the principle of the conservation of energy (the
first law of thormodynamics), there were developed various rela-
tIons which enable energy accounting in connection with engineering
processes, both ideal and actual.
Scrutmy of the progress made to this pomt will indicate, however,
that certam vitally important informatIOn is stIli lacking. This may
be Illustrated by consldermg the SImple example of a steam engine or
turbme, the energy equation for which was seen to be, with minor
approximations,
Work output ~ J(h, - h2)
The conclusion that is sa stated, to the effect that the work output
will equal the difference between the enthalpy of the steam entering
and that leaving, is interestmg and important, but of even greater
importance, both theoretical and practical, would be information con-
cerning the minimum attainable magmtude of the departing enthalpy
(h 2 ) .lor a given initial value (hi), and thus concerning any [,m,tatlOn
to the work outPut which might be attained per ,mit mass of steam,
and concerning any factors that may influence such limitations.
Neither the energy equation nor any other information which has as
yet been considered will m Itself proVIde a basis for detecting such
limItations or, if they do exist, in evaluating them.
Objectives of Part II are therefore (a) to consider certam basic
principles and lines of reasonmg which will disclose the limitations of
prescnt mcthods of power generation ·and delineatc the factors which
affect those limitations, and (b) to develop the entropy concept as
the practical facllity which the engineer employs for predicting the
optimum perforrnance attainable by those methods of power produc-
tlim. In order to accomplish those objectives it is essential that we
observe several characteristics of those contrivances for the production
of power which rnan has been able to devise.
62
ART. 4-2 IDEALIZED PROCESSES 63
First we recogmze that the prod,!ctlOn of ,haft work 1S the pnmary
fUDctlOn of any power generation system, whelher it be a stationary,
automotive, aeronautical, marine, or submarine plant. This is the
energy form whICh normally may be utilized to greatest advantage
and w1th maximum versatility. Energy in this form is thus regarded
as the highest grade of encrgy and is establIshed as the standard for
evaluating the.relative grade or avazlabzlity of other forms, evaluatmg
that grade in terms of the ease and completeness WIth which they
may be transformed mto shaft work. It follows that, when we
subsequently dlscuss m deta11 the avazlability of energy of one or
another form, we are slmply endeavonng to express the degree to whzch
that energy may ideally be transformed into shaft work To lllus-
trate, electric energy IS to be regarded as being of a high order of
availability in view of the ease and hlghly effiCIent manner in whICh
It may be converted to shaft work by the electric motor.
A second and most important charactenstic which we must recognize
is that, with the exception of wmd and water-power plants and cer-
tam primary electric cells, all commercial processes which have been
devlsed by man for acqulring shaft work from the energy stores of
nature depend (a) on the release of that energy by the process of
combustion, or, more recently, by nuclear fission, and (b) on the con-
current delivery of thls energy to materials which are thereby brought
to an elevated temperature. It IS by reason of thls latter feature that
we must dIrect subsequent attention more particularly to an evaluation
of the availability of energy whlCh exists at an elevated temperature
level and possesses utzlity because of Its eXlstence at that level.
In proceeding to the evaluatIOn of tlIe availabllity of such energy
the order will be
1. To discern Idealized means for the utilization of energy that is
supplied at hIgh temperature.
2. To reeogmze the invarzable valIdIty of such means or processes
as devices for measuring the availabilIty of the energy.
3. To ascertain the practIcal means for actual evaluation of the
availabIlity of the energy.
4-2. Reversibility Aspect of Idealized Processes. In several
earlier instances note was taken of idealIzed features of energy-transi-
tion processes, the features bemg acceptably regarded as optimum
ones to which approach may be made if due care lS exercised. Among
such ideals were the milllmization and ideal aVOldance of (a) frictional
resistance between moving parts of any mechalllsm, (b) frictional
resistance and resulting turbulence in the flow of a fiuid, and (c)
thermal resistance to the transfer of energy as heat.
64 REVERSIBLE PROCESSES AND CYCLES CHAP. 4
In part to provIde concIse thermodynamic synonyms for identJfying
such ideal or actual SItuatIOns, but also for emphasizmg further essen-
tial aspects of processes that are so Idealized, the terms reverstble and
"reversible are also conventIOnally employed in thermodynamic litera-
ture as synonyms for, respectively, the Idealized and the non-Ideal
processes The reversible and irreversible aspects of ideal versus
,
r "I
I I
I I
L.._ ...J
T z
t j
- F=kgm+F
m
- F=kgm-Ff
,
Fig. 4-1
actual (or non-Ideal) processes may be exhibIted sufficiently by refer-

ence to several processes of mechanICal and thermal character.
(a) LtJtmu a mass, and its descent. Presummg that a mass (m) IS to be lifted
by a slmple mechamsm, such as the line and several pulleys shown m Flg. 4-1,
the energy reqUIred as wOlk for bfcmg through vertICal dIstance z becomes
Work supphed = (kom -f P,).
where F, represents any force that is I equlrcd for overcoIDmg frictIOnal resistance
III the mechallism. Of the work so supphed the amount kgmz 15 stored as poten-
tIal energy and 18 meally recoverable as work on permitting the mass to retUrn
to its orIgmal locatIon.
However, the amount F,z has perhaps become stored as molecular energy III
parts of the mechallism or pOSSIbly emltted as heat to the atmosphere. In any
event the energy that has been lbsslpaled by friction ma.y not be regained a..s
work dUrIng the return of the mass to oflgmal elevatIOn On the contrary, the
work so regained wIll lD fod be further legsened If fricbon continues to act dur-
mg return of the mechamsm to orJgmal pOSItion, or
\Vork regamed == (kgm - F,)z
Evident and essential observations in connection with this process

are that· it is only m the ideal sItuation III which frictional resistance
(F/) becomes zero that a restoration of the mechalllcal system to its
exact onginal state may be conceived, or that the inverse process might
be accompanied by mechamcal energy return in amount identical with.
that furnished in the initial process. ~uch observations ·furnish a
CD
- - -
P'r-------,
o~-------------------------
Distance along duct
Fig. 4-2
basis for supplementing the ideal-versus-actual aspects by the terms

reversible or irreversible. That is, in the terms reversibility and irre-
versibility, as relating to any process, there is further involved the
concept of the ideal possibility or actual impossibihty that:
I. The process, after completum, might be caused to occur in an
inverse order and the system might thereby be caused to return from
,ts last to its initial state; and
II. All energies which were transferred or transformed during the
initial pro.cess might thereby be returned to their initial/arm, amount,
and lacattOn.
These attributes are further illustrated in the following process
analyses.
(b) Acceleration accompanlling adiabatic flow, and subsequent deceleration.
The process as descrIbed may be pictured as occurring Jn a dosed horjzontal chan-
nel which Initially converges but therea.fter diverges and again prOVIdes the
original chanIlel area, as in Fig. 4-2. Sections upstream, at the "throat/' and
downstream are identIfied by the respectIVe subscnpts 1, 2 and 3. For mmplicity
the Dowing fluid will be taken 88 neglIgibly compressible, 80 permittIng the
convenjence of writing - [2 V dp aa V(PI - 1>2), and also esta.bliabJDg that US
and 1£1 will be equal.
66 REVEIlSIBLE PROCESSES AND CYCLES CHAP. 4
Ut.dizlllg equation 3-6a for associating the veloCities and pressures at the sev-
eral sections and for observing the influence of fluid frIction,
(p, - P2)V ~ k(u,' - u,')/2 + ,>1'2, and (P2 - pa)v ~ k(u.' - u,')/2 + ,>I',
fly addmg these relatIOns, recallIng that U3 = Ul,
In a similar manner, by equation 3-9 as partIcularIzed for the specified adiabatic

flow conditions WIth no volume change (dv = 0),
J(e, - e,) - ,>I',
J(e. - e,) - ,>I'a
J(e, - e,) - ,>I', + ,f.
The pertlD.ent aspects of these observations are that, In the sequence of the
acceleratIOn process and the lDverse one of deceleratmg to the irutlal velOCity.
the pressure and llltemai energy are wholly restorable to onglnal magnttudes only
If flUid fnctlon and turbulence may Ideally be regarded as zero In the nOD-
Ideal, or synonymously. irreversible, proces:l such restoration may not result from
mverslOn of the process, the ultimate pressure bemg less than and the ultimate
mternal energy exceedIng the Initial ones by an amount WhICh is a functIOn of
the aggregate frictIOnal effects, that IS, pa = PI and ea =el only If 1/1 = o.
The features III which the above illustrative processes became elther
ideally reversible or actually irreversible were essent18lly mechanical.
For dlstmgmshing situations in which frictional effects are thus the
criterion of reversibility the terms mechanical reverstbility or irreverst-
bzhty are correspondingly employed. For further distinction between
situations III whlch such frictional effect lS on the one hand that be-
tween moving parts of a mechamsro, or is on the other band fluid
fnction and turbulence, the respective terms external and internal have
been employed.
In addltion to processes in whlCh fiictlOnal effects and mechan-
ical irreversibllity are of pnmary concern, others that are of equal
concern m thermodynamic analyses are those in WhlCh energy tranSl-
tion as heat lS mvolved. There ideal-versus-actual features of the
heat passage estabhsh the revers,bllity or lrreversibllity of the proc-
esses, and the terms thermal reverstbllity or ,rreversibihty are aptly
employed III such connections. The followmg process analyses serve
to lllustrate.
(c) Isothermal expanston 0/ a g(UJ (in a cylmder), and its recompression A
cyhnder-and-p18ton mechaIllBID. by which these processes might be effected 18
mdlcated ill Fig 4-3, as IS a.lso a representatIve character of p-v record for the
gas m consequence of the processes. The reader is presumably sufficiently aware
of the general characterIstics of a gas to accept the POSSibIlIty of msmtammg
its temperature constant dunng expansion, WIth concurrent pressure decrease and
energy'departure as work, if energy IS slmultaneously supplIed as heat at requisite
rate and a.mount from some"'(reservOlr" at temperature T. ,However, unless the
thermal resistance to the heat transfer might Ideal1y approach zero (or unless Its
rate of tr8.DBfer shoul<i be infinitely slow), the gas temperature durmg the expan·
SlOD process must be less than that of the supplying source, or be a temperature
T - !:JT. The lower hne typifies the iso_thermal expanSIon at T - ilT. The en-
ergy equation for the process lB recalled to be
hq2 = 12 P dv + J(e2 - el) If mechanically reversible (3-9)
In effectIng the Inverse process of recompreSSlon such a concurrent energy

return as heat to the reservoir may be caused to occur that, notwithstanding the
~ :I :I :i
Source
I i
and
receiver, ~ ip
at T
-
'-- ( 1
I i
11-
!i
p
Fig. 4-3.
work-energy input, the gILS tempera.ture may be maintained conrstnnt. However
that temperature Wlll necessarily exceed that of the reservoir, or be T + AT,
unless the thermal re5lStance to the heat transfer rrught agam approach zero
The upper line typifies the isothermal compressIOn process at such greater gas tem-
perature.
WIthout undue concern as to ways of effectmg the reqUIred temperature rlSe
of the gas from T - AT to T + AT between the several lSothermal processes,
that bemg repreBented m the figure by a. preBumed interverung 8diabatic (:ow-
preSSIOn laming the two curves, It remains eVident that both reqUirement I and
requirement II lor revers.Jbility are violated If thermal resistance of any character
bu Incurred the need for a finIte temperature ddTerence for effectmg the energy
transfer as heat.
(d) MtrI,ng oj several mCUlses 0/ a fluid fDl,th intttally dtfJerent temperatures
If masses of a. fluid that are inItIally at different temperatures are brought into
contact WIth opposite sides of the surface of any sort of "heat Interchanger," and
after arrival at a common temperature are mixed, the process is agalD inhenmUy
irreVersible and would also be so If they were initially mixed. Even if a Bpon-
taneous ultimate separation of the initial components of the mixture might
possIbly be conceived, It lB mconceivable either that it could result In cooler and
warmer masses or that energy would pass spontaneously between the separated
masses in such manner as to warm the one by cooling the other from the common
mIXture temperature.
These several illustrative instances of thermal irreversIbility rcsult-

ing from heat transfer through the agency of an actual dIfference in
temperature potentIal (exceedmg the ideal zero magnitude) or result-
ing from mixing have been dIstinguished respectively as externally and
internally (thermally) U'reverstble. We shall observe subsequently
further irreversIble aspects of the mIxing process, other than the
thermal irreversibIlity and associated with a mIxing of different sub-
stances; and also irreversible aspects of chemical and electrochemical
processes.
4-3. Heal Engine Cycles. A series of processes that may be per-.
formed repeatedly in the same order is known as a cycle. The cycles
that are of concern in thermodynamic devices and analyses may be
grouped in several ways, one of which differentiates varlOUS classes
upon the basis of whether
(a) A machine regularly repeats the same series of processes, any
simultaneous state of the machine and its fluid contents being dupli-
cated in all respects at the same relative point m each successive
cycle, but a new mass of fluid is taken into the machine on each such
cycle.
(b) A working fluid IS caused to undergo, perhaps repeatedly, a suc-
cession of processes of such character that the fluid ulttTnately returns
to the same state but in doing so has passed through a series of devices
in which the successive processes occur.
(c) The working fluid is retamed within a machine, and cyclic pro-
cedures are followed by the two concurrently
The first class is exemplified in the famIliar reciprocating steam
engine, internal·combustion engine, or air compressor.
The second class is illustrated in the conventional condensing steam
power plant or refrigerating plant, or a closed-cycle type of gas-turbine
power plant, in which cycles the fluid flows progressively and repeatedly
through various devices.
The third class is of non-flow type and is not encountered in present
engineering practice, as fluid cycles may be carried out to better prac-
tical advantage in separate devices through which the fluid passes and
which are specifically designed for performing individual functions
or processes. However, though cycles of this class are thus more
academic than realistic, their analysis becomes especially convenient
ART. 4-3 HEAT ENGINE CYCLES 69
and is further justifiable as essentIally they are simplified prototypes
of more conventional operating eycles.
Present concern is with cycles -which acquire an energy supply as
heat from some higher-temperature region or source, and the purpose
of which IS to make available, as work, at least some portion of this
energy supply. Such are known as heat-engme cycles, whether per-
formed under flow or non-flow conditions. Anticipating the improba-
bihty that alJ the energy supplied may be dehverable a8 work, it will
be taken that any such unavailable portion will be discarded, as heat,
to some regJOn of lower temperature that will be described as a receiver_
a.b d
Fig. 4-4. Elementary 8team~power cycle.
It IS to be noted that the atmosphere, or regJOn. such as rivers or seas

at effectively atmospheric temperature, comprise the only receiver
to which energy may well be rejected in great amounts. The tem-
perature of the source will be designated as e, and that of the receiver
as OR, both temperatures being taken for the present simply as indices
of relatIve hotness and without reference to any particular scale of
temperature.
To illustrate these considerations the left diagram of Fig 4-4 indi-
cates the major Items of the equipment of the elementary condensing
steam power plant, and their purposes. It also shows the direction
of flow of the flUId and the character and direction of the energy input
and outgo. The essential occurrences of the fluid cycle are:
(a) The evaporatIOn of water in a baller, by heat supply, at an
upper pressure and temperature level.
(b) The expansion of the resulting steam through an engine, recip-
rocating or turbine, wlth accompanying work output.
(c) The condensatIOn of the steam in a condenser, by heat depar-
ture, at a lower pressure and temperature level.
70 REVEltSIBLE PROCESSES AND CYCLES CHAP. 4
(d) A return of the water to the boiler through the agency of a
pump, via a heater.
The operation of the system will be taken to be effectively steady
flow in character; the cyclic nature of the procedures is evident. The
dmgram in the right portIOn of the figure indicates the general manner
of variation of the temperature and specific volume of the water and
steam throughout the cycle (if superheating of the steam is not done).
If the systcm is taken to include only the series of apparatus and
connecting pipe which is enclosed within the broken lines of the figure,
we shall need to be concerned immeJiately only WIth (a) the energy
WhICh enters the system as heat (Q), from hot furnace gases acting
as the energy source and conducted through (he surfaces of heater and
bOIler; (b) any net amount of energy leaving as shaft work (lV o.,);
and (0) the reSIdue of energy which departs as heat (QR) from the
steam en route through the condenser, passing perhaps to circulating
water which acts as the receiver of that energy. The energy equation
for the cycle so becomes
JQ = Wou• + JQR
4-4. Reversible Heat-Engine Cycles; The Carnal Cycle. A
reversible cycle is one in which each individual process of the sequence
farming the cycle IS Itself to be regarded as of such ideal character as
• to be reversible, bath thermally and mechanically. It will be useful
to survey the steam-power-plant cycle of Fig. 4-4 ,,~th thc aim of
abservmg required features in order that the cycle might be reversible
in all respects, or those features in which it might inherently be
IrreversIble.
}Vlth relation to thermally reversIble or irreversible aspects of the
cycle, It IS permISSIble and for present purposes sufficient to limit
attention to features only of the fluid cycle itself, and to conceive
correspondmgly that the temperature of the heat source (9) negligibly
exceeds or ideally equals the temperature at WhICh waler will boil at
the pressure eXIsting in the bOIler. It WIll also be taken that the tem-
perature of the heat receIver (OR) is negligibly less than or ideally
equals that at whICh steam will condense at lbe lower pressure exist-
mg in the condenser. To such degree external thermal reversibility
may be presumed. Also, for avoidance of thermal Irreversibility dur-
ing the expansion in the engine, witb accompanying flUId temperatures
whicb progressively decrease but are both less than 0 and greater
. than OR, it is required that no heat shall pass between the expanding
flUId and either tbe source or tbe receiver, or that the expansion shall
ideally be adiabatic.
ART. 4-4 CARNOT CYCLE 71
A thermally irreversible feature would, however, attach to the return
of the cold water from the pump to the boiler This may be attributed
to the mixmg of cold water with the heated water and steam in the
boiler (or internal thermal "reversibility), or by heat transfer in
the heater of Fig. 4-4, or it would necessarily be associated with any
manner by which either dHectly or indirectly the water might be
warmed by energy from the source." A conceivable, although rather
impracticable, manner of escaping this Irreversibility, but one which
for present analytical purposes may advantageously be noted, reqUlres
merely that not all of the steam be condensed in the condenser and
that an intimate but only partially condensed mixture of steam and
water shall instead pass to the pump The admbatic compression of
the steam component of this mixture will Ideally cause not only the
pressure but also the temperature of the mixture to be restored revers-
ibly to those existing in the boiler.
With relation to mechanically reversible or irreversible aspects of
the steam-plant cycle of Fig. 4-4, ideal requirements would again be
the absence of fluid friction or turbulence in the flow of the water or
steam through the boiler, engine, condenser, pump, or connecting
piping. An essential but familiar attribute of the flow through the
engme is, however, that, in conformity with equation 3-6 or 3-6a and
presuming negligible change in geopotential or kmetic energies from
entrance to exit, even ideally a progressive decrease of pressure (i e J an
expansion) must accompany the flow if work output is to be secured.
Also, an essential charactcristic of steam and other actively expansi,'c
fluids is that a decrease of temperature will accompany the expanSlOn
and pressure decrease, with concurrent energy departure as work,
unless encrgy were simultaneously supplied as heat m an amount
sufficient to mamtain the initial temperature. But it was noted above
that for thermal reversibility the expansion needs to be adiabatic,
and progressive decrease of both pressurc and temperature is to be
anticipated.
Again in conformity with equation 3-6, and in order that the water
leaving the condenser at the lower pressure level of the cycle may be
delivered against the higher pressure in the boiler, energy must be
supplied as work for operation of the pump, but ideally without fric-
tional effects and adiabatically.
A reversible but non-flow fluid cycle which cssentially parallels the
·above cycle, with modlflcation as noted, was postulated by a young
• A uDlque manner by which this irreversibility may. however, be mIDlmized
and Ideally escaped is known as regenerative feedwater hea.ting It is regularly
employed in modem steam·power-plant practice and will be deSCrIbed later.
French army officer and engineer, Sadi Carnot, as early as 1824.

Because of the tremendous techmcal impact and historical SIgnificance
of thIs and other items of hIs work, the cycle IS conventIonally iden-
tIfied as the Carnot cycle It is described very simply as the follow-
mg series of processes:
a-b. Reversible adwbatw compression of a compreSSIble fluid from
a lower temperature OR to some greater temperature 0
p
b
a-b. rev adiabat
b-c rev Isotherm
Heat c-d. rev adlabat
source, d-e rev Isotherm
.t 9
~'l Lr-=:l
d
i; II e gf h
•
Heat (A) WIth non-condensmg gas
Insulator I I
11:11=t=~=====il~I P
b c
=~
Heat
receiver,
at 6R
d
h
u (8) With condensing vapor
FIg 4-5 Carnot engine, arrangement and cycle representaUona .
. b-c. Reversible isothermal reception of energy by the fluid, as heat

and in amount Q, from an energy source at temperature 9.
c-d. ReversIble adtabatic expansIOn of the fluid from the upper to
the lower temperature.
d-a. Reversible isothermal emlSsion of energy by the fluid, as heat
and III amount QR, to an energy receiver at temperature OR.
The non-flow mechamsm in which Carnot conceived the cycle to be
performed IS perhaps Imaginative but is simple, being a cylinder with
piston, pIston rod, etc., which is provided with three alternative cylin-
der heads. Each is available for being placed in contact with the
cylmder end (refer to the left portion of Fig. 4-5). The cylinder,
piston, and middle head are to be composed of a material which is
perfectly non-conductive of heat, and the piston mohon is to be fric-
tionless. The upper head will act as the source of heat energy at
~ upper temperature 9, and for simplicity it is initially considered that
ART. 4-5 REVERSAL OF THE CARNOT CYCLE 73
this source e,thcr 's of infim~e energy capaCIty' or is in some manner
maintamed at a constant upper temperature even though energy
departs from ,t. The lower head will act as the receiver of reJ ected
energy at the lower temperature OR, and may hkewlse be maintained
at that temperature. Anyone of the three heaus may be applIed to
the cylinder end at wIll.
A single T-v diagram which appears in the lower portion of Fig. 4-5
reasonably represents the manner of mutual variation of these proper-
tIes through the prescribed occurrences of the Carnot cycle, either with
a vapor such as steam or with a gas such as air as the working fluid.
The p-v relations for the cycle are indicated by diagrams as they
would appear (A) if employing a non-condensing gas as the working
fluid and (B) a condensing vapor.
Earlier analyses have established (Art. 1-8 or 3-10) that the work
energy associated w,th the several processes and for the complete cycle
w,ll be in amounts as follows, per pound of fluid:
Process 'York Energy
a-b Adiabatic compresBion Input, - I b
p dv (area. fabe)
b-c Isothermal expansion Output, - r. p dv (area ebcg)
c-d Adiabatic expansion Output, - f a p dv (area gcdh)
d-a Isothermal contraction Input, -;;'-' p dv (area hdafl
Complete cycle Net output, In amount - f p dv and represented

by area abed, where the notatIon IS thu.t for a
cyclic integral
Ie 's evident that the machine and flUld cycle IS m fact that of a
heat engine in the sense that, from energy received as heat, It has
contrIved to effect a transformatIOn and net delIvery of a portion as
work. The index of the effectIveness of the cycle, known as its
thermal effimency, is described by the ratio
. Net work output
Th ermaI efli clency = .
Heat energy lllput from source
-fpdv
(4-1)
JQ
4-5. Reversal of the Carnot Cycle. By reason of the prescribed
ideal character of the processes of the Carnot cycle it is conceivable
that each indlvldual process mlght be reversed, and also that the
senes of processes might be performed m reverse order. Referring
to the T-v or p-u dlagrams of Flg 4-5, such a procedure would mean
a traverse of the cycle in counterclockwise dlrectlOn, mstead of the
pnor clockwlse passage Wlth relatlOn to the consequent character
of the reversed processes and cycle, and the accompanymg energy
translhons, starting wlth the same initial point a the reversal
would reqmre, briefly, the folloRing sequence of events and energy
transItIOns:
a-d An 1Sotherma~ expansion at e", with a return of energy as heat
to the flUld system from the receiver in the amount QR, and an energy
dehvery from the system.as work in the amount - fd P du
d-c. An adiabatic compresswn from e" to e, requiring the prOVl-
SlOn of energy as work from some external ,ystem in the amount
-l'p dv.
c-b. An 1Sotherma~ contraction at e, wlth a return of energy as heat
from the fluid to the source in the amount Q, and a reqUlred prOVl-
SlOn of energy as work from some external system in the amount
- fb p du
'b-a. An adUlbatic expanstOn from e to eR, wlth energy dehvery from
the system as work m the amount - I" p du
It is apparent that by such reversal of the heat-engine cycle the
energy previously discarded as heat to the lower-temperature recelver
has been wholly retracted, and energy has been restored as heat to
the upper-temperature source III amount equal ~o that prevlOusly
taken from'lt Also, in order to drlve the machme, there has been
reqUlred a net supply of energy as work ( - f p dV), whJCh equals
that delivered by the machine when operatmg as an engine. Because
of these actions this inverted cycle lS known as that of a heat pump, in
distmction from the direct operation of the cycle as an engme. An
mdex of the effectiveness of the operation as a heat pump, known as
the coefficient of performance, is described by the ratio'
* This coeffiment of performance 16 ac~eptably greater than umty To lllustrate,
a x:everslble heat engme whICh IS operatmg under such conditions that QR = 667
and W IS 33.3 when Q = 100, or for wluch the thermal efficiency 15 333 per cent,
would exhIbIt a coeffiCient of performance of 667/33 3 -= 20 when operatmg as
a hea~ pump
· f rf ' Heat energy extracted
C oeiii Clent 0 pe ormance = ,
Net work mput
QR JQR
(4-2)
Q - QR = fp dv
As continued energy delivery as heat from any device is more
readily made to the atmosphere, the heat pump finds greater utIlity
in situatIOns where 0 IS effectively the atmospheric temperature and
OR IS a lower temperature. A usual workmg apphcatlOn of the reversed
cycle is consequently for purposes of refrigeratIOn, the cycle becom-
ing the basis of conventional commerCIal and domestIC refrigerating
eqUIpment. It is of interest to note that, m vapor-type refrigerators,
the analog of the power-plant condenser (FIg. 4-4) IS the evaporator
or refrigerating coil, that of the engme is a compressor, and that of the
boiler is the reftlgerant condenser. An approxImate analog of the
feedwater pump IS the expansIOn valve III the refrigerating mstallatwn;
this device mterestingly mtroduces an inherent (mechamcal) irrevers-
IbIlity III the operatmg refrigeration, cycle somewhat as (thermal)
IrreverSIbility IS mtroduced by the pumpmg of cold water in the
power cycle (Art. 4-4).
4.6. Problems. 1 A Jet of water IS bemg dehvered in a vertical (hrectlOo
from a nozzle at the earth's surface WIth a velOCity of 95 ips Resistance due to
air fnction IS such that 90 per cent of the kmetIC energy IS converted to potentIal
energy on the ascent, and on return to the earth's surface 90 per cent of the
potential energy IS converted to kmetIc energy Based on these energy con-
slde~a.tlOns, find (a) peak elevatlOnj (b) the velOCity at 93 it elevation, both
~endmg and de&!endmg, (e) the velOCIty at the tIme of return to the earth's
surfacej and Cd) diSCUSS the reverslbIllty of thiS process (Compare problem 3,
Chapter 2) Am. (a) 126 ft. (b) 49 fps, 44 Ips, (c) 85 fps
2 In a cychc process 100 umts of energy were delivered to a system from a
SOurce as heat and 70 were reJected to some re<'elver What external work was
done, and what was the thermal efficiency of the process? (Thermal efficiency =
work output/heat mput.)
3 Represent on p-v coordmates the general character of the state changes
undergone by the fluid in the elementary steam-power-pJant cycle of Fig. 4.
Indicate the apparatus in whICh each state change takes place
4 In a condensmg steam power plant, 13,000 Btu (per pound of oil fired) were
delivered as heat through the boiler tubes to the steam Twenty-five per cent
of this energy was converted loto work by the turbmes How many Btu as
heat must be dIsposed of, per pound of fuel? What was the oil rate of the plant
in pounds of 011 per horsepower~hour? Ans. 9750, 078.
5 If a reverslble engme operating between certam temperature level!3 gave an
effiCiency of 30 per cent, what would be the ratio between the refngeratmg effect
and the work required for operating the cycle as a heat pump between the same
temperatures? Ans. 233
6 Assume an engme operating on the Carnot cycle with complete reversibility
except that 10 per cent of the work 18 reqUIred to overcome friction in the movmg
parts. If the efficIency of the reversIble cycle were 30 per cent, what would be
the efficiency of the assumed engme? If the same amount of energy were re-
quired to overcome inctian if the machine were operated as a heat pump, what
would be the ratio between the refrIgeratmg effect and the work reqUIred?
Am 27 per cent; 2.12.
7. A Carnat cngllle IS operating on a reversIble fluid cycle, with an upper
flmd temperature of lOOQOF and a lower fluid temperature of 70°F. A 50°F
temperature difference is, however, required to effect heat transfers. What tem-
perature would the source and receiver have to be when operatmg the cycle as 8.
beat engIne, and what temperatures when operatIng as a heat pump? Comment
on the reversIbility or lrreverslblhty oC the enbre arrangement.
S. Represent on p-u coordInates the general character of the state changeB
undergone by the flUld In an ordInary household mecharucal refrigerator 88 out-
lined m the reversed Camot cycle DC Article 4-5 IndIcate on the graph the
apparatus In WhICh each state change takes place.
5 . THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE
5-1. Foreword_ The idealized attributes of mechamcal and ther-

mal character which have been descnbed wIth relation to various
processes and cycles in foregomg matenal are wholly acceptable as
ideals. Our sense of the fittmg permIts us to accept them as such
although not permitting us to go farther. We mIght thus be prepared
WIthout further ado to accept the performance of a reversible heat-
engine cycle as reprcsentative of optImum performance and incapable
of betterment, and so to accept it fUtther as a sort of "meter" by
which one might in principle ascertain the mechanically available and
unavailable components of any energy supplIed as heat at a tempera-
ture level 0 if OR were the receiver temperature.
It becomes necessary, however, ,to recognize more adcquately the
consequences of variatIOn of source and receiver temperatures, and
It may also be satisfying to establish more exactmgly the invanable
optimum-efficiency feature of the reversible cycle. The following
article presents the further reasoning by which these objectives are
accomplished.
5-2. The Carnol Principle. The basic principle and associated
reasoning which serves the above purposes was also dIsclosed by Carnot
in a claSSIC essay published in 1824 and entitled "Reflexions sur Is
puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres a devclloper cette
puissance" (or, as popularly paraphrased, "The Motive Power of
Heat"). It is therefore known as the Carnot principle.
ExpositIOn of the reasoning validating the principle is facilItated by
reference to Fig. 5-1, in which there are mdicated diagrammatically:
(a) A source at temperature 0, this temperature measure bemg
again one only of relative hotness, without reference to a particular
scale of temperature.
(b) A receiver at temperature OB.
(c) A reversible heat-engine cycle X operating between the source
and receiver, receiving energy as heat in amount Qx and rejecting
energy as heat in the amount QB,X.
(d) A second heat engine Y, of allegedly greater efficiency than the
reversible engine X although not necessarily claimed to be reversible,
receiving energy a8 heat from the same source in amount Qy and reject-
ing energy as heat w the receiver in amount QR,y.
77
78 THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE CHAP. 5
Quantities of energy appearing as work output by the cycles are
similarly represented by symbols TV.r and TV y.
The Carnot prmciple may be expressed to advantage by stating it
in the form of three proposItions. TheIr proof is by tbat method of
Source, at 8
Reverslbre Allegedly more

t'jt\e, x effiCient
cycle, Y
Receiver. at 88
Fig. 5-1.
logic in which the opposite of a proposition is assumed but then shown

to be untenable (or the mcthod known as the reductio ad absurdum).
The several proposltlOns are as follows.
ProposItion 1. No engme which contmuously delivers work out-
put by the receptIon of energy at higher temperature (with rejec-
tion of any residue of energy at a lower temperature) can be more
effiCIent than a heat engme operatmg on a reverSIble cycle between
source und receIver at thoE>e temperatures.
To vahdate the propositIOn presume that the reversIble cycle X is
orerated as a heat pump, wIth work Input required to drive it SImply
for convenience, let us assIgn to the energies Qx, QR.X and Wx numer-
ical values such as 150, 100, and 50 units of energy, respectively.
Operating as a heat pump, such a cycle would exhIbIt a coefficient of
performance of 100/50 - 20; If operated as a heat engine it would
have a thermal effiCIency 01 50/150 ~ 333 per cent. But let engine
Y be alleged to have a greater thermal effiCIency of, say, 40 per cent,
and let its output be employed wholly for operation of reverslble cycle
X as a heat pump, so requirmg a heat supply Qy of 50/0 40 - 125 units
and discardIng 125 - 50 - 75 units (QR.y) to the receiver. The
effective result of the operatIOn of the pair would eVIdently be a self-
acting combination whIch acts to effect a net continuous withdrawal of
(QR,;r - QR,y - 100 - 75 -) 25 units of energy as heat from the
lower-temperature regIOn and a dehvery of this amount to the higher-
temperature region.
ART. 5-2 THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE 79
Such an alleged result is inacceptable, as experience indlCstes that
energy may not proceed continuously as heat against a temperature
pote!ltial, from a regIOn of lower temperature to one of higher tem-
perature, nor could any self-acting machine accomplIsh ~thls -result.
These considerations were expressed by ClausIUs, un emment German
contributor to the science of thermodynamics, in a statement that IS
regarded as so fundamental that It is taken as one way of expressmg
a second law of thermodynamics. To quote Clausius: "It is impos-
sible for a self-acting machme, unaided by any external agency,
to convey heat continuously from one body to another at a hIgher
temperature."
If the assumption that any heat engine Y might be more efficient
than a reversible engine X IS thus to be regarded as untenable, the first
proposition of the Carnot principle is to be regarded as proved."
Proposition II. The efficiency of all reversible heat-engme
cycles working between the same temperature levels is the same,
irrespective of the cycle or of the working fluid used m the engme.
The proof of this proposition is essentially identIcal WIth that of
Proposition I, except that both engine X and engme Yare taken to
be reversible heat engines. It is also emphasized that the working
fluid in either may be of any character, using perhaps one substance
m X and a different substance in Y, and that the cycles employed may
be wholly different so long as both are reversible.
Again making a contrary assumption to the effect that engine Y
may be more efficient than engine X, and presuming the engme of
lesser efficiency to be reversed and operated as a heat pump by means
of the work output of the more efficient engine, the same lme of reason-
ing which was employed in the consideration of the first proposition
will show that Y could not be more efficient than X without violatmg
the second law of thermodynamics.
Similarly, engine X might be assumed to be the more efficient one
and the fallacy of that assumptIOn mIght be shown in the same manner
• Various thoughts: which have been Introduced In this and precedmg analyses
bear a. relatIOn to the notion of perpetual-motIon machInes These are frequently
grouped in three classes. Those of the first class would violate the prmciple of
the conservation of energy, or the first law of thermodynamiCS, In the feature of
requiring the creation of energy for the operatIOn. Those of the second class
would violate directly or mdIrectly the second law, In the feature of allegmg
performance pOSSibIlities such as are denied by the above first propOSItIon of the
Camot principle. Those of the third class are inctionlesa mechanical devices
which run mdefinitely and which we accept as Idealisms while regarding the actual
attamment of ~ch performance both useless and hIghly improbable.
80 THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE CHAP. 5
If. therefore, the reversIble heat engine Y can not be more effiCIent
than the reversible heat engine X, nor X more efficient than Y, theIr
efficiencies must be equal and ProposItion II is proved.
Proposition III. The effiCIency of a reverSIble heat engine de-
pends only on the temperature of the source and of the reCClver,
and, for a given value of either, depcnds on the difference of the
two temperatures.
This proposition inlroduces a further thought that becomes of
paramount ,mportance. To investIgate the propOSItIOn we may con-
ceive of a source and rcceiver at temperature B and BE, a reverSIble
cycle X operatmg between them as a heat pump, but the replacement
Source, at 8
Smgle ::;:W(SO)
cycle, %
Fig. 5-2
of single engine Y by two reversible heat engines so arranged in cascade

that the reCClver of the first (at an intermedIate temperature 0') may
act as the source for the second These two engines in cascade are
tepresented in Fig. 5-2 by engmes 1 and 2. A number of modern
power stations operate in a cascade arrangeme~t that IS quite analogous.
If the combined work output of engmes 1 and 2 (TV, + W 2 l is
employed to drive cycle X as a heat pump, then Qx must equal Q,
and QE.X must equal QR.2, else a self-acting mechanism would agam
result, which would violate the second law. But, as each of the serial
engines is delivering work, W, must be less than W x and the thermal
efficiency of engine 1 (W,/JQl, or W,IJQxl must thus be less than
that of reversible cycle X.
A like conclusion WIth respect to engine 2 is indicated more readily
by the use of Illustrative numerical values such as are indicated in the
figure. That,s, if Qx and Q, are taken as 150 units of energy and
QR.X and QR.2 as 100, but TVx, TV, and TV 2 are, respectIvely, 50, 25,
and 25, the efficiency of engine 1 will be (25/150 - l 16.7 per cent and
ART. 5-2 THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE 81
that of engine 2 will be (25/125 -) 20 per cent. Both are reversIble
but operate through reduced temperature ranges. TheIr cfficIencies
contrast with that of (50/150 -) 33.3 per cent for reversible cycle X
If operated as an engine between the temperature extremes.
Significant conclusions to be drawn from these observations are:
1. That' for a given source temperature the thermal efficiency of a
reversible engine will depend on the receivcr temperature.
2. That WIth a given receiver temperature any increase in the
source temperature WIll mcrease the efficiency.
3 That the thermal efficiency even of a reversible engine must
therefore depend on the source and receiver temperatures and, for a
gIven value of either, on theIr difference.
Since no lImitation IS set on the type of reversIble cycle employed,
or on the substance used, we may regard Proposition III as proved.
Appraisal of the considerations expressed in the three propositions
of the Carnot principle will indICate that the first two are in effect
only specific exemplifications of the general thesis that reversibility
is synonymous with the attaining of mechanical and thermal idealisms
in any process. Bu t the thIrd adds extremely important considera-
tions concerning the mlluence cif temperature on the performance
attainable by even an ideal cycle.
6 . THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE
6-1. Foreword. The thought developed in the third proposItion

of the Carnot prmciple, to the effect that the cfficIency of any revers-
Ible heat-engine cyclc depends solely on the relative hotness of source
and receIver, becomes of prime practical importance m the basIs
it provides for devising a fundamental quantitatIve manner of express-
ing relative hotness, or temperature. The following materIal applies
the proposition to that purpose, and indIcates the means that have
becn evolved for actual measurement of temperature in a manner
conforming with fundamental requirements. An appendix (Art. 6-5)
provides the reasolllng validating the means employed. .
6-2. A Thermodynamic Scale of Temperature. Followmg the
thought expressed in the third proposition of the Cam at principle, a
suitable aim when devising a specIfic manner of temperature evalua-
tion at given hotness levels WIll be that the assigned temperature
magnitudes shall bear some convenient relation to the energy supply
and discard of a reversible heat engine operatmg bet\\ een a source and
receiver at those levels. The accepted basis of assIgnment was sug-
gested by Lord Kelvm (WIlliam Thomson) In about 1848 when IIC
made the fundamental proposal that, whatever the numerical values
that might be allotted, those values shall be such that the ratio of
the temperature magmtudes assigned to a source and receiver equals
the ratio of the energy supplied by the source to the energy discarded
to the receiver by a reversible engine operating between them. That
is, the assigned temperature magnitudes are t6 be such that
o Q
(6-1)
A temperature scale that is so predicated is known as the thermo-

dynamic or energy scale.
A significant attrIbute of such a basis of temperature evaluation
becomes eVIdent on putting equation 6-1 in the form (0 - On) 10 -
(Q -Qn)IQ But (Q - Qn)IQ, - W/JQ - the thermal efficiency
of the engine, and we thus observe the important feature that
Th enna l·n; ·.f

eJJ,r:zency OJ any rever"'ble heat engzne - -
00- On
- (6-2)
if 0 and O~ are temperatures on the thermodynamic scale.

82
ART. 6-2 THERMODYNAMIC SCALE 83
Essential aspects of the, above relatIOns and the thermodynamic
scale are shown in FIg. 6-1 and 6-2. Figure 6-1 parallels Fig. 5-2
Q=200. 8= 1000'
W=50
*'~~~~,~'Z--~~~~",~'W.~""""""~"'''~~,'','~%.
Thermodynamic absolute
zero of temperature (6=0·)
Fig. &.1.
in the representatIOn of a source at temperature 8 and several engines

in series, the receiver of anyone becoming the source of the following
1------ Q ----->1
I
I
I
I
I
w I
--r--+-Ti
~~----------------------~Q~
84 THE ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE SCALE CHAP. 6
one. Relative values have been allotted to the energy supplies and
rejections, and numbers in "degrees" (0) have been assigned to the
temperature of successive source-receiver regIOns in conformity with
the requirement of equation 6-1. FIgure 6-2 represents the equation
graphically by a straight line drawn to coordinates of Q and 8.
Both figures serve to indicate the effect of a contmued reduction of
the receiver temperature, viz., that if its temperature should be made
successively lower and lower II llmiting temperature mIght finally be
reached with the use of which the enbre heat-energy supply from a
source could conceivably be made aVallable as work. That condltlOn
would mean, specifically, a 100 per cent thermal effiCIency for any
reversible heat engine operating with that receIver temperature. We
thus arrive further at the concept of a quite fundamental or absolute
zero of temperature, supplementing the general concept of the thermo-
dynamic scale for evaluating finite temperatures.
The use of an ideal (reversible) heat engine as a "thermometer" for
establishing temperatures on a thermodynamic scale would evidently
be most desrrable, if such engines were avmlable, but is precluded by
man's mability to construct any such deVICe. It so remains to discern
the means that have been devised for by-passing this dIfficulty.
6-3. Realization of the Thermodynamic Scale in Practical
Thermometry; Absolute Temperature. Having devised a baSIC
premise for the evaluation of temperature at any hotness levels, but
also being fully aware of the inabihty to employ an ideal engine as
the thermometer for establishment of temperatures on a thermo-
dynamw Bcale, Kelvm cast about for an alternative and practIcal
means which stIll would provIde temperature measurement on such
a scale. He recognized in thIS connection that it will be an mdlrect
procedure m which some consequence of temperature would be
measured, rather than the temperature itself. ThIS feature is well
illustrated when we recogmze that, since thermometry was introduced
by Gallleo in about 1600, all workmg thermometers have been devices
in which for some substance we merely measure change in a property
that is known to be influenced appreCIably by hotness, such as the
volume of a mass of mercury or alcohol, the electrical resistance of
a WIre, or the pressure exhIbited by a confined gas or vapor.
Kelvin's solution was in effect as follows:
(a) Having proposed the thermodynamic scale of temperature, in
conformity with which it 1V0uld be intended to express temperature
magmtudes, he further postulated a material for which the product pv
should be proportIOnal to the thermodynamIC temperature 8. That IS,
. this material would be one for which pv - R8, where R is a constant
ART. 6-3 REALIZATION OF THE SCALE 85
of proportionality, or
pv 8
--=-
POVo eo
(b) He further recognized (see Art. 6-5) that, if such a material
were warmed from one hotness level to a second, (1) the ratio of the
terminal pressures If It were retamed at constant volume, (plpo)"
and the ratio of the termmal volumes If retained at constant pressure,
(vivo)., would be equal, and (2) either ratIO would alone serve to
determme the ratIO of the terminal temperatures on the thermodynamic
scale.
Kelvin was undoubtedly mfluenced in his assignment of character-
istics of the proposed thermodynamic temperature scale and thermo-
metnc substance by the fact that, from evidence of the precision and
extent then available, gases such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, or air
were thought to exhIbit exactly or adequately closely an equality
between the above pressure and volume ratios. He therefore proposed
the use of a constant-volume gas thermometer as a suitable device
whereby relative hotness mIght in fact be determined on the thermo-
dynamic scale Calibration of this thermometer would require only
that two reproducible hotness levels be avaIlable and that a numerical
magnitude be assigned to their dlfference in temperature Any gas
conforming to the Imposed requIrements became known as an ,deal gas.
The matter became less simple, however, when subsequent and more
precise data showed that the famIliar gases did not in fact so conform,
or were inadequately "perfect." It remained for later investigators
and analysts to discern means by which this further difficulty might
be by-passed. These are considered in an appendIX to this chapter
(Art. 6-5). For present purposes it IS sufficient to report that it Is
well substantiated that, if low-pressure helium is maintained at con-
stant specific volume but is caused to assume successively several levels
of hotness, the ratIO of the pressures it exhibIts at such levels will
be effectively equal to the ratio of the temperatures on the funda-
mental thermodynamic energy or absolute scale. With such estab-
lishment of means for absolute temperature measurement we shall
resume the use of the symhol T for representatIOn of temperature,
discarding the symbol 8 which was introduced to convey the general
notion simply of relative hotness.
The device known as the "constant-volume helium thermometer"
80 became the basic instrument for absolute temperature measurement
or for the calibration of more convenient laboratory and field-type
instruments. By il<! employment it has been determined, for example,
that, to within about rto per cent tolerance, the ratio between the
absolute temperatures at the convenient and reproducible reference
levels of hotness fixed by the boiling of water and the melting of ice,
both at standard atmospheric pressure, IS 1 36609, that is
T. = 1 36609 or T. - T m = 036609 (6-3)

Tm Tm
where T. and T m are the absolute temperatures at those hotness levels,
conventionally known, respectively, as the standard steam pomt and
ice pomt. But recall that by custom there IS assigned to this tempera-
ture interval (T. - T m) 100 units, called degrees, to form a Centi-
grade temperature scale, or (212 - 32 =) 180 units or degrees to
form the Fahrenheit scale. Thus, by equatIOn 6-3,
(a) At T. - Tm - 100, Tm -100/036609 = 273.16°C abs.
(b) At T. - T m - 180, T m - 180/0.36609 = 491.69°F abs.
In recognitIOn of Kelvin's contributions temperatures in "deg.
Centigrade absolute" are customarIly identIfied as "deg. Kelvin" (OK),
and in recognition of thermooynamic contrIbutIOns made by the Scotch
engineer, W. J. M. Rankme, temperatures in "deg. Fahrenheit absolute"
are customarily identified as "deg. Rankine" (OR).
It is so established that the ice pomt, or the zero point of the
Centigrade scale, is 273 16 Centigrade degrees above the absolute zero,
or that
Absolute temperature (°10 = Temperature (OC) + 273.16 (6-4)
or, similarly, that the ice point is 49169 Fahrenheit degrees above
the absolute zero But, as the zero point of the Fahrenheit scale is
32 FahrenheIt degrees below the ice point,
, Absolute temperature (OR) = Temperature .(OF) + 459.69 (6-5)
In addition to the absolute temperatures at the reproducible levels
of hotness established by the steam point and ice point for water,
the location of a numbcr of others has been determined WIth sufficient
reliabIlity as to gam international acceptance Several follow.
DescriptIOn
,0C Temperature
OK OR OF
BOllmg point or liquid oxygen at
standard atmospheric pressure -1830 90 2 162 3 -2974
Melting POIDt of tin 231 9 505 1 905 5 445 8
Melting POIDt of sulfur 444 6 717 8 1292 832
1,felting point of antimony 630 5 903 7 1627 1167
Melting pomt of silver 960,5 1233 7 2211 1751
Melting point of gold 1063 0 1336,2 2405 1945
Melting point of platinum 1773 5 2047 3684 3224
ART. 6-4 CARNOT EFFICIENCY AND PERFORMANCE 87
6~4. Efficiency and Perfornlance, Carnot Engine and Pump
Cycles. The preceding articles introduced the concept of a funda-
mental thermodynam1c scale of tcmperature and indicated the means
that have become avaIlable for the determmation of absolute tempera-
tures on such a scale, notw1thstanding the inab1hty to use a wholly
reversible heat engine as the thermometric agency. PractICal faciht1es
for absolute temperature measurement havmg thus been provided,
1t is profitable to note the s1mple relatlOns whICh will express, in terms
uf the (constant) source and receiver temperatures, the thermal effi-
CIency of an 1deal (reversible) heat-engine cycle or the performance
coefficient of an 1deal heat-pump cycle; also to observe more specifi-
cally the influence of mod1ficatIOn of those temperatures, whether in
Idealized or more realistic circumstances.
The efficiency relation for a reversible heat-engine cycle such as the
Carnot, expressed m terms of absolute temperatures rather than mere
relatIve hotness, is that of equation 6-2 w1th T replacing e, or
Thermal efficiency of Carnot heat-engine cycle =T - TR

T
TR
or = 1- - (6-2)
T
1f T and TR Ille constant. The relatlOn expressing sim11arly the co-
efficient of performance of such a cycle operating as a heat pump
develops readily from equations 4-2 and 6-1, or
Coefficient of performance QR 1
of Carnot heat-pump cycle = = -::-:-;:---"
Q - QR Q/QR - 1
1 TR
or (6-6)
TjTR - 1 T - Tn
agam if upper and lower temperatures T and Tn are constant.
Actual engine and pump cycles are characterized by vanatlOns of
T and TIl. The1r performance will be considered later. A number
of conclusions of much prachcal sigmficance are evident, however,
on consideration of the simple Carnot relations. Among them are the
following:
(a) As the so-called heat engines are fundamentally ones wh1ch
for their operation depend wholly upon the reception of energy by
the· working fluid at a temperature which is in excess of that at wh1ch
tile unavailable energy 1S rejected by the flUId, they may quite as
appropriately be designated as temperature engines. This designa-
tlOn permits the inclusion of devices such as the mternal-combustion
engine or combustion-turbine power plant, which do not receive thelr
energy as heat from an external source but still depend upon tempera-
tures for their operation.
(b) The ideal (and actual) efficlCncy of any temperature engme
may be increased by increase of the temperature T at which the work-
ing fluid receives Its energy The practical recogmtion of this condi-
tIOn is reflected in the contmual trend toward higher steam pressures
and consequent temperatures in steam-power-plant design and in
varIOus refinements m the modern plant. The condition IS also eVI-
denced in the generally greater efficiencies attainable by the internal-
combustion engme, in whiCh the working fluid (the products of com-
bustion) receives its energy at distinctly higher temperatures than
does the steam in any steam power plant.
(0) The ldeal (and actual) effieleney of the temperature engine
is improved by lowering of the temperature to which the flUid may
expand in the engine before dlscarding the unavallable residue of
energy. Recognition of this situation is reflected in the efforts of the
engineer to lOsure 'that in the steam engine or turbine the steam may
expand practically to atmosphenc temperature, as the receiver tem-
perature (TIl). The attainable efficlencies of the internal-combustion
engine or turbine are oppositely limited by reason of the considerably
greater temperatures at which the gas must leave.
(d) Due to such temperature limitations we must unfortunately
content ourselves with ideal and actual thermal efficiencies much
below 100 per cent, unless or until man devlses means for utilizing
the energy stores of nature without imposing a "temperature phase."
As yet he knows of no such means.
(e) The performance ideally and aotually attained by the heat
pump m refrigerating services is oppositely bettered if the lower
temperature of its cycle (TIl) is no lower than is required for accom-
phshing Its ohjective, and if the temperature level of energy discard
(T) is no higher than can be escaped.
6-5. Appendix. Validation of the Ideal-Gas Temperature Scale 8S the
Energy Seale, and Related Teehnic8. By analyses made In the latter part of
Chapter 7 aDd extended in Art. 9-3 It develops that, If a fiuJd might be found for
which at any hotness level the product p X v remamed constant even at different
presaures, the internal energy (e) of such a fluid would necessarily also be 8
functIon solely of the temperature. These considerations mIght quite reasonably
prompt the thought of a temperature scale defined as one for whICh
TITo - (pv)!(pv)o. Also, they would a.t least justify inquiry into a possibility
whether, in the absence of a wholly reverSlble engine whIch might be used as a
the1'lllometer, suitable uac of such & fluid might not aid in temperature deter-
ART. 6-5 IDEAL-GAS TEMPERATURE SCALE 89
muiatioDB ou the energy B~ale postulated by Kelvin and defined lUI one for wluch
ele. - QIQ •.
To verIfy that a tempera.ture scale 8B so conceived would In fact be identical
with that postulated by KelvIn, let the foIlowmg features be observed for a.
Carnat cycle operating With such a workIng flmd.
(a) For adiabatic processes a-b and c-d of Fig. 4-5, tD/J""" lle, and for the
-1,
two processes are equal. (hut OPPosIte) as they operate between the same
temperature levels. For the indivIdual processes j oW& = p dv and
ow. <= - I p dv, or for the specified character of flUld, = -R i 6

T dOn v)
and -R I T dOn v), where R is a. proportIonahty constant defined as the

ratia (pv)/T. Thus, alternatively and e and T are mutually dependent,
I
88
-R In (v.lv.) - - i' J delT - + J delT - R In (v.lv.). Thus, further,

v./v" .... v,/vI/, or v~/v. vlllv".
0=
(b) For isothermal processes b-.c and d-a, Jq = -w; or for the individual
processes Joqll = RT In (vl/lvD) and JtJq .., _ - JqR, => - RTB In (v4Iv.), WIth the
two volume ratios bemg seen from the above to be equal.
Thus, for the cycle If employing the specified character of fluid. q I qB = T ITB.
ThIS ratio i3 seen to be the same as that proposed by Kelvin as providmg the
baBl/j for a suItable thermodynamIc scale. A fiUJd havmg the ascribed character
would so be acceptable as a. thermometric substance for determming hotness
levels on the basic or thermodynamic scale
Tests for indicatmg whether a fluid IS of the specIfied character are. (1) If It
is mamtained at constant volume whIle brought to dIfferent but reprodUCIble
hotness levels, and (2) If instead maintained at constant pressure while again
brought to the two temperature levels~ T and To, It would necessanly be found
that
L) ~:£.. ~
( PD.. To
(.!'.)
or [Cp - Po)/pol. ~ _!_ = [Cv - vo)/vol.
VI) p T - TD To T - To
(6-7)
Here (T - To) represents simply a numerical ddIerence which may be aMigned

arbitrarily to the mterval between the two hotness levels. The two terms m
which this difference appears are known, respectively, WI the pres.mre coeffiC1.ent
and the volume coefficient of the fluid for that temperature interval.
The gMes are the only tyPe of flUId for which equahty of these coefficients IS
even approached, Wlth some conforming more closely than others but none dOing
so at all temperature or pressure levels. However, at very low pressures the
required equalily J8 closely approached, and would appear to be sHamed at zero
pre&sure The monatomic gas helium otters certam practical advantages, and so
has become the material ordma.nly employed for determimng, on the basic
energy scale of temperature, the absolute temperature at any gIven hotness level.
The device m whICh It is employed IS the constant·volume heltum thermometer,
which in SImplest terms may be descnbed a.s a constant-volume con tamer of
helium equipped With pressure gage and readily submersible in any region the
absolute temperature of whIch IS to be determmed. The mstrument actualJy
used III Lhe standardization laboratory IS of a much mOre complex and refined
nature, and permits readings at a vanety of (imtJal) pressures
As the constant-volume helIum thermometer 18 essentially a laboratory instru-
ment, various types of portable or more practIcable secondary standards have
been devIsed. Of these the platmum reslStance thermometer IS perhaps the
more reliable. By calIbratIOn of these agamst the helium thermometer as a
primary standard and at vsnous reprodUCible hotness levels, accepted mterpola-
tl~n formulas have been developed and are reported, enabling their use WIth due
confidence as general-purpose mstruments.
6-6. Problems. 1. For a reversible cycle operating as a heat engine WIth a
receiver temperature of 70'"F. compute and plot the effiCienCies for source tem-
perature ranging from 400" to 3000°F.
2. For a reversible cycle operatmg as a heat engine With a source tempera-
ture of 600°F, compute 8nd plot the efficienCIes for receiver temperature from
220° to 40 a F. Compare the effects of redUCIng receiver temperature some defimte
amount WIth the effect of Increasing the source temperature by the same amount
3 For a reversIble cycle operatmg as a heat pump WIth a source temperature
of 20°F, compute and plot the coeffiCIent of performance for reJectIon tempera-
tures ranging from 50 a F to 150°F
4. For a reverSIble cycle operatmg as a heat pump With a reJectlOn tempera-
tUre of 120a, compute and plot the coeffiCIent of performance for a range of
source temperatures of 40°F to -20°F Compare the effect of reducmg source
temperature some defimte amount WIth the effect of Increasmg reJecllon tem-
perature the same amount.
6 Constder a source of l000°F and a receiver of goOF. 'Vhat IS the efficiency
of a reversIble engine cycle operating between these temperature levels? 'Vhat
IS the effiCIency of a flUId cycle whICh in Itself IS reversible, but where a 50°F
temperature difference IS required between the source (or receiver) and the
workmg fluid to effect heat transfer?
6. Consider an energy source at 20°F and a receIver at 90°F. What is the
coefficient of performance of a reversIble cycle operatIng as a heat pump between
these temperature levels? What is the coeffiCIent of performance of a flUId cycle
which is in Itself reversible, but where a 15°F temperature (hfferencc is required
to effect the transfer of heat?
7 . ENTROPY
7-1. Foreword. The discussions of Part I, relating to the various
manifestations of energy and its accounting, were concerned primarily
with quantttative aspects of energy. The material of Part II up to
thIs point has related to the "avaIlability" and "unavailability" of
energy whIch passes as heat from a source to a fluid and to means for
ascertaining the portion which may ideally be available for trans-
formation to mechanical forms, and in that sense may be said to relate
to qualttative aspects of energy. In the following materIal this aspect
of energy is utilized for introduction of an item known as the entropy
of energy, or the change of entropy of a mass of fluid as It receives
energy. This serves both as a convenient index of unavailability and
as an additional and extremely useful thermodynamic property of a
fluid.
7-2. The Enlropy of Energy. In the preceding discussions it
has become evident that, although means are at hand for ascertaining
those components of an energy supply that are ideally available ,or
inescapably unavailable, such components may not be regarded as
indIscriminately fixed but are instead affected by the temperature
level (T) at which the energy is received and the level (TR ) at which
the unavailable residue is rejected to a receivcr.
Tb.e ~&~ "el",ti.o.ll. ",,,,md..ttll.'b t.,b.""", t~ that (I( ""'......ti(lll. Ii- 1, Q'
or Q. (ideal) ~ Tn(Q/T) (6-la)
In this relation the quantity QIT is seen to be an item which, if

mUltiplied by the receiver temperature TIl, umquely and directly
determines the mtrinsically unavBllable component of the energy
received. By reason of the significance that is thus displayed by
the ratio QIT, it is conventIOnally assigned a name, being known as
the entropy (en'tro-py) of the energy Q But it is also essentIal to
recognize that, by the Bame relation and with possibly greater funda-
mental significance, the entropy of the energy needs also to be regarded
as the ratio (Q"IT,,) (ideal). In this Bense the entropy of a quantity
of (heat) energy becomes a direct index of ,ts mechanical unavail-
ability.
It has not seemed necessary to employ a distinctive unit for numeri-
91
92 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
cal expression of the entropy of energy. It is instead evaluated in
composite but natural umts sucb as Btu/dey Rankine, cal/deg Kelvtn,
Joules/dey Kelvin, etc.
7·3. Entropy Changes of F1uids. The entropy of a quantity of
energy is a matter of general concern III many circumstances. QUIte
as frequently, however, particular attention IS necessarily directed
to the entropy of the energy received or emitted by a unit mass of
fluid during a state change, or, as conventionally described, the change
of entropy of the fluid. To illustrate: when a unit mass of flUId
receives (or emits) energy as heat in amount q while remaining at
constant temperature T, and if no irreversibilitles accompany the
process, the flUId is said to increase (or decrease) tn entropy per unit
mass in amount q/T. Or, III terms of the unavailable component
qB of the energy With respect to receiver temperature T B , the entropy
change per unit mass of ,fluid is qJl/TR • Such entropy change per
unit mass is conventionally represented by the symbol tJ.s, or ds for
an mfinitesimal change, that IS
(qIT) ... or (7·1)
The change will be positive or negative m sense as energy is respec·

tively received by or departs from the fluid as heat, or as the una vail·
, able component allocatable to the fiUld is respectively increasing or
decreasing.
Condihons in which a substance may receive (or emit) energy as
heat while remaining at constant temperature are exemplified by the
melting of a solid, the freezmg or bOilmg of a liquid, or lhe condensa·
tion of a vapor For those many other conditIOns in WhiCh energy
transition as heat to or from a substance produces progressive change
in its temperature, ~uch as the warming of water or of air, recourse is
necessarily hnd to lhe fUCihlies and notation of the calculus. Thus,
if the process IS one produced solely by such heat-energy transition,
tJ.s = Jds 1..

= [ . ( oqlT (7·1a)
where 8q represents an infinitestimal quantity of heat which is in

transition to (+) or from (-) unit mass of the suhstance at instan·
taneous temperature T but during ultimate change of temperature
from To to T, and subscript "rev" connoles that no mechanically
. irreversible features were associated with the heat transfer process.
To permit defimle integration of such a relation for a finite process
the item Sq,is best expressed in terms of the speCific heat of the fluid
ART. 7-4 ENTROPY AS A PROPERTY 93
for the process in question (c,. or 8qldT, Art. 3-12), so that
.
t.8-
- [I To
T
cdT]
-
T rev
or
where c is perhaps expressible as a function of T or possibly may vary

negligibly, and In T identifies the natural loganthm of the tempera-
ture (or 10g,O X 2.3026).
To summarize, we may write that, for reversible processes,
t.8", = qlT if the temperature of a substance remains constant
during energy reception or departure (7-1)
= Jr,
T
or cd (in T) if T changes in consequence of the heat
r
transfer and the specific heat is variable
(7-2)
or = c In (T ITo) if T changes but c varies negligibly. (7-2a)
It is to be noted that only change in the entropy ascnbable to a sub-
stance has been considered in the foregoing, and no ability has been
implied to assign absolute entropy, magnitudes In this feature the
situation parallels that noted in Art 2-4 in relation to the absence
of knowledge concerning the absolute magnitude of the internal energy
of a substance. However, It is now accepted that the entropy of a
pure crystalline substance would be truly zero at the absolute zero
of temperature (see Art. 7-9). Although in prmciple absolute magni-
tudes might thus be determined m certain Illstances, their use is seldom
required in engineering thermodynamics. It is instead sufficient for
most engineering purposes
(a) If one may determine experimentally the entropy change in any
convenient manner of passage of a fluid from some arbitrarily selected
reference state to any second state.
(b) If, further, the same change may invariably be attributed to
any manner of passage of a particular fluid from the reference state
to the second state.
(c) If, therefore, one may so assign a given relatwe entropy magni-
tude to the fluid whcn in any particular state other than the reference
state.
The propnety of so ascribmg definite but relative' values to the
entropy per unit mass of a fluid when in a given state is established
in Art. 7-4
7-4. Entropy a8 a Thermodynamic Property; Isentropic Proc-
eS8. A determination of the J 8qlT associated with any process caus-
94 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
ing a substance to pass in a paTitculaT TeveTsible manneT from an initial
reference state to some second state is a readily acceptable concept,
as is also the assignment of a definite corresponding value to its change
of entropy. However, further consIderation is required for establish-
lllg the propriety of proclaIming that the entropy change as so deter-
mined is further a generally representative one; that is, that it is
one which WIll remain the same for all ways in which the substance
might be caused to pass from the reference to the second state.
T. d
Q.
00
"
Fig. 7-1.
A simple but adequate validation of such a claim is provided by

referring to a reversible cycle representation such as that of Fig. 4-5,
as redrawn in Fig. 7-1. Observe that tlie consequence of processes
a-b and b-c was that of gIving to a fluid, initially at state a, such a
status at state c that it might then proceed adiabatically and Ideally
to state d. It would thereupon discard at T" the unavailable residue
q" of any energy that had been received while changing from state
a to state c. An essential observatIOn in this connection is that the
fluid might alternatively have been caused to pass from state a to
state c in any conceivable manner whatsoever (whether reversibly or
otherwise), as by a state change such as is represented by line a-x-c,
but that its arrival at state c had gIven it again quite the same status
as regards the eneTgy Tesuiue q" to b. di.<;cuTded at T" in order to
Teturn it to state a.
Recl'lIing that the ratio q8fT" is an invariably valid and in fact
ART. 7-4 ENTROPY AS A PROPERTY 95
primary measure of the entropy change of the fluid as between states
a and e, it follows that exactly the same entropy change lS assoclated
wlth passage from the one state to the other whatever the interyemng
hlstory of the fluid mlght be.
This sigmlicant conclusion leads dlrectly to the following observa-
tlOns of equally baslC slgmlicance; namely, that
(a) In the feature that the entropy change during passage of a
flUld from one state to a second is independent of the character of
the intervening process, and is thus a function solely of the terminal
states, the entropy of a fluid exhiblts the characteristic that wa"
earher noted as the essential attnbute of any fluid property (Art. 2-6).
It Ul correspondmgly to be regarded as a jurther state juncttOn, or
thermodynamte property, of a flUld and one to whlCh a delimte
(although perhaps relative) magmtude may be assigned when a flUld
is m II parbcular state.
(b) It was advantageous to make an imtinl approach to the concept
of entropy change or of the relative entropy of a fluid in associatlOn
with reversible processes in which energy reception or departure occurs
through the agency of heat transfer. But m consequence of the indi-
cated non-dependence of entropy change on the character of the
mtervemng process causmg a substance to change from a pnrtlCular
mlbal state to a second, it becomes in fact permisslble to disregard
the question whether the state change was or was not accomplished by
heat transfer or reversibly, also to recogmze that transfers of energy
in any manner might well accompany a glven change in terminal
states and in the correspondmg entropy of a substance.
(c) The adiabatic and mechanlCally ideal expansion of a substance
(or its compresslOn), as from state e to d in Flg 7-1, does not alter in
any degree elther the unavallable resldue gIl to be discarded at TIl
or the ratio gR/Tn . Instead, the process serves simply as one through
the agency of which previously supplied energy is in part transformed
to mechanical forms. It is also one for whlCh J 8q and thus J8g/T
are zero. It follows that, although all other properhes such as the
temperature, pressure, density, internal energy, or enthalpy neces~
sarily change, during a reversible adiabatic expansion (or compression)
of a substance its entropy remam. eomtant, that is, the process is
isentropic.
The last feature of the entropy property lS one of maj or practical
utility. In fact the ablhty of the engmeer to anticipate the perform-
ance ideally and actually obtamable in the operation of much of his
heat-power and associated machinery, and the abllity to design such
96 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
eqUlpment advantageously, is III large degree the result of a recogni-
tion of this characteristic of the entropy property.
7-5. Slale-Change Represenlalions, T-s and h-s Coordinale•.
An ,important consequence of the ability to ascribe definite values
to the change of entropy of a fluid in passage between given terminal
states is the further abIlity to employ the relative entropy as one of
any pair of coordinates, and to represent graphically to these coordi-
nates fluid states and intervening state changes. Some utility attaches
q-qR
=Wout
d
TR
qR
OOR n
8_
Fig 7-2.
to employing initially a diagram III which absolute temperature is the

ordinate and the (relative) entropy IS the abscissa, or a T-s diagram.
Representations of flow processes to h-s coordinates (or of non-
flow processes to e-s coordInates) become also of great practical
convenience.
'As a first Illustration the Carnot cycle, which was described in Art.
4-4 and represented in Fig. 4-5. appears to T -s coordinates as shown
in FIg. 7-2. The reversible adiabatIC and thus isentropic compression
and expansion of that cycle are indicated, respectIvely, by the verti-
cal hnes a-b and cod. Line b-c represents the constant-temperature
(isothermal) heat receptIOn at temperature T, and line d-a the rejec-
hon at TR of the unavailable energy residue. In conformity with equa-
tion 7-1, 80 - S.. - q/T, and also qR/T". Conversely, q - T(so - Sm)
and thus appears as an area to T-s coordinates. Similarly q,,-
T,,(so - 8m ), and by the energy equation w/J -(T - T,,) (s. - 8 .. ).
These products and energy quantities are thus representable, for this
reversible cycle, by areas, as indicated in Fig. 7-2.
Table 7-1 provides illustrative computations of the entropy and
ART. 7-5 STATE-CHANGE REPRESENTATIONS 97
enthalpy changes accompanying a succession of typical processes wIth
a lamihar matenal, water. These are (a) the wa~ming of ice to Its
melting temperature, (b) melting. (e) warming of the liquid to its
bOIling temperature, (d) vaporizmg at that temperature, and (e) a
further temperature rise of the vapor. The processes are taken to
be effected solely by heat transfer, wIth negligible accompanymg
kinetic energy changes or mechamcal lTTeverslbihty. The data of
the table are sufficIently precise fol' present purposes.
Table 7-1
Enthalpy Entropy
Sta.te PhysIcal q. Change, Change,
Change Precess Data Btu/lb lJ.k, Btu/lb .18. B'"IOb. OR)
1-2 Warmmll of SpecIfic 0.47(32 + 40) 0.71
ice. -40" to heat. 047 33.8; 33.8 4 n 460+32_
460 40
32°F Btu/(Ib. oF) area Iqt ~ 0074
2-3 Fusion at 1433; 1433

143.3 Dtuflb 1433 492 ~ 0292
32°F area 2qa
3-4 Warming oC Spectlic I 02(420-32) 1 02 In 460 + 420
water, 32° beat. 1.02 395.8; 395.8 460 + 32
to 420DF Btu/(lb. "F) area 3'1, ~ 0593
4-5 Vaponzation 8063 8063

806 3 Btu/lb 806.3 880 ~ 0916
at 420°F area ,q&
5-6 Superheating Specific 059(700-420) 0091n 460 + 700
of steam, heat, 059 165 I, 165 I 460 + 420
420° to Btu/(lb. oF) area Fl' ~ 0.163
700'F
In practice the indicated enthalpy and entropy changcs may be

employeu lor ascnbing Telatwe values of these properties at the
termmal states of the processes. To do so a reference state must be
selected (arbitrarily), to which zero relative magnitudes may be
assigned For water the liquid state at meltmg temperature (32°F)
IS convcntionally adopted as the reference state, so requirmg that m
sohd states the assigned relative magnItudes be negative. This is
comparable with and should be no more mystifying than, for example.
Table 7-2
Relative Enthalpy, Relative Entropy,
State DescuptioD h; Dtu/lb 8; Btu/(Ib, OR)
1 Ice at _40oP -177.1 -0.366
2 Ice at 32°P -143.3 -0.292
3 Water at 32°F 0.0 00
0
4 Water at 420 P 3958 0.593
5 Steam at 420 P0
12021 1.509
6 Steam at 7000 P 13672 1.672
98 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
the asslgnmg of negative relative magmtudes to temperatures below
OaF. The consequent relative values of the enthalpy and entropy at
the terrumal states of Table 7-1 are mdicated in Table 7-2
1367 - - r - - - - - - - - - - - - /6
,0,
of
700
T
oR
1160
1202
--r---------- j5
(qlj
,
I
~===~~ :
~l 396----,. i
,q, ~~ ~~ : :
,q, )j: ~l - I
1j,j,0~:.._;---~
I
~ 2 3 2 a : I q
1 177 -143 rt q I I
_JJ..~~~=~====~~~- l:... __
_ ...Jl....!J _ _ _ _ --1-1_
!l!N~
."'
0 ~
It'>
~ ~ ('f)
.. , !.O
~ N~ 0
I{)
~
8I() ID m
do 0 .... 0 a 0
I I I I
Relative entrop),. 8 Relative entrop)" s
Fig. 7-3.
RepresentatIons of these states and state changes appear to T-s and

h-s coordinates In FIg. 7-3. Annotations also mdlCate the energy
significances of relevant areas on the T-s dIagram, and of d,stances
along the ordmate of the h-s dIagram.
The cycles of the elementary steam power plant and the gas-turbine
plant are considered in some detail later. However, it is of present
interest and value not only to note the general arrangement of the
major'devices forming those plants, but also to note (1) the nature
of the state' changes of the working flmd and the energy transitions
occurring in each device if negligible mechanicalmeversIbIhties accom-
pany the flow of the flUId (and also negligIble termmal velocity differ-
ences), and to observe (2) the abIlity to represent to T-s and h-s
coordinates both the state changes and relevant energy quantities
The h.. s dIagram IS more convenient, as for steady flow pertinent
energy quantitIes become representable by lengths along the h coord,-
nate. This IS in contrast to the representatIOn of such Items by areas
to T-s coordinates, and then valid only for reversible processes.
The arrangement of the eqmpment in each type of plant, and corre-
sponding T-s and h-s diagrams, are shown In Fig 7-4. The processes
m the indiVIdual devices, and the lines representing them in the dia-
grams, are as follows:
ART. 7-5 STATE-CHANGE REPRESENTATIONS 99
21
q.
(a) Steam-power cycle
Turbme
4
From To
atmosphere almosphere
(b) Gas-turbme cycle
•
Fig 7-4. Elementary steam power and gas-turbine cyc1ea.
For the Steam Cycle

Lw", 1-2. Warming of the feedwater, vaporizing and superheating
of the steam, under superior pressure, in passage through a feedwater
heater, baller, and superheater and by heat input (q).
Line 2-3. Adiabatic and mechanically ideal expansion of the steam
to lower pressure and temperature in passage through an engme, with
accompanymg work output vIa a shaft (w).
L,ne 3-4. Condensation of the steam leavmg the engine, m a con-
denser and by heat departure (qR).
Line 4-1. RestoratlOn of the superior pressure in passage through
a feedwater pump, by work input (tv).
For the Gas-Turbine Cycle

Line 1-2 Temperature rise of a previously compressed gas, at a
constant superior pressure and nommally by heat input, but more
frequently by the energy released through the combustion of a fuel
in the heater (or burner).
Line 2-3. Adiabatic and mechanically ideal expansion of the hot
compresseli gas to lower pressure and temperature m passage through
a turbine engine, with work output.
100 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
Line 3-4. Temperature decrease of the gas departing from the
turbine, at constant pressure and by heat departure, perhaps occurring
in passage through a heat exchanger but more frequently by passing
to and cooling in the atmosphere.
Line 4-1. Restoration of the superior pressure m.passage through
a compressor, by work input.
The conSIderations expressed by equations 7-1 and 3-4, and those
of Art 3-7, validate the ways of indicating relevant energy quantities
in the figure, by areas in the T-s dIagrams and enthalpy differences
In the h-s diagrams.
7-6. General Expressions for Entropy Change. For both intro-
ductory and practIcal purposes it was desirable first to recognize the
physical significance o(the entropy concept as an index of the mechan-
ical unavailahility of heat energy, as expressed by the ratio QB/T B, or
by the ratio Q/T (or f 3Q/T) when a process is unaccompanied by'
frictional effects. The associated concept of the change of relative
entropy per unit mass of a substance during any process was also
essential, as well as a recognition that the relative entropy of a sub-
stance in a given state might properly be regarded as a thermodynamic
property relating to that state. It remains, however, that, for wider
and more effective utIlization of the entropy property, facilities must
be provided whereby its change during any process may be correlated
with and expressed in terms of the accompanymg changes of other
thermodynamic properties.
In providmg such a correlation it is more Mnvenient to do so first
for the presumcd passage of a fluid from some selected initial state
to a second through (one or more) mechanically reversible occur-
rences. But observe in this connection that a determination of the
entropy change as so made will be broadly valid. As noted in Art.
7-4, the entropy of a fluid is a property, or state function, and the
magnitUde of Its change on passage between given termlOal states of
a fluid is consequently independent of the actual manner of passage.
Energy equations 3-7 and 3-9 furnish dIrect facilities for effecting
the desired property correlations, if written In the form relating to a
mechanically reversible process. Th·.t is,
(5q),ev = dh - v dp/J or de + p dv/J (7-3)
a,:,d thus SO - 81 =12 (5q/T) ... =12 (dh/T) - (v dp)/JT (7-4)
or =12 (delT) + (p dv)IJT' (7-5)

ART. 7-6 GENERAL ENTROPY EXPRESSIONS 101
These basic property relations, when written ID differential form,
become
dh = Td8+vdp/J (7-4a)
and de = T ds - p dv/J (7-5a)

But the passage of a fluid from a given mitial state to a second one
may be accompamed by appreCIable fluid friction and turbulence
A simple lllustration would be the boihng of water through violent
stirring, perhaps adiabatically. The vaponzation would, however,
represent the same change m volume, internal energy, and entropy,
whether accomphshed reversibly or irreversibly, and property relatiOns
7-4 and 7-5 apply in either mstance. But agam referrmg to equations
3-7 and 3-9 to ascertam precisely the effect of the frictional influence,
the items dh - vdp or de + p dv are seen to evaluate Sq if the process
is reversible, or Sq + /Nt If otherwise. The important observation may
so be made that
82 - 81 = £ 2 (oq + /Nt)/T for mechanicaUy irreversible processes

(7-6)
Several aspects of equation 7-4 or 7-5 and 7-6 ment present atten-
tion and have definite subsequent utility:
(a) Equations 7-4 and 7-5 become in effect alternative definitions
of the entropy change per unit mass of a flUid, but now involvmg the
manner m WhiCh other thermodynamiC properhes change during
passage of thc fluid from some mitial state to a second state.
(b) Equation 7-6 aVOids the restrictive feature of equation 7-1a,
serving to confirm and mclicate the change in the mechanically un-
available component of the energy attributable to a flUid, and thus
Its relative entropy, not only as affected by the reception or the
departure of energy as heat but also as mfluenced and invarinbty
mcreased by accompanying frict'onat effects.
(c) In equation 7-6 the item q denotes energy which enters or leaves
a fluid due to a difference between Its temperature and that of its
environs. The item", has, however, no connotation of energy transfer
hut denotes instead only the consequences of that obstructive and dis-
organizing influence which is described as fluid friction and turbu-
lence, and is invariably pOSitive in sense. A consequence of this rela-
tion is that the J T ds serves to express the energy transition during
a process as heat only if ,t is mechanically reversible, quite as the
102 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
-J p dv or J v dp express energy transitions mechanically only in

like ideal circumstances (Art. 3-8).
The various aspects of the entropy concept and function which have
evolved In the foregoing may well be summarized briefly at this point,
somewhat as follows:
1. A general and primary concept is that of the ernropy of energy. as an index of the
mechanically unavaIlable component of a quantity of energy. It is formulated in
the quotIent QR/TR (or t;QR/TR), but 18 more readily introduced through the con-
sideration of the ideal (I.e, revenuble) temperature engine as a. recipient of energy a~
heat (Q) and as a "meter" whereby the mescapably unavaIlable component nngbt
Ideally be ascertamed. For such a.n IdeoJ Instrument QR/TB = Q/T.
2. A directly related CODcept is that of the entropy of the energy received by a
unit mass of flUId, opcrat.mg perhaps as the working medium of aD ideal temperature
engine. Thts makes acceptable the further viewpomt of a change m the entropy
a88sgnable to the jluw in consequence of a receptIOn (or departure) of energy as heat,'
frequently WIth resulting temperature change, when accomplIshed WIthout accom-
panying mechanical U'reverslblhty.
For thlB Ideahzed sItuation the entropy chllnge IS expressed by the raLLO (q/T)revor
J (tJq/T)rn (or alternatively f (c dT)/T). This manner of regarding and express-
ing the entropy function enables the highly useful observatlOn that an adzabahc
process whIch also is mecharucal1y revernble IS correspondingly an ssenlroplc one
ThiS attrIbute is prImarily a con~equence of the slgmficance of the function llS one the
change of whICh IS an mdex of the chnngc: in the mechamcally unavaIlable component
of any energy that is assignable to the fluid, as represented by the ratio qR/TR or as
J~qR/TR'
3 Evaluation of the entropy change of a fluid in terms only of an energy receptIOn
or departure as heat during a mechamcally reversible process imposes certain handi-
caps. The more general slgmficance of entropy change IS retamed when the influence
of the frictional effects 8Dd probable turbulence wluch mvanably accompany fluid
flow is also recognized. A formulation &Ccountmg both fat heat effects and for the
influence of friction is provided by the general relatIOn ol.!I "'" f (oq/T + oy, /T).·
4. The foregomg aspects of the entropy concept and function are of very real
engineering significance However, once we have recognized that the entropy change
per unit mas.s of a fluid has also the attnbutcs of a property change and that mathe-
matically the entropy is thus a thermodynamic functIOn of state, Its change is
correspondmgly capable of expression in the form of exact derivatives and their
integrals. For the requisite subsequent correlatIOn WIth the other thermodynamic
* The entropy concept has frequently been regarded as represented exclusively
by the ratlo f tJq/T. ThIS viewpomt becomes inadequate and confusing for
mecharucally non·ideal proc~ssea, and those are the rule rather than the exception
in real processes For such reasons earher emphasLS was placed on the Invanably
v~lid and high If sigruficant concept of entropy as an mdex of unavailabIlity.
ART. 7-7 INFLUENCE OF mREVERSIBILITIES 103
propertIes Jrntial Iacl1JtJe8 are proV1£1ed by the reIstlOM ds = dh/T - v dp/JT or
defT + p livfJT
A useful observation in connection with these relations relates to a
complete cyclic sequence of processes which serves to return~ a fluid
to its initial state. In that case, as the ultimate changc of e or h is
zero, equation 7-4 or 7-5 reduces to
or (7-7)
where the symbol f denotes the cyclic integral." In conformity with

this consideration, areas enclosed by any cycle of fluid states nre
"equivalent" whether drawn to T-s or p-v coordinates.
7·7. Influence of Irreversibilities. Physical and economic con-
sIderations III the way of space and time limitatIOns require that the
engineer be reconciled to non-Ideal features III the design and operation
of hIS heat·power and associated eqUIpment. In fact, when operating
with real materials, nature does not permit full attainment of the
Ideal even if such restrIctions are relaxed. However, it is essential
to recognize the character and specific results of the non-ideahsms in
order that their influence may be reduced in maximum practical degree.
A most effcctive means for recognIzing such influences and evaluat-
ing their consequences is through observing their effect on the entropy
of the energy supphed in a process or received by a working-fluid
medium, "ilh the entropy concept now regarded in its basic aspect
as a measure of the inescapably unavailable residue of that energy.
Although It was more convenient III foregoing material to give atten-
tion to situations III which the departure of this residue might occur
without change of the temperature of a working fluid (as by the con·
densation of a vapor at constant pressure), let the contingency of
such temperature change be provided for by writing an expression for
entropy change in the more general form d' - f 8qRITR, with the
relation as - qRIT]! of equation 7-1 regarded as a special form of the
more general one. Irreversible OCcurrences to which attention is given
III the following are representative of several of the general classes
already referred to in Art. 4-2.
1. Internal mechanical irreversibility. This general character of
,. For the avoidance of confusions anSIng from representation of the line
Integral by the same symbol, the notation J dT ds or f dv dp for ilie cyclic
Jntegral may be used.
104 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
irreversibility wIll be recalled to be more dIrectly associated with
processes whICh are accompanied by fluid flow. The flow of a real
fluid is inescapably accompamed by fluid friction, and will further be
quite apprec,mbly hampered by turbulence when a channel through
which the flow is occurrmg IS unsuitably adapted to the maintenance
of orgamzed motions,
The adverse effects of fluid frictIOn and turbulence, and the signifi-
cance of the accompanying entropy growth, are readily observed by
considering the adIabatic expansion of a fluid through a turbine, or
the converse process of pressure nse III passage through a compressor
These are represented for the elementary gas-turbine cycle in Fig 7-4,
but there for a presumptively Ideal or isentropic expansion (Ime 2·3)
or compression (line 4-1). The effects of mechanical Irreversibility
are indicated to T-s and h-s coordinates in FIg 7-5, the actual but
irreversIble expansIOn being represented by line 2-3' (versus 2-3), .
The decrement of work output per unit mass of fluid, even though
expansion is from the same initial state and through the same pressure
range, is represented to h-s coordmates by the difference ha' - h a ; the
increment m unavailable energy IS representcd to T-s coordinates by
area n33'n', but this represents also the work decrement."
An adiabatic but irrcversible compression is indicated in Fig. 7-5
by Ime 4-1', and the quantIty h" - h, represents the greater-than-
ideal work input required to effect compressIOn through the same
pressure range. The significance of an accompanying increase of
unavmlable energy is seen perhaps more readIly by consideration of
the complete cycle and its representation to T-s coordinates. There
the sum of areas n33'n' and 4 (<l.qR)" expresses the aggregate increase
of unavailable energy residue caused jointly by the irreversibilities
III the turbine and in the compressor. Area mT2n represents the
amount of heat that may actually be supplied per pound of gas, and
area m43'n' the actual heat rejection. It is unfortunate that the
cumulative effects of fluid frictIOn may cause area m43'n' to approach
in size that of area m'1'2n, indICating that a distressingly small pro-
'" An observation In thIS connection is that In the turbme the aggregate fnc-
tlOnal effects are represented by area n23'n' but do not represent a complete loss
That IS, a portion of the energy which fatls to be transformed to work In earher
stages of the turbine, and is Instead retamed In the fluid, may In fact be made
mechaDlcally available in followmg stages. ThiS semi-recovery of the otherwlse
unavailable energy may be represented by area 323', but its acqUisItion is at the
expense of a much greater mcrement of unavaIlable energy Although the ex-
pansion is adiabatic, the "fnctional" area n23'n' has at times been described as
the equivalent of an energy addition as heat It has, however, merely been robbed
from the otherwise ideally available work energy.
ART. 7-7 INFLUENCE OF IRREVERSIBILITIES 105
portion of the he~t energy input is actually avaibble as net work out
of the power plant.
A further observation of some interest is that the frictional effects
("') in these machmes would, in conformity wIth equation 7-6, be repre-
T 2/ h
•
Fig. 7-5.
3.
sentable in prmClple by area n23'n' (or
1 2 T ds) for the turbme, and
area m4I'm' for the compressor. But recall that these items do not
represent energies added to or wIthdrawn from a fluid, but simply the
T h
O·R __L_ _ _.l~ ___ --=-

• •
<OJ (bl
Fjg.7-6
obstructive and dIsorganizing influence which we describe as fluid

friction (and turbulence). A relevant further consideratIOn IS that
In a turbulent stream single ,·alues describmg Its state can not truly
be assigned to a flmd at a given section in the stream, and an integral
such as f T ds is in this situation of doubtful propriety. This is
reflected in Fig 7-5 by the me of broken lines for indICating irre-
versible processes.
106 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
Rather an ultimate in nlechamcallfreversiblhty occurs in the throt-
tling of a flUId stream, causmg marked pressure drop but without
attendant procurement of useful mechamcal effects. Presuming neglI-
gible or negligibly differmg velocities before and after throttling and
nehgible heat transfer, for thIs process h2 ~ hI'
Figure 7-6 represents to T-s and h-s coordlllates the resulting in-
crease in unavailable energy (lI.qR). A less drastic but essentially
parallel situation would be the progressIve pressure decrease incurred
by frictIOnal effects ID the flow of a fluid (perhaps adIabatically)
through an extended duct or pIpe.
2. External thermalureverStb,Z,ty. Example 7-1 mdicates the ther-
modynamIC consequences of the typIcal process of the transfer of
energy as heat from hot gases to water and steam of lesser temperature
m a boiler.
2500 I
I
i
I
OF I
I
I
I
I
I
I
0681-1 /
I
700 I I
Stearn I I
420 I I I
I I I
90 ---------r-----------,-----1
I I I
f-----+- 155B
-4WL_L______i __ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~~
S, Blul'll
FIg 7-7
Example 7~1. The energy departmg as heat from 28 Ib of furnace gases

Will be suffiCient, by associated coolmg of the gases from 2500" to 700"F with a
mean specific heat of 026 Btu/(lb, OF), to have warmed 1 Ib of water mitmlly
at 90°F and 310 plua to 420"F, to have vapOrized It at that pressure and tempera-
ture, and to have superheated the steam fl.t that pressure to a delIvery temperature
of 700"F The water and steam cODllitlOllS are those of the lllustrative data of
Art 7-5, except for the mitIaI state of the water To venfy the equalIty of the
energy quantIties,
Q,.... - 2B x 026 " (2500 - 700) ~ 1308 Btu
Q ..... - 102(420 - 90) + 80B + 059(700 - 420) ~ 1308 Btu
What was the entropy of this energy (a) as It departed from the gases and
ART. 7-7 INFLUENCE OF IRREVERSIBILITIES 107
(b) after its reception by the water and steam, and the consequent entropy
growth?
Presuming that III either status thIS energy mIght have been employed for
actuatmg an Ideal heat-engme cycle operating between the rele\'ant upper tem-
peratures but a common receiver temperatme of gO°F, what were the correspond-
mg ongmal and ultimate unavaIlable components that would necessanly have
been rejected as heat at that lower Item}:lerature level, and theIr dIfference?
What were the components that correspondmgly were Ideally available for work
output by the cycle?
Solutwn
. gases
Entropy of energy leavmg = 28 (0261n
460 + 2500) = 0 681 Btuj"R
460 + 700
Entropy of energy as rece11'ea by water tu:u1stea,m
:
=
1 02 In :~o 4:~
8 6
+ 460 : 420 + 0 59 In :~~ 1~~~ ~ 1 558 Btu/oR
Increase of entropy of energy = 0.877 Btu;oR
Ongmal unavaIlable component = 0,681(460 + 90) ~ 375 Btu
UltImate unavailable component = 1.558(460 + 90) ~ 857 Btu
Increase of unavaIlable component ~ 482 Btu
Origmal avaIlable component = 1308 - 375 ~ 933 Btu
Ultimate available component = 1308 - 857 ~ 451 Btu
Decreas,e of avaIlable component ~ 482 Btu
These results are Indicated graphically In Fig. 7-7. They serve well
to Illustrate the Increase of entropy and unavaJlabIhty and the decrease
of availabihty which inevitably accompanies the "letting down" of
energy irreversIbly (as heat) through a range of temperature with-
out interposItion of a heat-eng",e cycle whteh might forestaU such
unfavorable consequences.
3 Internal thermal ,rreverStbihty. The inherent meversibihty of
the miXIng of several parcels of a given flmd that were initially at
dIfferent temperatures, even though at the same pressure, is readIly
acceptable (Art. 4-2d) An accompanymg increase of entropy is
IndICated by example.
Example 7.2. Ten pounds of alf (m .. ) at T .. = 500 c F (960 R) mIX WIth 5 lb
0
(mb) at T" = lOO°F. The pressure of the orIginal parcels and that of the mIxtUre
IS the same. By use of the energy equatIon compute the mIXture temperature
(T~), and by equatIOn 7-4 compute the entropy Increase In Btu/oR, recallIng
that cp=(ah/aT), Take Cp as 024 Btu/(lb, OF), and 560 0 R as reference
temperature.
Solut'ton. By the energy equatlOn, 'macpCTa - T,J = mOCp(Tz - To), or
c.(ma + m,)T. ~ C.(maTa + m,T,) and T. ~ (10 X 500 + 5 X 100)(15 ~ 367°F
(827°R).
108 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
Aggregate relatiVE! entropy of parcels before mlxing, with respect to a reference
temperature (ToJ of 560"a ~ m.
.LT.
To
c. (dT/TJ + fflb .LT'
To
c" (dT/TJ
~0.24
060 560) ~1294+00,:,12D4
( IOln 560 +51n 560
. 827
Relative entropy of mixture = 0.24 X 15 X In 560 ~ 1.402
Increase of entropy, BturR ~ 0108
Terminal states of the origmal parcels and theIr ultimate mIXture

are represented to T-s coordmates in FIg 7-8 by states a, b, and x.
The same amounts of energy would be secured as heat from the un-
mixed and the mixed materIal on coolmg to lOO°F, but the unavailable
components relative to a lOO°F receiver are mcreased by mixing by
an amount represcnted by the hatched area in the figure.
------------,"
I
"271----------------4]'
I
t-----1294 :
I
I
~ 560 -Ib - - - - - - - - - - -
I
I
FIg. 7-8.
This increase is to be anticipated on the general basis of the irre-

versIbility of the mixing process, or perhaps as due again to energy
passage from a warmer to a cooler materIal without procurement of
the ideally available energy. Frequently the decrease of available
energy associated with such mixing processes is insufficiently realized.
The foregoing discussions have served to establish the significant
principle that non-ideal or irreversible features of any character act
to increase the entropy of the energy that is of concern in any process.
Thus all natural processes, which are never completely reversible, must
be expected to result in an overall increase in the entropy of the energy
concerned. ·One thus possesses a guide pointing the dIrection in which
ART. 7-8 SECOND LAW 109
all natural processes may and must ultimately proceed; i.e, in the
direction which corresponds 'to an increase In entropy.
In this sense all actual processes, being irreversible in greater "r
less degree, must be expected to increase the unavailability -of the
energy held In store by nature. For that reason the general science
of thermodynamics has been regarded as predicting an eventual run-
ning down of our umverse. Along with the science of economics and
its law of Malthus, It has therefore been termed a "dismal" SCIence.
Perhaps it is. At least man's experience has led him to believe that
a gain in availability of energy (or decrease of entropy) in any actual
energy-transition processes is so blghly improbable as to be practically
inconceivable, unless it be accomplished by a supernatural agency the
capabIlities of whleh we are unable to understand or foresee.
7-8. Second Law of TIlermodynamics. In Art. 2-1 the experi-
mentally established prinCIple known as the conservatIOn of energy was
identified also as the first law of thermodynamics. In validating
the Carnot prinCIple reference was made to an equally fundamental
observation which was regarded as one aspect of a second law of ther-
modynamics. This latter principle or "law" has been expressed in
various ways which differ in accordance with the partICular aspect of
the general implication to which it is desired to give emphasis. Several
aspects of the law are summarized briefly herewith.
(a) Clausius Statement or Aspect. It is Impossible to construct a
device which, operating in a cycle, will produce no effect other than
the transference of heat from a colder to a hotter body (i.e., unless
energy were extraneously supplied, as the work from envIrons for the
operation of a heat pump) .
(b) Kelvin-Planck Statement. It is Impossible to construct an
engine which, operating in a cycle, will produce no effect other than
the extraction of heat from a reservoir nnd the performance of an
equivalent amount of work or other mechamcal effects.
(e) Principle of the Degradation 0/ Energy. As a result of natural
processes, energy steadily becomes less avaIlable for the performance
of work (i.e., all spontaneous processes are III greater or less degree
irreversible and accompamed by the degradation of energy).
(d) Probabuity Pnnci.ple. Probability considerations establish
statistically that the disorder of the universe increases as the result
of any natural processes.
(e) Entropy Principle. As the result of natural processes the
entropy of the universe is steadily increasing; although the relative
entropy of a fluid, as a thermodynamic property, is unaltered by an
ideal or reversible adiabatic state change.
110 ENTROPY 7 CHAP.
In consequence of the intimate association of the entropy concept

with the thoughts so advanced, or developed in the foregomg, the
second law has been saId to reduce simply to the rccogmtion of entropy
as a thermodynamic property the change of which during any process
serves as an mdex of the change m the unavailable component of the
associated energy.
7·9. Third Law of TIlermodynamic8. The two primary concepts
referred to in the foregoing as the first and second laws of thermo·
dynamIcs are in a sense simply statements summarizing characteristics
of inanimate nature as man has found it to operate in processes occur·
T.
OR I
I
I
6
4~ _ _ _-4'5
2 3
r- J
I
r-...I
I
o~
I __________________ ~~~ __
o Abs entropy
FIg. 7·9.
ring at molar, molecular, and atomic levels. Supplementing these, a

thIrd prmciple which was more recently uncovered by N ernst and
formulated by Planck has found great utility in the thermodynamics
of chemistry.
This principle, known as the third law of thermodynamics, ex·
presses the finding that an absolute zero of entropy may in fact be
ascribed to any pure material If it is in the crystalline state at the
absolute zero of temperature. It follows that absolute magnitudes
of their entropy may legItimately be assigned to pure materials at the
higher· temperature states in which they are normally encountered.
This is in contrast to our present inabilIty to ascnbe absolute magni·
tudes to the internal energy or the enthalpy of engmeering fluids at
normal states.
The general objectives of engineering thermodynamics are attain·
abte without dependence on the third law. However, one aspect of
the principle merits limIted present attention To illustrate by con·
sidermg an extension to zero temperature of a line such as represents
ART. 7-10 AVAILABILITY FUNCTION 111
in Fig. 7-3 un isobaric cooling of a gas or vapor (6-5), its condensation
at both constant pressure and temperature (5-4), the cooling of the
liquid (4-3), its freezing (3-2), and its further cooling as a sohd (2-1),
there are rehable data indICatmg that further extensIOn of such a line
takes a form such as IS shown in Fig. 7-9. The dotted extension indi-
cates the representative existence of temperature levels at which there
occur molecular rearrangements in the crystals formmg the sohd and
also, more significantly, an ultImate approach of the cooling lme to
tangency with the temperature ordmate 'at absolute zero There is
thus a cessation of entropy decrease, or the attainment of zero entropy.
Noting that for a reversible cooling process (as). - (c./T)aT or
(aT/as). - T/c., where (aT/as). is evidently the slope of the cool-
ing line when drawn to T -8 coordinates, the approach of this slope to
infinity as the absolute zero is approached connotes that the specific
heat of the crystalline solid approaches zero still more rapidly. Th,s
has been well verified by experiment.
7-10, Darrien. or "Availability" FunClion, As an index of the
mechanically unavailable component of any relevant quantity of
energy, the concept of the change in entropy which accompamcs a
state change of a fluid becomes an item of great Importance and utillty.
Convenience may however attach to an mdex permitting dircct expres-
sIOn of the available component and ItS change. One proposed by
Darricus (1930) for accomplishmg this, for fiow processes, is a com-
posIte Item defined as h - T ]lS. It IS frequently represented by the
symbol b, and referred to as the Darrieus or avaIlability functIOn.
Temperature T]l is in principle that (constant) minimum but acces-
sible absolute temperature level at which the unavailable component
of any relevant energies may be discarded, such as the atmosphenc
temperature, but selection may be one of convenience. On adoptlOn
of temperature T]l the function becomes in elTeet a flUId property, a
change of which, in passage from one state to a second, depends only
on the terminal states.
For convenience let the single symbol ,W2 represent the aggregate
of the mechanical effects shaft work + (U,2 - U2 2 )/64.35 causing
or caused by any state change of a flUId. The state change, repre-
sented to T-s coordmates by lme 1-2 in diagram a of Fig. 7-10, may
well be accompamed also by energy reception or departure as heat;
its energy equatlOn is thus 1 w.; J + ,Q2 - h2 - h, and IS valid
whether the flow is accompanied by fluid frictIOn and turbulence or
were regarded ideally as mechanically reversible
The inescapably unavailable component of energIes IW,jJ + Iq2, with
respect to temperature level T R is in principle ascertained If the fluid at
112 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
state 2 were to expand isentropically to state g, then to discard the
unavailable residue at Tn, and to be restored to state 1 by Isentropic
compression. As the amount of thIs residue is Tn(s2 - SI), the avail-
able component,of ener!pes IW2/J + IQ2, or h2 - hI, is
The validity of the Darneus function is thus established as a flmd

property the change of which, accompanymg any change of state, serves
to express dIrectly the aSSOCIated change in the ideally available compo-
nent (WIth respect to an acceSSIble receiver at Tn) of the energies enter-
mg the flow regIOn, mcchamcally and/or thermally.
T T
2
~2
1 ,,,3
II,, _ ''
:g ,,
T" --~""""~--- - T. /7/7/7777}'7)'7)7'-'l!'" - --
~ ~ ~
'. .
qR qR
'2.3
(0) (b)
Fig. 7-10.
To illustrate in possIbly more realistic situations, sketch b of Fig. 7-10

reproduces the state changes indicated in F,g. 7-4 as representative of
those experienced by a gas in passage through a mechamcally reversible
gas-turbme cycle. To mdICate facilities of the availability functIon in
this connection, note that
1. For the successive processes 4-1 and 1-2, representing the compres-
sion and heatmg of the gas, the ideally available component of the
energies so received cquals b2 - b., temperature Tn being regarded for
convenience as T 4.
2. After expansion of the gas through the turbine to state 3, if the
leaving gas IS then returned to T. by energy departure as heat, a resid-
uum of ideally available energy IS concurrently dIscarded in the amount
b3 - b.
More detailed attention to these and associated consideratIOns is
provided in subsequent Art. 13-7 and 14-6, in connection Wlth actual
steam-power and gas-power cycles, notmg accompanying influences of
mechanical irreversibihties. The concept of an aV!1llability functIOn has
ART. 7-11 ENTROPY EQUATIONS 113
In fact alrcady been utilized In Example 7-1 in connection with a study
of the effect of thermal1rreverBlbii1ty.
7-11. Entropy Equations. In a manner somewhat analogous to
the writing of the energy equations of Chapter 3 entropy equations
may be written which account for the entropy of the energy entermg
or leaving a system, but which dIffer because it IS necessary to account
for such entropy "growth" as accompanies any meversibihlles. This
IS in contrast to the exclusion from an energy equation of any item
purporting to represent a growth or generation of energy, in conformity
with the principle of the conservation of energy, or the first law.
A general character of entropy equabon may take the form
Entropy of Any entropy Entropy of +
Any accumulation or
the energy + growth the energy - Any diminution of
entering a within the leaving the the entropy re-
system system system tamed within the
system
(7-8)
This general relation may better be written in particular forms that

fit typical cond1tlOns, such as steady flow or non-flow.
For the steady flow of a single fluid through a device the equation
becomes
81 + 1("8,)2 + 1Entropy growth2 = 8. (7-9)
where 81 = entropy per unit mass of fluid at entering state.
1("8,)2 = q/T or Joq/T if q represents in proper
algebraic sense the energy passing as heat to or
from the fluid while en route through the system,
and T is the fluid temperature during such heat-
energy reception or departure.
S2 = entropy per unit mass of flUld at leaving state.
,Entropy growth. = entropy increase due to internal irreversiblhties
associated with the passage of the fluid through
the system, and attributable in general to fluid
frictional effects and turbulence, J""'/T.
For the steady-flow process there will be no accumulation or diminu-
tion of the energy or thus of the entropy retained within the system
The reiatlOn of equatlOn 7-9 serves also for a non-flow process with
a fluid, but with a difference in Interpretation In that no entropy enters
114 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
or departs through the agency of an entermg or departmg fluid, and
that any change III the entropy of the flmd (82 - 8,) now represents
an accumulation or dimmution of the entropy retained withm the
system
For 3 steady-flow process mvolving the flow of two separated fluids
through a device there may be entropy growth due to thermally Hre-
versible beat transfer between tbe flmds. For such a situatIon, if
fluids a and b are involved, the entropy equatIOn would become
8 •• 1 + (m,!m.)8u + foQ!T + Entropy growth = 8 •• 2 + (mb!m.)sb.2

or Entropygrowth=s •. z-s •. I(mb!m.)(sb.2-sb.I)- foQ!T (7-10)
This situation was in fact Illustrated in Example 7-1 of Art 7-7. In

that example no external heat transfer occurs, but the irreversible
heat transfer from the hot gas to the water and steam was such that,
by the data and results of the example,
Entropy growth = 1.558 - 0.681
= 0.877 Btu/"R per lb of water
For a fluid cycle, as the mitIaI and final entropy of the fluid are
mherently identical, the entropy relation becomes
joQ!T + Entropy growth = 0 (7-11)
Tbis relation bas frequently been written in the equivalent form
joQ!T;;; 0 (7-11a)
The f BQ/T represents the aggregate associated with the energy that
is received (+) and rejected (-) as heat at the temperature levels
of reception or rejection. Tbe equality becomes valid only for an
ideal reversible cycle; the inequality which exists when there is entropy
growth due to irreversibihtles has been referred to in thermodynamic
lIterature as the lnequahty of Clausius.
7-12. Helmholtz and Gibbs Functions. Seven thermodynamic
functions have been considered thus far and arc in general sufficient
for the analyses that become the concern of the engmeer III connection
WIth primarily thermal and mechanical processes. They are recalled
to be:
Pressure (p), an .intensive property that serves particularly con-
ART. 7-12 HELMHOLTZ AND GIBBS FUNCTIONS 115
veniently as an external eVidence of internal .tate, by· reason of the
facilitIes available for Its direct Instrumental determInation
Temperature (T), a second intensive and Instrumentally determi-
nable property giving evidence of internal state, and one having also a
very fundamental thermodynamiC slgmficance.
Specific vo!ume '(v), or denSity (p), a third external eVidence of the
internal state, but less readily determined.
[nterna! energy (e), a consequence of thermodynamIC state and a
most fundamental extensive property, but Incapable of absolute evalu-
ation and only indirectly determinable even as to relative magnitude.
Entha!py (e + PL', or h), a composite property having particular
convenience in energy accounting of isobaric and/or flow processes.
Entropy (8), an extensive but derived function whICh serves as an
index of unavaIlabilIty and IS also uniquely useful In its attribute of
constancy in an ideal or reversible adIabatic process, but conversely
exhibits an Invariable tendency to growth in consequence of any irre-
versible features of actual processes.
Ava.!ab'ltty (Darneus) function (h - T,,8, or b), a composite exten-
sive function having partICular convenience in the accounting of the
lImited and thus espeCIally valuable available component of an energy
supply.
In the thermodynamIC analyses of processes such as chemical and
electrochemICal ones two additional composite functions become most
convenient and merit attentIOn. Their nature and significance may
be indicated by further consideration of the energy relations of equa-
tIOns 3-9a or 3-lOa, except as particularized for processes that are
effectively reversible mechamcally but written with provISIon for the
accounting also of any electrical, magnetIc or other types of non-
mechanical work (w,). Although in the use of the relatIOns a dis-
tribution of the various items between indiVidual ones of several par-
ticipants In a process will be required, for present purposes it is
sufficient and Simpler to write the relations in terms of the total mass
of the materials engaged in the process, as denoted by the use of capital
letters in the ,relations
J(E2 - E I)
= JQ + lV. _£2 P dV (3-9a or 3-lOa)
or (W,jJ)"" = E2 - EI - Q + £2 p dV/J
= E2 - E. - .[2 T dS +£2 P dVfJ (7-12)

116 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
Alternatively, .
(JV./J),.. = Hz - H, - £z T dS - £z V dp/J (7-12a)
The first of the additIOnal composite functions is the aggregate

E - TS, normally represented by the symbol A and variously known
as the Helmholtz junction, the "Helmholtz free energy" and the "work
content." Its utilIty is pnmarily in connectIOn WIth the frequent situ-
atIOns in WhICh chemIcal and electrochemical processes are of non-flow
or "batch" type and proceed at effectively constant volume and tem-
perature Under such circumstances, equation 7-12 becomes:
(TV./J) ... = (Eo - TS z ) - (E, - TSI) or Az - AI (7-12b)
The second is the composite function H - TS, normally represented
by the symbol G and known as the G,bbs junction, or the "Gibbs free
energy." Its utllIty is primanly in connection with the energy account-
mg for the frequent sltuatIOns III which chemical and electrochemical
processes are of steady flow nature and/or proceed at effectively con-
stant pressure and temperature. Under such circumstances,
(IV./J), .. = (Hz - TS z ) - (H, - TS,) or G. - GI (7-13)
A slgnlficant feature in these functions, as well as in the Darrieus
function, is that the entropy items appear in the subtractive sense.
But in this connection recall a general tendency to a growth of entropy
in natural processes, th,S corre.pondmg to a decrease of these func-
tions unless otherwise influenced. By rationalizations that will be de-
veloped subsequently III this material it may be shown that a chemlcal
reaction may lD fact proceed spontaneously at a given temperature
level and under conditions of constant pressure (or of constant volume)
only if characterized by decrease of the Glbbs funotion (or of the
Helmholtz function). The consequences of th,s generalizatIOn are
utIlized in following materIal (Chapter 12) relatmg to combustion
and the completeness to which a combustion reaction may proceed at
a stated temperature level.
7-13. Severall\Iaxwell Relations. For the most part the relations
that have appeared in foregoing material were developed for the pur-
pose of energy accounting in general or in particular circumstances.
However, the relations
ds = dh _ vdp/J (7-4)
T T
or =<i:!..+pdv/J (7-5)
T T
ART. 7-13 SEVERAL MAXWELL RELATIONS 117
serve not only the above purpose but also to define tJie entropy. change
of a fluid in terms of other fluid properties. In consequence they have
the further and important characteristJC of providmg general and
invariably valid relations among these six pnmary thermodynamtC
properties, and of doing so lrrespectIve of the character of the process
in which the fluid may have engaged (so long as Its state is sufficiently
homogeneous that unique magmtudes of the properbes may be ascribed
to the fluid) .
Numerous further relations which have such correlatIve capabilities
may III fact be provided, some of which will be developed in following
material (Chapter 11). However, of a group of four that are known
as the JIIaxwell relations, there are two which have such immediate
utility as to merit development here. Several ways of deTlving them
are available; a semi-graphical method that is adequate for present
purposes WIll be employed here. AnalytlCal methods are utilized in
Article 11-15.
In Fig. 7-11 are shown in perspectIve two three-dimensional surfaces
conforming to the relations existmg for a typical mateTlal (air) among
the properties p, T, and v, and among the properties p, T, and s. On
the p-T-v surface dash-lines appear, which indicate the mutual rela-
tion between p and v if the flUld is maintained at a number of (five)
constant temperatures, and these lines are also projected to the p-v
plane; four constant-pressure lines are similarly represented on the
p-T-s surface and projected to the T-s plane.
Of more Immediate interest are (a) the segment on the p-T-v sur-
face, and its projection on the p-v plane, which is bounded by a pair
of isobars of infinitesImally differing pressures and a comparable pair
of isotherms; and (b) the segment having the same boundaries but as
it appears on the p-T-s surface and when projected to the T-s plane.
These are designated in both diagrams as segment 1-2-3-4-1, and may
be regarded as representing a cyclic sequence composed of stat~ changes
1-2,2-3,3-4, and 4-1.
Considering initially the projection of the segment to the p-v plane,
it evidently has the area dp X dv (or f v dp) ; the projection to the
T-s plane similarly has area dT X ds (or f T ds). By equation 7-7
these must be numerically equal, or specifically dp dv - - J(dT ds).
But observe that ,dV, (or 2dv3) may be regarded alternatively as the
product of dT times the rate of change of v (relative to that of T)
while passing at constant pressure from T to T + dT. Or, in matbe-
matical notation, dv - (avlaT). dT, where (avlaT). is recognized
as the partial derivative of v with respect to T at constant p. Graph-
liB
ART,7-13 SEVERAL MAXWELL RELATIONS 119
lelll aspects of this and other partJal derivatives are indicated along
the margins of the surfaces of Fig 7-11, (The concept of the partial
derivahvc is considered somewhat-further in Arts. 7-14 and 11-15.)
Slmilarly, ds may be expressed as - (as/ap). dp, where the minus
slgn origInates in the indicated increase of entropy with decrease of
pressure. Thus, for conformity with equation 7-7, dp (av/aT). dT-
-J dT(i)s/apl. dp; but satisfaction of this eq_uality evidently neces-
sitates tll"t
(a,;aT). ; -J(a./ap)T (7-14)
Thls is one of the Maxwell relations, and states that, for any jl.v.id,
the rate of change of entropy with pressure for an isothermal process
occurring at Or about a given state must be equal in magnItude but
opposite m sign to the rute oj change oj volume WIth temperature for
an isobaric prt)cess at OT u.bout the same 8taie.
p T
\ \
\ \
• l§'
\'~
, b
\
I "
/.
l.._.J J
(~).dT[=dpl dT "iffb
Jct','"
d "
-r-,
I .' ,
/C
T+ dT
......'T /, (E!) do
. d, .,."i}u T
[cdsl
v •
Fig 7-12.
A second Maxwell relation may be developed similarly if a cyclic

sequence of processes is considered which consists, however, of alter-
nate constant-temperature and constant-volume changes occurring
respectively between volumes v and v + dv and temperatures T and
T + dT. Lines representing these processes on the p-T-v and p-T-•
•urlaces, but when projected to p-v and T-s planes, would appear "'
shown in Fig. 7-12. The areas bounded by these projected lines, or
area abed, are again dp X dv (or fp dv) and dT X d. (orf T d,),
and again (by equatIOn 7-7) "re necessarily equal in llJagnitude. But
dp -(ap/aT).dT, and ds -(as/av)rdv, and thus (iJp/aT).dTdv-
(a./av). dv dT. Consequently,
(ap/aT). = J(as/av). (7-15)
A verbal expression of this relation would parallel that following
equation 7-14.
120 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
Although equatlOns 7-14 and 7-15 may appear at this pomt as
merely abstract mathematical conslderatlOns, they wIll, however, be
found III subsequent material to have vcry real practICal utility, and
are associated with the consIderation that direct experimental methods
for ascertalIllllg the change of entropy whIch' accompanies a given
state change of a materIal may not be available or may be Impracti-
cable. But relations 7-14 and 7-15 prOVIde facIlitIes whereby the
entropy change may be determmed indIrectly by sImple alternative
experiments correlating p-T-v data for the matenal. Their use is
illustrated in Chapter 11.
7.14. Appendix~ MLllhemalical Aspect!!. The surfaces lind planes of Figs
7-11 and 7-12 exlublt graphIcally typICal relations among four lheTmodllTUlmtC
propeTtteS, or attributes, whICh uruquely characterIZe a. material when at a particu-
lar state. In Art 7-12 fl.t least nine such Items (P, '1', V, e, h, 8, b, G J and A) were
hsted as ones (or which it may be essential to have speclfic data at vanOllS states
of a matenal that IS elllployed as an operating medIUm in thermodyna~c
processes. Even ill simpler processes lt may well be necessary to ha.ve da.ta oou-
cermng the concurrent and mutually dependent changes of five propertIes
(e g., p, T, v, h, and 8).
From a. mathematIcal viewpomt a property 1.S to be regarded as a variable or
pOint functton which lS capable of exact dlfTerentUl.tlOD, thus connotiug that In
passage of a material from one state to a second the change in IDagrutude of the
property depends only on the termmal smtes Conventional mathematical
designation of such vanables 1.'1 hy symbols such as :t, V, and z. In thIS connec-
tlOD. recall that a three-varIable relatIOn needs be represented as a surface In
three-dImensional space, but the capahihtles of tile surface are lD. part but more
convelllentIy secured by contour lmes representmg on 8 two-coordinate plane
the mutual relation between two propertIes when a third IS Illaintamed
constant.
The abIlity to utilize t'nree-varJab\e mathematicai «toolsll ior assocIatmg a
larger number of propertIes resulUi from the fact that. for a homogeneous material,
only two propertIes (x and'll) are reqUIred for speCIficatIOn of Its state and C{ln-
sequent estabhshment of the concurrent magnItude or any third property z (see
also Art. B-2).
It will have become eVIdent that C{lncern frequently attaches to consequences
of 8. proceoo durIng whlCh a partIcular property is constrained to remain constant
whIle 8 second changes and a concurrent change l!l a third results. Quaotltatlve
association of lhe relatIve amounts of change of the two is ad\'antageously ex-
pressed In terms of theIr ratIO This ratIO may well dIffer at dIfferent states, and
will best be expressed m terms of mfiIlltesimal changes of the varymg propertIes
Such a rabo HI desc.nbcd mathema.t1cally as the pa1tial denvative of the one
WIth respect to the other, at a coa.stant value of the thIrd, and IS represented by
symbols such ~ (i}z/iJ'II). When emplOYing thIS concept in thermodynamIc
analyses it IS evidently necessary to mdicate by subscript whIch one of the varIOUS
propertJCs is lD fact mamtamed constant under the relevant circumstances
. Recall that SIX of such derlvntives were depicted along margins oC the surfaces
of FJg. 7~11. aDd that theIr utIilza.lion WlU! illustrated III developmg the Maxwell
relatIons in Art 7-13. An important observation relating to a partial derlvatlVe
is that a. umque magDitude attaches to It a.t each partIcular state of a ma.terIal,
so that It has the essential attrlb'ute of a property and needs beIsD rega.rded.
A further utilIzatIOn of the partial derIvatIve U3 indicated, near the left marglll3
of the Btlrfaces of Flg 7-11. by the" representatJOns of (0) the dIrect passage of a
matenal from 8. state m to a state n, and (b) an mdJrect passage "between the
same termmal f1tate8 but vra a state x at WhICh (for example) the entropy JS the
same as that at state m but, the entire pressure change of the drrect path is
effected, and thence to state n at constant pressure but effectmg the required
entropy change The value of (T .. - T ... ) IS clearly the same whether the state
change IS via the direct path or whether, on passage VIa the mdlrect path, it
needs to be regarded as the sum (T~ ~ Tm) + (T.. - T,,) If states m and n
are iruiD.ltesimally separated, on passage VIa the Indirect path and utilizing the
partui derivatIve concept, dT = (iJTlap)$ dp + (aT/as), ds; also, If the state
change is .rute, T" - T. _[PO (aTlapl, dp +1'" (aTIM, d..
p". ' ...
Or, return·
ing to general symbols for representmg any three propertIes,
tk = (a,/ao), dx + (az/ay), dy (7-16)
or , - '0 ~1' (Bz/ay), dy

3/0
+1':!:D
(az/a.), dx (7-16a)
RelatlO.tlS of the type of equations 7-14 Ilnd 7-1iia are extewlveJy utilized in
theoretIcal thermodynamics, see Chapter H, and in particular Arts. B-7, 11-9,
and 11-15 Table 11-2 offers an abbreviated collection of mathematical relations
whIch have by expenence been fmInd to be useful. A very comprehensIve hating
15 prOVIded in a Condensed Collection of Thermodynamic Formulas, by Bridge-
man, Harvard Umverslty Press.
7-15. Problems. 1. Energy U! supplied as heat In the amount of 1000 Btu
at temperature levels of (a) 70°F, (b) 500°F, (c) 2OOO°F. What mIl be the
entropy of the energy in the several Instances, and what Will be the unavailable
components of the energy If a reversIble engIne cycle recejvmg the energy operates
between the above temperatures and a receIver tempera.ture of 32°F1
2 (a) Energy is supphed as heat in a.mount of 10,000 Btu and thus vaporizes
10.3 Ib of water at a constaot temperature of 212°F. What Will be the entropy
of the energy thus received? What IS the total unlLv81labie component of t.he
energy t:lupply if a reverSIble engine cycle receiving the energy operates between
the temperature of receptIOn and a receiver temperature of 32°,F? What fraction
of this energy would be clllSSed as "unn.vRllabJe" in thIS reversible cycle? (b)
Energy IS supphed as heat in amount of 10,000 Btu and thus warms 55.5 lb of
water from 32°F to 212°F, which dUrIng the warming process exhibIts a vlTtually
constant epccdic hent of 100 Btu per lb, of What is the entropy of thIs energy
as supphed ana absorbed? What will be the unav8JJabie component of this
energy if a reversible engine cycle receiving the energy operates between the
(varIable) temperature of receptIOn and a (constant) receIver temperature of
32°F? What fmetlOn of this energy would be classed as "unavailable lJ In this
reversible cycle? (c) What is the essential difference between the energy supply
of parts a and b, 10,000 Btu in each case? (d) What is the entropy gain per
pound of water in each of parts Il and b above? Ana. (a) 7330
3 Presuming that the entropy of water at 32°F is taken a.s relatively zero,
what will be the entropy per pound Ca) if water were vaporized at 32~F by the
122 ENTROPY CHAP. 7
frupply of energy IlS heat m the amount of 1076 Btu/lb, and (b) If water were
warmed as a hqUld from 32° to 212°F and dunng such warmmg exhIbIted R.
virtually constant specific heat of 100 Btu/lb, OF? (c) What would be tile
unavailable components lD each case of the energIes so recC'Ived by the water.
if It were m turn employed ItS the energy source of a reversIble heat-engme cycle
Qpera.ting wlt.h a receIver temperature of 32°F? (d) 'Vhat are the correspondmg
available components, and the percentage of the energy that IS "available,>! III
each easel Am 2188 Iltu/(lb, oR); OJ15 Btu/(lb, OR); 1076, 155
4. A pound of water that IS InItIally at 70°F and 147 psm IS warmed to 212°F
by energy receptIOn as heat, exhlbitmg dlmng such warming & mean Bpeclfic heat
of about; 101 Btu/(Ib, OF), and is then vapOrIzed to (dry) steam at 212°F and
147 pSIS by heat energy receptIon In the amount of 9iO I3tu/lb «(1) What IS the
total energy reqUired for the processes, In Btu/pound? (b) What IS the aggre-
gate entropy change of the flUId, In Btu/pound, OR? (c) If the steam were then
permitted to expand admbatIcully m an ideal turbme, the work energy output
would cause the temperature of the stearn to fall If the e'.:panslOu continued
unbl the steam temperature becnme lOOP, what poruon of the above energy
supply would mescapahly remam and have to be rejected as heat at 70°F III
order that the steam be returned by condensation to lIqUid water at 70 F? C
What amount of the Initial energy supply mIght correspondmgly have been trans-
formed to work by the (Ideal) turbine? (d) It has been ascertained that, in
lieu of the above SImple warmmg and vap0rIZlDg processes, (dry) steam at
212°F and 147 pSla mIght be produced from water at 70°F and 14 7 pSIa by
compressIng the water WIth a pump to 1800 PSI by work mput m the amount
of about 1200 ft-lb/lb warmmg the water to 62PF by Violent stlrrmg requmng
the furnIshing of shnft work In the amount of about 470,000 ft-lbnb, vnponzmg
at that pressure and temperature by heat supply ill the amount of 501 Btu/lb,
and then reducmg the pressure and temperature to H 7 pSla and 212~F by passmg
the steam through a reducmg valve. As In part a, however, the steam ultimately
a.rnyes at the turbme as dry saturatf'd steam at 212°F. What WIll correSpond-
ingly havp. been the change In entropy of the fhnd In ('on.sequen('e of being
changed hom water nt il:tF to dry saturalerl steam at ZlZ"P accordmg to thiS
second Bchedule of domg :so? (HUll: entropy UJ a 8ta1e funclwn) What portion
of the energy supphed In this second Instance remam'! In the steam leaving the
(Ideal) turbine If the stearn expanded therem to the iO"'F Jevel? By how mach
Will the relatl\'e entropy of the steam change in either Instance Ln consequence of
its a<i1B.babc expansIOn through the ideal turbme1
5, Employmg cross-sectIon paper and scales thereon of (suy) 1 10 = 200° for
ordinates of both 'R (from 0' to l6(00) and OF, and 011 In ~ 05 Btu/(lb, OR)
for an abscISSa. of specIfic entropy (from -05 to +20), depIct to scale the
progressive process of Ice warmmg and meitmg, water warmmg and vaporization,
and vapor supernelltmg tor whIch data and computatioll8 were prOVIded In the
text. Determme WIth reasonable care the nrcn.s undcrlymg pertInent; mdlvldual
}JortlOns of the line you have developed and the energy eqUIvalent of these
areas, a.nd compare your findings WIth the heat quantitIes quoted In the data and
computations of the text.
. 6. Air at 70°F and 147 psis. 15 compressed isentroplcally to a temperature of
250"F and then warmed at constant pressure to lOOO°F by hea~ supply. The
.speCIfic llea.t nt constant pressure, Cp , is 0241 Btu!(lb, CF). The hot gas (alr) 18
then expanded isentropica,lly to 14 7 PSla. In a turbme, aiter WhICh the gas leaving
AnT. 7-15 PROBLEMS 123
is perffiltted to re~ool In the atmOOphere, thus complet.mg n. cycle. (a) Prepare
T-a coordmates With a temperature range of O"R to 1600"R (suggested scylle,
1 in = 200·) and an entropy scale [suggested scale, 1 1ft = 005 Btu/(1b, OR)].
Represent the compresswn phase (1-2) on these coordmates (b) R~present"lhe
warming phase (2-3) to the same coordinates, plotting a IDldpolllt at (say)
60QoF. (c) Sketch the general character of the lSfmtroplC expan.<non phase (3-4)
and the ~obanc recooling phase (4-1), and so locate T" defirutely (by recogruzmg
that the entropy change from 1-4 must be Identical wlth the entropy change from
2-3). (d) Recallmg that qp = Cp tlT, compute 2Q3, .. qI, nnd the (net) work
output of the Ideal cycle 8lld express the consequent (ideal or hmitJng) thermal
effiCiency of the cycle IndIcate these items by sUItable arens on the dIagram
(e) Sketch the general character of tne cycle on p-v coordmates, and indlcute
the area that represents t.he (net) work output.
7. (a) On a dIagram 5l1lular to that of problem 5, indicate (lIe Idealized pl'OC-
es8es of problem 4a and uleuldy 011 the dmgram those arcus whIch represent
energy supphed WJ heat, the energy reJelted us heat dunng cOllciensatlOn of the
steam after It has Jeft the turbme, and tJ,lat energy WhlCh correspondmg1y would
ideally be available as work (b) The steam supply of problem 4a Increases in
entropy by 02 Bt.u/(lb, CR) in an adiabatic but non-ideal expansIOn In the
turbmc. As bcfore, however, the expanSlOD contmues until the steam temperature
falls to 10 c F, at which temperature it is. condensed. What energy is rejected as
heat, and what IS the shaft-work output of the turbme (m Btu/pound of steam)
in tins case? Indlcate the slgmficance of the areas
8. One pound of water at goOF is mIXed Wlth 2 Ib of water at 212°F. Speclfi~
heat of water may be tahn as 100 Btu/lb, of (0) What IS the tempcorature
of the resulting mIxture, and what are the enthalpy changes? (b) The mixmg
i:!l adiabatic; is the muong isentropIc? What lire the entropy changes? (c) What
IS the change In the unavRIJable energy WIth respe~t to a receiver at gO°F, and
With respect to a receIver at _40°F?
9 Recalling that de = T ds - 'P dv, or (ae/fJv)" = T(a~/av)'l' - p, indicate
the further steps reqUIred for shOWing how the rate of change of internal energy
with volume for an isothermal process with a fluid may be determmed without
recourse to actual measurements of internal energy change.
10 If dh - T ds + v dp, but aillo dh _ (ah/,s), ds + (,hlap), dp, what
conclusions msy be drawn B.8 regards the reJatlon between (uk/as), and T, and
that between (aklfJp). and tJ for any fiUld when at It partlCuhtr state?
PART III . PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
8 . PROPERTIES ANI) PROPERTY RELATIONS

Solid, Liquid, and Vapor SLate~
3-1. Foreword. In Parts I and II there were developed the funda-

menial prmciples and methods oj energy accountmg in practICal power,
compreSSIOn, refrlgeratl~n, and assoCIated eqUIpment, and certain
idealIzed attributes of the processes and cycles occurring therewith
were recoglllzed. The eXistence and siglllficance of a number of ther- .
IIlodynamlC propertIes of engmeering flUId.:; were also indIcated. It
may be said that. In the foregolng matenal nearly all the fundamental
thermodynamic studies that will be required have been completed; but
It remains to apply them to practICal purposes.
In undertakmg such app'lications it immediately becomes evident
that specIfic informatIOn IS required concerning the thermodynamIc
properbes of the fluids employed. Faciltties for organizing such
I1lformatlOn to best advantage WIll also be necessary. Part III pro-
VIdes such mformahon and fa('.lhbes, after which we wIll he in a
position to proceed with more detailed studies of particular equipment,
such as are made in Part IV of this book
The substances employed 1D ~uch eqmpment may advantageously
be grouped m the followmg categones (a) lIqUIds and their vapors
(also'm solid state, Chapter 8); (b) low-pressure gases (or effectively
Ideal gases; Chapter 9); (c) mixtures of low-pressure gases and vapors
(Chapter 10); (d) hIgher-pressvre or non-ideal gases (Chapter 11).
The order of conSIderatIon IS more a matter of convenience than of sig-
mficance. A later chapter, 12, relates to the manner of change of the
thermodynamIC propertIes during the combustIOn process.
It WIll he recalled t.hat the concept and SIgnIficance of the following
thermodynamIc propertIes have been developed, and were said in
Art.. 7-12 to be sufficICnt for proposed purposes
Pressure, p Entropy, 8
.Absolute temperature, T Danieus function, b, = h - T RS
Spectfic volume, V Helmholl;z functlOn, A. = e - Ts
Internal energy, e Gibbs functIon, G, = h - Ts
Enthalpy, h, :: e + pvlJ
12~
ART. 8-3 SOLID, LIQUID, AND VAPOR P!IASES 125
The pressure and temperature will also be recalled to be intensive
propertles, and as such are ones" for the direct measurement of which
mstrumental facilIties are avallable. PrIme importance will there-
fore attach to the provision of means whereby the magnitudes·oI-tne
remammg properties may be ascertamed if these are known. Need for
attention to the Gibbs and Helmholtz functions is in general hmlted
to studIes of chemical thermodynamIcs.
8-2. Phase Rule. A very pertinent question arises in relation to
the extent of the information required for establishing the thermo-
dynamic state of an engineering fluid or, more specifically, to the
number of intensive propertIes whose magnitudes must be known in
order that the state of a flUId is suffiCIently determined. That is, lor
example, will data concerning one or both intensIve properties be
required to identify tlie state? The answer has been formulated in a
selIll-ratIOnal and semI-empIrical statement that was Hrst clearly
expressed by J. W. Gibbs and is known as the phase rule. This rule,
although mitIally evolved in relation to more complex mixtures ID
chemical equilIbrium, is equally suitable in connection WIth a smgle
substance that may eXIst in Vanous phases. It will be interpreted
here only for that sItuation and utilized in the following article. The
rule IS usually quoted as follows:
(8-1)
where F number of intensive properties (or "degrees of freedom")
=
that must be known for identification of thc statc.
e
= number of discrete components of a mixture, but unity for
a smgle substance.
p - total number of phases (such as solid, liqUId, and vapor or
gas) in which components are existing simultaneously
The mtensity variables of the phase rule do not establish the rela-
tive masses of the components of a. mixture or the proportion of
a given component which is in a particular phase. Description of
a multIfluid or multiple-phase combination so requires additional
specificatIOns.
8-3. Solid. Liquid. and Vapor Phases. The three phases in whIch
a fluid may exist in a stable or equilibrial condItion are exemplified
by ice, lIquid water, and water vapor. The progressive passage from
the sohel to the vapor phase waS in fact consIdered in the illustra-
tive example of Art. 7-5 and represented to T-s coordmates in Fig. 7-3.
ConsIder first the number of intensive propertIes (F) on which data
are required for establishment of state when III equilibrium in any of
these phases, and employing the phase rule:
126 SOLID, LIQUID, AND VAPOR PROPERTIES CHAP. 8
(a) In the solid, liqUId, or vapor phases alone, a single component
(water) and a single phase bemg involved,
F=C-P+2=1-1+2=Z
(b) When solid-and-lIquid, solid-and-vapor, or IIqUId-and-vapor
phases exist together, as wlth ice fioatmg in water or when vapor is
being generated at a water surface,
(e) When solld, liquid, and vapor exist together,
F=C-P+Z=I-3+Z=O
~.,
/
t
~
•
~
.~
~
-----------------.~============~
SpeCl'1C volume _
p-Ll-Tel.lr!as.",
Fig. 8--1. Dl~grammatlc representation of p-v-T surface for water, In major phases,
and of proj~tlOn of saturatIon lines on p-T plane to provide phase dlagram.
These coneluston. are shown graphically to poT coordinates for

water m FIg 8-1. Such a diagram is known as a phase diagram.
Essential features of the diagram are as follows:
(0) Points wlthm the three regions appearing on the diagram include
all combinatJOns as regards simultaneous pressure and temperature
at which wa-wr may oc(mr as sohd} as lIquid, or as vapor. Data. on the
two properties are reqUIred for estabhshment of the state.
'(b) The hnes which separate the several regions exhIbit the par-
ticular pressure-temperature combmatlOns at which water may occur
m eqUllibrium and concurrently as solld and liquid, as liquid and
ART 8-3 SOLID, LIQUID, AND VAPOR ,PHASES 127
vapor, or as 'solid and vapor. Data on eIther property wIll singly
serve to estabhsh the other when" a given pair of phases occurs simul-
taneously. With reference to these lmes, (1) a famIliar point on the
vaporizatIOn (or liquid-vapor) lme IS that at 212'F, at whICh tempera~
ture water wiII boil only if the pressure is atmospheric, -or 14.7 psia J
(2) the subllmatlon (solid-vapor) line associates the pressure and

temperature when lee and water v.upor are contIguous, or at whioh
Ice sublimates to vapor (as when clothing lIfl'eezes dry" on the hou~e
wife's clothes line), (3) the fusion (or solid-liquid) line mdICates the
temperatures and correspondmg pressures at whICh ice and water will
exist togetber, or those at which ICe melts to form water
(e) Tbe point of junctlOn of the three lmes locates the smgle
pressure-temperature condition at which the three phases may eXISt
together, and is known as -the triple-pomt for a fluid. For pure water
it is at 32.0075°F and 0.0885 pSla. (The 320°F temperature that IS
descnbed as the ice point is that at whICh ice melts under an imposed
pressure of 14.69 psia, rather than the triple-pomt pressure of 00885
psia. There are, in fact, several triple points for water, due to the
existence of a number of types of ice occurring under extreme pressure.)
In technical terminology, vapor at II temperature correspondmg to
the existmg pressure (i.e., as associated by the sublimation or vapori-
zation hnes) is described as wturated, as are also the liqUid or sohd in
like status. The temperature and prcssure established by any pomt
on these lines are thus described, respectively, as the saturatwn tem-
perature corresponding to the pressure and the saturation pressure
corre.pondmg to the temperature. There is, however, for any flUId
a hmitmg temperature, known as the crtttcal temperature (To::) above
which the liquid phase may not exist. The saturation pressure at thiS
temperature is termed the ent,"al pressure (1',), and the state point
at these conditIOns is known as the entlCal pomt (C.P.).
A mixture of saturated water vapor and saturated water droplets
or fog is known as wet steam, and the proportIOn of the mixture by
mass which is vapor, m.1 (m. + m w ), IS known as the qual1ty or
drylWss fractlOn and is usually deSignated by the symbol x. Analo-
gously, in the absence of admixed water droplets, saturated water
vapor is known also as dry steam.
There Is present and subsequent auvantage in recognizmg a pbyslcal
justification for relahons such as those mdicated by the lmes of the
phase diagram, anu in mdicating a further significance. Referring,
for example, to the liquid-vapor line, this states in effect that these
two phases may exist together and in eqUIlIbrium only when) at a given
temperature of ·both, there IS also a defimle corresponding pressure.
The reasonableness of such a conclusion follows from the consideraLion
that, although the molecules compnsing a hquid po"ess a mean
velocity and kinetic energy which is a function of Its temperature,
inescapable, probabIlities mdICate that individual molecules at the
bquld surface wIll persistently attam velocitIcs whICh so exceed the
mean as to permIt their escape from the attmctlOn of contiguous
molecules, to enter or diffuse into adjacent space, and there to exist In
the vapor phase. Conversely, wIth mcrease of the number of mole-
cules in that space, there is an increasing probabllity of regular re-
entrapment of numbers of the molecules at the liqUId surface. Unless
hampered by actIve removal of the vapor molecules from the space,
theIr number and veloclbes so become sufficiently const8.nt as to main-
tain III the space a pressure correspondmg t9 and a mean temperature
equal to that of the adjacent liquid surface. These are the corre-
sponding saturated values referred to above.
Vapor which IS not adjacent to its liquid and so may be warmed to
temperatures in excess of the saturation temperature corresponding
to the pressure is desCrIbed as superheated, and the amount by which
the temperature exceeds the saturatlOn temperature is knuwn as the
number of degrees of superheat. I,iquid or ice which is under an
extraneously imposed pressure exceeding the saturation pressure cor-
responding to the temperature is said to be compressed. States lying
'Ill the vapor, liquid, and sohd regions of the figure are thus, respec-
tIvely, ones 01 superheated vapor and compressed liquid or com-
pressed solid.
The vapor production (or condensation) with which the engineer is
most frequently concerned 18 one in which a fluid flows steadlly to-,
through, and from a device and remains at virtually the same pressure
throughout. Thus in a stearn boiler the leedwater is delivered to the
bOller at ur about the bOller pressure, but at les;-than-saturatIon tem-
perature or thus as a compressed liquid; it is warmed therem to the
saturation temperature and IS vaporized at that temperature, in each
instance by reason of energy reception from the furnace as heat passing
through the boiler heating surfaces; and it departs as dry or possibly
wet saturated steam. After leaving the boJ]er the saturated steam
may be directed through a superheater (still at or about boIler
pressure) in which, by further energy reception from the furnace
through the superheater surfaces, the steam becomes superheated
and departs in that status.
. 8·4. Properties at Saturated States. Data on the saturation
pressures of a fluid, such as water, over a requisite range of tempera-
tures are secured only by physical experiments. Related data on the
ART. 8-4 PROPERTIES AT SATURATED STATES 129
other thermodynamic properties, such as tlle specdie volume, enthalpy,
and entropy must be determiried by further experiments which may
become quite complex.
Alter being secured these data must he verified as to mutual thermo-
dynamlC consistency, by methods that are mdic"ted later, and must
be orgamzed mto a generally useful form For the latter purposes
It may be convenient- to devIse equahons which acceptably associate
the data and further are thermodynamically conSIstent The equa-
tions assoClatmg the properties may, however, ·become too complex
for routine use, and for working engineerIng purposes it becomes prefer-
able to use either tabular or graphical forms of prcscntahon of the
data, or both The purpose m th,s chapter is to explam the arrange-
ment of and to u:se a tYPlcai table of thermodYfUlmtC propertles and
their graphical eqUIvalents. IndIVIdual tables are normally provIded,
givmg the pertment properties at saturated states, at superheated
vapor states, and for compressed lIquid states when such data are
required and avallable The present article deals with the saturation
table for steam
For the benefit 01 the steam-machinery engineer and designer,
repeated and extensive experiments have been made for determina~
tion of the thermodynamic properties of water, and a suceeSSlOn of
tables of propertIes of water has resulted." Data and tables on the
propertIes 01 n. number of reingerants have aJso ,been available lor
some years, and tables of greater or less completeness gIving the
properties of an increasing number of hydrocarbons and other products
of thermochemICal concern have appeared in the hterature.
Table 8-1 is an excerpt from several of the saturatlOn tables of
current (1954) American steam tables and lllustrates a representa-
tive arrangement A smaller number of sIgnificant figures are here
rcported than appear in the published tables. As either the pressure
or the temperature Identifies the thermodynamic statc at saturated
conditions, separate tables are frequently provided facilitating entry
at values of one or the other. Column numbers in the bble are only
lor reference in the following discussion. The upper and lower portion
of the table relate, respectively, to liquid-and-vapor and to ice-and-
vapor states
• The more recent American stearn tables are those of Marks and Davis (1909),
Goodenough (m7), Keenan (1930), Keenan and Keyes (1936). The 1..t two
represent the resultf! of extensive expenmentatlOn in the Umted States, England,
Czec.hoslovakIa, and Germany, coordmation by internationa.l steam-table con-
ferences, and compilation 10 the United States under the ausplces of the Amencan
Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Table 8-1. Properties at Sa.turation, Water
3 • 5 6 7 I , , 10 11 12 13
1
• SpecIfic Volume EnthalIlY Entropy Intemal
Enf:rgy
LIqUId Evap Vapor Liquid Evap. VapOr Llquld Evap Vapor LlqUIU V."",
-- -,-
• 'f 'f.
" 'f h,. h. 'f 'f • '. ~ "
o 0197 o gaS o g28 449 4 7550 1204 4 064. D 81& 1 '63 4476
"" 467 0
520 411.1 o 0198 0872 o g9L '54 1 700 1 1204 2 0.54 o BOO 1460 45Z 2
IllS tI
1118,4
V._ - - - - - - - - --
i= -- --
, • Bohd
- - - - -- - -
Subl.
- - - - - --..-
Solid Subl
, - - -"- -"-
Vapor Sohd Subl. Vapor Sohd V.pW
-- o " '" '. ....

h. h ..
--10 0031 017<10 9050 '" " ~
9050 -1M 2 1220 4 1006 2 -0314 2598 -154 2 1014 4
The properties given in the several columns are.

Columns 1 and 1, the corresponding saturatIOn pressure and temperature; in
pounds per square Im:h ab.soJute (}JSJa) and degrees FahrenbeJt.
Columns 3, 4. and 5, the 5pecmc volume ill cubiC feet per pound of su.turaLed
hqUId (VI) or solId (VI), the mcrease 8.ccompanYlDg"transl'tlOn to saturated vapor
(v" or v(,), and the specific volume of sa.turated vapor (v,), The subscnpts f
and 1. are employed for designatmg, respectively, saturated liquid and solad states,
the subscnpt fg or 1IJ for deslgnatmg the increase accompanymg vaporizatIOn or
Bubhmation, respect.ively, and the 6Ubscript g for de5.1gnating the saturated vapor
state, The subSCrIpts are as selected by the American Standards ASSOCiatIon
Columns 6, 7, and 8, the relatIve enthalpy In Btu/pound for saturated lIquid
(h,), Bohd (hi), and vapor (h,) and Its Increase accompanying vaporization Or
BublImatlon (h r" hi,). In tables of the propertIes of water, values of the enthalpy
are ones relative to an arbItrarily IlSSlgned zero of entha.lpy for sat.urated wa.ter
at 32<>F, To aVOid negatIve values a reference state at lower temperature IS often
selected for fluids used m refngeratlOn processes. The lDcreases of enthaltly
accompanymg vaporIZatiOn and sublima.tion or fUSIOn have frequently been
described as the lalent heats of those processes,
Column.IJ OJ 10, and 11, the relative enhopy in Btu/Ob, OR) for saturated
lIqUid or solId and for saturated vapor, a.nd its mcrease accompanying vaporiza-
tion or sublimation In tables f9f water the en.tropy values are again relatIve to
an assIgned zero magwtude for saturated water at 32<>F (Normally the same
refereoce state lB employed for relatlve evaluatIon of both enthalpy a.nd
entropy)
Columns 11 and 13, the relative mterna.1 energy for saturated liqUid or solId
and saturated vapor, WIth the magmtude determmed from the enthalpy mag-
rutude in accordance WIth the relatIOn e - h - pvIJ.·
Note that values m columns 4, 7, and 10 are, respectIvely, the differences
between those in columns 3 and 5, 6 and 8, and 9 and 11. Also recall that, as
• The symbol U IS used regularly for identification of the interna.l energy, but
III tlUBmaterial has been reserved {or identitication of veloClty, In order to avoid
pOSSIble confusions resultmg from use of the letter v both for specific volume and
velocity, T,hiB requires the use of a symbol such as e for the mternal energy
ART. 8-5 SATURATED LIQUID-VAPOR MIXTURES 131
(equatIon 7-5) dh - T ds +v dp/J, and dh .... T ds for Isobanc'vap0rlZatlOn, the
value of 8" of column 10 necesSarily equals ht,IT, OR.
An observation relating to lhe enthalpy of vaporization (or of sub-

limation) evolves from equation 7-15, or J (a,/ovl. - (ap/a1')" when
considered in connection with the isothermal vaporization process
For that process the ratio (as/av). pertaimng to an infiniteSImal por-
tion of the process will not differ from the hke ratio for the entire
process, or (a,/ovl. ~ (c.,/c.vj. - (s"/v,,j. and also (h,,/T)/v,g.
As the saturation pressure is a functIOn solely of the temperature of
a given liquid or vapor, the ratio (ap/aT). for saturated states will
not dIffer whether the volume is or is not constant whIle T and p
are caused to change. That is, (ap/aT). - dp/ dT, where dp/ dT is
graphICally the slope of the line tangent to a given point on the vapori-
zation line of Fig. 8-1. Thus, for saturated conditions,
dp =J h"IT (8-2)
dT VI,
Equation 8-2 is known as the Clapeyron equatIOn. It provides a

umque facility for verifymg or determining the latent heat of a fluid
at a given temperature without recourse to calorlmet"c measurements
and merely from data on the rate of change of Its saturatIon pressure
with temperature at or about the temperature in question, and on
the volume change durlDg vaporizajjon at that temperature.
8-5. Properties of Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixlures. A liquid-
vapor mixture is illustrated by the mixture of saturated steam and
water droplets or (og (i.e., "wet" steam) leaving a boiler or turbine.
The extensive properties of a mixture of quality x (Art 8-3) may be
evaluated in three equivalent ways by regardmg the mixture a.s
(a) One containing (1 - x) Ib of saturated liqUId and x lb of satu-
rated vapor.
(b) One in which an entire pound of lIqUId has ·been brought to the
saturation temperature, and x Ib has been vapOrized.
(e) One in which, from an original pound of saturated vapor, (I-x)
Ib has been condensed.
Corresponding expreSSIOns for the extensive properties therefore
become:
v. = (1 - xlv, + xv, or v, + xv" or v, - (1 - XlVI' (8-3)
h. = (1 - x)h, + xh, or h, + xh" or h, - (1 - x)h" (8-4)

'. = (1 - X)8, + X8, or 8, + X8" or 8, - (1 - X)8,. (8-5)
132 SOLID, LIQUID, AND VAPOR PROPERTIES CHAP 8
For slide-rule computatIOns the second type of relatlOn provides better
accuracy at lower quahty, and the thud at higher quahty.
After an isentropic expanslOn the available data may be the entropy
of wet vapor (8.), and its saturatIOn pressure and temperature, but the
enthalpy (h.) may be desired. In thlS situation note that
8a - 8z
h. = h, - (1 - x)h" = h, - - - hI, = h, - (8, - 8.)T (8-6)
Sr,
8-6. Properties of Superheated Vapor. As data on both p and
T are required for identifymg state in the superheat phase, a table of
properties must provide for entry at values of p and a number of
values of T for each such pressure. 'n.ble 8-2 is an illustrative excerpt
from the Keenan-Keyes tables for superheated steam. For conven-
ience the saturation temperature corresponding to a pressure appears
m parentheses below the pressure item, and values of v, h, and 8 for
saturated hquid and vapor appear in adjoinIng columns. Remaimng
columns give these properties at the mdlCa\ed temperatures, m the
units of the saturation tables. The difference (T - T .. t ) lS known
as the number of degree. of superheat.
Table 8-2. Superheated Steam Properties

•
(T.t)
Saturated
Llqrud
Saturated
Va.por 500 IlOO
Temperature, OF
800 IIlOO \600
600
(467 0) ,• 00]97
449'"
09278
1204 4
o 9921
1231 3
1.1591
12986
1 «05
1412 1
1 6996
1519 6
2 442
1851 3
•06487 14634 141H9 1 ,~.588 1 6571 1 7363 I 9262
Tables of propertJes of superheated vapor at very low pressures are

not ordinarily prOVIded as at such pressures vapor characteristics
approa'ch closely to those of an ideal gas and may .be computed from
saturation data by methods that are mdicated in Chapter 9.
8·7. Properties of Compressed Liquid. A familiar example of
a compressed hqUld lS water which is being dehvercd by a pump
against an lmposed pressure that considerably exceeds the saturation
pressure corresponding to its temperature Its thermodynamic prop-
erties may properly be expected:
(a) To dlffer in appreciable although generally moderate amount
from that corresponding to saturation at the extding temperature.
(b) Again to differ in appreciable amount from that of the water
entering the pump.
(e) To dlffcr in probably much greater amount from those for sat-
uration at the imposed pressure.
F{)r expressing their definite magnitudes it is in fact more conven-
ART. 8-8 THERMODYNAMIC DIAGRAMS 133
ient to do so In terms of elthelj the first or the second of the above
dIfference quantitles. The first are provided In the steam' tables by
3 tabulation l from which an excerpt appears m accompanymg Table
8-3, and to whIch one enters at the existing temperature and pressure.
Table 8-3., Compressed Water
T = 300'F
P.., = 6701
v, = 0017449
h, = 269,59
8, = 0.43694
(v - "') X 10' -1.1
200 (h - h,) +023
(381.8) (8 - 8f) X 10' -021
(v - Vf) X 10' -36
500 (h - h f ) +079
(46~ 0) (8 - 8f) X 10' -074
(v - Vf) X 10' -6.9
1000 (h - h,) +1.75
(544,6) (s - 8/) X 10' -1.64
The tabulated quantIties are the differences between property mag-
nitudes under the imposed pressure and those found in the saturation
table at the relevant temperature. The nature of water is such that
the enthalpy difference is positive in some temperature ranges and
negatIve in others. This might be indICated in Fig. 8-3 by extension
into the compressed-liquid band of the lmes for k = 600 and 300, WIth
the first directed upward to the left, and thc second downward.
DIfference items of the second character, but expressing pnncip.lly
the enthalpy increase associated with an isentropic passage through a
pump from an imtIally saturated-lIquid state, are evidently of conven-
Ience for determining dIrectly the ideal and thereby the actual work
input required by pump. The steam tables provide thIS quantIty by "
lhagmm which IS the eqUlvalent of an h-s diagram, except that its
ordmate seale is instead the magnitudes of the relevant enthalpy
increase Withm more moderate pressure ranges thIS increase may
be computed with qUlte moderate approximation by the product
[(p - PJ,.)Vt .• ]IJ. The approximation hes III a neglect of the volume
and internal energy change accompanying the compression.
3·3. 111ermodynomic Diagrams. Data such as the foregoing may
be shown graphically to considerable practical advantage, by dia-
grams generated to any preferred pair of the thermodynamic proper-
ties as coordInates Families of contour Jines for other properties
may then be drawn to these coordinates, thereby exhibitmg their mag-
nitudes at representative states or during representative processes.
Identifying the diagrams by theIr coordinate systems, the most
common are:
(a) The p-v diagram, FIg 8-2, which is also known as the Clapey-
ron diagram and is of some interest but minor utility as a working
diagram.
(b) The T-s dUlgram, Fig. 8-3, which has been illustrated in part
in earlier figures and is quite useful for various descriptive purposes
but of hmlted practical utihty.
(c) The h-s dwgram, FIg. 8-4, which IS known also as the Mollier
diagram and has become the major working diagram of the engineer.
(d) The p-h dwgram, Fig. 8-5, which has acquired greater popu-
larlty in the relrigeration mduslry.
(e) The h-v diagram, as developed by Ellenwood and Mackay, lor
exhibiting the properties of water.
The general appearance of the first four is mdicated in accompany-
ing figures. Saturation lme" whICh are the locus of all points depictmg
saturated solid, hquid, or vapor states, become major lines on all dIa-
grams, the last two extending to their Junction at the critical pomt
(C.P.). Other contour lines whICh appear (such as isothermal lines)
give the manner of variation of the coordinate properties when any
third property is maintained constant; these lines represent in effect
the intersection of a constant-property plane with a three-coordmate
surface that represents the correlation among the three properties (see
Fig. 8-1).
More detailed considerations are as follows.
(a) p-v Dwgram. Because of the extreme range of specific volumes
and pressures that may be lDvolved, diagrams to these coordinates
have minor practical utihty. Logarithmic instead pf linear scales
may be used, but with loss of area representation of energy items such
as pv, - f p dv, or f v dp. However, in FIg. 8-2 10gaflthmIC scales
have been employed and data for water are represented.
The saturated solid line (lower left) extends to a pressure of 00885
pSla corresponding to 32'F and v, of 0.01747 cu It/lb. The .aturated
liquid line extends from the same pressure and temperature but V, of
0.01602 to the critIcal pomt C.P. at 3206 psia, T - 705.4'F and
v - 1.0580. The saturated vapor line extends thence downward to
the right. The region between these is frequently descflbed as the
saturation region, all mixtures of saturated vapor and liquid or ice
particles being represented -by points therein. The region to the right
of the saturated Vapor line becomes a superheat region. Sublimation
10.OOOI=£t=~~~~~~
100
~
1!
~
i 10
6
4
2
10
01
005
001 o1 1 0 2 4 6 10 100
SpeCifiC volume, cu ft/lb
Fig 8-2 p.1.I diagra.m, water
or vaporization at consta.nt pressure (and temperature) would eVl-

dently be represented by a horizontal line joining the several satura-
tion lines at the pressure level. The diagram shows that a compressed
liquid at greater than thc critical pressure will pass imperceptIbly into
a gas state when heated, WIthout exhIbiting an isothermal vaporization
stage. No single point on this diagram corresponds to the trIplc
point of Fig 8-1.
Extended isothermal lines for 500°F, 705.4°F, and 1200°F are shown
by dashed lines. A pertinent feature of the isothermal line. at low
pressures is that to logarithmic coordinate scales they exhibit a slope of
-1.0, which IS to say that [(log P2 - log PI) / (log V2 - log vdl T -
-1, or that (p2/pdT - (vt/v,h at low pressures.
Two isentropic contours are shown by dot-dash lines. The one
which originates in the superheat region and for which s - 1 750 is typ-
Ical in exhibiting in that region an effectively constant slope of about
-1.30, which is to say that [(lnp, -lnpI)/(lnv, -lnvdl.-
-1.30 or that with moderate approximation (P2/PI)' - (Vt/V,l,'·30
for superheated water vapor. The slopes change and are not uniform
for isentropic lines in the saturation region. Note that an Isentropic
line onginatmg in the superheat region may cross the saturated vapor
line and proceed through points of progressively decreasing quality
in the saturation regIOn.
(b) T-s D,agram. The lines representing to T-s coordinates a
progres.sive isubaric warrlllug and melting of ice, warming and vapDri-
zatlon of water, and superheating of steam are developed (with some
approximations) in Flg. 7-3. Figure 8-3 shows a fuller complement
of IllustralIve lmes for a T-s diagram for water, developed to linear
coordinate scales from the tabular data. Several represcntatJve COn-
tours and a number of illustrative points are indicated. The ho-
thermal hne through ~nd extending to the ril!;ht of the critical point
is sometImes regarded as provldmg arbItrary uemalcatJOn between a
gas region above tbe line and a superheated vapor region. Similarly,
the extension to the left of the critical would provide a demarcation
between compressed hqUId and the dense gas into whi('h It verges lll}- .
perceptIbly on temperature increase.
A feature of the compressed liquid regIOn is that, due to the minor
temperp,ture mcrease on (lsentropic) compression of saturated water,
except through a very large pressure range, thc region reduces to a
thin wedge along the saturated liquid line. ThIS is not necessanly
representative of all fluids. Also, other fluIds may exhIbIt n saturated
vapor llue whIch for a portIOn of its range veers downward to the left,
rather than continuously to the rIght as with water. Observe a sub-
sequently significant feature that the isenthalplO hnes approach con-
stancy o[ temperature for low-pressure 8up£'rheat~d vapor. A further
feature is that, with considerable uDIformlty, for isentropic lines In
the superheated steam region, the pressure and absolute temperature
arerehted by the equation T,/T, ~ (P./p,)O 2.0.
Jt will be recalled that a utility of the '1'-. diagram follows from
the consideration that for a flUId [ ' T de ~ ,Q2 -+ ifJ (equation 7-6)
or TR <l S = qR, these quantities being represented by corresponding
areaS On the dIagram if extended to the line of absolute zero tempera-
tUTe. But note that for economy o[ space the diagram of Fig. 8-3
does not so extend. Also, recall tbat 8q = T ds for a mechanically
reversIble process and by definition (Art. 3-12) is further edT. Thus
c = T/(dTlds) , or the specific heat for any reverSIble process at
temperature '1' equals that (absolute) temperature divided by the
slope 01 the line representmg the process to T-. coordmates
. (c) h-s Diagram. The workmg thermodynamic diagram which is
perhaps most generally used in practice 1,
that employing the h-s
coprdinate sys~em. Reasons are (1) the significaJlce of the isentropic
OR
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
1-0.2 0 04 08 12 1.6 2.0 24 400

g. Btul(Ib. OR)
Fig. 8-3. T-a dlagrADl, water.
process as the optimum one in the effectively adIabatic expansions 01

compressions that are frequently encountered, and the ability to
represent thiB Ideal type of process by a straight line to these coordi-
nates; and (2) the wide significance of enthalpy change as a direct
138 SOLID, LIQUID, AND VAPOR PROPERTIES CRAP. 8
2000
1500
I- _ Sal vap" -f I~--t- '

300 I.' 300
t: Sat hquld ~¥- i
:~Orl_------+lt-r _1 It' /, _-I+f1V
r6',1'-+l200
- ----------~--~+_~~+4--w_+,L~1rf~'~150 40
.!
1001~~~!ee~
80 J)±l=~II~~ liJ~ill§
,°qJ9V--~, Ii _ ~._j' 01 1 BO
100
6Q ~!-+ii1f iJ; 6Q
~'f---/f--l-sa-t-sI-O-hd-jI__-+l-r-,:--j;--,:I-----+-I-----j-----Ij--T7-+-l4-.~6c.~1- ~ ~
30 l !~, ,S; 30
I I,
22~12~0~~80n-~--4f,O~a-~O-LL-~4~O~-~BO~a-~1~20~LU1U.EO~U12~C020
i JIi
Enthalpy, 8tujrb
Fig 8-5 p-h diagram, carbon choxide.
meat\ure gf heat quantIties, work, or lunetic and geopotcnbal energy

changes, in conformity with the energy equation
g(Z2 - zl) 'Uz 2 - U1 2
J(hl - h2) = 32.17 + 6435 ,- IW, - J I q2
and the ability to provide a lmear enthalpy scale permittmg direct

readmg of relaLive enthalpy magnitudes and their change. The last
IS in contrast to the nuisance and uncertainties Involved 1ll the repre-
sentatIOn of sIgmficant energy quantities by areas when p-v or T-s
coordinates are employed.
The -contour lines conventionally provided on the h~s diagram are
ilustrated in Fig 8-4. 'Vorking dIagrams for steam are more com-
monly prOVIded, however, which cover a more lImIted range of states,
such as lie within the dotted regIOn in the upper portion of the figure.
For some flUids the saturated liquid and vapor lines may together
so nearly form a strmght lme that onentation of the hand s coordi~
nates to some angle less than the usual 90' may be desirable.
ART. 8-9 METASTABLE STATES 139
Observe that the hnes of constant pressure and temperature travers-
ing the saturatIOn region, and representing 180b,ric-lsothernial sub-
hmatIOn or vaporization, are straight hnes. ThIS follows from the
consideratIOn that at any pomt on such a Ime x ~ (h. - h,)/h" and
~ (8.-8')/'",80 that (h.-htl/(s.-sf)~hJg/sJu' Asatglvenp
and T thiS ratio IS a constant, the line is necessarily straIght.'
(d) p-h Dingram. A diagram to these coorumates retains the above
advantage of a linear enthalpy scale, and has some probable advantage
III the easy entry WIth the pressure as an item which may be measured
directly by instrument and 1S of such practICal importance. The
arrangement 18 used almost exclusively in refrigeration engineermg
and widely in chemical engineering. Representative regIons and hnes
of the dlagram as it appears for carbon diOxide are shown In Fig. 8-5
The pressure scaZe is bere (and frequently) logarltbmic; saturated
liquid at -40°F is the reference state With respect to which enthalpy
and entropy values are based. Areas on the diagram have no energy
significance.
8·9. Metastable States. The states and associated properties of
the foregomg discussions are ones at ,equilibrium conditions for a
substance. Several metastable states which may be encountered suffi-
ciently frequently as to be of practICal importance are those of super-
saturated vapor, superheated liquid, and supercooled liquid.
A Su.persaturated 'vapor. The term supersaturated vapor is used
to identify a vapor existing at a pressure in excess of the saturation
pressure corresponding to Its temperature, or alternatIvely at a tem-
perature less than the saturation temperature correspondIng to its
pressure The phenomenon occurs regularly in the flow through
nozzles or turbines, and on occasIOn in the atmosphere Character-
uitic processes m which it is encountered are the rapid isentropic
expansion or isobaric cooling of an imtially superheated vapor, but
With procedure beyond the saturated vapor state without exh,bitmg
the progresstve condensation that wou!d be predicated by the fore-
goiTl{! equilibrium diaorams or table8.
It appears that with moderate approximation the process of super-
saturation may be represented on 8 conventwnal thermodynamic
diagram by extension without discon tinmty 1 across the norma]
saturated vapor line and mto the otherwise saturation region, of the
• Alternatively, as dh""'" T ds + (v dpllJ (equatIOn 7-4) and also (by equation

7-16) dh = (iJh/fJs)p ds + ({Jh/fJp). dp? for joint satlsfactJOD of these two equations,
(ok/all), = T. Thus for vaponzatlOD WIth constancy of both p and T the slope
(iJkras), of the lines representmg the vaporizauoD to It-a coordina.tes lUust be
('onstant and equal to the absolute temperature.
Ime whlCh served to represent the process in the superheat region,
rather as if the vapor were unaware of the existence of an equilibria I
saturated vapor lme That is, in the T-s and h-s diagrams of Fig 8-6
Imes a-b-ss ox c-d-ss may reasonably represent, respectIvely, Isentropic
expansIOn between pressures PI and P2 and Isobaric coolmg at P2'
Dotted Imes through pomt d represent the equilibrial saturated vapor
lme and eqmhbnallsobaric line correspondmg to the pomt. IndIcated
attnbutes of state ss are an appreCIably less-than-eqUllibnal tempera-
tUre (and greater-than-eqUlhbrial density) and an enthalpy slightly
cxcccdmg the equillbrial (for specified entropy and pressure). For
water vapor at moderate pressure and temperature these and the
specific volume are associated wIth moderate approximation by regard-
lllg T IpO 23 and pv 1 a as ,constant dunng an admhatlC expansion to
supersaturated states.
T h
•
Fig. 8-6.
The extent to which supersaturatIOn may persIst on expansion or

cooling is much mfluenced by the presence or absence of condensatlOll
nuclei, 'such as any admlxed hygroscopIC sohd partICles in the vapor
about which collectIOn of vapor molecules into droplets may occur, and
by electrostatic condItions The action of charged particles in
mducmg reversion to the saturated mIxture condItion is uhlized m
nuclear phYSICS studies in a deVIce known as the lVllson cloud chamber,
A Ime shown in the figure as somewhat parallelmg the saturated vapor
hne, and known as the W,lson lme (W L ), is frequently drawn from
expenmental findings and proposed as one marking a general hmit of
supersaturatIOn Its locabon IS not certam, due to variabihty m the
above mfluences, but IS frequently taken to be esta.blIshed by points
for which the pressure is about one-half of the pressure at which any
isentropic line crosses the saturation lme Reversion to saturated con-
ditions involves some entropy growth, as IS to be antiCIpated in conse-
quence of the irreversible character of the process.
ART. 8-9 METASTABLE STATES 141
The physl'cal reason for the deferred condensation which is charac-
teristic of supersaturatIOn IS ~ost readily seen by consIdering the
OPPosIte process of evaporatIOn Recall In that connection that in
Art 8-3 the physical consIderations validatmg the existence of.a·satuc
ration pressure correspondmg to a temperature were developed in
relatwn to an extended liquid surface, and mvolved the restraining
mfluence of intermolecular attractIOns between a molecule at the sur-
face and its many liquid neighbors. But observe that a molecule on
the surface of an extremely small droplet would expenence less
restramt, becau~e of the fewer molecular neighbors) and the droplet
would therefore exhibIt a greater tendency to evaporate. That IS, in
the vlCimty of a droplet of gIVen temperature, more molecules WIll
tend to appear III the vapor phase and [l, vapor pressure in excess of the
exteruled-surface or saturatIOn pressure correspondmq to the tempera-
ture will result, Physical analysis shows that thIS effect may be
expressed as
In pu = 2'!:!"!_ :::
PT
,RT r
where p" ~
actual pressure of the supersaturated vapor at tempera-
ture T.
PT = Su.tuIu.tion pre~::mre corre~}Jondlllg to T.
T ~ surface tensIOn of the liqUld at T.
VI ~ specdic volume of the hquid.

r ~ radius of the droplet.
Conversely, the e=tmg temperature will be less than the saturation
temperature correspondmg to the vapor pressure, or the vapor will be
supersaturated. The tendency to deferred condensatwn or supersat-
uration on expanslOn or cooling IS the reflex of the accelerated tendency
to small-droplet evaporation.
B. Superheated liqwd. In a manner essentially analogous to the
accelerated tendency to small-droplet evaporation or obversely to
deferred condensatIOn and vapor supersaturation, surface tension
effects in the liquid surrounding an extremely small vapor bubble act
to require a large excess of vapor pressure wlthm the bubble in order
lhot the bubble lllay peI~ist. A reJlex of this situatiun is a deferring
of the formation of vapor bubbles in an initially saturated or com-
pressed liquid when it expands, perhaps IsentroplCally, and III so doing
crosses the saturated liquid lme That is, referring to the vlCimty of
that line a~ it appears to T-s coordmat.es, on such expanSIOn the liquid
will tend to act as if unaware of the eXIstence of the saturated hquid
lme and region and perslSts as a liqUld although continuing at a
temperature in eXcess of the saturatwn temperature correspondmg to
the [,quid pressure.In thIs status It is identIfied as superheated ltqUld.
The phenomenon exists regularly m the vlcmity of the vapor bubbles
in a boIling lIquid and is also employed to advantage m a well-known
type of steam trap. Extensive data concernIng the extent of per-
sistence of thIS metastable lIqUId state are not, however, avaIlable,
it is probably Influenced by the amount of dIssolved gases III the lIquid
C. Supercooled ltqUld The term supercooled is employed to de-
scribe lIquid whIch has been cooled to temperatures below Its normal
freezmg temperatures (32'F for water) but has not solIdified or
"frozen." The phenomenon IS known to occur regularly. Instances
occur III the atmosphere, where clouds of water droplets persIst as
such at temperatures well below 32°F. Supercooled liqUld states
would appear to T-s and h-s coordinates along an extension of the
curved lIqUId line to temperatures below the ice point.
An mteresting and reasonable consequence of such supercoohng of
a liquid is that, mtermolecular attractions ,bemg less in the liquid than
m the solId phase, the vapor pressure III VICInIty of the-liqUId exceeds
slightly the saturatIOn pressure for vapor contIguous to ice at the same
temperature. ThIS concluslOTI is verIfied from the Clapeyron relatIOn
(equation 8-2) by observing that (dp/dT) for vapor contIguous to
ICe must exceed (dp/dT) for vapor contIguous to subcooled water,
as h'fI exceeds hi" That IS, the decrease of pressure accompanymg
decrease of temperature IS correspondingly less If adjacent to super-
cooled bqUId than If adjacent to ICe.
8·10. Representative Processes. The folloWIng materIal illus-
trates the use of the tabular and graphical thermodynamIc data in
connectIOn wIth Reveral representa.tive sorts of techmcal processes
Condltiulls amI considerations which affect the procedure::; wIll lhfIer
but are usually somewhat as follows. .
(a) An InItial state of the material is known or estImated and [s
descrIbed by data on a suffiCIent number of properltes, probably Inten-
sive ones, ann the ma,l1s proportIOns of suhstances If a mixture is
involved
(b) The proposed charader of the process needs be described
l\Iany actual processes are characterized by real or effectIve constancy
of some fluid property, or at least the presumption of such constancy
provides the most direct and practicable baSIS of procedure and indi-
cates ideal results with which aetuu] ones may most mformatIvely be
compared In some CIrcumstances even the posstb'lity of procedure of
a process becomes, however, of concern.
(c) CQnd[llon~ must adequately be descrIbed fixing the point of
ART. 8-11 CONSTANT-VOLUME PROCESS 143
cessatIon of the process or of dIscontinuation of interest In it VarIOus
practical consideratIOns may ~establish such items Fn!quently a
tenninal pressure or temperature. serves as one item, and a property
that has remamed constant wIll serve as a second.
(d) The primary purpose of the analYSIS may well be an account-
ing of the energy transitJons and transformaHons accompanying the
process.
The processes lor whIch computations wIll be Illustrated are (l)
constant volume, (2) constant pressure, (3) reversible adiabatIc or
isentropic, (4) irreversible adiabatic, and (5) semi·flow. Prior energy
relations, such as have been developed m Chapters 3 and 7, will be
used WIthout dIscussion. In the illustratIve examples which follow,
property magnitudes for water and steam are as taken from the
Keenan-Keyes tables.
B·ll. Constant-Volume Process. A common sItuation in which
such a process occurs IS one in which a materIal IS retained m a closed
tank, whIle the state change is effected by energy receptIOn or de-
parture as heat conducted through the tank walls. The process is
thus non-flow, and no energy reception or departure a.s work occurs
Example 8-1. A tank. of 20 Cll ft capacity is filled With steam at 400 pSI:! and
500°F. The tank and contents are then cooled WIth neglIglble volume change to
300°F. (a) Report the addItional propertIes at the InItIal state, ar.l determme
the mass of steam in the tank. (b) At what temperature and pressure did the
steam become (dry) saturated, and what are the ather propertIes at that state?
(c) What will be the final amounts of vapor and condensed vapor (or water).
the correspondmg qU9.JIty of the mIxture, and the yalues of all other properties
of the mixture? (d) How much energy was emitted fiS heM by the steam ill
coolmg from the lDltlal temperature to Baturat.1OD, from the saturatIOn to the
termmal state and total. what was the mean specific heJ.t for the two portions
of the process?
Solutwn. (a) Initial state properties' v = 1.2851 cu ftllb; h = 12451 Btu/lb,
8 _ 15281 Btu/(lb. OR); e _ 1245.1 -(400 x 114 x 12851)/778 _ 12451 -
952 -11499 Btu/lb; ma" - 20112851 ~ 1555 Ib
(b) At saturatlOn V IS stlll 12851 Locatmg from the .saturatIon table the
state at WhlCh v, = 12851, by mterpolatIon, T = 4347°F, P = 3614 PSta, h =
12041, s - 14938, and e - 11182
(c) At final state, m.v g + m",v, = m. X 6467 + (1555 - mo) X 00175 =
20 cu ft or m. - 306 Ib ano m. = 15.55 - 306 -1249 Ib, x - 30611555, or-
(v - vr) I VrQ = (1 2851 - 00175) 16 (4!) ""'" 0 1980 By entering steam tables at
300°F and 6701 pSla, h - 2696 + 01980 X 910 1 ~ 2696 + 180 1 - 4497; ,~
04369 + 0 1980 X 1198 - 0;369 + 02370 - 0.6739; e - 4497 - (670 X!44 X
12851) /778 - 4497 - 15.8 - 4339. or by entry at 670 pSla e - 2694 + 01980 X
8302- 2694+ 1645- 4339 Btu/lb
(d) Ry eiluabon 3-12 Q = m (e2 - el) = 1555 (llLS 2 - 11499) = Hi 55 X
(-317) - -463 Btu, and C•• m . . . • 31.7/(500 - 434 7) ~ 0485 Btu/lh, OF, for
the vapor under these condltLOns For the coohng-condematJon process, Q =
15.55(4339-11182) =1555 X (-6843) = -10620 Btu and C.,m ... =6&l3/
(4347 - 300) = 508 Btu/lb, ~F. Qtold = -11,113.
8-l2. Constant-Pressure Process. Isobanc processes may be

closely approached in steady flow if accompanying changes in elevation
or velocIty and frictional effects are negligIble, and if no shaft work IS
lllvol ved, all III conformiLy wIth equatIon 3-Ga, but heat transfer may
accompany the process. Isobanc processes may occur under non-flow
condltlOns m a cylinder with pIston, or m an open vessel, If any heat
transfer IS accompamed by such change of volume of the flUId that the
pressure is not modrfied
Example 8-2. Water lDltIally at 600 pSla and 200°F IS belllg pumped suc-
ceSSIvely through an economlzer, bolier, and superheater In these, by heat
supphed by hot. fllrnaCp. gOoSes, the water IS warmed to 400°F III the f'COnomlr.er,
delIvered as steam of 98 per cent quahty from the bOIler and as superheated steam
at 900°F from the superheater, all v,.lth neglIgIble pressure drop. Usmg the
Keenan-Keyes steam tables make the fol1owmg determInatIOns' (a) Properties
at the termmal and specified mtermedlate states (b) Amounts of energy re-
qUIred as heat for efiectmg each step of the process and then total (c) Required
temperature of saturated water at the pump suction for arnval at the above
pump dehvery condItion by IsentropIC compreSSIOn of the water, and the asso-
Ciated pump work reqUIred
Solution (a) Leavmg pump (by Table 4), V = 0016634 - 0000034 =001660
ell It/lb, h = 16799 + ].31 = 16930, s ~ 029382 - 0 00074 ~ 029308, e = 16930 -
(600 " 144 X 001660) 1778 = 16930 - I 84 ~ 16746, pv = 184
Leavmg economIzer, V = 0018639 - 0000044 = 001S.r)95, h = 37497 - 039 =
37536, s = 056638 - 000096 ~ 056542, e ~ 37536 - (600 X 144 X 0018595)/
77B = 3'7536 - 200 = 37330, pv = 206
Leavmg boder, v = 07698 - 002 x 0 7497 ~ 07548, h = 1203 2 - 002 X
7316 = 11886, s = 14454 - 002 X 0 7734 ~ 142~9, e = !l17.7 - 002 X 0117.7-
469 4) ~ 1104.7, pu = 1188 6 - 1104 7 ~ 83 9, or (600 X 144 X 0 7548) /~78 = 83 9
Leaving superheater, V = 1.3013, h = 14625, S = 16762, e = 14625- (600 x
144 x 1.3013) /778 = 14625 - 1445 = 13180, pV - 144 5
(b) For ecoll9mlzer, q = Ilh = 375.36 - 169.30 = 20606 Btu{1b. For bOller,
q = ll886 - 37.5 4 = 813.2 Btu!lb For superheuter, q = 14025- 11886 =
2739 Btu/lb
(c) By Fig 3 of Keenan-Keyes steam tables, at s = 02931 and p = 600 psm,
(h - h,) = 1.8 Btu/lb or 1400 ft-Ibllb. For saturated water.t 8 = 02931, T =
1995°F Pump work estimated on basis of pressure change with neghglble lU-
ternal energy or volume change = (600 - 114) x 144 x 001663 =- 1410 ft-lh/lb,
WhICh agrees well With the above value of (h - h,).
Observe that, If durmg the above passage through the economizer,
boiler, and superheater, with the Bame heat input and terminal en-
thalpy, frictional reSIstance had however caused a progressive pressure
drop·to 550 pSla on leaving the superheater, the leaving entropy would
be 16855 (VB. 1.6762). This increase of 0.0093 Btu/(lb, OR) would
signify a decrcasq of available energy whIch, if the steam were deliv-
ART. 8-13 REVERSIBLE ADIABATIC PROCESS 145
ered to an engine operating wit~ a 100'F exhaust temperature, would
amount to (00093 X 560 ~) 5.4 Btu or 4050 ft-lb/lb of steam
ExaOlple 8~3. In all lce-makrng plant. dlBtilled waLer at lOOQF and at.:-
mosphenc pressure is placed in an open can and IS there cooled to the ice point,
IS frozen at that temperature. and IS further chilled to 2QoF by energy removal
as heat. What amounts of heat removal are required for each portlOn of the
proceS3 and for the entue.process per 2240~lb ton of ice made? Neglect external
hoot transfers and the thermal Capaf'lty of the eRn mater1.'l1, and .'lIsa the mfluence
of the excess of atmosphenc pressure over the saturatwn pressures
Solution. To cool the water, q = ah = 00 - 6796 Bbu/lb and -152,200 Btu/
ton; to freeze, q= -14335-00= --;-14335 Bw/lb and -321,000 Btu/ton, to
dull the ice, q- -14931+14335- -596 Btu/lb and -13,300 Btu/ton,
total =0-217.28 Btu/lh and -4S6,OOO Btu/ton
8·13. Reversible Adiabatic Process. Recalling that ds-
(~q+ ,,,,)IT (equation 7-6), it is agam recogmzed that an adiabatIC
process durmg which frictIOnal effects are also effectJvely zero is like-
wise an Isentropic process. This feature is a major prartical attnbute
of the entropy function, in its correspondmg proVIsion of an Item
which remams constant whIle all other propertles progressIvely change
on reverslb1e adiabatIc expansion or, compreSSIOn. Although actual
processes are rarely absolutely adiabatic or entirely escape fluid fric-
tion and turbulence, these condItions may be approached. More
important, the reversIble adIabatic or isentropIC proceoo prOVIdes an
mvaluable reference baSIS WIth which actual performances may be
compared or by consideration of which actual results may be forecast
To illustrate, Ideal flow is regularly 3pproached within 5 per cent in
a well-designed nozzle Or WIthin 15 per cent in an entire turbme or
engine.
Eadier analyses established that
(a) For non-flow adiabatic processes w ~ J(e2 - e,) or
J(e 2 - e,). If reversIble.
(b) For steady-flow adiabatic processes,
g('l - '2) Ul' - U,2
32.17 + 6435 + IW2 = J(h2 - hI) or = J(h2 - hI).
if reversible.
(c) In any case, if entropy change is zero,
(h2 - h,). _ .[2 v dp or (<2 _ 61). ~ _.[2 P dv

Example 8-4. Steam at 500 pSJa and 900°F IS dehvered to a turbme and
expands thereIn to an exha,ust pressure of 2" Hg abs. (a) If the expanSion
were adiabatlc and reversIble, and the entermg and leavmg velOCItIes were,
respectlVeJy, 1200 and 0000 fpm, flow much work would be delIvered? (b) Neg-
146 SOLID, LIQUID, AND VAPOR PROPERTIES CHAP 8
lectlllg velocIty effects at midpomts, how much work would be secured on
expansion to the point at which the steam became Jll::;L Maturated, ami how much
to the pOInt at whICh the pressure 1U the turbme was that of the atmosphere
(i e • 14.7 psia)? (c) For the expansion through the superheat regIon what values
of nand m would be mdicated as suItable If for thIS, expansion pv" and T !p'"
might be taken as constants? Compare the correspondmg value of 12 to dp with
the previously determmed value of the change of enthalpy during thiS expanSIOn
(see Art 3-9), (d) What areas of supply and exhaust pipes would be required
to accommodate the steam flow at the above velocities ]f the turbme output was
10,000 hpj
SolutIOn The state and properties of the ~team supply are the same as thOlse
of the steam leaving the superheater in Example 8-2 of Art g...12, that is, VI-
1J0l3, h, - 1462.5, 81 - 1.6762, <I - 1318
(a) At 2" Hg abs, Tnt = 101.PF, 8, = 01316, and s, "'" 19797, so that to
depart at the imtIal entropy the leavmg steam must be a saturated mixture of
less than 100 per cent quality, unless supersaturatIon should occur But 8~ =
8,+ '8", and thusz - (8. - 8,)/." -(16762 - 01316)/1.848 - 0.8358, or 83.58%
Correspondmgly, the leavmg enthalpy.,.,. h, + xh" .... 691 + 0.&158 X 10366 ==
93S.4 Btullb, Dr more directly (by equation 8-6) = h, - (Sr - 8",) T - nos 7 -
(I 9797 - 16762) (IOU + 460) _ 9354 Thus
150' - 20'
Work'd .. , - 64 35 + 778(935.4 - 1462.5) - 343 - 4IO,IOO
- -409,800 ft-Ib/lb or -5267 Btujlb

(b) At saturatIOn, with 8 .... 16762 = 8" T = 267.3°F, p""" 400 pSla, h, =
1169.7 and v,'" 10 (98 Work output to thiS state = 1462 S - ll6!) 7 = 292.8
Btu/lb. On e:tpanBJon to 147 psia., at s 16762, h _ 11504 - (17566 - 16762)
=0
(212 + 460) .,. 1096.4, and the work output on expansion to this state".. 14625 -
1090 4 - 3661 Btullb.
(c) n - In (pdp,) /In (V,/VI) =
In (600/40)/ln (10498/1.3013) - 2708/2086 -
L298, or pv I " . '8 constant, m -In (TdT,)lIn (pdp,) = In (13601727.3)/ln
(;600/40) = 06152/2708 _ 0.2275 At pV1298 = PIVI1~()8J.[2 V dp = VIPlo 77
1 p-O 7T dp and, as Vl - 1.3013, PI = 600 X 144 and P2 = 40 X 144, the value
of the mtegral is 227,000 ft-lh/lb or 291.7 Btullb. This compares well with the
above value of 292.8 Btu/lb for the enthalpy decrease to the saturatIOn pomt
(d) At IO,OOO-hp outpu~, ,team required - (2544/5267) X 10,000 = 48,300
Ib/hr At VI - 1.3013 eu ft/lb and 'ltl = 1200 fpm, AI """ (48,300 x 1.3013)/
(1200 X 60) = 0.873 sq ft. After UJentroplc expansion to 2 !D. Hg aba and
83.580/0 qualtty, v - 0.8358 X 3392 - 2113.5 cu ft/lb and A = (48,300 x 283.5)/
(9000 X 60) = 25J 'q It
The preceding example relates to isentropIc expanSIOn for work

procurement. The opposite process of compression is regularly em-
. played for effecting pressure and/or temperature rise. The following
example relates to such a compression, and also serves to indicate a
lesser work requirement for effecting a given temperature rise 11 the
vapor is ini'tially wet
ART. 8-14 IRREVERSIBLE-ADIABATIC PROCESSES 147
Ex:ample 8·5. Saturated Bleam at 220°F IEl to be compressed L3entroplcaHy
and sufficIently that the saturatlon temperature at ~he delIvery pressure IS 250JoF,
Or P2 = 300 psta. (a) What wIll be the state of the compressed steam, and the
reqmred work mput per pound, if the steam IS JIlIually dry? (b) What amount
of water at 220°F would have to be mIXed InlWaUy In order that, on compreSSIOn
of the wet rnlxture, the lea.vIng mlXture Will be at 250.3°F but dry, and what
Will be the reqUlred work mput per pound of the origmally dry steam 7
Solution. For dry and sa.turated steam at 220°F, hI = 1153.4. Btu/lb and 81 -
17440 Btu/(Ib, OR). •
(a) When compressed lsentropically, at 8 = 17740, and P2 = 300 pma, h2-
1197.4 Btu/Ib and T2 = 316"F, corresponding to a superheat of 66°F. Work Input
reqUired - 11974 - 1153 4 - 440 Btu/lb
(b) To cause delH'ery dry and saturated at 300 pSLa and 250.3°F, at whJCh state
8 = 16993 and h = 1164.1, the material must be mibally a mixture of quality
(z) such that tit + Ur, = 0.3239 + 1 4201x = 16993, or x [=m.!(m. + m ... )]
- (16993 - 03239)/14201- 09686 That is, 00314 Ib of water at 220°F must
have been mtroduced per pound of mixture to have enabled (wet) compression
to dry and saturated ,\ate at 250JoF, or 00314/(100 - 0.(314) - 00324 Ib/lb of
the origlnal mOIsture-free steam
For thIS mIxtUre 01 1 IL of vapor and 00324 Ib of water that is to be compressed
the enthalpy lS (lOO X 1153 4 + 0 0324 X 1881 _) 11595 Btu Initially, and
(1034 x 1164 1 =) 12018 aft-er isentropic compression to the dry~.saturated state
The work correspondmgly reqUIred I.S thus (1201 8 - 11595 _) 42.3 Btu, and
surpriamgly is less than the 440 Btu reqUired for the compresSIon of 1 lb of
lrutially dry steam through the same pressure range.
8·1<1. Irreversible·Adiabatic and Throttling Processes. The
essentIal feature III whIch the IrreversIble adiabatic process dIffers
from the ideal reversible one is the growth of entropy accompanymg
the irreversIble ones The increase may range from a quite moderate
one accompanying the flow in suitably designed channels to amounts
such that the enthalpy change dliTers by perhaps 50 per cent from that
corresponding to an isentropIC process, as in a lower-grade turbine or
compressor. A limiting character of expansion is one so thoroughly
irreversible that no enthalpy decrease results. This is conventionally
known rts a throtthng proces8.
Example 3-6. In ~ontrast to the presumed isentropIc expansion through the
Ideal turbIne of Art. 8-13, in an actual turbine operatlD.g with the same steam
flupply. exhaust pressure, and ve\o('.lty conditIOns, the actual work output per
pound of steam is found by test to be 75 per cent of the Ideal, or (075 X 5267 """)
3950 Dtu/lb. That lB, the eteam reqUlred is (2544/3950 """') 6 94 Ib/hp-hr, vs. the
ideal requirement of 483 lbfhp-hr (a) What WIll be the values of the various
thermodynamiC properties of the steam as It leaves the turbme? (b) What
entropy mcrease accompanIes the actual exparunon? (c) Com.pare the associated
decrease in the work output per pound of .steam with the dllference in values
for the Dameus .Ilv.Illlablllty function (Art. 7.10).
Solution (a) h, - h, + w/778 + (u,' - u,')/(778 X 6435) - 1462.5-
395.0 - 0.4 = 1067.1 BtuJlb. At pz"" 2 JD Hg ahs, h, =< 1105.7', (1 - xz) =
(H057 - 10671)/10366 - 0037," - 0963 or 967%, and" = 1.9797 - 0037 x
1.8481 _ I 9113
(b) 8, - '1 - 1.9113 - 1 6762 - 02351 Iltll/ (lb, OR)
(c) b, - b, - (h, - h,) - T, (s, - '1) - 10671 - 1<625 - 561 X 02351 -
527,1 Btu/lb. ThIS decrease In avatiabIltty IS Identical With the value of the
meCh(llllcaj effects whICh Ideally could be obtamed (5267 + 04). But of the
Ideally aVlulable amount, only 3954 are eVIdent as mechamcal effects; the fric-
tIonal mfluence havmg made It necessary to reject the remainder as beat.
A pure throttling process is one in which a fluid expands adiabat-

ically but thoroughly irreversibly through a labyrmthal or porous
obstruction in a line, without appreciable velOCIty increase at any
pam! EffectIvely the same ultimate results are secured with a nearly
closed valve or wlth a small orifice through a plate across a pipe line,
provIded that the accretIon of velocity occurring directly in the aper-
ture is rapidly dissipated by a high degree of turbulence in the stream
t j
t t
To atrnosphere t s
FIg. g..7. Throttling calorimeter.

after the constrIction. In this case the organIzed velOCIties of the
'approachmg and departing fluid streams become neglIgible or dIffer
negligibly, The energy equation for the flow so becomes
hI = h.
or the process may be described as isenthalpic.
The process IS used ill practice for purposes of pressure control (but
in prinCIple with a diSSIpation or a degradation of energy that other-
wise might be made mechanically "available") and also for ascertain-
ing the quality of saturated bul slightly wet steam such as that leaving
a bOller, by Ihe lDstrument known a8 the throttling calorimeter, It
IS also used in laboratory experimentatlOn contributing to determina-
tIons of vapor properties in general, in the so called J oule-Thomson
experimenL Reference to the h-. dIagram WIll indicate that a
sufficient pressure drop on Isenthalpic throttling of slightly wet steam
WIll caUse it to become moderately superheated. As data taken on
the eXIsting pressure and temperature of the superheated steam serves
10 establIsh ,its state and enthalpy, the enthalpy and corresponding
AUT. 8-15 SEMI-FLOW PROCESS 149
quality when at the pressure ahead of the throttlIng device IS also so
determined The arrangement constitutmg the throttlmg calorimeter
so becomes merely a sampling sonnection III the stream whose qualIty
it is desIred to know, a small onfice through whIch the .sample· is
throttled to about atmospheric pressure, and instruments measurmg
the temperature and pressure of the low-pressure departing stream
Suitable conditlOTIS- are necessary for assuring: that the process IS
effectively adiabatic. A simple arrangement of the devIce and the
effective character of the process as It appears to h-s coordmates are
indicated In FIg. 8·7.
Example 8.7. A sampIe of tbe steam leaVIng the bOiler of Example 8-2,
at 600 psm and 98% quality IS throttled through a calonmeter to atmospheric
pressure (147 psm) (n) ·What temperature Wlll the steam exhibJt as It Jeave8
the calOrImeter? (b) What enthalpy and IDltial quahty would be mdIcated If
the temperature In the c2.1orimeter. after the ormce, were lllStead 260°F?
Solut'ton (a) Enthalpy of the steam leaving the boiler""," 1188 6 Btu!lb, and
IS also that of the steam leavlllg the calonmeter. By the superheated steam
tables, at p"'" 14.7 pSla and h = 1188 6, the temperature 19 f!hown to be 291.2°F.
(b) If P2 = 147 psis and T2 =,260"F, h2 = 1173.8 = hi and thus %1
[-(h.-h,l/h,.J- (Il738-4716l/7316-0960, or the qualIty is 960%.
3·15. Semi·Flow Process; The Steam Accumulator. A semi·
~ow process with a hquid and its vapor is well exemplified in the steam
accumulator, as frequently employed to assist a bOller installation of
lImited capacity in meetmg peak demands for steam. It consists of a
pressure vessel in which a supply of saturated water and stearn may
be stored in periods of lesser steam demand, and from which steam
may be withdrawn during periods 01 greater demand. The sItuation
may be analyzed by e'luatlOn 3-16, suitably rearranged, as illustrated
in the following example
Example 3-3_ A tank of 1000 cu ft capacity contams 780 ell ft of saturated
water at 220°F (1719 pSla) and 220 cu ft of saturated vapor at the same tempera-
ture and pressure (a) Determine the amount of dry-saturated stea.m at 160 pSla
to be introduced to bring the pressure III the vessel to 160 pSlll and the amounts
of wnter and steam then contamed, presummg neglIgible heat loss during the
process. (b) Determme the amount of dry-saturated stea.m tha.t may be with-
drawn from the vessel, at progressively decreasing pressures, untIl that pressure
is reduced to 100 psia.
Solutwn. At the lDitial conditIOn there are in the vessel (780/001667 ..... )
46,510 Ib of water at 220°F and (220/2315 =) 9.5 Ib of vapor, or an aggregate of
46,5201b (_ mIl. For this, mlel - 46,510 X 188,13 + 95 X 11534 - (17.186 X
144 x 1000) {778 .... 8,758,000 Btu, and therefore (:1 = 188.3.
(a) The total mass (m2) m the vessel after charging to 160 psia (363.5°F), and
the milial ma.ss may be associated by equatIon 3-16a, or
ho - el 4 20 1195.1 - 188.3
m2::::O m l - - - = 65
ho - e, ' 1195.1 - (335.4 + 775.s",)
Volume of vessel 1000
But also m2=
v, 001815+ 2.816x,
where X!l = the proportlOn of the conten~ that remain8 as vapor after chllrgmg
Solvmg the last relatIOns sImultaneously, x2 = 0000073 and m2 = 54,470 Ib, of
which only 40 Ib are vapor The value of e2 neglIgibly exceeds_ 3354 Btu/lb
The steam absorbed In chargmg the accumulator is thus (54,470 - 46,520 =)
~ 7950 Ib
(b) During withdrawal of (dry) steam from the vessel, energy for il:l vapUrI-
zatIon bemg provIded by coolmg of the water, Its enthalpy vanes from 11951
BtuJlb IrutIally to 11872 after pressure drop to 100 psia (327 gOF). Although
In prmclplp- lHlf! of equat.IOn 3-15 IS mdlcated, equatIon 3-16 and a mean ,'alue
of 11911 may be used WJth neglIgible error. Thus, With sUhscnpts 1 and 2 now
referrmg to termmal statea for the dtschaTging,
ho - el 1191 1 - 3354 1000

m2. = ml--- = 54 1470 and also =
no-1l2 lU111-l2981+S071x2) 001774+4432x~
Soh'mg, 2:2 - 0000319 and mz - 52,210 lb ThuB the WIthdrawal of (51,4'70-

52,210 =) 2260 Ib of steam reduced the pressure m the accumulator to 100 psia
(~27 .8"F), leavmg 17 lb of steam and 52,190 lb of water
8~16. Problems. 1 (a) From the saturated steam tables at 600 pSla report
the thermodynamIc propertIes at bqUld and vapor states, report whether the
values of Items WIth subscrIpt f plus correspondlDg ones WIth subscript fg equal
tnose with subscnpt g, and check the equahty of the values of h and the sum
e + pv/J (or u + pv/J III table symboll:l) Cb) Check the equality of s,~ and
h,~/T Cc) By plottmg saturatIOn values of P VB T at and about 600 psia and
findmg graphlcally the slope of the resultmg curve at th18 state, or findmg in any
other BlIItable manner the value of (dp/dT) •• t. compute by the Clapeyron rela-
tion the correspondmg value of h,v at thIS pressure, checkmg your result WIth
the quoted value
2. For saturated ethane at 70°F p~v~T data show that Vr = 00463 and t!~ =
01795 eu ft!1b and (dp/dT) .. t = 6 '72 psi/OF What IS the latent heat of vapon-
zation of ethane at this temperature? Ans. 8'7.8 Btullb
3 Compute the thermodynamic properties for wet steam at 600 psia and (1)
98% quahty. (2) 250/0 quahty. For wet steam at 670 pSla and an entropy of
1500 Btu/ (lb, OR) compute the enthalpy and other propertIes
4. (a) For steam at 600 pSJa and 9OO"'F determine the number of degrees of
superheat and other properties (b) Recallmg that T ds = dh - 'V dpfJ, and
that thus at constant pressure (ah/as)p = T, by plottmg the table values of h
VB 8 at and about 900°F but for the constant pressure of 600 psiaJ find the partial
deTlvative (flh/CJs), at this pomt and check the result WIth the temperature to
Wh1Ch It relates.
5 For water at 200°F, and at both 600 and 1500 pSla, determme from the
steam table the thermodynamic properties, mcluding mterna1 energy.
6 What. will be the increase of enthalpy accompanymg the i..-entrnpic com-
pression by a pump of saturated water imtIally at 300°F to a dehvery pressure
of 800 pSla, and also the termmal enthalpy and temperatUJe? Compare the
result as secured from the SUItable curves of the Keenan-Keyes tables WIth that
computed approxima.tely from the mitutl speCific volume and the pressure
increase, neg1ecting Ilny volume and internal energy change on the compression.
7. From steam table data at T = 260 P and 'P = I, 3, 10, and 354 pSla, ascer-
0
tam the approxImate pressure range ove'r ""hleh the relatlOll pV = Povo 18 reason-
ably VH.hd for warer vapor at the stated temperature. and also determme the
quotient pul(T, OR) at each state
8. For 5team at 600 pSla determme the mean specific heat (Cl') between "490°
and 510°F (Ie, the apprOXImate value at 500" F) m the followmg ways.
(a) From FIg 6 of the Keenan-Keyes tables, (b) ,!!'rom the tabular values of
h', recallmg that dh = c, dT or C"m:.11 = f1h/1l.T; (c) From the tabular values
of 8, recallmg that. 8q = Cl' dT and also (1' as);, and thus that c, =
(as/'l'-laT)!} - [as/a(ln T)), or Cp ,1DUD -= .:1s!.:1(ln T).
9 From steam table data at 8 = 1 620 Btu! (lb, OR) and p = 2300, 670, and
81 p&a, ascertam the degree of agreement With the apprOXImate relatlOns pv1 S =
povo13 and T/p023 = Toi po023 for the IsentropIC expanslOn o£ Buperheated
bteam. Compute the corresponwng values of v and T on further expanSIon to
50 pSla II the vapor becomes supersatwated and the a.bove relatIOns contmued to
hold Compare With the values If InStead progreSSIVe condensatIOn. occurs.
10. Plot to scale from steam table data a skeh:tull T-s dLagram shOWIng the
lCe Ime from _40 0 to +32°F, the fuslOn hne at 32"F, the saturated hqmd Ime
to 70S"F, and the saturated vapor Ime from _40· to 705°F. UEle of a scale of
1 III = 200° and 0.5 Btu! (lb, OR) wlil permit use of conventIonal 8lze of cross-
sectlOn paper. Draw In the hne of -460°F (1 e., OOR) ProvIde T-acales m both
of and OR On the dIagram draw also (a) constant pressure hnes for 15 and
600 PSla. from the saturated lIqUId hne to 1200°F, and a 4000-psia Isobar from
about 600° to I2O<J"Fj (6) constant quaLIty lines for 50% and 80% from -40~ to
705"F, (c) an IsenthalplC lme for h = 1140 Btullb from about 180 to 800°F;
0
(d) a hne of constant superheat of 100·F, and (e) a Ime of constant specIfic
volume of 100 cu ft/lb from about 160" to 12oo°F. Locate on.ly a suffic1ent
number of pomts for each line to enable reasonable surety of its onentatlOn
11. By reasonably careful area determmatlOns on the dmgram of problem 10
(usmg, If demed, suitable but graphically selected mean temperatures), secure
values for compRflson WIth the tabUlar values of the enthalpy of ice at - 40"
and 32"F, and of saturated water and vapor at 600 pSla, and for steam at 600 PSHl.
and 1200°F.
12 Plot to scalI:! from ISteam Lable data a skeleton h-8 wagram showmg the
same hnes as were called for III problem 10, except for omISSIOn of the constant
volume lIne and the prOVISIon of an ISothermal lme for T = 486"F. Use of a
scale of 1 lll. = 200 Btu and 0.5 units of entropy wIll permit use of conventIOnal
size of cross-sectIOn. paper. Locate only a sufliClent number of pomts for each
hne to enable reasonable surety of Ita onentatIOn. indICate the portIOIl mcluded
as the h-s diagram of the Keenan-Keyes steam tables.
13 Plot to scale from steam table data a skeleton p-h diagram showing the
saturatIOn lmes from IOta 1000 pSIa, usmg a-cycle semiIog paper WIth pressures
on the logaflilimic scale and an enthalpy scale of about 10 In. = 250 Btu.
Develop also hnes for T = 400°F, 8 - 1 700, v = 10 eu ft/lb, and x; = 050
14 Utihze the results of the computatIOns of problem 9 rebtmg to the Isen-
tropIC expansion of steam but With supersaturatIOn to 50 psm, at s = 1620, for
plottmg on the T-s and h-s dmgrams of problems 10 and 12 a supersaturatIOn
extemlOn of the 50 pSla Isobar In tlle supersaturated state, by bow many "F
IS the steum temperature below that of saturahon temperature at 50 pSla? Indi-
cate on the h-s dIagram the entropy change accompanymg abrupt isenthalpic
reversion, at 50 pBla, from the supersaturated to an equIllbrIa) or saturated status
15 Presummg the specIfic heat of subcooled water to be effectIvely 100
Btul (lb, OF), compute the entropy change of cooling to og and -40°F and So
represent by dotted €xtenslOD of the llqwd 1me of problem 10 the subeooled
hqUId line. '
16. Presume It wnrm bu~ dosed bOller to contam 200 ell It of (saturated) water
at 212°F and 50 ell it of vapor Compute (a) the mitIal masses of water and
vapor and theIr total, (b) the subsequent illH.1:iSeS awl volumes ur (t:!aturated)
water and vapor III the bOIler after havmg brougbt the pressure up to 585 pSI
gage (600 psm), With neghglble change of total volume, by energy supply as
heat and In preparatlOn for cuttmg the bOIler m on a 600-psia steam bae No
water was suppLed nor steam dehvered, and thus (m .. + mtp) and (m.vr + m",v g )
are the I'lll,me as they were Initially. (Greater eXllctne&<l WIth shde-rule computa-
twns IS secured by cluect solutwn for m p rather than moo) (0) Also compute the
I equLSlte heat supply for the process 1£ radIatIOn losses and energy requIred for
heatmg the materIal of the bOIler are neglected.
17 A volume of 1660 cu ft 01 water in a cylmder (Wlth pIston) is illltIally at
200°F and 585 pSI gage but by energy receptIOn as heat IS transformed to steam
of 987'0 qualIty at the same pressure, the constancy of pressure bemg attained by
penlllttmg the [nston to retreat as the water expands and vaponzes CODlpute
the amount of energy reqUlred as heat to effect the process, neglectmg energy lost
by radIation or In heating the cylInder materJaI, and deterrmne those porbons of
thIS energy whIch go to mcrea.se lllternal energy and to work III forcing the
pIston out.
18 WIth the h-s dIagram of the steam tables, check ill so far as pOSSible the
resul1:8 of IllustratIve example 8-2.
19. Check the results of parts (a) and (b) of Illustrative example 8-4 by use of
the h~s dIagram of the steam tables
20 Steam at 500 pSla and 600°F approa.ches an Ideal nozzle WIth negligIble
InrtIal velOCIty but expands therem adl3,batically and with neglIgIble fnction or
turbulence (or supersaturatIon) to 100 psia. Compute by usc of the strom tables
the pressure and temperature at whICh It Will become (dry) saturated, and all
terminal propertIeIi and the velUl!lty 01 the departmg Jet j also check results by
use of the h-s dmgram of the steam tables.
21 In the Ideal reciprocatmg engme the sequence of events IS (a) entry of
higher-pressure steam to the cyhnder through the admissIOnyalve dUrIng a portion
of the power stroke, or to the pomt of "cutoff/' thereby caUSing forward motIOn
of the pIston ag[l.IDst the l'Pst.<ltJng faree Imposerl by the engine Joan; (b) closure
of the admISSIOn valve and a reverSible mhabatlC and non-flow expansIOn of the
enclosed ,steam to some lower pressure, accompanymg continued forward motIOn
of the piston to the end of the power stroke; (c) a return of the pIston to origmal
pOSItIOn on the "exhaust" stroke, effectmg delIvery of the entIre mass of steam
from the cyhnder through the exhaust valve and lllle against the exhaust pressure
Presummg a steam supply at the same state and the same exhaust pressure as
that of illustratlve example 8-4, Art. 8-13, compute (1) the work output up to
cutoff, (2) that durmg the non-flow expansion, (3) the work returned for efi'ectmg
delIvery of the steam from the cyhnder, and (4) the net work of the cycle, all
per pound of steam. Compare the net work WIth that found in the Illustratlve
example; al'llo report the cylmder volume that would be reqUIred to accommodate
1 lb of steam If complete expansion to the specified exhaust pressure is to be
prOVIded for.
22. Check. the results of tllustratlve examples 8--6 and,S-7 of Art.IS-14 by Ilse
of the published h-s (hagl'.'Jm. ! r
23 Steam 1l,t 600 psin and 900 a F is throttled to 500 pSla pnOr to entry into
a steam ,turbine whIch IS operatmg wlth an exhaust pressure of 2" Hg abs, and
Wlth an actual work Dutput that IS found by test to be 75% of the ISen.tropic
output securable with the throttled steam supply. lfl) What wiIl be the actual
work output m Btu per pound of steam. the -correspondmg amount of stea.m
required t;Jer horsepower-hour of work, and the yalues of all thermodynamIc
properties at the turbme mlet and exhaust, neglectmg any lunette energy eflects?
(b) Compare the actual work output With the Ideal Ol!tput of the Illustrative tur-
bme of Example 8-4, and. by rec.allmg that AQR = T}J!lS, .separate the dJffereD('e
between the Ideal and actual works mio that attTibutfible to tne throt.tling and
that to the non-Idea,l expanSlOD Jfl the turbme; proceed UBlDg both the steam
tables data WIth needed computations and the pubhshed h-s diagram, comparing
results. (c) Compute the values of the Dameus availabIlIty function for the
steam as supphed, after throttlmg, and on leavmg the turbme, usmg 1011 of as
TH. What are the changes lD the value of ihe availability funeMon for the
actual processes, and for the processes If conducted Ideally? (d) Sketch the
several prOcesses to T-s, h-s) and p-h COOIdmates. Show on the T"-8 sketch the
area representing the ldell.l work output and the areas representmg the reductIon
due to InltIal throttlmg and to turbine imperfectlOn~; and on the h-s and p-h
sketches show the sa.me items by sUltable lengths alohg the enthalpy coordmate.
24. FJgtlre 8-8 mdicates the deVIces and\fiow sequence m an elementary steam
2
Turbine
Pump
Heatmg system 6
Qoul
p, T,
Point psia. OF
1 14.7 100
2 200 100
3 200 300
4 196 (x = 098)
5 190 500
6 20
Fig. R-8
heatmg plant eqmpped Rlso wIth a turbogenerator for supplementary or "by-
product" power generatIOn Pressures, temperatures. etc. at locatlOns 1 to {) are
mdlcated, the work output of the adlabatIC turbme IS 65% of the lsentroplC
ideal; velocIties are neglIgIble. The pump is motor drIven from the turbogen-
erator j for slrnplirity regard the generator and pump-motor efficiencIes as ef-
fectIvely 100%. (a) Determine and report in SUItable tabular form the values
of h, pvll, El, and s at each mdlCated locatIOn (b) Compute and report on the
same table the amounts of energy per pound of flUid supplIed or departmg as
heat and as shaft work and check your accounts by ascertammg if the net energy
entry as heat equals the net energy departure as work. (c) Sketch the cycle WIth
reasonable care to T-s, h-8, and p-h coordInates, mdicate by number on the
dlagra.ms the above locatIOns In the cycle; and on the h-s and p-h diagrams show
by SUItable lengths on the enthalpy coordmute the pertment energy quantItIes.
Fig &9
25 The arrangement shown m the wagram of Fig 8-8 is modIfied In the man-
ner shown lD liIg 8-9, the energy reqUired for feed water heatmg bemg prOVIded
by steam 'taken from the Ime leavmg the baller, WIth the condensate drammg
from the heater. to the pump suction (or <tfeed tank") All other conditions
are as above (a) Setting up the energy equabon Cor the portIOn of the system
wlthm the dash-1!nes of the figure, de~ermme the amount of steam reqUired
for supplymg the feedwater heater (ma) per pound of steam gomg to the turbme
(mf), or ffls/m'l' That RI, mHh( + 1n'1'hl = (ms + mr) (Ita + Wpump), where
W~llmp = reqmred pump work per pound. (b) Presuming a lOOO-kw load on the
turbme, what wIll be the reqUlred amounts of saturated and superheated steam,
in pounds per hour, and the amount of heat obtamable per hour hom the heat-
mg &ystem? (c) Presummg the boIler and superheater to operate With a 75%
thermal effimency with fuel Oil of 19,500 Btu{lb heatmg value, compute the
amount of oil reqUlred pel:' hOllr at the abo1'e turbUle load and per kl1owatt-hour
output 01 turbine; also the thermal effiCIency of the plant for power generahon
( = work out/energy supplled m fueD (d) The heater reduces thermal stresses
In the bOller; does It benefit effiCIency?
9 . PROPERTIES AND PROPERTY RELATIONS
Ideal Gases
9·1. Foreword. In Chapter 8 procedures were mdlCated whereby
t ..bular and graphical collections of thermodynamic properties for a
particular flUId may be employed for practical engineering purposes
In many mstances such facilIties are VIrtually necessary. Chapter 11
will indicate the character of the requued experimental data and of
the analyses involved in the prOVISlOn of such tables or graphs of
properties for various flUIds.
However, the characteristics of the simpler gases, if at low and
moderate pressures, have been found to approach closely those aT flie
ideal' gas 'which was postulated by Kelvm (Art 6·3)· For that
reason' it-is possible and has long been the praceIce to evolve and em-
ploy equations for associatmg the thermodynamlC properties of low-
pressure gases The followmg materIal IndICates the background and
the method of utihzatlOn of such property relations III tbe analysis of
typical processes. It will be found thae the ideal· gas relations COIl'
tmue to have utlhty as a background when associatmg the propertIes
of the non· Ideal, hIgher pressure gases.
9·2. Ideal·Ga. Equation of State. The primary characteflstic of
the ideal gas is recalled (Art. B·3) to be that the product pv 1~ ~t all
states proportIonal to the absolute tem.uerature 1';!hat I~.~
pv/T = povo!To and a constant (R) (9.1)
ThIS relation is known as the equation of state (or "characterIstic
equation") of the. Ideal gas. The quotient whICh IS founJ-to 'liold~ for
a'partieular gas when at very low pressure is known as ItS gas eons/ani,.
conventIOnally denoted by the symbol R The three-varIable relatIOn
of equation 9-1 is representable by a wa7Jjed surface whlCh 18 indicated
in Fig. 7·11.
In addItion to the individual constancy of R for an ideal gas or
low-pressure actual gases, and for reasons developed by the kllletic
theory of gases, the values of R for such gases are found further to be
*The sole critenon for the Ideal gas 15 that the product pu IS proDortional to
temperature See Arts 9-2 and 9-8 The term "perfect gas" 18 sometImes used
m this sense, and sometimes to descnbe a gas to which further attrIbutes, such
as constant speci.fic beats, are also ascnbed.
155
155 IDEAL GASES CHAP. 9
Inversely proportional to their formula mass (or "molecular weight") ,
that is, for gases a, b} or x of formula mnes Ala, 11I111 or }"f~,
R,jR, ~ llib/M.I or M.a. ~ M.a,··· ~ M,R. and a constant,R u
(g-2)
where Ro Identifies what IS known as a mol,ar gas constant. The mole
lS recalled to be that quantity of matena! the mass of which, in units
such as pounds or grams, equals the formula mass. This leads to an
alternative general expression of the equation of state of Ideal or low~
pressure actual gases III the form
p(Mv)/T or pV M/T ~ MR ~ Ru or pV M/RoT ~ 1000 (9-3)
where V M ~ volume per mole (i e , per formula mass)
As the pv product has the dlmensions of energy, and lS more directly
expressed in um!s of mecha~lCal ;mtec;dents, llie 'fndlvidual and molar
gas constants arc frequently reported m units such as ft-Ih/ (lb, OR) and
ft-lb/ (lb-male, OR), hter-atm/ (gm, OK) and hter-atm/(gm-mole,
OK), or joules/ (gm, OK) and loules/(gm-mole, OK). But, equally
BUltably, they may be expressed m units of thermal antecedents such as
Btu/(lb, OR) and Btu/(Ib-mole, OR), or cal/(gm-mole, ·K), with
possible ldentification, however, as R/J or Ro/J when evaluation of
the gas constant in thermal units is lmphed. Accepted magnitudes
a! the molar gas constant are
Ro ~ 1545.3 It-Ib/(Ib-mole, OR)
or = 0 082 liter-atm/ (gm-male, OK)
or ~.8 312 loules/(gm-mole, OK)
or = 1986 Btu/(lb-mole, OR) and cal/(gm-mole, OK) (9-4)
Observe the convenient feature that nmnerical values of Ro (or of R)
are necessanly the same when expre::;sed m either of the therma.l umts
indicated above. Table 9-1 provldes data on the lormula mass and
the indlvldual gas constant for a number of gases, including the dry-
mr mIxture. _fi'or convenience, values of the corresponding speCIfic
volume (v, or RT/p) or of denSIty (p) are gIven for two "standard"
eondltions. I\latewil of Chapter 10 mdicates methods of determm-
ing equivalent items for any mlxture of such gases.
An item of some further convemence lS the volume per mole of any
ideal gas at a standard state VM or Mv and equalIng RoT/p. Com-
monly used values of thlS item.""e 385 eu It/lb-mole at 68°F (20°C)
or 359 eu It/lb-mole at 32°F (O'C), and 224 liters/gm-mole at DoC,
all at 1 atm pr~s8ure. ..
j
RT. 9-3 IDEAL-CAS ENERGY CHARACTERISTICS . 157
Table 9-1. Formula Mass, Gas Constant, and SpeClfic Volume
or Demnty at Standard States ,
ased on a value lor the molar gas constant Ro 01 154532 It-lb/(lb-rnole, 'R)
or 1 986 Btu/(lb-mole, 'R) or call(gro-mole, 'K)
or 0.082 liter-atm/(gm-mole, 'K).
Ri pv/T SpeCIfic Density, p,

Formula Volume at 0°0
Mas!!,
ft-lb Btu Cal atand
14 7 p51R and
M - - o r - - 68"F, 1 atm,
lb,oR Ib,on gm, OK eu ft(lb
..... gm/hter
Sulfur woxllie (SO,) 64 07 24 12 o 03100 6 014 2 859
Carbon dIoXIde (CO,) 44 01 35 11 04512 8 755 1 961
Oxygen (0,) 32 00 48 29 06206 12 04 1 428
Air (dry) 28 97 53 34 06855 13 30 1 293
Nitrogen, atm 28 16 54 87 .07052 13 68 1 256
Nitrogen (N,) 28 02 5.1 16 07088 13 75 1 250
Carbon monoxide (CO) 28 01 55 17 .07090 13 76 1 2OO
Water vapor (H,O) 18 02 85 78 1102 21 39 o 8039
Hehum (He) 4 00 386 0 4961 96 26 o 1786
Hydrogen (H,) 2 016 766 5 9851 191 1 o 08995
Methane (CRt) 16 04 96 33 , 1238 2402 0.7158
Ethane (C,H,) 30 07 51 39 06605 12 81 1.342
9-3. Ideal-Cas Energy Characteristics. A second essenbal char-

acteristic of the Ideal gas, and one that has on Occasion-been regaraed
as 'independent but is in fact inherent for any fluid for which pv/T is
constant, IS that the internal energy and enthalpy <iepend solely on
its temperature. 'flUs is to say al~~- that these ar~ ~naffected by
pressure"or 'aensi(y change as long as the temperature is unchanged
RecognItIon of a. descrIptive aspect of the dependence of the mternal
energy solely on temperature may be helpfuL It develops from the
concept that the mternal energy stored [at molecular levels) in a fluid
may in general bc attributed both to potcntial energy assoCIated wIth
mtermolecular forces and to the kmetiC energy associated with molec·
ular activity, but that temperature is an index primarily of the
molecular actIVIty only, The consequent Implication is that with the
low- pressure gases the mtermolecular forces are so minute as to be
incapable of perceptIble modification, particularly III view of the
sparse distnbutlOn of the molecules in the space which the gas
"occupies," and that for the Ideal gas those forces are m fact zero
(see footnotes, Art. 2·2 and 11-4). In such Circumstances change in
the internal energy mIght be attributed only to change in the molecular
actIvity and thus result only from temperature change.
Several classIC laboratory experiments have been employed in
endeavors to confirm or disprove for actual gases the dependence of
the mternal energy and enthalpy solely on temperature In one that
is mOTe of academIC than practical concern, known as the Joule experi-
ment, the program IS in effect that of permlttmg separately confined
portions of a mass of gas, mitially at different pressures but at a known
common temperature, to mIx adIabatICally and WIthout change in
aggregate volume and so (by the energy equation) WIthout possi·bihty
of change of mternal energy. Verification of the postulated depend-
ence of e solely on T reqUIres that no difference be observed between
the 11lItiai temperature and that of the final mixture.
In a Becond experiment that is more readily performed and furnishes
very useful data, known as the Joule-Thomson (or Joule-Kelvm) ex-
periment, the gas is caused to flow with negligible velocity but steadIly
and adIabatically through a throttlmg deVICe such as a porous plug
in a Ime. By the steady-flow energy equation the process_.is thus
Isenth.lpic as well, of ah-~ O. Data are taken on the upstream and
downstream gas pressures and temperatures. The pressure must de-
croase in the dlIection of flow, but verIficatIon of a non-dependence
of enthalpy on pressure change will be secured If no difference is
observed between the upstream and downstream temperatures.
Inherent dIfficulties in such experimental methods oj e.tablishing
the non-dependence oj mternal energy and enthalpy on the pressure
and 'volume are readIly clTCumvented by an analytical approach.
For this purpose the general property relatIOn of equation 7-5a
T ds = de + p dv/J, is particularized for an isothermal volume change;
that is,
(ae/avlT ~ T(as/avlT - (p/J)
Introducing the Maxwell relation, J(as/av). ~ (ap/aT)" equation
7-15, t~is becomes
J(ae/avlT ~ T(ap/aT). - p
But for any fluid for which pv ~ RT, or p du + v dp ~ R dT, the par·
tlal denvative (ap/aT). ~ R/v. Therefore, again for an ideal gas,
J(ae/avlT ~ RT/v - p ~ p - p ~ 0 (9-5)
That is, the mternal energy may not change even with volume change
(as occasioned perhaps by pressure change) if the temperature is main-
tained constant. Internal energy change may thus be effected only by
temperature change.
Furthermore, as h - e + pv/J and for the ideal gas - e + RT/J,
ART 9-3 IDEAL--GAS ENERGY CHARACTERISTICS 1G9
the enthalpy of such a fluid likewise depend, only on e and T and thus
I
Bo]e]y on the temperature. * }
All recent evidence mdICa~~~ that ~no known gas IS precisely ideal,
but that.~thnut eXCeptloD all gases approach ideal behavior at lower
pres·sures and presumably reach ideal status in the limit of zero
pressure. For practlClil purposes of thermodynamics there is negligible
error in employing the ideal-gas assumptIon for the common gases at
pressures in the order of atmospherIc or below, and frequently at higher
T, (pu). e, or h
p
pressure. Such gases may be described as qUDSl-,deat However, at

"""'b"'"''''''''
b.\'bb.~t '}l'''~~''N''-~\'b'''1.\.~<>:,,( ""-" ..l"",,,,~ "'}l'I>"-"', ,,"'''-'' ""-'I>"-""-
Ing on the nature of the partIcular gas and Its temperature (see
Chapter 11).
Ideal-gas behavior eVIdently reqUIres, graphically, that on any
property diagram isothermal lines shall also be Isenthalpic. On T-,
and h-s diagrams for water vapor (Figs. 8-3 and 8-4) it IS seen that
in the low-pressure superheat region the isenthalpic or isothermallmes
conform very nearly to thlS requirement.
A useful way of exhlbitmg the above ideal-gas characteristICs is
indicated in FIg. 9-1, whicb shows the projection to the p-v plane oj
several isothermal Imes lymg on the p~v-T surface of an ideal gas
(such as is illustrated in FIg. 7-11). To p-v coordmates these lmes
* Alternatively, by equations 7-4a and 7-14, J(iJh/iJph = - T(fJv/iJT)'I' + V,
but Cor the idea.l gas (av/aT), equals Rip and thus viT The derlVative
(iJhl rJp) II' so equals zero for the Ideal gas, WIth consequences as already indICated.
'160 IDEAL GASES CHAP. 9
become equilateral hyperbolas, pv bemg constant for any line. But
m conformity with the foregomg any such lme may suitably he labeled
not only WIth the temperature (T) but also with the correspondlllg
value of pv and corresponding relative values of the internal energy (e)
and the enthalpy (h).
Practical consequences of the foregoing considerations are tbat, for
an Ideal gas or any actual gas at low pressures,
(a) The specific volume or density (l/v) at a stated absolute
pressure and temperature may be computed simply and directly if
eIther its gas -constant or formula mass is known.
(b) The relative enthalpy and internal energy magmtudes may be
determined from data on the temperature alone.
94. Entbalpy and Internal Energy Changes: The Specific Heats.
The specific heat at constant pressure c., ~ (8q/aT)., and that at can·
stant volume c", ~ (8q/aT)., were noted in Art, 3-12 to be expressible
also as
c. = (ah/aT). or (ah). = c.(a1'). (3-13)
and c, = (aejaT), or (ae), = c.(aT), (3-13a)
But, for the ideal gas, and as the mternal energy or enthalpy change
in passage from one temperature level to a second must be the same
irrespective of the manner of passage, the partial differential notation
may be dropped' and one may write that
c, (ideal gas) = dh/dT or dh = c, dT (9-6)
and c, (ideal gas) = de/dT or de = c. dT (9-7)
The foregoing would validate laboratory procedures for determinmg
c" and C. calonmetrically, by supplying energy as h~at (q) in meas-
ured amount (as by electrical reBis\ance coil) to a known mass 01 gas
while maintained respectively at constant pressure and at constant
volume, and observing the resultant rise in temperature 01 the gas,
Equations 9-6 and 9-7 validate further, however, the important COll-
sideration that, for the ideal or low-pressure gas, data as so obtained
concerning c, or c. may be employed for evaluating the change of
enthalpy or of internal energy during any passage from one tempera-
ture level to a second J irrespective of whether the pressure or volume
;. or is not constant during the process. The same conclusion would be
evident from consideration of Fig. 9-l.
A 'more recent technic for determination of c, avoids difficulties in
• Alternatively, as de ... (iJeliJv)rdv + (ae/iJT).dT, but for the idea.l ga.s
(ae/av), ill zero, (iJe/an. - de/dT. Similarly, (ahlan, - dh/dT,
ART. 9-4 dh AND de; SPECIFIC HEATS 161
the ",ay of adequately accurate c.lorJmetric measurements, partlCu-
larly at higher temperatures, an,l' utilizes instead facilities furnished
by methods of quantum and statistical mechanics for interpretation
of the bands exhibited in the SPectrograph of a gas. These bands
result from the absorpllon of energy at resonant frequencies, and a
knowledge of these frequencies peITllIts computation of vibrational
and other energies stored by intramolecular activity at low or nomi-
nally "zero" pressure. The most reliable data that are at present
available (1954) have been so determined. Such speeme heat data
may appear eIther in terms of energy per unit mass (0) or per mole
mass (C), but conventionally with the energy expressed in umts of
thermal antecedents, such as Btu/(lb, 'F) or Btu/(lb-mole, 'F).
Dili'erential notation is retained in cquations 9-6 and 9-7 as, although
independent of pressure or specific volume, the 8pecIiic heats of even
the Ideal. or low-pressure gases "sry appreciably WIth temperature.
Consequently, for determination 01 enthalpy or internal encrgy change
across a finite temperature range,
(h, - hI) (ideal gas)\ = j' Cp dT (9-6a)
l1wl (e2 - ell (ideal gas) = j2 c, dl' (9-7a)
To evaluate these integrals the specific heats must be represented or

expressed as functIOns of T. Graphical representatIOns are illustrated
in Fig 9-2 to linear scales of c and T, and actual values of C 11 VB. Tare
I
,...J-/--<'
/. ---
I / I
Il{J .L- -- -- I
l-- :
I
I
I
Fig. 9-2.
Table 9-2
Representative Op equations, Acceptable

In terms of Btu/ (lb-mole, OR), proposed Mean Values,
by SUItable 0'-5OIl°F
Gas
(1) Sweigert and Beardsley range, oR
(2) E D. Eastman cp!c..,
(3) K K Kelley Cp 'p
or k
(I) 3.470 116X10'

947- + T' 5411-9000
N, T 6 99 0246 I 40
(2) 6.76+3 37XIQ -'T+40 X 10-'T' 5<m-4500
(3) 650+556XIO-'T 540-5400
172 1530
(I) 11515-~
VT + -T- 540-5000
0, (2) 6.76+337XIU-'T+40XIO-'T' 54(}-45QO 7 22 o 220 I 38

608XIO'
(3) 827 + 1.4.3 X 10-'T- 540-9000
T'
--- ---
H, (I) 576+5 78 X IO-'T+20/Vr 540-4000
6 94 3 44 I 40
(2) 6.62+45XIO-'1' 5U(}-4500
---
He, I 24
A, 497 4 97 o 124 I 66
Ne o 246
- - ---
( 3290 107XIO'
I) 946-1' + 7" 540--9000
CO 7 02 o 251 I 39
(2) 660+0 00067T 50(}-4500
( 6.130 141 XIO'

1)162--+ 5411-6300
T T'
CO, 633XI0 5 9 75 o 222 I 26
(3) 1034+1 52 X IO-'T 500-2100
T'
(1) 4 52+0007371' 540-1500

CH",
(2) 5 3HO 0064T 500-2000
--- - - --- ---
C,II, 42+0016T 4011-1000
------
597 7500
(I) 19.86- V r + T 6511-5400
H,O . T 8 19 o 455 1 3::!
(2) 7.00+0.0Dl5T 540-2ilOO
--- ---
Air 6531+536Xl!r'T 540-4000 702 o 242 I 395
Referen('es. (1) Bull 2, GeorgIa School of Technology (1938), (2) U.S, Bureau
of Mmes Tech Raper 445 (1929), (3) U S. Bureau of Mine. BuU. 371 (1934).
ART 9-4 dh AND de; SPECIFIC HEATS 163
slmllarly shown m Fig. 9-3 f?r various pure gases, air and (by broken
lines) several representatlve combustion products In' Flg 9-2 the
quantIty (h2 - hI) would, for example; he represented by area T 1mnT2,
or it may be computed readily by the product cp(T. - T,l where the Ime
indicated as that of cp is a mean speClfjc heat so selected that the two
hatched areas are equal Visual equalization of the areas is frequently
sufficient.
In lieu of direct use of specific heat data as exhibited graphically in
Fig. 9-3 or Fig. 9-4; relations mmmg to express the specrfic heats
algebraically as functions of temperature are frequently provided
They are in effect Slmply the result of endeavors to orgaillze specific
heat data by detectlllg the form and constants of an equation whICh
wlll sUltably express the curve represenhng data relating to a given
gas. In Table 9-2 tbe form and constants as proposed by severa]
analysts are reported for a number of gases. Use of parallel relatIOns
may well be found to glVe appreciably different results, as eVIdence
botb of tbe vaflabllity in the data on which they are based and of the
precision wIth whlCb an equatlOn \IS able to reflect those data. 1Iean
values of Cp and of cp/cv for the temperature range of 0-500'F are
also reported m the table and may be taken as generally representatIVe
for any temperatures within that range.
Although algebraw formulations become desirable for purposes of
exact mterpolations or integrations, the graphwal metbod of estimating
a smtable mean specific heat IS generally more convement and fre-
quently provides a precision that lS quite consistent With the degree
of confidence that may be ascribed to tbe original data. Observe
that both the formulas of Table 9-2 and the curves of Fig 9-3 provIde
molar specific heat values; for specific heat per unit mass it is obviously
necessary to dlVlde by the formula mass.
Note in passing that values of Cp for gaseous mixtures may be com-
puted readily from data on the individual components of the mixture
The computation parallels that for the gas-law constant of a mixture,
and is considered in Chapter 10.
Although equations 9-60 and 9-7a express only the changes of
enthalpy or of internal energy, they evidently enable also the assign-
ment of defimte although relative values to a gas at any stated
temperature if zero relative value is allotted to it at some selected
reference temperature. Such assignments are frequently made. Ref-
erence temperatures of 400'R, 200'K, and O'R have been used. Note
that, if at such a temperature the enthalpy is assigned zero relative
value, at the same temperature the internal energy e( - h - RT/J)
may be of negative relative magnitude.
15
14
13 o0'
12
o
.p
Represen!atlve
combusl10n
products
• 10
.~
9 ,,,
,
8
-460 0 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000'F

I " , t I ! I " I!! , ! 11 II ! ! ! " ! I I II , I ! " I I , " ! I J ! ! ! I,! ! Ii ! , I I I
o 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000~ R
Temperature
-Fig. 9-3, Molar speCIfic heats, low-pressure gases, in Btu/(lb-mole, OR), or

cru/(gm-mole, OK) Temperature to hncar acale
ART. 9-6 ENTROPY CHANGE 165
9-5. c, - c" Rllc., and CpIC,. It is apparent from the foregomg
that the primary thermodynannc data that are required and normally
aVaJl~ble concerning the low-pressure and quasi-ideal gases are their
formula mass (M), and thus theIr gas constant (R - Ro/!.f) , and theIr
specific heat at constant pressure (cll or Cp ). There 18 considerable
convenience In recogmzing and jn some sItuations in utiJjzmg v.arlOUS
combmatIOns of these. A basIc one is the difference, c, - RIJ.
With reference to this difference, as for such gas,,", c, - dhldT-
d(e + pvlJ)ldT or d(e + RTI.T)ldT, and further c, - de/dT, it so
develops that
c, - R/J = c, or C, - Ro/J = C, (9-8)
Means are therefore avmlable for dRterminmg the sperific heat at

constant volume from the foregoing pnmary data on C,; a vertical
equidistance between points at the same temperature on the curves
of c, and c, in Fig 9-2 is also so justllied Recall th.t Rol.T-
1 986 Btu/ (lb-mole, oR).
Further useful combinations are the r.tios R/ Je., or Ro/ JC" and
cp / C V1 and alsl) various rclatlOIls between these. The speCIfic-heat
ratio has been of concern so frequently that It IS conventionally
assigned an mdlvidual symbol, such as k or y Several convenient
relatIOns mvolving these are.
k = e,/c, or C ,/C,
1 1
and = = or (9-9)
e, - R/J 1 - R/Je, 1 - Ru/JC,
R/Je, or Ro/.TC, = (k - l)/k (9-9a)
It 18 eVIdent that k varies with C, and thus with the temperature.

In Table 9-2 mean values of k are quoted for the temperature range
0° to 500'F, but these may be used with mmor approXlmatIOn for any
portion of this range.
9·6. Entropy Change. From the general relatIOn of equation 7-4.
and the above considerations for the ideal gas,
ds = dh/T - (v/.TT)dp = Cp (dT/T) - R(dp/p)/J

or ~ c, d(ln T) - R d(lnp)/J (9-10)
Thus 8 - 80 = r C d(ln T) - (R/J) In (p/po)

Jr. p
or =c In (T/T,) - (R/.T) In (p/po)

p (9-lOa)
15 Cp k: Jl_
J<,
~~ -0 14
14
-
113 ~~f--o 15
':to 16
~
,,_ " 112 ~C
~ -5"
E
....,3"
,,~
;of
~ •
_g
0
•5l-
-"0 g
"
8
400 500 610 800 1000 1500 1000

Temperature, "RankIne
Flg 9...-1 Molar specifio heats, low~presBure gases, lD Btu/(1b-moie, OR), (Jr
ealf(gm-mole, "K). Absolute temJlerature to loganlhmzc Bcale.
where the item identified as c, is eVIdently to be defined us

[ . ( Cp d(ln T) ] / In (T ITo)
or the logarithm,e mean It is determinable graphically by the same

technic as descnbed for determmation of cp in Art. 9-4 if a graph ,.
employed III whICh Cp is to linear scale but T (absolute) is to logarithmIc
"cate. FIgure 9-4 provides values of Cp VB. T to such scales for various
gases, with supplementary ordmates also of corresponding values of
Ro/JC p , or (k - l)/k, and of c,/c. or k. In princIple the toganthmlc
ART. 9-7 T-h-., DIAGRAM' 167
mean V drliers from the mean lJ
p PI but the drfference becomes negligible
for small temperature ranges and th~n the mean specific heat as given in
Table 9-2 may be used as representatIve of both.
EquatIOn 9-10a for entropy change, in terms of the intensive instru-
mentally measurable propertIes p and T, is most useful. An alterna-
tive one in terms of v and T develops from equation 7-5a:
ds = delT + (pIJT) dv = e,(dTIT) + (RjJ)(dvlv) for the ideal gas
or =c,d(lnTl+(R/J)d(lnv) (9-11)
Thus s - So = r" c, d(ln T) + (R/J) In (v/vo)

JT.
= c, In (T/To) + (R/J) In (v/vo) (9-Ila)
where c, = c. -
R/ J.
A further alternative, in terms of p and ", has been used extensively
but is practicable only if c. varies negligibly. To develop it, recall
that, II TITo = pV/Povo, In (TITo) = In (plpo) + In (v/vo), ord(ln T) =
d(ln p) + d(ln v). Introducing this value of d(ln T) in equatIOn 9-10,
ds = (c. - RIJ) d(lnp) + cpd(lnv)
= c,d(Inp) + cpd(In.) (9-12)
This relatIOn may be integrated il Cp and Cv are effectively constant.
9 ..7. T·h-s Diagram, Low-Pressure Gases. The facilities of equa-
tIOns 9-6a, 9-70, anti 9-100, and primary data such as presented m
FIgs. 9-3 and 9-4 and Tables 9-1 and 9-2 proVlde the baSIS for the
evaluatIon of the thermodynamIC propertIes of the low-pressure or
quasl~idealgaRBs at varIOUS states Imtlally the engmeer computed
by more or less dIrect use of such faCIlitIes the values of the propertIes
and of their change when analyzing representatIve processes Graph-
ical faCllities analogous to the T-s or h-s diagrams of liqUIds and
vapors (Art. 8-8), or to tabular arrangements provldmg duect data
on the properties, may, however, be used to advantage. A T-h-s graph
for dry .ir is illustrated m FIg. 9-5, employmg a linear seale of entropy
as the abscissa and of relative enthalpy as the primary ordinate (to
the right). As, for the Ideal gas, the enthalpy 18 a function solely of
the temperature, and for dry air is in fact neglIgIbly mfluenced by
pressures up to several hundreds of pounds per square inch, a sup-
plementary temperature scale IS suitably provided along the left
margm. As dh ~ cp dT, the temperature Beale departs from uniform-
Ity in the same degree that c, departs from constancy.
The family oi Isobaric contours which appears In the figure are
quite like that 01 a superheated vapor if generated to the same coor-
168 IDEAL GASES CHAP, 9
dinates A umque characterIstic is that all are ('parallel/, in the
sense that at a gIven temperature the slope of each IS the same This
ow
f-
1700'
II II 'I l-
,.,,1\' f-
f-
I-
-~ 1/ II 350
Ie ' I ,I,~ I
f-
'Ow CJ 'I I l-
pM'
I-
300
)
f-
I
II
?t~,.;, II Vii
,~
lOaD·
II
/(;''''' 1;7 f-
f- 250
0'
~ 900' U
.j
:/
~
l
Boo·h,
_,~ f~iU II
J
'"
'700' _/
LL
~~
'I
rl 'I 1-:1
,I
j Hoo
ow'
/, 1/ "X-I l1 I/, ('oj 1/ [;) r/ ' / f-
,uu' '/
'l
'/
I'l: /.%{<t V..:: f/
i-
150
300'C ,/(0.0,
V/ // W r/
.w
!% W 'l: '%
1::_.
100
19: ~
J..% 1;% f-
/'
SO'
Q~O
0' Entropy, Btu/lb, oR
050 0 10
Fig 9-5 T-h-s dIagram for aIr
follows from the consideration that, as ds ~ dh/T - (RI.1) (dp/p) ,

(ah/as). ~ T, The same consideratIOn establishes that mdivldual
ART. 9-8 GAS TABLES 169
Isobars are ~o separated honzontally that, at a glVen temperature,
(s-so)T~(RIJ)ln (Po/p). 'Note that, as (as)p~cpdlnT, if a
logaflthmic scale of absolute temperature were used to a linear scale
of entropy, the isobars would approach straight hnes, departing from
such only by reason of speCIfic heat vaflatlOn
Nitrogen,
T, at lOatm
'R
·,------------1,6
liqUid I I
phase / I
/ I
/ I
I
_- _..... .....
'//
~RO~~-~-~~------------"3~2~3-----
I
II
S, BtuJ(lb mole:R)
FIg. 9-6
A qualIfymg observation relating to any such thermodynamIc dHl-

grams IS that even the nommally "permanent" gases WIll in fact
condense and congeal and also exhIbit transitions m the character of
their crystalline (solId) structure at very low temperatures. A T-8
diagram realIstically portraymg states at such low temperatures will
thus take a form such as that illustrated in Fig. 9-6. The data here
are representative for nitrogen at 1 atm pressure A significant fea-
ture of the dIagram is the asymptotic approach of the line for the
crystalline state to an ordmate of zero absolute entropy. ThIS IS
cunsistent wiLh lhe statement of the thud law of thermodynamics
(Art. 7-9).
9·8. Tables of tbe Thermodynamic Properties of Gases. When
It 18 available, a tabular presentation of the propertIes provides the
most convenient facility when analyzing processes WIth a gas. As
such tables normally represent a critical analysis of the data on whICh
they are based and careful computations based on those data, they
also enable higher precision. Several such tables have been evolved
for a number of the pure gases and gas mixtures when fit Imver or
nommally zero pressure. Representative published tables pre those
of Geyer and Bruges in Scotland and Keenan and Kaye m the United
States.
Facilities provided by the Keenan.Kaye tabJes.are indicated below
by excerpts from the table Jar air and that for nitrogen, and are
summarized briefly in the text followmg For convenience the
columns are numbered, but they ma.y best be consjdered out of
numerical order.
Table 9-3. Excerpts, Keenan-Kaye Gas Tables.
For Air
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1)
T h p, e (or u) v, ~
(OR) (OF) (~~U) e~U) (lb,JJtu'

OR
)
800 340.3 19J.81 5526 136.97 53.63 o695.58 ( +1.00 )
971 5U.3 233.78 11.055 167.23 32.54 074312(+100)
For N,trogen (M = 28.016)

T
(OR) (OF)
Ii
(Ib-rnole
BtU)
p, • (or n)
( BtU)
v,
(
•
Btu )
Jb~mole lb-mole, OR
800 340.3 0564.4 4.088 39757 Zloo 48.522
Columns 1 and 2. These values of the temperature) in OR a.nd OF respectively,

a.re frequently the argument with which one cuters the tables. Tbe more exact
valLIe of the absolute zero ( -459 7°F) is used rather than the conventional 8l?prOXI~
mabon 01 - 400°F.
. Cotum1t8 3 and 5. TheB~ are the relauve values of the enthalpy a.nd the mternlll
T •
energy 8@ evaluated by the reh.t.tlOI1.1i 11. "'"
I
0 cf! dT and e "'" h - RT, baRf!d on
ptE'.Bumed maintena.nce of gas states to the absolute zero (Le., without C'onluderatlon
f\
of the "Dha.-sc chSllgea ths.t actua.lly o~cur at extremely low tempera.tures)

Column 7. The item l/J is in effect the abaolute entropy of 8. pille matenal, or
the BUm of iLB entropy as a sa.tura.ted vapor at unit pressure (I e'l quantity 8(1 of
Fig. 9-6) pItHI (T cpd(ln T) VaLues are m Btu/(lb-mole, OR) for tne mdlvu.lual
Jr,
gases In the tables fDr combusllOD-ProuucUl mixtures, the values represent merely
1:(m~). where m is the mole fraction of any constituent, and entropy increase on
muing of drfferent Bubstances j.\o: neglected. 10 the table for the aIr miXtUre this
BummauoD is gIVen in Btu/ (lb, OR), leas 1.000
C(llumn 4. The Item here represented by the s)'mbol p .. is the dimensionless
parameter (e)"IR X LO-''t where (e) IS the base of natural logarithms and .p. IS as
m column 7 (except as in the rur table it shall be increased by UDlty), Choice of the
ART. 9-8 GAS TABLES 171
exponent n 18 merely for cop.veulence l but IS to for all tl1bJe~ except those rOI CO 2•
~~~ .
The item is simply a function of the temperature but, although bearing no relati()n
8.8 a flrell1tlve press~re" bemuse of its
00 the actual pressQt'e of a ga.s, it; referred to
unique convenience In pressure-temperature correlations for l.5entropic processes.
This utility derives from the considerabora that for au isentropic prOCeflB
P'
In-'"
PI
-
R
JlTsTj
dT
c..,-'
T
== -J (¢2 - fl),
R
(Il'
P
2.
PI
-= (e).r(h-4il){lC "" 2p
Pr,l
That is, to illustrate from the above excerpts from the air tables, for isentropIc
expansion of air that is initially at V71°R (TI) to the state at which the temperature
(T,) is 800 R the pre..mre would so cbange thot P'/PI ~ 5526/11 055 ~ 1/2.00Oli,
0
or the converse.
Column 6. The Item here represented by the symbol VrlS the parameter RT /144pr.
LIke the item Pr it is simply a function of the temperature but, although bearmg no
relatIon to the actual Ilpeeific volume of a gM, is referred to as a "relatlve volume"
because of its unique convenience in volume-temperature correlation lor isentropIc
procet!s€s. ThIS utIlJty derives from the [!onslderatioD that, by Equation 9-11 and
9-8 and for au isentropIc process with an idea.lp;!ls,
tl2
In- - I n -
T2
= 1- -JlT~ cp -dT J
= - (¢J - ~2)
VI Tl R TI T R
V2 T2(e)J'hIR l'2/Pr,'l v r,2
Thus
~ = Td(e)JfJJR- = T1/Pr,1 = Vr,l
That 109, to illustrate from the sbove excerpts, OD lscntropjc expansion of air that 18
init18.11y at 971 "R to the state at which the temperature is 800"R the volume so
increases tha.t Vl/Vl =- 5363/32.54 = 1648/1.
KeeIlIl-D and Kaye lDtrodure the multiplier R/144 in the value of Vr m order that
144pT v,. shall equal RT, so p!1ralJelmg the familla.r relntion (144)pv = RT for pressure
evalua.tlODs In psia.. An associa.ted ('onvenience IS that at any temperature and
pressure v "'" (vrp,.)/P. values of pr and Vr beIng from the tables and p bemg in pt'11a,
but v being in cubic feet per ibm. '"
The Keenan-Kaye tables provide tabular values of the fUDctlOns
described above not only for alt, but also for seven of the common
gases and for tbe products of combustion of air ;yilh a typical hydro-
carbon fuel when its amounts are 25 per cent and 50 per cent stoichlO-
metric (Art. 12-3). In addition they provide separate tables of the
specific heats and of their ratlO, over a wide range of temperatures
for each material.
On occasion it becomes convenient to note that for a given gas a
mean value of the specific heats may be obtained for a given tempera-
* Although precision to the five significant figures provided in the published
tables 18 desua.ble for purposes of computatlOn when small differences are in-
volved th1s !Day not be taken to lDsure the same order of accuracy m the avail-
able data on which a table is based.
ture range (T 2 - T,) from the gas tables. Thus:
c, = (e2 - e,l/(T, - T,l
cp = (h, - hl)!(T, - T I )
and
where the mean values are as defined in Art. 9-4 nnd 9-6, and the
magnitudes are either per pound (for aIr) or per pound-mole (for
other materials).
9·9. Represenlalive Processes. In the following material the
use of the foregoing ideal-gas rel~hons and facilities is indicated for
the conventJonallsometnc (i e, constant-volume), isobaric, isothermal
and isentropic processes, and also for others that are frequently en-
Table 9-4
Energy Relations
Steady fiow (3-4)
or ~ - ] ' vdp - •
I (3-6.)
J(e, - .,) = w + Jq (3-10)
General J(h,-h,) = JW,+]'vdp+f (3-7)
T ds = dh - (t' dp)!J or de + (p dv)IJ (7-4.)

ODd ~ 6q + 6NJ (7·6)
Property Rela.tions, Ideal G~

pv = Rl' or p(Mvl = R,T (9·1,3)
h2 - hl = £2 cp dT or Cp (T2 - T1 ) (9-60)
ez - 61 ]2 c~ =.[2
== dT Cp dT - R(T2 - T1)/J (1)..7.)
or ~ (r. - R/JJ(T, - T , )
',I" = k '. - " - RIJ and RIle. = (k - 1)lk (9·8.9.)
s, - SI =] ' c, dOn T) - R In (P,/PI)/J or c.ln (T,/T,) - RIo (p,lpdlJ

(1)..100)
and = l' c, d(lo T) + R In (v,/,,}/J (9-11)
CONSTANT-VOLUME PROCESS 173
countered in practICe. The latter indude adIabatic but mechanically
Irreversible processes, effectively reversible b1lt non-adiabatic proc-
esses, and processes that aro nmther adwbativ nor me.chanicany
reversible. In most instances alternative analytICal, graphical, and
tabular methods of procedure will be illustrated by example."
For convenience the more dIrectly useful of the energy relations
and the foregoing property relations for the ideal gas are rest.ated
in Table 9-4. These WIll be associated in particular ways as required
for analyses of the following processes.
9-10. Coustant-Volume Process. Fur thIS process, occurring, for
example, in a closed cyllllder and as V2 - VI or dv ~ 0,
pz/Tz = PI/TI ~ R/v and constant
1t2 - h, ".(T. - T,)

= and " - el = (ii. - :i)(T2 - Tt)
q = e. - e, w ~ 0
'2 - " = (e -7)

p In G:) or <P2 - <PI -}In (~:) with table
Example 9.1. Dry alr in a closed container of 500 eu ft volume IS mitlatly
a.t 100°F and 20 psia. but i~ warmed to 500°F Wh!lt mass of air [13' In the tank,
what WlU be the termmal pressure, how much hea.t 18 reqUIred for warming the
air, exclusive of fhat ff"quired for warmmg the container; and what will be the
enthalpy and entropy changes per pound of air?
Solution
RT 1 460 + 100 000
!/1 =- == 5a.34 = 1038 Ctl ft/lb, mass (Jf alt 77~ = -- = 48.21b
p, 20 X 144 to.38
p, = Pl(T,/T,) = 20 X (460 + 0(0)/(460 + 100) = 3430 psi.
,Qll (selecting Cp by FIg. 9-3)
705
= 48.2 ( 28:!i7 - 0 0685) (500 - 100)
- 482(0.2432 - 0.0685) X 400 - 482 X 0.1747 X 400 - 33G8 Btu
(or, by all' tables)
= 482(16526 - 9547) = 3364 Btu
7.05
h'J. - hI (selecting Cp by Fig 0-3) = 2897 (500 - 100) = 97.28 Btu,1Jb
(Of, by air tables) = 231 00 - 133.86 = 97 20 Btu/lb

... In tbe e."tamVle~, iLem:! taken frum tlle tables are, fur convenience, at the
stated temperatures, OF, llius 03.a..
" - " (selecting 1!, by FIg 9-4)
704
=( - - -0068S)
28.97
960
1.-
660
= (0.2430 - 00685) X 0 S3SS = 00940 Btu/ (lb, OR)
R ~ ~
(or, by air tables) = </>, - ¢, - -In- = 0.74030 -0.60950-00685[0-
J T, B
= 0.13080 - 0.03692 ~ 0.093SS
9·11. Conslanl-Pressure Process. A constant-prel>sure process

may occur without flow in a cylmder with piston, or WIth flow If
velocity change and fnctional effects are negligible and no energy
transition as shaft work occurs (see also Art. 3·8). As p, - Pl or
dp = 0,
v,fT, = v,fT, = Rfp and constant
h, - h, = <.(T, - TI) and also = (IQ2).
8, - 8, = lp In (T./T,) or .p. -.p, if gas table is used
Example 9.2. Dry cnrbon rllOxlrle en route through a. heat exchanger is
warmed by energy supply as heat from 300'" to 1500 c F. Neghglble pressure drop
occurs. What Bre the InltmJ Bnd final densities J! the pre.ssure is 15 pS13, and the
heat required per potlIld of carbon diOXIde and the accompanying entropy change?
• Solutum. From Table 9-1, (or C02, R "'" 35.11, or alternatively, R "" Ro/tlf =-
1545/44 01 ~ 35.11.
15 X 144
PI =;;; = 35.11(400 + 300) = O,0809Ib/cu it
P2
/..7'~.) = 0.0809 ~;9~0
=., ~T, I 7PO)
= 0.0314 Ib/cu It
11]2 (selecting Cp from Fig. 9-3)
1195
= 4401 (1500 - 300) = 325.8 Btu/lb
(or, by the gas tables) = h, - hi = 20,488 - 6147 = 14,341 Btu/lb-mole

14341
~ 44 01 = 325.9 Btu/lb
82 - 81 (aele(.ting IIp from Fig. 9-4)

11 72 1960
= 44.Oi In 760 = 0.2520 Btul (lb, 'R)
{or! by the gas tab1e.s)

= 0, - <1>, = 65.40S - 54.319 - 110S9 Dtu/Gb-mole, OR) = Il.0S9{44.01
- 0 25196 Btuf\lb, 'R)
ART. 9-13 ISENTROPIC PROCESSES 175
9·12. Isothermal Pro~eB.e. (Mechanically Reversible). Cum-
pression or expansion of an ideal gus may In prmciple occur wIthout
accompanymg temperature change if there is concurrent energy trans·
fer as heat in amount equal but opposite to the amount' tra'nsferred
as work or other mechanica.l effects. Further, for reasons indicated
later, an isothermal compres;ion if also mcchanically reverSlble is
frequently regarded as an optimum condition, and mIght ideally be
accomphshed in a device such as an effectively water-Jacketed cylin-
der wIth piston.
In this ideal situation, with To = T] or dT = 0, and", = 0,
PIVI = pv = P2V2
h2 == hI and e2 = el
w = -Jq if non-flow or - J]g. + (u,· - u,')/64 35 with flow
and =1' = v dp RTI.21 n (P2/p,)'
or =I'I
= p du RT1,2 In (VI/V2)
•
82 - Sl = - (RI J) In (p';PI) or (RI J) In (v,/v1)

Ex:ampJe 9·3. What will be the terminal specific l'o!umes, the entropy
change, the work mput, and the heat outgo reqUired per pound of rur for a Don~
flow rcvenllblc lsothcrmnl compres8lCm (or wlth flow If with negligIble velocIty
change) a.t 100°F from 147 pSlB to 1147 psis? Presume IdeLt.l~gas conditions
throughout.
Soluhon
'1 = 53.34(460 + 100)/(14 7 X 144) = 14 12 cu It jib
" - 14.12 X (14.7/1147) = 14 12/7,803 = 1810 cu ftjlb
w= -Jq = 53 34 X (400 + 100) X In (114 7/14 7) = 53.34 X 500 X 20544
= 61,300 It-Ib/lb or 78.84 Btu
" - 81 = 0.06854 X 2.0544 = -01408 Btul (lb, OR)
The entropy change, -0.140S, might in prinCiple have been taken directly from
Flg.9-5 Also,q = T1,!(B2-SL) = -560 X01408= -7884Btu/lb.
9-13. Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic Processes. In the ex-

pansIOn of Il gas through devices such as 8 nozzle or the high-speed
... The In (P2/PI) may be ta.ken with. fa.lr preCision as ~2;:_!.-.11f 0 7 < ~ < 1 4; as
v P2Pl PI
p! - PI .
at ra.tlos between 09 and 11; a.nd as {P2 - Plllpl between 1l.99
(p ,+ PI )/2
and 101.
gas turbme, or its compression by a rotary compressor, the rate of
passage IS normally so rapid that the energy gam or loss as heat per
unit mass is rela.tively minor and the process IS thus effectIvely adia-
batic. Ideally the process might also be accompanied negligibly by
frictional effects and so be meehamcally reverSIble, in whICh event it is
isentropic as well. Correspondingly the isentropic process is fre-
quently regarded as an optimum one In such devICes.
"From the lsentTDpic ch~;racteTbHc (1 e, ds - 0) and the re\ati.ons
of Table 9-4, one may develop directly for a reversIble adiabatic
process the relationships which must exist between the more imme·
dlately SIgnificant Po, T- and v-properhes Thus, from equatIOn 9-lD,
Ie.d(ln T) or c, In (7'';7'')(~q,., - .pI) ~ (RI.!) In (P2!PI)
and thus (T'T ) (P2)

1 ,PI
= H/Ii, (9-13)
or = (p';PI)('-O/' if suitahle mean k is used

This useful p - T relatIOn for the isentropIc process with the Idcal
gas is frequently identified as the Pm,son 'quatwn
A parallel T-v rolation develops similarly from equation 9-11, or
l'
I c" d(ln T)
-
or c.ln (T 2 IT.) = - JR In (u';v,)
and thus (T2IT I ). = (V1/'2) "/J',

or = (,1/,,)"'" ,f sllltahle mean k is llsed (9-14)
where c. ~ c. - RI J Also from the last several relations there
,'evelops directly the P-" reiation
(p,lpI)' = (v,/v.)~,/t.
or = (v';v.)' if suitable mean k is used (9-15)
Hore e,lc. is alternatively a logarithmic mean value of "
Recall that facilities appear on the right margin of FIg. 9-4 for duect
reading of suitable values of c.lc. or k and of RI JCp or k - Ilk when
the value of (J. has been established over the relevant temperature
range for a given gas.
The energy relatlODs for the isentropic process with an ideal gas are
frequently written in correspondingly modIfied forms. Thus, for
steady flow,
= J .[2 c. d1' = .Tep(T, - T.)

or = JC.T'[(P2!Pl)R/.n, - 11' (D-lO)
and for non-flow, w = J(e, - e,)
=J l' c. dT = Je,(T, - TJ)
or = JC,T,[(p'!P,)R/J1. - 1] (9-17)
Employmg the various foregoing faeihhes three characteristic
methods become available for numencal determinations pertaimng
to isentropIC processes with quasI-Ideal gases. In summary ther arc
ones Involving
A. Use of formulas such as the above and employing directly the
avaIlable data on R (or Ro and M) and on Cp or C p, with C, expressed
as a function of T eIther by equation or, preferably, by plots agamst T
to both lmear and logarithmic scales
B. Use of a table of properties If available or 11 its preparation IS
J1!stified
C. Use of a T-h-s diagram .for the gas if such is available or its
preparation lS justified, such as Fig. 9-5 for air
Earher practice was in general limited to procedures using formulas,
but frequently with httle conCern as to the effect of speClfic heat
vanabon or without ready facihties whereby its variatlOn might
sUItably be accounted for The temperature'S and temperature ranges
encountered in current engmeering practice are such, however, as to
require consideration of that variation. The above fonnulations arc
therefore so presented and speclfic heat graphs are so provided as to
enable the accounting wIth minimum nuisance. The present trend
is toward the use of tables or diagrams of propcrbes.
-The above Item JCpTt[(P2/Pl)R/np - 1] has fre'luently been written alterna-
tively as RTl[k/(k - 1)] [(pz!pI)'k-l)/1t - 1], but without pa.rticu1ar ('onCf'tn liM Lo
vlLriatlOn of k or Its interpretatIOn in relation to c versus c. The above function
may be e'q>ressed lLS (L series in l1p/Pl' Thus,
Here RT1/Pl is also VI. A bra.cketed term such as the last, serving as a fllmpie
multiplIer of Vl~P for evaluating the above function of k, Til and pdPl, has been
designated in Borne literature a.s a Y-fa.ctor. Its evaluation by the indicated senes
will be ullBuita.bly approximate, however, If Ap/PI exceeds about ±O 25. At valuell
not exceedtng about ±O 10 the second-power term may be dropperl, and at value!'!
Dot exceedmg about 0 01 the relation reduces to Rl'l t1p/Pll or VI 6p. Note that
IQ the last Instance the ratio tJ.P/Pl becomes IdentLcnl with the last one of the footnote
of Art. 9-12, relating to the Isothermal proccss.
Example 9~4. AIr Initially at. 1200°F and 90 }l::lJU enterB a suitably shaped
nozzle and exp!tnds Jsentroplcally therem to a deltvery-reglOD pressure of 15 paIR
What wIll be the temperature, specific volume, and velocIty JD the leavmg let?
Use the several available methods of procedure, comparing rF'sults.
Sol.uhons. :Methf)d A, US'l,ng 8pem,fic heat charts and formulas. Wlth speCIfi-
cation of Tl and P2/Pl buL unstated temperature f<J.nge a trIal value of RIJcp
must first be t[tken Adoptmg from Fig. 9-4 a value of (sa,y) 026, T2 (tnal) =
(1200 + 460)/(6)'" ~ 1660/1.593 ~ 1042°R or 582°F By re-enterlDg the
figure for the lZOO-580°F ra.nge a more appropnate value of Ri Jcp appears to be
about 0 264. Further refinement is probably not Justifiable A reVIsed evaluatIOn
of T2 so becomes (1200 + 460)/(6)1) 264 = 1660/1605 "" 1034°R, or 574°F Note
that at R/ Jc, of 0 264, C, ~ (006854/0.264, or 752/28 97 ~) 0 2596 Btu/ (lb, OF)
At '1'2 = 1034°R and P2 = 15 psia, 112 = 53 34 X 1034/(15 X 144) = 25 5 Cll ft/lb
By entering FIg 9--3 for the 1200-574°F range, cp appears to be about
(7 5-1/28.97 ~ J 0.260 Btu/(Ib, of) Correspondingly, hi - h, ~ 0 260(1200-574) ~
103 0 Dtu/lb. Thus'2 ~ V64 35 X 778 X 163 ~ 223 7v'lG3 ~ 2855It/,,,
To use the method of the footnote on page 177, adopting a compositely representa-
tive value of k as 1.355 or (k - IJ/k as 0 262, h, - hi ~ 53.34 X (1200 + 460) X .
(I/O 262)[ (15/90)' 262 - I) ~ (53.34 X 1660/0 262)(0 626 - 1) ~ -120.500 ft-lb/lb.
or -1625 Btu/lb.
Method, B, using tabular data from the Keenan-Kaye atr table. At T 1, = 1200°F, or
1659.7°R (exactly), hl = 411.74, pr,l = 8277) v,. = 7.428)snd $1 = 0.88111. \Vlth
P2/PI = 1/6, p,.,2 = 182.77/6 = 13 69. By entry at thiS value of pr, T2 = 1030o R,
or 570.3°F, h2 = 248.46, V,.2 = 2787, and tP'l = 075779. Thus 1)2 = Vl(Vr,2/t'r,t) =
53.34 X 1659.7/(90 X 144) X (2787/7.428) ~683 X375 ~256cult/lb. Also,
hl - h2 -= 411.74 - 248 46 = 163.28, and U2 -=- 223 7V 1u3 28 = 2855 fps. The
agreement between these results and the above is qUite consIstent WIth the preCISIOn
Wlth whICh specific heat data. are known
The value of cll corresponding to the tabular values of relatlve enthalpy If!
16228/(1200 - 5703) = 0.2578, III comparison with the above graphically
selected vnluc of 0 260, the value of cp cor-responmng to the tabular values of ." l~
(088111 - 0 75779)/ln (16597/1030 0) ~ 02596 and agrees With the above value
of 0.2596.
}'felihod C, using the T·Jt,..s dwgram of F'I,g. 9-5. Entering the figure at 1200°F
and 90 pSla, but recogmzmg the Imuted precision permitted by the scales of this figure,
hl = 412 I3tujlb. Passmg downward lsentropically (at 8 = 0573) to 15 PSHl,
T, ~ 575'Fandh2 ~ 250 Btu/lb. Thus hi - h2 ~ 162, and U2 ~ 2845 fps
9-14, Comparative Work Quantities; Isothermal and Isentropic
Compressions. In compression processes a concurrent removal of
energy as heat acts to reduce the fluid volume, so reducing J v dp and
the energy mput as work otherwlse required for lsentroplc compres-
sion between given pl'e.ssure levels. This consideratIon is frequently
utihzed in practice, by endeavoring to approach isothermal compres-
sion through water-jacketmg III the reCIprocating-piston type of com-
pressor and also by Ilintercooling" of the gas m passage between
successive compression stages in either reciprocating or rotary com-
pressors.
ART. 9-14 ISOTHERMAL VS. ISENTROPIC COMPRESSION 179
The saving in work by wholly isothermal over wholly Isentropic
compreSSIOn is readily mdlcated graphically by either the'p-v diagram
of Fig 9-7 or the T-h-s wagram of Fig. 9-8 Lme I-T represents a
reversible Isothermal compresslOll, and hne l-.'J a wholly lsentropic one
between pressures PI and P2 and from a common initial state 1 Area
1-1'-8 III FIg 9-7 represents the difference in 1 Z
v dp for the two proc-
esses and thus the work saving for the composite intake-compression-
deln:ery or flow process In FIg g-8 area I-T-s agam represents the
___T 9 8
P2
I
I
I
I
I
I
:I Ii\ I
I I I
I I
P' --r.j.-j--*~
I I I I
I I I
I I I
PI I I I _____________ _
__ -'-1_-+
I I I
1
I
I I I I
I I I I
",
work having. This follows from the consideratIon that for the isothermal
compreSSIOn of an ideal gas WT = -J lqZ = - T 1 ,2 .6.8 and is represented
by the area below line I-T. For the Isentropic flow process w. =
(h2 - hl). = !'pCT2 - TIl. But the last quantity would also measure
the heat required for isobaric warming through thls temperature range
and would so be represented by area below line T-g·s. This work
savmg is .lso expreSSIble from equatIOn 9-16 and the work expreSSIOn of
Art. 9-12 as
w, - WT ~ TI(Jc p l(P2!PI)RIJ;, -lJ - Rln (p,!pl)]
Example 9-5 illustrates comparative ma.gnitudes.
Example 9-5. For (Llr InItially at 70°F and 14.7 pSla compute the work re-
quired for Intake, compreSSIOn, and delivery to 147 pSla both for Isentropic cornpres-
180 IDEAL GASES CHAP 9
ljlon and for reverslble li:!otherrnal comprebSion, and the sLLving by the latter For
the temperature ranges encountered, both l!p and cp may for slmpliClty and WIth
nunol' apprOXimatIOn be taken as equal to (7 OS/29 0 =) 0 244 Btu/ (lb, OR), and
Rj Jcp thUBas (0.0685/0 244 =) 0.281. ALia compute '1'2 after isentropic compression.
Solutwn
w, ~ (70 + 400) X 778 X O.?HI(10)o.m - 11
~ 530 X 778 X 0244(191 - 1) ~ 91,600 It-Ih/lb
U'T ~ 530 X 5334 X In (10) ~ 65,100 It-Ib/lb
Saving ~ 91,600 - 05,100 ~ 20,500 It-Ib/lb (~ 29%)
T". ~ 530 X (10)' '" ~ 630 X UI ~ lO12'R or 552'F
/P2
7; -----------------~ - - - h,
T' h'
/,
I
I
I
I
I
Fig, 9-8.
\Vhen isentropic compression is the virtual optImum, as with highe

speed rotary types of compressors, an Isobaric recooling may, however,
be effected between successive stages, at Intermediate pressure p'
Such composite processes are represented by successive lines Ie, ef
and fg in Figs, 9-7 and 9-8, for presumed recoolmg to the initIal
temperature in the intercooler. The work savmg over that for wholly
isentropic compressIOn is then represented by area gse!.
It may be shown that, for staged compressIOn m WhICh the mter-
coolers recool to substantially the Imtlal temperature, minimum work
mput is required if the ratio of pressures and the compreSSIOn work
is the same m each. stage. For compression ill two stages, interme-
dIate pressure p' becomes ~; for three stages the intermediate
pressures become ":;P1 2P2 and ":;PIP2 2 ; etc. The total work for the
compression becomes qUIte simply the product of the number of stages
and the work 'per stage.
ART. 9-15 REVERSIBLE POLYTROPICS 181
9-15. Reversible Polytropic Compression. When nDn-flow CDm-
pressiDn Dr expansiDn prDcesses take place in the cylmders Df reciprD-
eating-piston types Df machines the temperature of the gas will in
general dIffer frDm that Df the surrounding cylinder and pistDn·surfaces.
Consequently appreClable heat transfer~ of varying rates and d"ec-
tlOns take place between the gas and those surfaces. In this situation
precise descrIption· of the resulting state changes experIenced by the
gas IS difficult. HDwever, an apprDximate but CDnvcment and mDre-
Dr-less realIstic practice which is frequently emplDyed is to. regard the
p-v-T changes of the gas as representable by exponential relations
of the fDrm
pvn = PIVI" and T /p,n-Ilin = Tdpi (o-lll"
I
"-
~
(In)v-
FIg. 9-9.
where n is perhaps taken as effectively constant but differs from k

in a manner and amount reflectmg the associated energy receptiDn
Dr departure as heat. Mechanically reversible but non-adUlbatic
processes as so deSCribed are known as po~ytropic ones.
The practice Df making analyses on such a basIS Drigmated m part
as an adaptatIOn of the quasi-expDnent,"1 isentropic relatIOns and in
part from DbservatiDns that fDr reciprocating-pIston types of machines
handling gases the compressiDn or expanSIOn curve Df a p-v diagram
traced by an engine "indicator" might frequently be expressed by an
expDnential equatIon, with n reasDnably CDnstant Constancy wDuld
be indicated graphically by redrafting the curve to IDgarlthmic
scales Df absolute pressure and total volume (mcluding "clearance"),
as in Fig. 9-9, and observmg whether the redrafted curve became a
182 IDEAL GASES CHAl'. 9
straight 1m.. In that event the magnitude of n equals the ratio
(In p - In pd I (In v, - In v), or is the slope of the redrafted (straight)
T, oR"
Il =k
(Isentrope)
•
Fig. 9-11.
Ime; if the Jine is not straight local values of n would again be deter-
mined from the local slopes of the line.
The appearance of curves depicting polytropIC processes at typical
values of n, to linear p-v and T-. coordinates, 18 shown in Figs. 9-10
. and 9-11., Both expansions and compressions from irutial state 1
ART. 9-15 REVERSIBLE POLYTROPICS 183
are indicated. Recalling that for a mechanically reversible process
Increase or decrease of entropy connotes respectively energy reception
or departure as heat, It is apparent from the T-. dIagram of Fig. 9-11
that
(a) A compression wIth concurrent heat departure (as wIth a water-
cooled compressor cylInder) or an expansion with concurrent heat
reception (as perhaps for an expander cylmder of a refrigerating
machine) would require that 1 0 < n < k; or OpposItely that
(b) An expansIOn with heat energy departure (as in an internal-
combustion engme cylmder) or a compression with heat receptIOn
would reqUIre that k < n < 00.'
Energy relahons expreSSIng the mechamcal effects for the reverSIble
polytropic process WIth a~ ideal gas become
Steady flow
IWZ -
U2 2 -
64.35
U1 2 g(Z2 -
32.17
ZI)
=1'"p,
v dp or at pv' = PIVI"
= 1
_ n I Pl.' [(P2)(~I)/n - IJ
. n - 1 lor RT, PI
(9-18)
Non-flow
w = -['PdV = n~1"'vdp
"1 PI.
orntpy' = PI""~
= _1 I p,., }[(P2)(n-1)/n _ IJ
n - 1 lor RT, PI
(9-19)
Determinations of n for a complete expansion or compressIOn line

of an mdicator diagram or at pomts along such a line have heen used
with some effectiveness for estImating the accompanying heat-energy
transfer between the gas and the cyhnder walls. The method evolves
from considerations about as follows:
oq = T ds = cpdT - (v/J) dp
or, with pv = RT,
= (cp/R)(pdv + vdp) - (y/J) dp
• Note that fOregolllg conventional reversible processes may be regarded as
special sorts of polytroplcs That is, by wrIting the relatIOn pv" - Constant in
the differential form dp!p = -ndv/v, It lil eVident that
(a) For an Isothermal process, With pv == Constant, 11. = 10 (b) For an Isen-
tropIc proce&'l, With pv~ = CUllstnnt, n = k (c) For an isobarIC process, With
dp-O but dv#O, n=OO (d) For an lSometnc process, with dv=O but
dp "" 0, n - '"
v dp
But If pu" = Constant and thus p du = - - ,
n
q = -C (
R
p
1 - -1 - - R
n Jc p
)1" vPi
dp or cp(n-l
= -
R n-
k-1)1'"
-- -
k •
-- vdp
That is, if for any selected portiDn Df the CDmprOSSlOn or expansiDn

a suitable value of Cp may be taken and a representatIve value of n
for thIs portIOn has been determined, the heat transfer per pound of
gas during the assocIated pressure change may in prmciple be com-
puted by multiplYll1g the[!>+·' V dp fur that portion of the Ime by the
factor appearing in the last relation. The method Involves uncer-
tamtIes from features such as inabilities to· select Cp with confidence
or n with precision, and fails If pressures are being affected by leakages
to or from the gas space, If great turbulence exists, or if the gas is
non-ideal
Example 9-6. Data secured by lDeasurementa of the indicator card rrom a

water-Jacketed reciprocatiDg compressor are as follows.
EegiDning of compression p "'" 14.0 paia v ~ 10.5 cu II
Midway of compression p == 272 paia V = 62 cu ft
End of compressjon p = 1132 psi. V·~ 2.0 cu II
(a) Ascertam n for each poruoo of the compression.
(b) Compute the work per pound reqUired for the compressIOn If Tl = 70°F,
and the work for composite intake, compressIon, a.nd delivery
(c) Compute the tempere.ture Bnd entropy change during compresSIOn.
(d) Compute the hE'at transfer per pound of rur during compression.
SoZutlOn
, , . . log (272/140) .
(a) I'or .first part af compression n = / ) = 12o, for seconu part,
log (10562 •
n = loglog(1l3.2/27
(62/2.0)
2)
=:;: 12
6
(b) Work for compression
1
~ ------::-1
1.26
X 53.34 X (460 + 70) [(1132)""'"
-0
14.
- 1]
~ 58.500 ft-lb/lb
Work for compoSIte
~ 126 X 58,500 ~ 73,700 rt-Ib/lb
(c) T2 = Tl(P2!Pl)(n-I)J" = (4£0 + 70)(113.2/14)0 26}1 26,= 8IGOR(35B"'F)

T, -T, ~ 356 - 70 = 286'F; h, - h, ~ 0.243 X 286 ~ 695 Btu/lb
e, -" F (0.243 - 00685) X 286 = 49.9 Blu/lb
ART. 9-16 INFLUENCES OF FRICTION 185
" -'1 ~ 0243 In (816/530) - O.OG854 In (1132/14 0) ~ 0.105 - 0 143 ~
-0.038
' 0243
(d) At cp = 0243 and - ] 'v dp == 73,700 (from above), q = -3- X
1 '5 34
1 0 00854) 0 243
( 1 - 126 - 0.243 X 73,700 ~ 53.34 X (-0071\) X 73,700 ~ -255 Btuflb
To check the above results, but for the compression phase only, W +q_
(58,500/778) - 25 5 ~ 75.4 - 25 5 ~ 49.91lIu/lb, and equals (e, - '1)'
9·16. InHuences of Friction. Foregoing analyses related to con·

ventional processes which were also idealized In presuming negligible
frictional effects and turbulence, or mechamcal reversIbility. How-
ever, some consiileT.'1tl0n may wen he m.2.de of the influence 01 and
methods for accounting such effects as are Inescapably encountered
in actual flow processes. The Cfltehon controlling the analyses will
be the InvarIable trend to entropy mcrease In consequence of fluid
fnotion Processes consIdered WIll be representative, such as (a)
simple flow through a duct, which would be non· accelerative and
isobaric if fnction were absent, (b) mechanically irreversIble adia.
batic compression or expanSIOn (as m a gas compressor or turbine),
and (c) processcs whIch arc both irreversible and non·adiahatic
(a) Slmp!e flow but WIth /ncttO" Later analyses will relate to
unique conditions encountered In the flow of a gas through 11 duct, and
to the manner of correlating dynamic and thermmlynaIlllc aspects of
such flolV. The following aims to indicate httle more than the neces·
sity for pressure drop in the direction of travel (at subsonic velOCItIes)
That is, by energy equatIon 3-6 and even with neglIgIble gcopotcnlIal
'Q~'il tn.'l'IiC,\.l'i:. "Cl\iCyg\~~ \)'1 'Cn~y'5'J o;:,\l'3.l\~'t~ 'ltl\'\l ~\\.b'U'\).t 'e1)'~1'gJ \I~l'l.~~~1' 'C,'5
work, .p ~ - .[' V dp As the frictional effects, Item or, must have

positive algebraiC significancc, any pressure change must be a decrcase.
Also, by equation 7-6, as J' T ds ~ 1 (/2 + .p, entropy mllst increase
if the flow is adiabatic or unless cnergy is departing from the fluid as
heat in the amount exceeding the -.[' V dp To T·h-s coordinates
the consequcnce of frIctional flow would be as indIcated -by a dotted
line such as 1·2 in Fig. 9-12.
(b) irrevers>b!e adiabatic exponSlOn or compresstOn. In conformity
with equation 7·6, T ds = ~q + ~"', the operatIOn of fluid friction and
turbulence necessitates entropy mcr~ase accompanymg adiabatic ex-
pansion or compression. To the T-h·s coordinates of Fig 9-13 the
expansion t11tougb & de"lce such 8S • turbme or a throttle and betw€<ln
extraneously established pressures PI and P2 would be represented by
dotted lInes such as appear in the right-hand portion of the diagram,
Imc 1-2' being representative of a non-Ideal expansion m gas turbine
or nozzle.
T, h
"R
Fig! 9-12
T, h
OR
FIg. 9-13.
Line 1-2" represents the ultimate in irreversibility associated wIth

an adu.batlC throttlIng process in which there is no gain in kinetIC
energy nor IS there any work output. Here h,,, = hi and for the ideal
gas T 2 " = T I . As for the adIabatic process, whether reversible or
irreversible,
U2 2 - Ul 2
64.35 - IW, = J(hi - h,)
the quantity' [h, (actual) - h, .•J represents the departure from the
ideally available mechanical effects in consequence of the frictional
effects It also indicates the correspondingly greater-than-ideal
enthalpy and temperature of the departing gas.
An associated index whIch IS conventIOnally used for expressmg the
performance of a nozzle or turbine is the ratio of the actually secured
to the ideally 'securable mechanical effects, and so the ratio
(hi - h2)~,"'" <.(T I - T,)_ol
or
(hi - h,). c.(T l - T,).
for gases. It is known variously as the Ifexpansion efficiency," "adia-
batic efficiency," or (for an engine) the uengine efficiency." The
enthalpy and temperature of the departing gas may evidently be
established f~Olh empirical data on tbis ratio The state of the leavmg
gas IS thus established by the information on p, and Tz or hz, and
.. - .. is determinable, perhaps by equatIOn 9-10 after suitable selection
of i', for the gas and the pertment temperature range. The aggregate
friction effects for the expansion are 12 T ds or T(S2 - 81) If for a
mechanically ltrevenilule process the 'assignment of values to T or if
use of a mean T IS permissible *
In the left-hand portion of Fig, 9-13 an Irreversible adiabatic com-
preSSIOn is similarly indlCated, but two optIOns are shown. One relates
more particularly to the operatIOn of a rotary compressor between
extraneously established pressures PI and P2, with the requirement of a
greater-than-ideal departmg enthalpy and work mput m effecting the
compression. Here the converse ratio (h2 - hl) ,I (h2 - hl )actwl, or
• In a manner paralleling the representatIon of the reversible polytropic process,
exponential rela.tu)Ds have also been used for approxunate representation of Irreversi-
ble adIabatic processes If Bubsonic velOCl'tIes are lnvolved. That IS, the state change
of the ga.s 18 presumed to be e'Xpressible by a relation 01 the form pr/I = PIVl rJ , or
T /p(n-l)ffl = TL!PI(rJ-L)/f,. Here n can III pnuCiple have little significance, however,
other than that ~xPQnent With which the above relations would serve to ralate
terminal values of p, v, or T, as the properties of a turbulent mass of glls en route
through the device may scarcely be !l.ssigned defimte magmtuues (sce Art. 3-9).
An exponential type of relation would probably not correlate meJlan propertleB
acceptably even if their magnitudes might be nsslgned But If n IS interpreted as
relating to termmal states, then
(h l - h2)a.ctual "" Cp(Tl - T,:)

"'" cpTl[1 - (P~/Pl)(1I.-l)/nJ
As entropy must increase for either ex:pallSlOn or compression If adiabatic but

mechavlcally irre'retl!nble, it is evident from Fig 9-11 that (for BUbsoruc velocitie8)
(a) For Irreversible aru!l.batic expansIOn, 1 < n < k.
(b) For lffevel'Slble adlRbatic compression. k < n < CIC.
cp(Tz - T 1 )./cp(T 2 - T1)BctuaJ. for gases, IS llsed as an index of per~
farmance. It IS known VUJ'lously as the "compressIOn efficiency" or
"adIabatic effiCIency" of a compressor. Data on thIS mdex will again
serve to establish the state of the departing gas.
The second option pertains to a compression as frequently accom-
plished (m a d.jfusor) by the deceleTatlOn of a jet of hIgher initial
veloCIty (UI), and indICates a less-than-ideal pressure (P2') against
which the gas stream mIght thereby be dehvered.
Example 9-7. An actual rotary compressor dellvenng 8.ll" and operatmg
effectively adiabaticallY between 150 and 600 pSla, WIth entermg rur tempera-
ture of 70°F and with negligible kmebc energIes m the mtake and dlScbarge
hnes, is found by test to reqUIre 75 hp when dehvermg 500 ell It of "free
all''' fmm (I e, air at mtake condluons) (a) What power would be required for
isentropIC compress:toD, and the correspondIng T:, whut; HI tilC compreSSIon effi-
CIency and the correspondmg actual dehvery temperature, and the entropy
Increase en route? (b) What 18 the value of n If the termmsl states are related
exponentially?
Soluhon
(a) (1U,'2). = JC p T 1[(p2/pI)Rlft" - 1] = 778 X 0,241 X (40° 284 - 1)
- 48,600 It.-Ib/lb
m ~ pV ~ 150 X 144/(5334 X 530) X 500 ~ 00763 X 500
~ 38.2Ib/mm
hp,d ..1 ~ (48,600 X 38 2)/33,000 = 56.3

T, .• ~ 530(60/15),·2" ~ 780'R, or 320'F
Woo'u.1 ~ (75 X 33,000)/38.2 = 114,800 ft.-Ib/lb
Compression effiCiency = 48,600/64,800 or (563/75) = 075, or 75%
([['2 - T1)aetulI.l = (786 - 530)/0 75 ... 341°
T 2,actuBI = 530 + 341 = 871°n, or 41l°F (va 326°F Ii lBentropic)
" - '1 ~ 0 241 In (871/530) - 0 0684 In (GO/IS) ~ 0.118 - 0.095

~ +0023 Btu/(lb, 'Il)
In (871/530) 1
(b) (n - l)/n, - 1 -lin, - In (60/15) - 0.359, n = 1 _ 0.359 - 1.56
(C) [rrevers,ble and non-adinbatic processes. In the actual turbine

or compressor, fluid frlCbon and turbulence and consequent trend to
entropy increase is never wholly escaped. Furthermore, while effec-
tively adiabatic conditions may frequently be presumed with reason-
abte propriety, in other Instances appreciable energy loss or gain as
heat may well accompany the process The innumerable possihle
combmatlOns 01 these do not permIt the provision of definite formula-
tions for theIr analysis. However, the following serves to suggest a
manner m whICh at least approximate thermodynamic surveys may
be made.
To such extent as one may valIdly attribute definite states to a
turbulent fluId, the indIvidual influences (a) of fluid friction and tur-
bulence and (b) of heat loss accompanying an expanSIOn, as in a
gas turbine and if represented to T-s coordmates, may be indIcated
respectively by lines I-a of FIg 9-14a, and l·b of Fig 9-14b, and the
Th
(0) (b) • (c) •

Fig. 9-14.
areas underlying them. The jomt influence of the two effects pro·
duces a st.te change such as mdicated by line 1-2 of sketch (c), the
area underlying It denoting the composite quantity of + q (that IS,
of - q",).
If terminal velocities may be neglected the energy equation for the
turbine becomes
Po•• ~ m(hl - h,) + mlq, (0·20)
Dr ~ m[(hl - h2) + £' Tds -,p] (9-21 )
\Vhen undertakIng an analYSIS of the composIte process, perhaps for

estimatmg the mnss rate (m) of fluid supply reqUired for furnishing a
gIVen power output (P'"t), It wIll be preferable to estimate independ-
ently the rate of heat loss (mq). If this IS dOlle an estimate of the
product m(hl - h,), although not of inruvidual items m and h2, is
thereby secured. Items T" hI, PI, and P2 would normally be specIfied.
The frictional influence ,p of the second relation IS also capable of
independent estImate from data on the engine efficiency of representa-
tive turbines, operating effectively adiabatically but irreversibly. This
mechanical item is suhstantially independent of heat effects.
190 IDEAL GASES Cuu.9
Expressing the integral 1'T d. in the alternative form T(s, - .,)

equation 9-21 becomes
Pout
- - = (h, - h.) + T(B, - 8,) - if; (9-21a)
This relation IS capable of solution, by the method of successive approx-

imations, if the initial state of the gas, the exhaust pressure (p,), and
the required power are knmvn and values Qf mq and", are estimated.
The followmg example Illustrates.
EXQmpie 9.8. A gas turbme IS to operate WIth combustIOn products that are
effectively dry 81r, 5Upplied at 1200°F and 90 pBla. Expansion mil be to 15 psia,
and the delIvery of 1000 hp (2.544,000 Btu/be) IS reqUired. It 18 estimated thnt
hea.t losses wIll be at the rate of 300,000 Btu/hr. Experience indicates that a
wcll-dc51gned (a.dlB.ba.tlC) turbme CXhlb~ts an efficIency (If about 8()% Estlma.tc
the reqULred rate of au supply, and Its lea.vmg enthalpy and temperature.
Solul1.Qn. By equation 9-20, m(h 1 - ht) == Pou.t - mq "'" 2,544,000 + 300,000=
2,844,000 Btu/hr. Accepting the faCIlIties of FIg. 9-5 as sufficiently preCIBe for
present estimates, at 1200°F and 90 pSIIl, hI "'" 412 Dtu/lb and 81 = 0.573. After
an isentropIc exparuion to 15 paia, h = 249 Btu/lb, but, after ndiabatIf' but irreverSI-
ble expansion at 80% engine efficiency, h ",., 412 - 0 80(412 - 249) = 282, T =
700°F, and 8 - 0603. If tlo mean temperature T of about 141DoR IS accepted 8.8
representative for the irreverSible expanSion, if.' = 1410 (0 603 - 0.573) "'" 42 3 Btujlb.
Acce:ptlDg a slightly lower value Qf f or about 138(l°R as SUitable {{)r the actua.l
expansion Wl~h hea.t 10.sses, and introducing data lLnd estmIatcs as above m equa-
tIon 9-2Ia,
2,544,000/'" - (412 - h,) + 1380(8, - 0.573) - 42.3
By tri~18 at several values of h2 and correspondmg values of 82, It develops that
equatIOns 9-20 and 9-21a are satisfied by a value of h2 of about 271 Btu/lb, so that
T'l. = 660"F (llOO&R) and 32, = 05fl3 To verily this finding: at h?, = 271,
m = 2,844,000/(412 - 271) - 20,2001b/hr,andPout/m = 2,544,000/20,200 = 126.1
Btuflb;' .Iso (I" - h,) + 1'(., - ,,) - '" - 412 - 271 + lJ!80(O 593 - 0573) -
423 - 1263 B.tu/lb.
The terminal enthalpy of 271 Btu/lb and air reqUlrement of 20,200 Ib/hr compare
WIth valuea of 24£1 Dtu/lb snd 15,000 Ib/hr if the expanslOn is isentropic, or with
values of 282 Btu/lb and 19~600 lb/hr If adiabatic but meversible.
9-17_ Semi-Flow Processes; The Air Bank. The common
processes of charging or discharging an air tank provides a simpler
instance of a semi-flow process. For chargmg by means of an air
supply of constant temperature (and pressure), equation 3-16a may
be used almost directly if tables of properties are available, or aiter
some adjustment with data only on R, and c, or k. The following
exa!"ple illustrates.
Example 9-9. A tank of 300 cu It capaclty and contammg air at 70°F and
~t\rged to a. pressure 01 110 pma. from 8 supply line furnishing
14.7 psia is to be
ART. 9-17 SEMI-FLOW PROCESS ' 191
(dry) 8J.r at gO°F and 125 psla (a) '~hat wIll be the temperature of the aIr In
the tank a.fter chargIng and the llllual and fino.l amounts of air in the tank If
there was a negligible heat loss from the air to the tank walls and envll"ons?
(b) What amount of heat Wa,3 lost If au alr temperature of 140~F was observed
after chargmg to 110 psis? -
Solul1,on (a) Writing the relevant energy relation of Art 3-14 in the forms
ml
Ell = ho - (k o - ell - + -lQ2
m2 m2
PIT! RT2
'"" ho - (ho - ell - - + lQ,-V
P2Tl P2
and BubstItutmg value! from the BJ.r tables at the known .states of the air initraHy in
the tank a.nd as Bupphed, for the adlababc situation,
147 T,
" = 131.46 - (13146 - 00.35) - -
HO SSO
By successive trials It is found that thl13 equation is satisfied Ilt a temperature T2 of

721'R (261 'F), at which" = 12322 Btu/lb
The inItial mass of air ml = 300(14.7 X 144 )/{53 34 X 530) "'" 22.5 lb, m! at
ItO psia and 721°R = 123 SIb; a.nd m2 - ml = 101 0 lb.
Aitern3.tLvely, as one ma.y write CpT for h a.nd c.T for e and as also epic., ;: k and
c.. = R/J (k - l)~ the above relation may be stated in the form
PIT, J(k - I)T,
T, = kT. - (kT. - T , ) - T + IQ, ':""::'-;;---'-'''--'
'P2 1 VP2
For a.diabatic charging and accepting 1.40 as 8. representu.tive value of k, solution of
this relation gIves 722°R for T 2 •
(b) By the relatlOn as just written, in terms of k,
T
__::,_-__::_k:_T"o,,+,.-"-(k"T"o",-o-=T",I,,)p:,:l.:.T",,/..!_p,,'::_cTI
IQ2 =-
J(k -1)T,/p,V
GOO - 770 + (770 - 530) X 147 X GOO/(ItO X 530)

- 778 X 0.4 X 600( (110 X 144) - - 3400 Btu
Durmg the dIscharge of an air bank, if this occurs through a throttle

valve or orifice, the temperature of the aIr in and leaving the tank
wJlI change progressively but for an ideal gas will be the same on both
the tank side and discharge side of the throttle. For thIS SItuation the
first (differential) relation of Art. 3-14 is necessarily employed; i e.,
m de + e dm = ho dm + oQ
or dm/m = de/(h o - e) - oQ/m(h o - eJ
Alternatively, as To - T and thus ho - e = RT/J, and also d.-
c.dT,
dm Jc. dT JoQ
-=-----
m R T mRT
192 IDEAL GASES CRAP. 9
If the discharge i; sufficiently rap,d as to ,be effectIvely adiabatIc
and thcre is further neghgible turbulence within the tank, the process
therein is therefore ,sentropic and dTIT = (RIJc p ) (dplp). Thus for
thIS case,
m2/m, = (T2IT,)" ") or (P./P,)1"
If there is appreciable heat transfer between the air find the tank or
environs during the d,scharge, 3S m = (VIR) (piT) and so dmlm =
(dplp) - (dT IT), the last relation for dmlm may be WrItten as
dp = (Jc. + l)dT _ JoQ

p R TmRT
k dT HQ
=k-lT-PV
or J,Q, = V[k ~ 11' pd(lnT) + (p, - P2 l]
That is, the heat exchange accompanying the discharge may be
determmed 'f, by means of rapidly responsive pressure gauge and
thermometer, those data may be found for the a'r in tbe tank both
sImultaneously and progressively dunng discharge. The integral term
is readIly determined by plotting the curve of p as ordinate, to linear
&cale, against the loganthm of the absolute temperature as absc,ssa.
and findmg the mean ordmate for the curve.
9~18. Problems. 1. The pressure exhibited by (superheated) water vapor
at several selected temperatures and densities is shown herewJth, lhe data being
taken from taoies of the propertlea of steam RecaUmg inac (or water vapor
M = 1802 (lb/mole), at JlOW many or at wInch of these states ffilght the vapor
be rt!garded as confOlmlllg reasonably to ideal-gas speCI~catlOns?
T, of HO 340 240 240
P, pSla 1 5 10 20
V, eu ftllb 535.8 9500 4IJ3 20.48
2 Deternnne the mass of air COD tained m an B.urutonum the dImensions DC
which are 60 x 100 x 40 It if the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia and the mean
temperature IS 70°F, the gas constant for air bemg 53.34 ft-lb/ (lb, OR) or 006854
Btu/(1b, "R).
3. (0) W,th R lor air being 53a4 It-Ib/(lb, oR), by what amount must ,ts
pressure increase on constant-volume (or isometric) warming to 600°F from an
mitia} state at 147 psia and 70 a F, and what is the speCIfic volume of the air?
(b) To what speCIfic volume must the lllr of (a) be permitted to expand on
warming LhrougL the Bame temperature range in order for the (mitlld) prel:lBUre
not to change? (c) To what specific volume must the aIr of (0) be reduced
wilen compressed to a pressure of 300 PSl[l. in order that the (mltml) temperature
may be ffill.mtained?
4. Exp~ing dT ill the general1form dT - (aTlap). dp + (aT/iJv)p dv~ by
wrIting the corresponding value of dTldp but then mterpretmg it for an ISO-
thermal process, denve the further general rciatlOD (aT I au), (CJU/fJP)'r (fJplfJT)v =
-l.
5. Expressmg dT In the particular form suitable for an ideal gas, or R dT =
p dv + v dp, and so ollservmg, for example. that for such a gas R(dTldp) = p
(dvldp) + v, show that (a) (aTlap). = vIR, and ("TI'p'). - 0, (bl ('Tlav).
_ plR, and (a'TI,v'), = (a2vl,T'), = 0; (c) ('vlap). - -vip. Report .1m
wbether these specIfic fllldmgt:l cOlliorm to the general relation at problem 4.
Fmally. represent on a sketch of the p~v-T surface for the ideal gas the paths to
whICh the above partud derivatIves relate. and on proJectlOus of these paths
to relevant planes inchcate the ratios reprcscntmg these derivatives
6. A SUitable relation expressing the specific heat or low~pressure superheated
water vapor is
cp - 0.3516 + 1.003T/10' + 2O.57T-l Btu/Ob, 'n)

(0) From this relatlon wnte the correspondIng expression for the molar specific
heat Cpo (b) From thi:'l rela.tion compute ep at -60, 140, 340, and 540"F, plot
results lUI ordinate to a.bscissa of T both to lmoo.r and to logtl.rIthmlC s(,ltles, compare
the curves to those of Figs 9-.3 and 9-4, and from the plotted curves select values of
e e
p and p suitable for the above temperature range. (Use of the "C~sca.le" of a shde
rule for generating the In T scale Is suggested.) (c) Usmg the nbove relatIOn
compute (lQ2);p (i e, II]. c" dT) for warming from -60 to 540°F, determme Cp for
true temperature range by the quotient lqz.(T z - T 1 ), and compare this result with
the value graphically deternuned above. Cd) Show that, from the above relation,
0502(T, + T,l 10 (l',/T,J
ep = 03516 + 4 + 20.57 T T J and compute the correspond-
10 2 - 1
mg value of cp over the above temperature range, companng result WIth prior values.
. _ 1 003(T, - Td
(e) Show tha.t, from the a.bove relation, Cp = 0 3516 + 104 l" (T,/T,) -
20 57 /
1 T2 - l/Tl aDd compute the correspondmg value of p over the above e
10 (T,/T,)
temperatur~ range, comparing result with the va.lue grapw.cal1y determmcd nbove
7. From the primary relation of problem 6 wnta the correspondmg relations
eX}lressing C. and C, for lo\V~pressure Buperheated water vapor, and evaluate c, and the
ratios cplc. (or k) and R/Jcp [or (k - l)lk] at 32° and 540°F. Check with values
on right margm, Fig. 9-4.
8 Selecting a SUItable value of cp for aIr from FIg 9-3 compute the changes of
enthaJpy and of internal energy per pound when air is warmed at atmospheric
preSSQre from 70"F to 1000°F, and also determine those changes If during the Wamle
mg the pressure was also increasing progrea51vely to 10 atm (147 paia).
c
9. Selectm~ a SUItable value of p for aIr from Fig 9-4 compute the change of
entropy per pound when eJr is wa.rmed at atmosphenc pressure from 70 cF to lOOO°F,
and a.lso the change if during the warmmg the pressure was Increased progrCBBively
to 10 atm
10. (a) Determine values of h at the terminal sta.tes of problem 8, and their
change, by use of the facilities of the gas table, comparing resultR WIth those of
problem 8. Also verify the tabular vDluea ()£ 6 (i e., u) at the states in question
(b) USing the values of the .p.-items of the tabloo determIne the entropy changes of
problem 9. Also venfy the tabular values of Pr and Vr at the terminal temperatures
11. Usmg Ute facllItIes of the g;a.s tables deterIIllne the temperature and demuty
of alf after isentropIc compressIOn to 150 psw. of alf mitIally at 15 pSla and lOO"F,
checkmg th~ tempcmture by Fig 0-5 with the aValll1blc preCISIOn of that figure
12 Hydrogen iwtlally at lOO°F and 15 psia IS warmed at constant volwne to
800°F By any suitable method, usmg the dJJ.ta of Table !J-l and Figs 9-3 and 9-4,
detelmmc the values of dh, de, 68, and lQ2, and check results as illf as possible by
the faCUlties of the gas tables What will be the termmal prc~~ure of the hydrogen?
13 (a) Hydrogen lDihallyat lOO°F and 45 pSI:!. IS warmed lsob!l.rlcally to 800°F.
By any SUItable method, USlDg the data of Table 9-1 and Figs. 9-3 and 9-4, determIne
the values of .:lh, .:le, D.3, and lQ2, checkmg results as far as is practll'ablc by the
faclhties of the gas tables What will be the termmal specIfic volume of the hydrogen?
(b) If the above w.o.rml[lg occurs dunng flow through a heat mterchanger in whICh
fnctJoIlll.l resistances caURe 8. prP.!lsure drop to 40 psm Ilt the ent" deLermine in any
sUitable manner the above items and estimate It for the process, If if IS apprm:mlately
(T, + T,)/2.
14 If III pnssage through a compressor carbon monOXide lrutJally at lOO°F and
15 pSllL might be compressed Isothermally (a) to 135 psio. With neghglble accompany-
ing frictional effects, and (b) with the same work mput a.s for frtctlonless compressIOn
but With the eXlStenc:e o( such. flUId fnctLOn aud turbul.cnce effects en route that the
atta.med delivery pressure IS only 120 pSl:l, dctcrmmc ,:;.h, ~e, lWZ, lq~ amI 60s for
both cases, and ~ In the second case
15. Carbon monOXIde illitially at lOOQF lind 15 pSla IS compressed lSentropIcally
to 135 paia. (a) Detemllne the termmal tcmpernture by use of the POIsson equation,
USIng a sUlta.ble value of cp and RIJcp as taken from FIg. 9-4. (b) Determine the
termInal temperature by use of the gas tabl~ (c) Ueing the temperature as eo
'found, determine t:J.h nnd t:J.e, both by computations and by use of the gas tables.
(d) Compute the 'Work required for compOSIte IIltake, compreSSIOn, and delivery
under the above condItIons (1U'2), domg so by use of the above value of j.h and by
use of equatIOns 0-16 and 9-16a Fmd the error IIlvolved in use or the senes arrange-
ment of equation Ina
16 From the results of problems H(a) and 15 determme the reductIon in the
reqUIred work on reverMble isothermal VI!! 15entroplc compressIOn for the stated
mitial temperature and supply and delivery pressures. Abo detcrrrunc the redllCtlOn
over full isentropic compreSSIon If Isentroplc compression only to 45 pSla IS followed
by Isobanc recoolIng of the air to 100°F (by paSS:lge through an mtercooler), before
finnllsentroplc compression from 45 pSla to 135 PSla.
17 On replotting the mdtcator ca.rd of e. modcrate-epeed recIprocating air wm-
pressor to loganthmlc coordInates It appears that the cornpreSbIOn phase may rea,gon-
ably be descnbed by the relatIOn pV I22 = Constant At the beginmng of the
compression V = 20 ell ft and p = 140 pSla, and at the end of compressIOn
p = 116 PSIa.. (a) Sketch the compreSSIOn pbase to T-h-s coorJmates. (b) Deter-
mine the temperature at the end of compression tf 7\ = 70°F, the work required per
pound of air for the compreSSIOn phnse only and that for the composite intake,
COlIlpre~!>lOn, ami delivery, the euLropy charlge dUrIng the compreS~>1Oll, alld the
accompanying energy transrtlOn as heat Compute the last both by direct energy
llceountmg and by the relevant relation of Art 9-15.
18 Regardmg the alf supply of illustrative e'l[ample 0-4 as furnished to a. gas
turbine, In which the gas WIll presumably. expand Isentropl('ally and With neglIgible
leaving velOCity to 15 psi!)', determine the reductIOn In the Ideally obtainable work
ART [)"18 PROBLEMS 195
output of the lurbme If in passage ~hroUgh any accessory heaters anq pipmg en route
to the turbme fri{'tlOnal effects reduce the pressure at the turbme mtake to S5 psis,
D
the temperature continuing at 1200 F Use any preferred method.
19. A certa.m ul(I8.I·f]ow type of compressor !s expected to operate "effectively
ad!a.batically but WIth 8. "compression (or aruababc) efficiency" of 78%. If the
fluid lB aIT, entermg at 70DF and 15 paUl" what Wlll be (a) the enthalpy change
en route through the compressor If the net kmetic energy cha.nge is neghgible and
c c
the delIvery pressure is 75 psia.; (0) a. sllJ.table value of p and p for the process, and
the temperature of the leaVIng au, (c) the work reqUIred per pound of au dehvered,
the power per 1000 ell ft/mm at the entenng state, and the corresponding volumetn~
rate of clehvery at eXit conditiOns, (d) the entropy growth accompanymg the com-
preSSIon, and the appearance of the process as represented to T-h-s coordmates.
20 A certain gas turbm€ is expected to operate effectIvely adiabatically but wzth
an "e"'<panslOn effiCIency" of 80%. If the thermodymuUlC: properties of the flwd
employed dtfi'er neglIgIbly from those of rur, and it enters the turbine at 70 psis. and
1200"F and e"(pands therem to 15 psia, Wha.t Wlll be (a) the enthalpy cha.nge en route
If the exIt velocity IS 400 fps, (b) the leaving temperature and speClfic volume,
(c) the work output per pound of fluid; (d) the entropy growth en route and the
appearance of the process to T-h-s coorchnates.
21. Recompute the ltel1l8 of IllustratIve example 9-8 With the presumed modifica-
tions tha.t by better turbme design the (\Xpa.nslOn efficiency IS mcreascd to 85% and
by better lDsulation the heat loss IS redltced to SO,OOO Btu/hr
22 A flask contruns 2 70 Ibm of air at 15.0 pSIa and gO°F It IS connected VIa 8
control valve to a hue in whICh air IS bemg supplJed at 85 psia and 90°F. After
bemg charged to a pressure of 75 p.!lla, what mass of air would the 8!I.Bk contain,
and what would its temperature be, if c(mditiona were adla.batic? Am 10,281
23 A flask contams 10 Ibm of air at ,5 pSla and 741"Il. It is blown down untIl
Ita pressure is 15 psia. What mass of air remams W1thm the flask, and What is its
temperature, If the process IS adlaba.tic' What mass of air escapes, and wha.t 'are
~ts (mean) enthalpy and temperature, If adiabatic conditions prevail? .
Am 3.17,408,683,621
10 . PROPERTY AND PROPERTY RELATIONS
Low-Pressure Gas and Gas-Vapor .l\1ixtures
H).I. Foreword. In many engineering devices and processes the
operating fluid is a mixture of gases between which no chemical inter-
action IS occurring and WhlCh individually conform adequateJy to
Ideal-gas criteria under the moderate pressures encountered. Illus-
tratwe examples are th~ air going to a fUrnace or to air-condItioning
equipment, the air being itself a mixture primarily of nitrogen and
oxygon but alsa having appreciable proportions af water vapor and
argon; or the combustion products in the furnace stack or the gas'
turbine.
In situations where the composition is not modified during a process,
by occurrences such as the condensation of a portion of any admixed
va.por, the mixture may be assigned suitable equivalent values of a
gas constant and specific heat which will enable analytical procedures
that are effectIvely identIcal with those already developed in relation
to individual gases (Chapter OJ. When vapor condensatIOn or evap-
oration occurs modIfied technics become necessary.
10-2. Partial and Aggregate Pressures. PrImary considerations
relating to mixtures of Ideal gases are:
(a) The pressure which a gas or a mixture of gases exerts on the
surface 01 any confining vessel is an evidence and measure of the force
produced, per umt area, by the incessant bombardment of the surface
by the actively movlllg molecules comprising the. gas or gas mixture.
Each molecule contributes to the total force. The pressure produced
jointly by all the like molccule, which make up Il discrcte constituent
of a mixture is known as the partial pressure of, and is attributable
to, that constituent. The total pressure is the sum of these parhal
pressures, or
p ~ Pa + p, + ... P. (10-1)
where the items with subscripts denote the partial pressures of indi-
vidual constituents.
(b) Due to "collisions" occurring continuously among the great
number, of molecules in a gas mixture of finite mass the kinetic ener-
gies of the individual molecules 01 all constituents, at a gIVen tem-
perature, must on the average be the same. A consequence of this is
196
ART. 1()'2 PARTIAL AND AGGREGATE PRESSURES 197
that the partial pressures of IDdividual constituents WIll be proportional
tothe relatIve numbers of molecules of those constituents; or
where N denotes the relative number of molecules of a constItuent.

This is in effect a statement' of DaItonJs law of ideal gas mixtures
To provide more dIrectly useful partml-pressure relations, expressed
In terms of the relatIve masses of the constituents of a gas mixture,
recall that the formula mass (M) of a matenal represents the rela-
tive mass per molecule of the material. Thus No cr ?no/Jl.Ia, or
N" 0: mn/lJffl} where me'" mn represent the relative masses of the
constItuents. It follows that Pa/P, - N.lN, - (ma/Ma)/(m,/M.).
Further, as for ideal gases, the product MR evaluates a universal gas
constant Ro! or Ro =- },[aRa' .. = frI"R", the pressure ratio is alter-
natIvely such that Pa/P' - maR./m,R,. To summarize, the distribu-
tion of the partIal pressures attrIbutable to individual constituents of
an Ideal-gas mixture and their mass or molar proportions in the mix-
ture may be related in the following. alternative way:
po = Number of moleculea of constituent a, or N a
p, Number of molecules of constituent b, or N b
malM. Number of moles of a
= ---
m,/ M. '
or also
Number of moles of b
(10-2)
and
m.R.
(10-2a)
To relato th" p",lia\ j)r.",me (Pa'" p.l attributab\" to an;! indi-

vidual constituent and the total pressure (p) of, or on, the mixture
note that, as p - p, + p,' .. p.,
pn pn
-=
p p. + p,'" P.
m./M. m./M.
= ma/lil. + m,IAI, + ... m./AI. w Z(m/M) (1()'3)
where the numerator and denominator represent, respectIvely, tbe

number of moles of an individual constituent and the total number of
moles of all constituents.
The above formulations are adapted more specifically to •• tuations
in which the mass Or molar proportions are known through gravi-
metric analyses or computations providing such information. How-
ever, analyses of gas mixtures are performed more readily by methods
in which the constituents are in effect segregated and the relative
198 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR ML,(TURES CHAP. 10
volume of each is detcrlIllIlcu after UClllg brought to some selected
pressure and temperature, usually tho'3e of the origInal mixture. The
procedure with the familiar Orsat apparatus Illustrates. The molec-
ular distnbutlOns in the several sItuations, before and after segrega-
tion, are represented in the two sketches of Fig. ]0-1. The compol:litIOn
of a gas mIXture is thus frequently expressed In terms of the volume
proporttOn, after such segregation.
T rnluure
FIg 10-1
To relate the partial pressures of the constituents of an existing

mIxture and the volumetric composItion after such segregation, ob~
serve that for the various constItuents pVa, = m~RQ,T) PVb = m/JRbT1
or pV. - m.R.T, where the symbol V denotes the volume of a con-
stituent after bemg segregated and brought to a (common) pressure
p and temperature T. It follows that
v~ maRl}.
- =-- or
V, m.R.
where the ratio m/M again expresses the number of moles of a con-
stituent. That is, the proportion by volume is also the proportIOn
by moles. Also, V./~V =
(m"/M")/~(m/M). Thus equations 10-2
and 10-3 may be supplemented by the further alternatIve relations
pa = Relative volume of constituent a, or Va (1O-2b)
p. Relative volume of constItuent b, or Vb
p. Volume of constituent n V.
and or (10-3b)
p Aggregate vol Ume of mixture ~V
The foregoing rebllons are consIstent with and might be developed

from the several "laws" known as those of Avogadro and Amagat.
These state, respectively, that for ideal gases at a given p and T the
. volume per mole is the same for all, and that the aggregate of the
volumes of the segregated constituents of a mIxture equals the initJal
mixture volume.
ART. 10-3 GAS CONSTANT AND FORMULA MAss 199
10-3. Equivalent Gas Constant and Equivalent F,~rmula Mas •.
When the thermodynamlC properties and property relations for a par-
tIcular gas mIxture ure of frequent concern, as IS the case with air, It
becomes convenient to employ an equivalent gas constant and/or
formula mass which will enable pro~edures for the mixture as if It
were a single gas. RecalL that for the air of the lower atmosphere
(exclusive of admixed water vapor) the eqUIvalent gas constant of
5334 ft-Ib/(lb, OR) or 00685 Btu/ (Ib, OR) was used regularly in
Chapter 9, and corresponds to an equivalent formula mass of
(1545/5334 -) 28.97 Jb/mole.
The eqmvalent gas constant of any ldeal-gas mixture is defined as
that magmtude which may SUItably be employed In an equatIOn of
state analogous to that for a single gas, or R m " - pumn/T. To deter-
mme it) consider a mIXture at p and T with the constituents occupying
both smgly and Jomtly the volume 1'. For this mixture,
p - P. +p •... P. +
= (m.I1o +
'!I.R.· .. m.R.)TIV
But V = kmvw1x , where V ZZII % denoteB the speCIfic volume of the lll1X-
ture. Thus
ma mb R m.
pVmlX
- - or R",,, -
T
~
~m
Ro +,,-
~m
•... + ~
~m
R. (1 H)
where m/~m is the proportien by mass of any constituent The

eqUIvalent gas constant IS thuG sImply an aggregate of the mdlVidual
constant15 when each is welghtrd In confonmty wzth tis mass propor-
tion in the mixture
An equivalent formula mass for a. gas mixture, defined as ~fmIX =
Ro/Rrrll%/ IS also a very convenient concept. To express It III terms
of dIrect characterIstics of the mixture recall that, indIVIdually,
R. = Ro/M 0, etc. Thus,
AImix = Ro/Rrrllx
and, by equation 10--1,
1:m
=Ro----------~~-----------
Ro(m./JIf 0 + m./M. . + m.I!.!.J
mo/Alo mo/ilf. m.IM.
or ~(mIM)J',[· + ~(mIM)M•... + ~(mIM)M.
But the molar proportion.s such as (m./JIf.)/~(mIM) are also the
volumetIlc proportIons, and thus
ill",,, = (Vo/1:V)Mo+ (V./Z:V)M.· . + (V./ZV)M. (10-5)
200 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES CHAP. 10
The equivalent mass 1\! rob is thus an aggregate of the individual
formula masses when each'" weighted in ClJn!orm,ty with its molar or
volumetric proportion In the mixture.
Table 10-1 gives for convenience the composition of the dry-air
mixture of the lower atmosphere, both in detaIl and in terms of oxygen
and "atmospheric nitrogen," and illustrates the use of varIOUS of the
foregoing relahons. The term "atmospheric mtrogen" describes the
mixture of nitrogen, argon, and other minor quanllties of IDert gases
which, with oxygen, constitute dry air near the earth's surface. Sup-
plementary specific heat data are lllcluded.
Table 10-1. Dry AIr Composition and Constants
Mola.r, volumetric
Mas. and presswe At 212'F
pruportion, Relative numbers proportions, m
Constituent ml'];m of moles, m/}.[ (mIM)I'];(mIM) Cp ~mC'P
0.23188
Oxygen, 02 0.23188 ----000
32.
~ 0.007246 02099 7.15 1.!l!l7
075468
Nitrogen, H2 0.754GB --~0026938 0.7803 6.98 5265
28016
001296
Argon, A 001296 --~0000325 0.0094 4.g7 0064
39.64
CO, 0.00046 o00046 ~ 0000010 00003 9.64 0004

4401
000001
Hydrogen, Ih 000001 --~OOOOOO5 00001 6.97
2.016
Mise mert
gases 0.00001 4.97
1.00000 0.034525 1.0000 7.000
Mm~ ~ :£TrJI'];(mIM) - 10/0034525 ~ 28.97; Rm .. - i545/28.07 ~ 53.34.
C. ~ 7.000, '. - 7.000/28 97 ~ 0.2417; both at 212°F.
0'
023188
Oxygen 023188 32.000 ~ 0.007246 0.2099
"Atmo!lphtJric o 7GB12
076812 - - ~ 0.027279 07901
nitrogen" 2816
1.00000 0034525 1.0000
where the equivalent formula. llULSS of "atmospberic" nitrogen is 28.16
10-4. Specific Hents, Gas nlixtures. The energy transfer required

as.heat far effecting n given temperature rIse of a physical mixture of
ideal gases is an aggregate of that which would be required for each
co,!stituent If ~xisting alone. Th,s is in conformity WIth the Gibbs-
ART. 10-4 SPECIFIC _HEATS, GAS MIXTURES 201
Dalton law of mixtures; that is t
oQ = (m.c. + m,e, + ... m.c.) dT
and the specific heat so becomes, per unit mass of mixture,
oQI:Em m. m. m.
c.. .. = ----a:T = ':Em c. + ::Em e• •.. :Em c. (10-6)
where the specific heat of the mixture or those of the constituents

(c, CIl, ell, ... ) arc a.t constant pressure or at constant specIfic volume
as either is of concern. For ideal gases these will differ in the amount
Rmw J, or Cp,mLx .... c".ml..J: + RrntdJ.
In circumstances where one constituent of a mixture is of greaier
permanence (such as the alI In an air-and-water-vapor mixture) it .s
frequently convenient to express a spec.fic heat C'mlx for the mixture
but per unit mass of the more permanent constituent. A gas constant
of parR_llel character is also convenient. To express these, if in equa-
tions 10-6 and 10-4 constituent a .s the effectively permanent one,
(10-6a)
and R
t
m~ = R. + -mb R, + ... -mOl R. (10-4a)
ma ma
The molar specific heat of a gas mixture (C mix) may be expressed
by a relatIOn paralleling directly the per-unit-mass relation of equa-
tIon 10-6, or
malMa m,IM. m.I"I. (
Cm .. = ::E(mIM) C. + ::E(m/M) C. + ... ::E(m/M) C. 10-60)
where the molar proportion (m/JI)/::E (mIM) may again be interpreted

also as a volumetric proportion. It will be recalled that the spec.fic
heat values of Figs 0-3 and 9-4 (and those given in tlie gas tables
for individual gases) are per mole, It is to be recalled also that
Cp,mb = C•. mix + RoIJ, where Ro/J = 1.986 Btu/(mole, OR),
'Vhen or if It is preferred to use molar specific heat formulas, such
as those provided in Table 9-2, instead of graphICal fac.lities such as
those of F.g. 9-3 or 9-4, it is necessary SImply to subslltute the proper
formulas for items Co, C~,' . . Gil in equatJOll lO-6b.
Example 10·1. A mixture composed of 10% carbon diuxide (C02) BDd 90%
water vapor (H20), by volume, is Ilt 14 7 pailL and oooaF. For this mIXtUre
determine (a) the mass proportions, (6) the pnrtial pressures, (c) the equivalent
gas cOllBtant and formula mass, and Cd) the per-umt-1llas:l and the molar specific
202 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES CHAP lO
hents at constant pressure nnd at constant volume, and the corresplmdmg value
of k
Solutiun For C02, .M = 44 01 (Table 9-1) nuu Cp = 109 (FJg 9-3), for H20,
M - 1802 and C, - 85
o 10 X 44 01 0271 mcoz D.271 mn!o
- - or-,- = - - = 0 2135and-,-= .7865.
0.£10 X 18.02 1.00 I 2;m L27L ;!;m
(b) PC02 = 0 10 X 147 = 147 pSla, and PH20 = 0 gO X 14..7 = 13 '23 pSlQ.
1545 1545
ft-Ib{
(c) lim •x
4401
+
= 02135 - - 0 7865 - - = 74 9 0 - -
1802 Ibm. oR
M m •x = 0 10 X 44 01 + 0 90 X 1802 = 2062 (or = 1545/7490) Ib/mole
(d) C>.m~ = 0.10 X 109 +090 X 850 = 874, and
Cl,mu. = S 74 - 1.986 = 675 Btu/(mo1e, "F);
c)I,mu: = B 74/W G2 = 0 424, and
".m.x = 0 424 - 74 90/778 (or 0.75/20,52) = 0327 Btu/(Ib, OF),
k = 8.74(6.75, or 0,42-1(0 327, = 123.
10-5. Enthalpy, Internal Energy, ami Entropy of Gas Mixture.
Agam in conformIty "lth the Gibbs law of mI",tures the change of these
energy funetlOns is the sum of the changes as determmed individually
for each constItuent Thus
T,
=
L T.
Cp,miJ: dT for ideal-gas mixture (1O-7a)
i
T,
and = £;,mu: dT for ideal-gas mlXture (10--7b)
T.
In a sunilar manner, but for conformity with equation 9-10,
('2 - SI)m'"
m.
=~
.tJm
[IT, Tl
Cp ,' d (In T) - -J In -
R. P.,,] +
pa,l
~ [ (T, Cp,O d(ln T) _ R, In PO,,] + .. ,*

2:m JT, J PO,I
T,
= L 1
cp,m,x d
1 (mollo po,2
(In T) - J- ~ In -
4.im Pa,l
+
m.,R, In pO,2 + ...)
~m PO,I
• ~al1 that l.~ C d(1n T)

p = (CP2 - CPl)/M In mdlVldu£l.l gas tables.
ART, 10-5 h, e, 8, GAS MIXTUHES 203
But by equatIOn 11)..2 p.,2/Pa,l = ,p,,2/P.,l = P'/Pl so long as the mass
proportIOns of the mixture are unchanged, and by equatlOn 10-1
m.R./"i.m + m,R./"i.m + ' , , = R",,., Thus the last relation reduces
to the simpler and famdiar form
(Rm .. /J) In (p';p,)

(82 - ")m,. =
JT,fT, cp,m"dT/T - (10-8)
where pz and PI arc termmal values of the total pressure. *

Although for a reversible ruhabatlC process the entropy of a mIxture
docs not change, the mdlvidual entropies per umt mass of Its constituents
will do so, but m compensating amounts, if theH speClfic heats dJffer,
ConsiderIng a h\-o-component mD{ture in order that J
Smil:,2 = 8... ][.1,
1
m a (., - 81). = -m,(., - 81), or

T2 1'2 ft, p",)
R. P"') =-mb ( cp,bln---ln--
ma ( cl'.aln---ln--
T, J p.,1 T, J P',I
But at constant mass proportions, Pa,2/p,,1 = P,,2/P.,1 = P';PI, ami by
equation 10-8
In T2/T, = (Rm,,/Jcp,m .. ) In p,jPI, and also R = Ro(cp/C p), so that
m. [cJP
" (Rm" _
Cp,mu:
_!!fJ_) In p,] =
Cp,a PI
-m. [c Jp" (Rm,.
ep,mIX
- ~) In P2]
Cp,1I PI
The bracketed terms express the indivIdual entropy changes of the

constituents, Even during the reversible adiabahc statc change they
individually equal zero only if Cp ,. = CPo' = cp,mu(Ro!R m,.) The
entropy of the component of hIgher specIfic heat tends to decrease; thIS
is due m effect to transfer of energy to the one of lower specific heat,
• A signIficant dIstmctIon eXIsts between the relatIVe entlOpy of an eXIsting
mixture, as SJ expressed, and the aggregate of the entropIes of the constituents
prior to mi:cmo but mcllvldually at the temperature T and the pressure p of the
ult1mllte mixture.
An enlropy Increase nece&3anly results from the Inherent meversibllity of
the mixing proceS3, even if unaccompanied by thermal irrever.'Ilbility due to
initially different temperature, such W9 IS consIdered in Art 7-7. The amount of
such increase is expressed by subtracting the aggregate of the relative entropies
of the unmIXed constituents from the a.bove relative entropy of the mlXture. By
such procedure it is established that
8 ix-8 ted=-
1 (ma,R(J P m"Rb
--In--+--ln-+
P
III segrega J:tm pa :rm Pb
where the pressures with subscripts are the partial pressures In the mIxtUre.
From one viewpoint the en~ropy mcrease on mIxing is due to the expansJOn of
the gases from mdivldual imtIal pressures to their lesser partial pressures, alter
IDlXlD.g, without accomphshment of mechanical effects.
10.6. Ga •.Vapor Mixtures. The foregomg considerations related
to gas mixtures, and the associated facilities whereby they may be
assigned an equivalent formula. mass or gas constant and specific
heats.
In many engineering processes the operating fluid is, however, a
mixture of effectively permanent gases of moderate total pressure and
• saturated or mildly superheated vapor Typical mixtures of such
character are atmospheric air, unless in extremely "dri' regions, the
mixture leaving the carburetor of an internal-combustion engine, etc
Material following indicates the further consIderations involved when
such a mIxture is in any manner caused to amve at or go below the
saturatIOn temperature corresponding to the partial pressure of the
condensible constituent.
The typical situations in which mixtures of such character may be
encountered are referred to in the following as those of:
(a) A humid mixture, when the partml pressure of the vapor is less
than the saturatIOn pressure for the mixture temperature, and the
vapor is thus superheated.
(b) A saturated mixture, when the partial pressure of the vapor is
the saturation pressure for the mixture temperature, and the vapor is
thus saturated but dry.
(c) A moist or wet mixture, when the mixture is one 01 gas, saturated
vapor, and saturated liquid droplets or crystalline solid ("snow").
(d) A supersaturated mixture, when the parhal pressure of the vapor
exceeds the saturation. pressure for the mixture temperature and the
vapor is thus supersaturated.
(e) A supercooled mixture, in which liquid droplets persist at tem-
peratures below freezing.
10-7. Humif1ily Indices. For humid mixture~ It is necessary to
designate sp~ClficaJly and in some direct manner the relative amount
of the condensible constituent in the mixture. Various indices are em-
ployed for this purpose. The more direct and usual ones follow
(a) UtXture ratio, which is defined as the mass of vapor per unit
mass of gas, or m,/m" and is represented also in the following by the
symbol x. It has also been described both as the absolute humidity
and the specific humidity, and expressed both in parts per thousand
and in grains of vapor per pound of air.
(b) Relative humidity, which will be defined primarily as the ratio
between the existing vapar pressure in a m;",ture at a given temperature
and its saturation pressure at that temperature, or
,
Relative humidity (R.H.) = (_E,,_)
P,at T
ART. 10-7 HUMIDITY INDICES 205
The relative humidity is conventionally expressed in p,ereentage.
A mixture of gas and saturated vapor is said to be one of 100 per cent
relative humidIty; onc of less percentage is one of gas and superheated
vapor, or a humid mixture; and one having a humIdity III excess oi
100 per cent is a mixture of gas and supersaturated vapor.'
0"
o "
(aJ For vapor (b) For IW'
Fig. 10-2.
The thermodynamIC status of the vapor and of the gas in such mix-
tures would thus be representable indiVIdually, to the T-s coordinates
of FIg. 10-2, by points 1, 2, and 3 for the vapor at humidities respec-
tively less than, equal to, or greater than, 100 per cent. Correspondmg
pomLs Jepresenting the state of the gas, at the mIxture temperature
and constant total pressure, are also indIcated. From an alternative
viewpoint, points 1 and 3 are representative of states in whICh the
number of vapor molecules in a gIven space is respectIvely less and
greater than the number corresponding to saturation at the mIxture
temperature. In this connection note that, If the vapor constituent
is at a pressure sufficiently low that it conforms to Ideal-gas char-
acteristics 1
p, p./R.T p.
--= = - - and = R.H.
PlI,la.t Pv,aat/R,'l' P~.sat
* Supersaturated miXtures are not unusual in the atmosphere, and are utlhzed
extensively in the lVatson cloud cha.mber for the detection of the paths of charged
partlrJes such fie IOns Dr electrons. Note that In thiS matet1s1 the term Ijvapor
pressure" denotes the pressure of a vapor, or gns, when at pressures equal to, less
than, or greater than, the satura.tion pressure corresponding to It.:! temperature.
In chemical uterature the term is employed as meaning only the saturation
pressure.
206 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTLJHES CHAP. 10
The relative hum1d1ty 18 thus lllterpretable alternatIvely as the ratw
of the density of the vapor zn a mIxture of given temperature to the
denSIty of saturated I'apor at that temperature.
The state representatIOns of FIg 10-2 mdlcate relevant attrIbutes of
the indrvidual conlSt1tuents of <l gas-vapor mIxture but are Insufficient
for representatJOns of the sbte and essentlal charactenshcs of the
mixture itself Such inadequacies induue the ab,ence of facihties for
mdlCutmg the tutal pressure, the relative humidity, the mixture ratio,
Cp
R/J
P, R/Jcp
10
05
o
OOS 006 004 002
FIg. 1()..3 Mulbpressure hygrometric chart.
etc. Various arrangements of coordinates and contours have been used

for provldmg such facIlities. One of consIderable convemence is mdI-
cated in 'skeleton form m F1g 10-3 and in a workmg fcrm in FIg 10-4
As FIg. 10-4' IS for an an-plus-water-vapor mIxture it lS dcslgnatcu
as a multzple,sure hygrometrzc chaTt The ordmate IS the parhal
pressure due to the vapor (p,) There are two abscissas, of tempera-
ture (T) to the left and of nuxlure ratIO m,lm, (or xl lo lhe rIght
The ourves of relatIve humIdIty m the left portlOn conform WIth the
definitIon of relative hmnidlty as p,/P"t,T' The scales of h, (or h,)
and of hr, (or hog) along the upper left margm are convement when
determining thc relative enthalpy of an air-vapor mixture. The pur-
poses of the rosettes and of the supplementary (broken-line) curves
WhICh appear to the left are mctlcated later
The radIating total-pressure (p) lmes appearing III the nght portIOn,
to tbe coordmate;; of P" and :c assocIale those ,anables and the total
pressure, m conformIty WIth equation 10-3. StraIght pressure hnes
are enabled by a suitably non-hnear scale of x. Supplementary scales
JRE
CHART
'00
R MIXTUR[S.
'"
!nlllneIO'1
j'~D~iI, 011
n Y<l1~ e II
"
om
"
'00
10 - 10 flO 0010 0040 0030 0020

" '" '" '" 0010
'"
TEMPERATURE, 'F, NIHURE RATIO, ~OUNDS OF VAPOR PER POUND OF AIR (ml/m~ 'II
Fig 11).4 Multlpre8BUre hygrometric chart for air·a.nd·wllrer-vapor ffilxturcs

ART, 10-7 HUMIDITY INDICES 207
along the upper nght margm provide values of the gas constant and
specIfic heat of the mIxture at gIven values of mjm UJ In conformity
Wlth equatlOllS 10-4a and 1O-6a; Ie, values for the mixture but per
pound of the air component Pomts 1, 2, and 3 appearing In Fig 10-3
correspond for the mIxture to the like-numbered pomts m FIg 10-2
Forcgomg attrIbutes of mIxtures of saturated and of superheated
water vapor wIlh Rlr, and the use of assocIated graphIcal facllliles pro-
vHieri by FIg 10-4, are Illustrated in the following examples
Example 10-2. Into lIb of dry au, at 147 psm and 70°F, water droplets are
mtroduced and at the Mme temperature are vaponzed (by heat supply) m
amount sufficient to false the relative humIdity from zero to (a) 50% and (b) to
100% The total presSUre IS caused to remam constant What wIll be the
densIty and the mass proportlOns of the mlxture In each state, and the gas con-
stant (Rml.') and speclfic heat (Cp,ml"), tile latter, however, per pound of Lhe
air constItuent? Compare comput£'d values With those secured dlrectly by the
use of FIg. 10-4.
Solutton For the InItially dry air, p = (147 x 144)/(5334 x 530) = 00748
Ib/eu It
For the humld aIr at 50% R H, p~ = 05 x 0363 = 01815, p .. = 147 - 01815
= 14518 pSla Thus
01815 X 144 ( 050 )

Pf = o r - ,bv steam tables = 0 0005751b/cu ft
85 68 X 530 868·
Po ~ (14,518 X 144)/(5334 X 530) ~ 0073951b/cult
Pm)X = 007453Ib/cuft
0000575 5334 0 1815
x ~
8568 14518 ~ 0007781b/(lb, au)
o073D5 m
1544
R'm<x ~ Ro + xR, ~ 53,34 + 0.00778 ~ 5401 (Btu/"R)(lb,olr)
1802
8013
C'p,ID>X ~02398+0007781802 ~ 02433 (Btuj"F)/(Ib,olr)
For the saturated aIr, p~ = 0.363 and ps = 14.337 PSIS Thus
0363 X 144
p, ~ 8568 X 530 (or 1/868, by steam tabl",,) ~ 0 001l51b/eu ft
P. ~ (14 337 X 144)/ (5334 X 530) 007300 Ib/ eu It

Pmtx = 0 074151b/cu ft
000115 5334 0363
mv/ma = - - - or 85 G8 14337 = 001575 Ib/lb, air
00730
R' mix =
53.34. .' 0 0157''-'1802
1545 ~ 54 69 (Btu/OR)/(lb, air)
- , 8.013 /(Ib
c p,m" ~ 02398 + 0 01575 18 02 ~ 02468 (Btu/"F) , air)
For direct determinations USlDg Flg. 10-4: by entry at 'iD"F and 500/0 R H.,
passage to the vapor-pressure scale gives a value of p~ of 0182 pSIaj passage
further to the 14 7 pSla total-pressure lme and thence down to the x-scale or up
to the scales of R'mIE and C'"MIZ indicates values respectively of 00078,540, and
0243. By Slmllar passages from an entry pomt at 70°F_ and 100% R.n., p. Ell
036, x = 00158, R'mlJ:" 54 7, and C·... mll = 0..247.

Example 10-3. For dry air at the lrutlal condItion of the preceding example
determme the final total prffi!!ure, mixture densIty, and mIXture ratio If the air
18 caused to become saturated at constant temperature and volume, instead of
pressure.
Solution
P. "'" Put at 70°F = 0..363 psm
Pa is constant, B.8 T and 17 are unchanged, or = 1470 psia.
Ptot.al = 15063 psia
P. = P,at. at 70"F = 0 00115lb/eu ft
Po is the same lUI initially, or = 0.0748 Ib/eu ft
PmI. - 007595 lb/cu It
000115 53340363
m.lm, - 0 0748 or -----
856814.7
001538 lb/lb
10.8, Enthalpy and Entropy Changes, Gas·Vapor Mixture. For

processes wlth humid mlxturcs during whlch there is no condensation
or evaporatlOn, and the mixture ratio is thus unchanged, the enthalpy
or entropy change may sUltably be exprcssed and determined in the
manner mdicated mArt. 10-5 for gas mixtures.
In the frequent othcr situations in whJCh concurrent condensation
or evaporatlOn changes thc mixture ratlO during a process, and the
vapor is one for whlch tables of the thermodynamic properties are
available, it becomes more practlCable to utilIze those tables. Due
care- must however be exerClSed to evaluate energy functions for the
same mass of condensible constltu~nt, even il appearing inItially and
finally in dillerent phases.
In relation speCifically to enthalpy evaluation and considering, lor
example, a process in which an initially humid mixture of mixture ratio
"" and at T, becomes a wet mixture of (vapor) ratio "'2 at T 2 , recall
that present concern is limited to mixtures at sufficiently moderate
pressures thut the vapor cumponent conforms also to ideal-gas char-
acteristics in the feature that the enthalpy is a iunctlOn only of
temperature. Thus, per pound of permanent constituent,
hm b:.l = h a .] + x 1h,.1
and = h,.1 + x,h,.1 or h•. l + "'I (hI,. I + hI. I)
where h,.1 is the enthalpy of saturated vapor at TI but also that of the
ART. 10-9 CONSTANT-VOLUME PROCESS 209
superheated vapor in the humid mixture. Also,
hmlx ., ~ + ",h,.2 + (XI - ",,)hl .,
h,.,
and ~ h,.2 + x2h".2 + xlh,.. 'or h •.• + x lh,.2 - (XI - x2)h,,,,
where (XI - .X2) expresses the mass of condensed vapor. Thus the
change of enthalpy becomes
(hi - h2)m,. ~ h.,1 - h.,2 + [xlh,,1 - x2h,.2 - (XI - x2)h,,2]
or ~ h.,1 - h.,2 + [xlh",1 - x2h".2 + Xl (h"l - h,.,)]
or also = h.,1 - h.,2 + [Xl (h,,1 - h,,2) + (Xl - X2)h",2]
Wholly parallel relations, but m terms of 8 rather than of h, are
suitable for expressing the entropy changes. Their use is illustrated
in Art. 10-14. Following arbcles illustrate these and precedmg con-
siderations In connection with several conventional processes which
are falrly closely approached in practice.
10-9. Constant-Volume Process, Gas-Vapor l\Uxlures. The
essential feature 1D analyses of a constant-volume process is the con-
stancy also of the (speelfle) volumes of the individual conshtuents.
The following example is iIlustrallve
Example 10-4. A closed vessel of 10 ell ft volume contams saturated air and
1 Ib of hquid water, at 70"F and a total pressure DC 1470 pSI!!.. If the vessel
remtuns at effectively the BRme "'olume while heat is suppued (a) at what tem-
perature WIll the wa.ter have become wholly vaponzed and wha.t wilt the pressure
then be, and (b) what will be the pressure If the temperature IS further raised
to 500°F? Also, how much heat is requrred for each process?
Solution
For InitUI.! Condtitons
p.. = 0.363 psia; pm = 1470 - 0.363 = 14 337 psia..
Plat at 70°F =
14.337 X 141 0363 X 144
m. - 10 53.34 X 530 ~ 0 730 lb; TIl" ~ 10 8568 X 530 ~ 0.OIl5 lb.
Total mass, vapor plus liquid, = 0.0115 + 10 = 1.0115 Ib
After Heating to Complete Vaporization

Sp. vol. of vapor"'" 10/1.0115 = 9 885 aod, by steam tables, is that at 271.2QF
and a. vapor ptessure of 42.66 pSla.
. 100 5334 X (460 +2712)
Sp vol. of all' "'" - - , and abo "'" ,80 that pa = 2847 psis
0730 p.
or 19.77 psia, and total pressure = 62.43 paia.
Af~ H<along to 500°F

85.68 X 960 . •
At ap vol. of vapor = 9.885, P.. == 57.7 or 18 57.1 pSIS by steam
9.885 X 144
tables. This and the preceding va.por pressures exceed those at which ideal-g!l.8
characteristics may be presumed, as made eVIdent by the above discrepancy. The
steam table value wlll be used
A f 100 53.34 X gOO
t Bp vol Q air - 0730' p, - (10/073) X 144 = 26.0 I,,"a.
Total pressure In vessel = 260 + 57 I == 83 1 psis.
Heat Supplud (Q), = i1E for Constant Volume

From 70 to 271 2'F
Water and vapor. 10(10933 - 38.1) + 0 U1l5(I093 3 - 1033) = 1056 1 Btu
Air: 073 X 0.173(271 2 - 70) 253 Btu
Total: 10814 Dtu
From 271 2 to 500'!'

57.1 X 144 X 9.885) ]
Vapor: 10115 X [ ( 12832 - 778 - 10933 866 Btu
Air: 0 73() X 0 174 X (500 - 271 2) 29.t Btu
Total: ll57 illu
Aggregate 1197.1 Btu
l()"lO. Isobaric CooJing: or Warming; Dew Point. A famihar

instance of cooling IS that of origmally humid atmospheric air, by
energy departure us heat, untIl the vapor becomes saturated and with
the formation of dew, fog, or perhaps frost on further cooling (unless
supersaturatlOn occurs). The temperature at which the vapor of a
humid gas-vapor mixture becomes saturated on isobaric coohng is
eorrespondmgly known as its dew-pomt temperature (T,). Like cool-
ing is also employed industrIally for "dehumidIfymg" (i e., reducmg
of vapor content) A reverse process IS Illustrated by the dissipation
of the water droplets of a fog-laden atmosphere by isobanc warmmg
through solar or terrestrial radiation
A primary CrItenon dunng IsobarIC cooling or warming m the humzd
phase is the constancy also of the mixture ratio and thus of the vapor
pressure Pv.' Coolmg to the dew point would be represented m the
vapor diagram of Fig 10-2 or the hygrometric chart of Fig 10-3 by
a line such as 1-4 The dew-point temperature of a humid mixture
is thus sImply the saturatwn temperature corresponding to the initlUl
partial pressure of the vapor. That pressure is recalled to be the
product of the reJalive humidity times the saturation pressure corre-
spondmg to the initial temperature of the humid mixture. Observe
that data on the dew-point temperature establish
(a) The relative humidIty if the mixture temperature is known.
(b) The partIal pressure of the vapor en a humid mixture.
(c) The' mixture ratio If the total pressure IS known.
The dew-pomt temperature thus becomes a useful alternative index
of a number of the primary characteristics of a humid mixture.
AnT. ]()-JO DEW'POINT 211
An lll,trument known as the dew-point hygrometer may be.employed
for determmmg the Item, Its operatIon bemg that of coolIng a bright
metal surface which IS exposed to the mixture, and noting the tempera-
ture of incipient foggjng over of that surface.
For a wet mIxture the essentIal critenon durmg isobaric coolmg or
warmmg is that the vapor pre~sure IS the saturation pressure corre-
spondmg to the mIxture temperature Foregomg considerations are
Illustrated III the followmg example.
Example 10.5. For a saturated air~nnd-water-vapor mu:ture d 2960" Bg abs

and 72'F determme (a) the mUl:ture Tn.tlO, relatIve hUIDldlty, and Dllmber of
degrees of superheat of the vapor If the mixture IS ws.rmed isobancally to 85°F;
(b) the masses of the remaIning vapor anu the llquld water If cooled lsobsncally
to 50°F. For each proce&$ compare computed results WIth those obtamable by
the lIse of Flg. 10-4, and determme also the amounts of energy supply or de_
parture as heat, per pound of the air component
Soluhon At 72°F, put = 03886 pSla and thus, m the Inltially saturated
mIxture, p.. "'" 2960 X 04912 - 03B86 = 14.151 pSta. Also,
m. p.M. 0 3886 X 1802

- or x ~ -- ~ ~ 00171lbjlb
rna PaMa 14.151 X 2897
(a) Mixture ratIo and thus also the pressure are unchanged by the warming.
But, at 85 C1 F, PlIst = 05959 PSta, and thus R.I1 = 038813/05959 = 0.652 Super-
heat = 85 - 72 = 13 F Q
By entry in Fig 10-4 at 72°F and 100% R H , on p.lssnge thence at Pf! = 0 389 to
the point correspondmg to 85°F, R II = 05%; and on fmther passage to mter-
section Wlth a 14 5 pala total-pressure line, x = (l 0171. OLscrvc also that, at
x = 00171, C'lI,mlx = 02-183.
+
Heat Bupplied per pound of aIr = (c Jl .<1 +
xc p .,,)(T2, - T 1 ) = (024.08 0 0171 X
0.44) (85 - 72) = 02483 X 13 ~ 323 Btu.
(b) At [iODF, p, = 0.17.81 psia., and thus p" = 2!:l 00 X 04912 - 0.1871 = 14 362
paUl. Also, x ~ (0.1781 X 1802)/(1430 X 28.97) ~ 00077 lb/lb; and mass of
vapor condensed = 00171 - 00077 = O.OO941b/lb of alr, or,l)4 6% of the oflginal
vapor.
By entry in Fig 10-4 at 50°F and 100% R.U, and passage thence at pe = 0178
psis. to the 145 pSle. total-pressure hne) x = 00077 Ib/lb
Heat departure per Ib of air (by Art. 10-8) = cp.(I(T l - 1'2) + xlh/(J, -
x,hi ,., + .,(h,., - hi.,) ~ 02107(72 - 50) + 00171 X 1053 - 0 0077 X 10G6 +
00171 (39 - 18) ~ 52D + 10 16 ~ 15.45 Btu. Values of hi' and hi at tb. relevant
temperatures are as secured from the steam tables Of the supplementary scares
of F'g 10-4
For an ISO bane cooling (0 below the dew point of a mIxture having
known proportions of a condensible and several non-condensmg mate-
rials, but for which a facility such as the hygrometric chart is probably
not available, the simpler procedure IS perhaps to determme first an
eqUIvalent formula mass for (he aggregate or the non-condensing com-
ponents, and then to employ equation 10-2 for ascertammg the relatIve
mass remaining as vapor.
On Isobaric chlllmg of initially cool but less-humid air, saturatIOn
may perhaps not be reached until the temperature is less than 32°F,
m which situation further cooling produces congelation, rathcr than
condensation, unless supercooling of
Saturated om (out)
liquid occurs. Autumn frost or the
frostmg of exposed refrigerating coils
Illustrates.
10-11. Adiabatic·Isobaric Satura·
tion by Evaporation. ThiS process
is a common one in which a cooling
action and an incrcase of relative hu-
midity are secured simultaneously by
the introduction and evaporal!on of a
liqUId in an initially humid (or dry)
atmosphere. It is employed fre-
quently for mdustrial and other pur-
poses; Fig. 10-5 serving to illustrate it
as carried out in the "cooling tower."
The process is conventionally one in
~
Cooled water (o.rt) which the total pressure is effectively

constant, and with negligible extrane-
FIg 10-5.
ous energy loss or gain as heat, or ]8
thus adiabatIc. The energy required for the evaporatIOn of the enter-
ing liqUid is instead furmshed by decrease in the temperature 01 the
air which is being humidified. If liquid IS supphed III such a manner
and evaporated III sufficient amount that the mixture becomes saturatcd,
the'tcmperature nt which it would in this manner become saturated is
known as that of adinbatic-isobaric saturatwn' by evaporation (but
With the further specification that the hquid shall have been supplied
also at this temperature).
It is of interest thnt thiS temperature acquired its initial technical
sigmficance as an alternatIve but mdIrect index which would aid in
descnbmg the state of a humid-aJr mixture (before saturatIon), and III
connection with an instrument through which the specified process is
approached, but only approached, even under favorable conditions.
The Instrument is the familiar "wet-bulb" thermometer, consisting of
a thermometer bulb encased by a wick which IS kept moistened with
.the liquid and about which the unsaturated mixture is circulated.
If the liquid is water and the mIxture is humid air, such an arrange-
ment of the t~ermometer will indICate" tempera ture that may approach
ART. 10-11 SATURATION BY EVAPORATION 213
quite closely the above temperature of saturation, altqough rather
more by coincidence than intrinsically.· However, the instrument is
very convenient, and if properly employed in air will indicate a "wet-
bulb" temperature differing negligibly from, and effectively synon-
ymous with, that of adiabatic-isobaric saturation by evaporation (of
water). Correspondingly, the actual temperature of the humid air,
before saturation, is frequently desenbed as the "dry-bulb tem-
perature."
The energy account for the process of adiabatic saturation by evap-
oration is written most simply in the following fashion.
Energy furnished by original Energy to evapomte moisture,
mixture) per unit mass of = at T2 and in amount (X2-Xl)
air in cooling from TI to T2 Ib/lb, air
Or (c •.• + xlcp.,)(T, - T2) = (X2 - xI)h".2 (10-9)
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the inihal mixture of gas and (super-
heated) vapor, at T" and to the final saturated mIXture at T 2 •
If the available data are the total pressure and the wet- and dry-
bulb temperatures, solutIOn of this relatIOn to determine x, is readily
made if it is recalled that '"2
is a functIOn of To and p. However,
solution to find T2 and X2 resulting from saturation of a given mitml
mixture must in prinCiple be made by successive approximations The
following example illustrates the second situatIOn.
Example 10-6. The process effected by the famlhar carburetor is effectively
that of !l.(hahat.J.c saturation by the evaporabon of a fuel spray mto aIr. Although
not isobaric IlS between entry and throllt of the carburetor ventUrI tube, it may
be effectlvely so as between entry and ex.lt connecbo!lS. On these premlSe8 J
estimate the leaving temperature of the mature after saturation of an entenng

dry-au Ilupply, at 140 psia and 70 g F, if the inJecLed hquid is pure ethyllllcohal
(C 2H 60, J.f .... 46 (6), and the correspondmg va.por/8.Ir mIXtUre ratio. Presume
that the low-pressure alcohol vapor conforms adequately to ideal-gas charaeter-
istic and utilize the following further data concerning itJ! propertIes
T, OF 30 40 50 GO 70
Plat.psia. 0·22 031 048 064 0 80
h,,, Btu/lb S90(±)
Cp 045
• Actually the process occurring at the wet-bulb wick is not adiabatiC, and
heat-transfer rates to the bulb from warmer environs are tberefore involved.
The tIme eJement enters further in that the rate of molecular diffUSIOn associated
WIth the evaporation of the EqUid from the wick is affeded both by natural
diffUSIon rates and by the gas velocity and turbulence In. general the wet-bulb
technic does not provide the above tempera.ture dIrectfy For more extensive
diSCUSSIon of such consideratlOM see, for example, Elemenia oj Chemical EnOi-
meting, by Badger and McCll.be, McGraw-Htll, 1936, 2d Ed j Air Conditioning
Principles, by Ma.ckey. Int.enlClence. 1941; and others.
Solutton. At several trIal values of T2. as follows.
T 2 , OF (Cp,,,+XICp,~) X (T1 - T 2) pa,2, X, (X2 -xI) Xh Ju ,2

PSl:1
40 (0240+0) X30 ~7 2 369

o31X46 06 0036 o 036X3~0 ~ L4.0
13 6\) X28 97
30 (0 U'J+O) X40 ~9.G 1378 o 22X46 06 ~O 025 0025X390-9.9

L3 78X28 97
Regardmg the results for the second tnaI temperature as conformmg suf-
fiCIently With the reqUIrements of eq 10-9, It m[tY be taken that the adlabatIc-
lSobal"lc saturatIon occurring en route through the r.llrhlll'f'tor callses a temperature
drop of about 40°F, to a departmg tempemture of about 30°F and wIth a mIxture
ratIo of about 0025 lb alcohol vapor /lb aIr
The energy relation "of equation 10-9 may be transformed' wIth

normally quite ffilllor approximatIOn to one bet\veen the total pressure
and the vapor pressure (P •. ,) and vaporizatJon enthalpy (hI",) at
satura.tIOn temperature T 2, or
pv,2 - P~,l M.p - p,,'
(10-9a)
TI - ,T2 = Cp,a ;'[..
11
h
v 10,2
In thIS relation the ratio t6 the left eVIdently represents also the slope
of an effectively straight line deSCrIbing the process in question to the
p,-T coordmates of FIg 10-3 or 10-4. The relation mdICates also that
this slope depends primanly on the total pressure and the "wet-bulb"
temperature, as the latter estabhshes PtJ,2 and hjr;,'J for the vapor,
• Advantageous adjustment of equatlOn 10-9 may be made if x IS wntten In
terms of the total and partIal pressures and the formula masses of the constItuents
of a rrnxture; that is,
'[ cp,a + (P p,.lM,)M

- Pv,l '"
Cp,v
J(T I - T 2) =;--r
J~ a
(P'.,
M, - _ - - - - -
P - P.. ,2
P',l) h/o,2
P - Pv,l
Nv p(Pv,! - PlI,l) h
},fa (~ - Pv,Z)(p - pv,t) fo,'}.
ThuB P~,2 -
Tl - T2
pv,l =
p Pl)'l)(l + ~
C a J1a (P -
• 1."11] n/ O,2
PTl,~ P -
p
Cp,u)
P - Pv,l Cp,(l
AI, p,,' [1 + -"'0 (C I)J
_
p ,.
C
Mll
p -
h!u,2 P
v" -
Cp,a
The order of magmtude of the term (C P

1) about 0,14 for air-and-water-vapor
'" - IS
Cp,Cl
IDl"(tures, and the rauo PI),t/p rarely attains 0 1 III the atmosphere Thus, with a
UBUally minor approXImatIOn,
(1O-9a)
ART. 10-11 SATURATION BY EVAPORATION 215
GraphICal utihzatlOn of equ!'tlOn 10-9a IS provIded for in Fig. 10-3
or 10-4 by the several total-pressure rosettes which radIate from
selected pomts along the 100 per cent R H lme. The process of
adIabatIc-isobarIc saturatIOn by evaporatIOn and assoCIated arnval
at the wet-bulb temperature and mixing ratlO, for an alr-and-water-
vapor mIxture of gIven mitIal T, R H , and p (such as pomt 1 of FIg
10-3), wIll thus be represented by a straight line through the imtIal
state-point and extending to mtersectJon wIth the 100 per cent R H
lme at the s[ope of the sudab[e 'l.Iobanc l1ne of tke nearest roseite. The
mmor rebtn·e VaTIatIOn 01 hi, wIth T, and of the correspondmg slope
of a line of given p, permIts the use merely of the most convemently
located rosette, except that for an "over Ice" condltlOll (i e I for sub-
hmatIOn rather than evaporation) the use of the lower-left one IS
required.
For some purpo,c;es the energy relatIOn for adIabatic-IsobarIc humidl-
ficatlOn by evaporatJon may be wTItten wIth advantage as a steady-
flow relatIOn and expressed lD terms of the tabular values of the relatIve
enthalples of the matenals. Thus,
Energy supplied through the _\ Energy departing through the
agency of entering materials - agency of leaVIng materlals
or (10-10)
In whIch the enthalpy of the Illltiallow-prcssure superheated vapor is
again represented for convemence as the (equal) enthalpy of saturated
vapor at the same temperature Frequently this relatIOn has been
expressed also in the rearranged form
h,.1 + x1h,.1 _ I l hl ,2 = h,.2 + x 2h,.2 _ T,k l .2 (1O-lOa)
Also, by further rearrangements parallelmg tho,c mdICated mArt. 10-8,
(h.,1 + Tlh".I) 'I- xI(k,.1 _ hf.2) = (h,,2 + x 2h".2) (lO-lOb)-
The composite functlOn of the form (h. + xh, _ xh l .2 ) of equatIOn
10-lOa has found sufficient utlhty in air-eondltlOmng analyses that in
relevant literature It has been given the symbol 1:
... Observe In thls and later conneLtlOns that reasonably acceptable values of h r,
may be secured for low-pressure vapOrs even when the energy properties are
otherwlse inadequately known The procedure for domg so IS proVIded by
comhmmg the general Clapeyron relatIon for vapms, equatIOn 8-2, WIth the
Ideal-gas equatwn of state That lS, by equabons 8-2 and 9-4,
T dp R T' dp R d(lup)
hr, ~ J Y, dT ~ J p dT or - J d(T-I) (10-11)
where Vr~ of the Clapeyron equation has been regarded as differmg neghgIbly
from v~ for low-pressure vapor, and p and 7' are correspondmg yalues at saturatIOn.
216 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR lIIIXTURES CHAP. 10
Example 10.7. For an mdustrial process It 18 desued to iUfrush humId air
to a compartment at 88°F and 550/0 RH., but the avaIlable air supply IS at lOO°F
8.Iul 220/0 R H. It 18 proposed that, as an easIly controllable manner of provldmg
the aIr at the deslred conditlOn, It shall first be saturated admbatIcally by
evaporation In pll.!lsuge through a spray chamber to whICn water IS supphed at
about 70 a F, and then be rewarmed to the deSired temperature. The processes
Will proceed at effectively standard atmospherIc pressure (147 psia). (a) Ascer-
tam by use of Fig. 10-4 whether this procedure would accomphsh the desired
result. Determme also from the figure the mrtlaI mixture ratio and the tempera-
ture and mIXture ratio lenvlllg the spray chamber; ahm heat requlied per pound
of aIr for warmmg; and the speCIfic volume of the aIr BB delIvered. (b) Verify
the findlIlgs from the figure by actual computations.
Solution. (a) Entering Fig 10-4 at lOO"F and 22% RE., by passage at
p. = 0210 PSla. to the 14.7 psm total-pressure lIne, Xl .... 00090 lbllb, alf; Of by
passage to the IlDe of 1000/'0 R H. at the slope of the 147 psm total-pressure hne
of the most accessible ['evaporation rosette," temperature of the saturated mLXture
leo.vmg lbe spray chamber .".70°F (closely).
Passage from the powt for 70°F and 100% R.H, at p., = 0.363 paia to the
88°F !me, mdlcates that the rewarmmg to that temperature WIll have provIded
the deSIred 55% R R., and further passage to the 14 7 psia total-pressure hne
mdicates that for the humld nlr as dehvered x = 001581b/lb, alt, c'JI,mlx = 0.247,
and R'm .. - 54.7. Thus q - 0.247 (88 - 70) - 4.45 Btu/lb, ai, and v ... -
(547 X 548)/(147 X 1(4) -14.5 ell ft/lb,ai,
(b)
At 100°F and 22% R.H.
• 0209 1802
p. - 0.22 X 0.949 - 0.209 pl3la • - - 4 - 897 = 000896 lo/lb, air
1 .491 2 .
For verificatIOn of the T 1md X after saturation
In equatioll 10-9,
(Cp •• + ',Cp,,) (T, - T,) - ( 0.240 + 0.00896 18803)

.
02
(100 - 70)
- (0.240 + 0 00896 X 0.446) X 30 = 7.32

and
1802
0363 X 7 _ 0.00896) X 1054.3 _ (0.01576 _ '0.00896) X 1054.3 _ 7.17
( 14.337 X 28.9
or, in equation 10-9a,

0.363 - 0.209 28.97 14 337
100 _ 70 - 0,00515 and 0.240 18.02 1054.3 = 0.00525
EIther equation is satisfied by a temperature of about 702°F.

On rewarming to 88°F
R.Il. - 0.363/0 6556 = 0.554, q - (240 + 001576 X 0 446) (88 - 70) = 0.247 X 18
- 4.45 Btu/lb, air; Rm~ - (53.34 + 0 01576 X 85.68) - 54.70 flrlb/lb, air
1()'12. Psychrometric Chart. Considerably prior to the develop-
ment by ,Kiefer of the multi pressure hygrometric chart of Fig. 10-4
ART. 10-13 REVERSION FROM SUPERSATURATION 217
" mono pressure arrangement of similar nature but known as a p,ychro-
metric chart had been developed by Carrier. In the ongin.l or modi-
fied forms it has had extensil'e use in those frequent sltuatlOns in
whiah the total pressure of a.n air-water-vapor mIxture is or differs
only moderately from that of the standard atmosphere at sea level, or
14.7 psi.. A skeleton form of the chart appears m Fig. 10-6.
It is evident from equation 10-3 that in the monopressure situatIOn
a single-mlxture-ratio scale may supplement the vapor-pressure (p.)
scale; also, from equation 1O-9a, that, in lieu of the total-pressure
004r~;:--:--:-----------/--~-'09
Psychrometric
cflat! for humid <lir, 08
at p = 14 7 pSla'
~
.oror---------------------------~~~_l07
/ ~,~
i / 06
fOOl
~
~
'" DOl
fi ~_
-
~rJf,"
-"'r-~ 05 ~
,/'/
-_
D4d'
03
02
'-::=+.....--rS+..,,-~·-'2f---~~r.;-
~ - _ ""bu,..L •• ~. ~ 0
o L T --_ ---_i F -~_
32' 40" 50' 60" 71J'F 80" 90' 108-
Flg.l~6
rosettes of the multipressure chart, a family of hnes representing

lsobaric ..adiabatic saturation by evaporation ma.y in fact be drawn
to the Pv-T coordinales. On the monopressure charts appearing in
the literature the lines of this famIly are normally designated in terms
of the temperatures at whICh they mtersect the saturatIon (100 per
cent R H.) line, and arc known as wet-bulb temperature lines.
Further supplementary scales and curves are frequently prOVIded,
by the use of which items such as the specific volume of dey or of
saturated air may be read, the relative enthalpy of saturated air, the
$-function of equation 10-100, etc.
10-13. Adiaharic-Isobaric Reversion (rom Super8aturarion.
The mixture of a gas and a supersaturated vapor occurs perhaps infre-
Quently. HoweverJ accounting of the'varlOus processes in which the
vapor of an imtially humid or saturated mIXture 18 progressively con-
deused (e.g., by isobaric cooling to below its dew pomt) may frequently
be faCilitated by considermg an equivalent process in WhICh the arrival
at the same terminal state is by an abrupt condensation, following a
218 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES CHAP 10
presumed pnor passage of the mIxture from an InItIal saturated to
an intervening supersaturated state The abrupt condensntion may
suitably be taken to be effectively adlabalIc and Isobanc, but ine-
verslble, and is descnbable as a rcvertmg of a metastable supersat-
urated mIxture to an eqUllIbrIal status. .
Designatmg by subscript n the attrIbutes of the supersaturated mix-
ture, and those of the eqUIlIbrial wet mIxture by subscript 3, the
energy relation for the reversion process IS'
ha .• + x.h, .• = ha.3 + Ilh,., + (Xn - x,)h r .a
or, by wrIting (h,.3 - h r ,.3) for h/.a and rearranging,
ha. a - h•.• + x.(h,.3 - h, .• ) = (x. - xa)hr,.J
or
Refenmg to equatIon lO-g, relatmg to the process of adiabatIc,'
Isobaric saturatIOn by evaporatIOn, that relatIOn and thIs last one
are seen to be IdentIcal, except as dlfferent subscnpts dlsbngUlsh the
termmal saturated states and the imtIaI supersaturated vs. humid mix-
ture states Also, by procedures whlCh parallel those leadmg to equa-
tIon 1O-9a, this last relatIOn, may be put in the equivalent form
p•.• - P,.' _ c [M, p - P,.' (to-Db)
T3 - Tn - p,aJ }"I1! hIo,a
The slgmficance of these observations is that the rosettes to the left
IIIFig 10-4 may be employed also for associating the terminal states
for the process of admbatic-isobanc reversion of a supersaturated to
a wet nnxture UtJlizatlOn of this laclhty is mdlcated in following
Example lO-8, and is further Illu;trated in Example 10-9 and FIg 10-7
Exa'mple 10·8. Determme by the use of FIg. 10-4- the reqmslte energy
removal as heat for coolmg the saturated ulr-and-wator-vapor mIxture of Example
.111-5b to 5O'F
Solutwn By drawmg a straight Ime from a location at SO°F on the 100% R H
line of FIg 10-1: to llltersection with the coordmate for pu = 03886 psia, at a
slope correspondmg to p = 14 54 p:m lind as estabhshed by the nenrest total-
pressure rosette, that llltersecuon IS found to occur at about 100°F. That 18,
the inItIal saturated mixture at 72°F mIght alternatIvely have been cooled
isobanl'a.l1y but WIth slJpers.<ttumtlOn t.o 10 OgF (at. ('p mh = 0248) ann t.hp.n have
reverted adiabatically to the wet mlxture at 50°F ( = T'3 In equatIOn lO-9b), m
heu of progressive coolmg and concurrent condensatIon but WIth the same energy
departure as heat Thus, q = 0248 X (72 0 ~ 100) = 154 Btu/lb, air, which
conforms 5Ultably to the 1545 computed III Example 10-5b
10-14. Isentropic Processes, Humid and Wet 1\Jixtures. An

effectively lse~tropic expanSIOn of an InItIally humid nuxture) WIth
_.
.
ultImate arrival at saturation and thereafter wIth progreSSIve
. con-
densatlOn, would Ideally occur on expanslOll of the mixture through a
nozzle or turbine (or III the \Yilson,cloud chamber) It IS 31so regu-
larly approached m the ascendmg streams of air in the atmosphere
as caused by passage over obstructJons, such as mountams, or by verti-
cal mstabihties The famlhar production of clouds and rainfall IS
f ~o P,
n~~M
0.86
075
060
I 13 1
1
~- 052
1 1 1
1 1 1
I I 1
1 1 I
1 I I
1 1 I
81 0 92" 114"F
(a) For IIllXture
T. OF
114
92 _______ 2_
81 _.1 -----
--[~~j
Saturated
vapor hne
59
s, Btu/(lb. oR) s, Btu/(lb. OR)

(b) For vapor (c) For aIr
Flg 10-7 I~eIltroplC €XpanslOll, hurrud and wet air-vapor mixture" dIrect (sohd
hue), and With reverSlOn (broken lme)
the result when ascent continues to levels above that at whICh sat-
uratIOn is reached. OpPosIte effects are exemplified by the cloud
dissipatIOn in descendmg mr streams III the atmosphere, and are of
advantage in the compreSSIOn stroke of the spark-Igmtion type of
mternal-combustion engine The inherent criterion in analysis of the
process is the constancy of the entropy at the mIxture, but normally
With greater or leBs changes III the individual entropies of the gas and
vapor (Art. 10-5).
rn humid or supersaturated stages the analYSIS proceeds by equatmg
220 GAS AND GA&-VAPOR MIXTURES CHAP. 10
to zero the value of (81 - S2)1D1r as expressed in equation 10-8 Utiliz-
ing the relations leadmg to that equatlOn,
( . + ma
m. _
Cp,!I Cp ,,,
) In T, J (R II + m'R11) 1n
T -_ .! (p,., , p.,' J or
1 ma pa,t po.1
.RtJ +:z:~. or (R! J~JI)mlJ.
or T, = [Po" , P.,2, or p,]J" •.. +=".1 (10-12)

Tl pa,! PlI,l PI
where c, is a sUItable mean (Art 9-G) For usual au-and-water-vapor
mixtures in the atmosphere the value of the exponent is quite moderately
less than that for air alone. ThIS relatlOn is represented to the p,-1'
coordinates of Fig. 10-4 by the broken lines which extend downward
to the left to the 100 per cent R.H. line, and may extend quite SUItably
into the supersaturation region, Counterparts of these to the p.-x
coordmates are vertical lines at constant mixture ratio Values of lhe
exponent R/JC, are provided in Fig. 10-4 by a scale along the upper
right margin.
The states attained on expansion beyond the pomt of arrival at
saturatIOn, WIth concurrent and progressive condensatIOn of the vapor
constituent, may be ascertamed in several manners. The more con-
venient but probably less reahstic analysis utilizes the consideration
that the same final state might be attained by (1) an expansion to
the lemmal pressure without condensation (i e" in supersaturated
states), and (2) adiabatic reversion at that pressure to the actual
wet-mixture state. The state change correspondmg to progressive
condensation is illustrated in Fig. 10·7 for the gas, the vapor. and the
mixture, by Ime 2-3. The alternative indirect path between states
2 and 3 IS vm state n, by path 2-n-3.
'Analysis on the more convenient alterna~ive basis proceeds by
recalling that
1 For expansion in humid or supersaturated phases,
or
where also, as no condensatIOn occurs, P'Ii P IS constant.
2. For the adiabatIC-isobaric reversion, adaptmg equatIOn 10-9b,
"' T h/ Q ,3 p .. ,ft - p.. )\
(10-13)
"3 - II. =
Cp ,,(M,/III.) Pa - p,,3
Note here that, if pa, T., and p.,. have been determined, equation 10-13
. may be solved (by succesSIve trials) for Ta or p"a, and Xa may thereby
be determined, as Ta, p.,a, and h l ,,3 are mutually fixed properties for a
. saturated vapor, Like determinations would conventionally be made
by finding tbat temperature T3 at which the entropy of the "vet mlXture
wul equal that of the original humid or saturated mixture, but the
procedure is quite laborious. Example 10-9 illustrates.
Example 10-9. Humid air lD.itially at 114°F, 157 psia, and 60% R H. expands
isentroplcally to 11 0 psia. Determme the temperature and pressure a.t which
the mixture becomea saturated, the state of the mixture on complebon of the
expansion, the enthalpy change, and the Individual chnnges of the entropy of the
air component and of the vapor component.
Proceed by direct computations or by graphIcal methods (USlDg Fig 10-4),
whichever is more converuent, but verify findings obtained by one method WIth
those obtamed by the other.
Soluhon. At IDltial state· P"l = a 60 x 1.4 = 0858, Xl = 0.622 X 0.858/
(157 - 0858) = 00360, and (R/Jcp)mtt = 56.4/(778 X 0.256) = 0284 (by Fig.
10-4). Also, by chart, P",l =- 0.86 and;1:1 -= 0036,
Far Expnnsum to Saluratwn., at Point 2 of Fig. 10-7
By succeSSIve trials, T~ = 92,ZoF
(552.2 Q R) PfI,2 == 0.748 psia., and (by equatIOn
+
10·2) p, = p", 0.622p",/xl., = 0.748 +
(0.622 X 0.748)/0.036 = 13.67 p.sia;
or p, = 15.7 X (502{574)11O.'" = 13.7. By FIg. 10-4, T, = 92'F, P•. ' = 0.75,
.nd p, = 137.
For Remainder of Expan8'l,On, to Paint 8 oj Fig, 10-7

Computing on the bast, of an equrvalcllt expansion to 1].0 psjalUJ a Bupersaturated
mIXture (at state n, Fig, 10-7), a.nd a :reversion thereupon to a wet ffilxture at that
pressure.
<a) T, = 552.2(110{1367)'·'8I = 519'R, and P'.' = (11.0/13.7)0.748 =
o 60 pSIa. By Fig 10-4, Til = 59°F and Pv,71 "'" 0 60.
(b) By successive trials for joint satisfaction of equation lO-9b and the required
PlO-T correspondence at saturation' Ta = 80 6°F (5406°R), Pl',a = 0.518, pa,a =
110 - 0518 =- 1OA8, and Z3 = O,0306Ibjlb. By Fig. 10-4, paBBlIlgfrom point n to
the saturation lme at a slope as determined by Buitable rosette for 11,0 psia, Ta =
81 'F, 1'>.' = 052 pais, and x, = 0 D31lb/lb.
For Composite PrOce.B8

Enthalpy change = cp.mlx(T. - TJ) = 0.256(59 - 114) = -14 I Btu/lb of air
=;c".<lIdr(T3 - T t ) + rx2 h".2 + (Xl - X'l)h j ,2 --, xlh""l]
Qr = -13.9 Btuflb of air (discrepancy IS arithmetic)
Entropy cho.nge ,... (83 - SI) .. Lr + (83 - 8lhaporXl
= [0.240 In (540.6/5U) - 0.06851n (10.48/14.84)J
. + (00306 X 2.034 + 0.0054 X 0.094)
-0.036[2.003 + 0 4441n (574/552)J
- 0 110 In (0.518/0.748)
= +OOOn4 - 0.0093, Btu/(OR, Ib of air)
The entropy transfer (rom the vapor to the air, m the amount of (00093/0.036-)
0.26 per lb of vapOr, is eVldently IlttrIhutshle in large degree to the condensation
of about 15% of the vapor.
222 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES CHAP. lO
While the foregoing has relaled to the expansion of an onginaUy
hum1d m1xture, to and beyond the temperature of isentrop1c saturation,
procedures in the analys1s of the reversed process of compression of
an originally wet m,xture would be parallel ,I tile 1mbal temperature
and total pressure arc known, and also the iela~lve mass of entwmed
droplets.
Relattve entropy of air (Sa), Btu/lb, ·R)
Fig. 10-8. T-s diagram, hurrud and wet IlJl" mixtures.
10.15. T·. Diagram, Air·and.Water.Vapor Mixtures. A ther-

modynamic diagram generated to T-sa1r coordmates, but capable of
representlllg properties and processes w1th hum1d or wet mixtures, has
been employed by variOUS meteorologists for a consIderahle pE'rlod,
under the designabon of a "tephigram," and found to have considerable
utIlity Its general arrangement is indicated In skelet.on form in
Fig. 10-8, except with reonentatlOns better adapting it to engineer-
ing use.
The primary coordmatcs of the d,agram are those of the tempera-
ture and the relative entropy of the air component (Sllfr) of the mix-
ture To these coordinates lS drawn a primary family of contours
of the p~rtial pressure of the air (P.h), in conformity wit.h equation
ART. lG-15 T-, DIAGRAM, HUMID ·AND WET AIR 223
9-10, To tillS extent the diagram parallels F,g. 9-5, or the lower right
sketch of Flg 10-7.
To UllS primary network t,yO supplementary famll~es of contour
lines are generated. A first is that of lines of constant mixture-
ratIO for saturated mixtures (XRllt) J as established by the relatIOn
x .., = (R,IR.) [p ••",1 (p -t P.... ,)], but drawn wllh reference only to
the temperature scale and the pressure lmC8 (as skewed coordmates)
and \vlth the pressure hnes now regarded, for convemence) as ones of
total pressure.
The second supplementary famlly of dot-dash contour hnes is also
drawn WIth reference to the temperature scale and the pressure lines,
again as skewed coordmates and with the pressure hnes regarded as
ones of total prC::58Ure, and IS so generated that the lines represent the
manner of vanatlOn of the temperature with total pressure on Isen-
troplC expanSIOn (or compressIon) of a wet mixture. That is, the
hnes are generated III conformity WIth the analyses and technics of
Art 10-14 as those relate to expansion WIth progressive condensatIOn
and as Illustrated in Example 10,9, and have aptly been described as
wet lScntropes. As such they are jn contrast to the dry 'J.Sentropes
whieh form the vertIcal hnes of Fig 10-8 The amount of their deVIa-
tion to the nght becomes a measure of the increase of the entropy
of the mr component of the mlxture on progressive condensation of
the vapor. TheIr mtersectIOns with the mIxture-ratIo lines serve
also to mdlcate duectly the progressIve change of that ratIO accom-
panymg such expanSiOn (or compression).
On a network as so descnbed, lines wlllch represent the several
pro('esses of Arts. 10-10, 10-H, and 10-14, corresponding to the related
Imes of FlgS 10-2 and 10-7, are as [0110\1-8 For each, the Imt,"1 state
IS simply that at pressure Pi and temperature T i . The locatIOn of
this point on the dIagram IS not affected by the initIal relatIve humId-
Ity or mixture ratio (Xl), but knO'rdedge of the latter is reqUired III
following connectIOns.
(a) l~obunc warming, or the coohng of humid atr to and beyond the
dew pomt Such warmmg lS represented by passage along an isobar
upward and to the right from the IllltlB.l pomt Cooling corresponds
to passage downward along an isobar, in the dIrection of decreasing
temperature. The dew-point temperature it) that corresponding to
arrival at lntersectjon wlth the mIXture-raho Jme for WhlCh Xsat """ Xl'
The mtersectlOns WIth the mixture-rabo hnes crossed on further
ISO bane coolmg indICate dIrectly tbe progressIvely decreasing amount
of water remaimng as vapor 10 the mixture.
(b) IsentroplC expanSlOn or compreSSlOn. Such expansIOn for an
224 GAS AND GA&-VAPOR MIXTURES CHAP. 10
initially humid mixture is represented by passage from the IUltl.l point
downward along a dry isentrope to intersection with the lme for
whICh X~t - X" so indicating the pressure and temperature on arrival
at saturation. Further expansion, with accompanying progressive con-
densation, is represented by passage along the' wet isentrope from this
intersection, so enabling direct rcadmg not only of the accompanymg
change of pressure and temperature but also the concurrently decreas-
ing amount of moisture remaining as vapor. IsentropIC recompression
would be represented by passage through the reverse sequence of states
If the condensing vapor had been retained in the mixture as entrained
droplets, but would proceed upward along a dry isentrope If those had
in any manner departed.
(c) Isobarw-aditibat," saturatton by evaporation. The dIagram
does not provide for realistic representation of this process. It has
been shown, however, that the temperature and mIxture ratio on such
saturation will differ only III minor amount from those determined by
passage along a dry isentrope (downward) from the mitial point to
saturation, and retummg (upward to the left) along a wet isentrope
to the origmal pressure lme.
10-16. Air Conditioning, Energy and lIIas. Accounting. In its
general technical meaning the term air conditioning denotes a com-
posite of processes whereby
(a) AIr is caused to pass through a compartment at a requisite rate
and under such further control that its change of state en route, as
regards both its temperature and its relative humidity, shall not exceed
prescribed limits.
(b) A mixture of a permissible portion of the air edueted from the
compartment and of requisite fresh air shall have been brought to the
state as regards temperature and humidity at whICh it may suitably
enter. . •
These objectives serve such purposes as the removal of objectionable
contaminants from the com'partment by ventilation, the maintenance
of the comfort or effectiveness of occupants, the facilitating of mdus·
trial proce~es, etc. It may be the responsibility of persons other
than the edgincer to specify the general conditions satisfying such
purpo~es, but thermodynamic analyses become necessary when ascer-
taining the manner m whICh they may be satisfied and for determining
the means for accomplishing the second objective most readily.
Attention will be given initially to factors relating more particularly
to the compartment which is being served and to the influences which
modIfy the state of the air mixture in passage through It. Facliities
provided in that connection will be directly utilizable, however, in
analyses relating to the second objective. The following collection
AnT. 10-16 AIR CONDITIONING 225
of symbols, with subscnpts, wIll serve both for indicating the nature
of the influences which more frequently cause the change of state 01
the air in passage through the compartment, and for enabling the
writIng of necessary mass and energy accounts Processes will be
regarded as involvmg only negligIble kinetic energy changes, and as
OCCUrrIng at effectIvely constant (atmospberic) pressure. However,
in some circumstances savings m duct sizes and other space require-
ments may justify a pressunzmg of portions of the equipment.
m. = mass-rate of (dry) air circulation, but m •.1 entering compartment
and ma ,2 leavmg.
ti••. , = mass rate of (dry) aIr infiltration to (+) orexfiltration from (-)
compartment, as about loose or open doors or wmdows.
ti.. = mass rate of water vapor emission (+) or absorption (-)
within compartment, as by human exhalatIOns, cooking vessels,
drying or humIdifying of contents, etc.
li = rate of energy receptIOn (+) or departure (-) as heat, as by
transmission (Q,) through compartment walls, or supplemen-
tarily (Q.) by installed heating or coobng surfaces, lights, and
power-driven equipment, human occupants, materials introduced
for warming or cooling, etc.
The symbol h will in general denote the sum h. + "'k" or the
enthalpy of the air-vapor mixture but per unit mass of the aIr com-
ponent.
Incorporating relevant items into mass-flow .ccounts:
For the air: (10-14)
For tbe vapor: (lO-15)
SImilarly writing an energy account,
m•. Ih , + m•. .h. + m"h, + Q = rh •. ,h2 (lO-16)
Here the item h. may be variously h, if the moisture enters as vapor
(as III animal exhalations), h, if entering as liquid (as in wet materials)
or hi, if vapor is being removed by condensatIOn.
It was preferred in the above to provide directly for the contingency
of appreciable air mfiltration or ex filtration. However, satisfactory
operation of air-conditioning equipment requires that these be miDl-
mized; also subsequent analysis is faCIlitated il they are accounted
indirectly, through the use of an equivalent mixture ratio (x) and
equivalent enthalpy (h') which are defined as
and hi' = (mu,lhl + rh IJ .J2,)/m u .2
(10-17)
Rewriting equations lO-15 and 10-16 in such terms,
nt a ,2(X2 - Xl') = mv (lO-15a)
and m.,2(hz - hI') = Q + m,h, (1O-16a)
A very useful facility IS provided by taking the ratIO between these
two relatIOns, or
(10-18)
The utility of this relation arises primarily in that the term (Qlm, + h,)
provIdes a composIte index which describes and expresses quantltatively
the character of the "loading" that is independently imposed on or by the
compartment for which condltiomng is to be furnished Furthermore,
tbe ratio to the left associates silch entry and departure states of the
circulating aIr, in terms uf Its enthalpies and mixmg l'atios, and thus of
its temperatures, as would satisfy the load demands
A graphical representation of the mutual relatIOn among T, x, and h
is provided in Fig 10-9 by contollr lines 01 constant T to coordinates of
It and x, thtJ termlllUS of any ~uch lme bemg III effect at the saturated-
mixture curve wbicb correspond" to tbe pressure A useful graphical
interprcta.tioll of equatiOn 10-18 IS that, on this graph, points represent~
ing the entry and departure states of the Clrculatmg aIr must he on a line
the slope of which (t.h! I!.x) equals the loud index (Q/m, + h,), The
numeral magnitude and algebraic sense of the index, and thus the
urielltation oI the lwei \VIII eVIdently dIffer greatly for different circum-
stances More speCifically,
(a) For confurmity with eqU3.tioIl lO-15a., .6..z; will necessa.rily be of the
same algebraic senSe as mu. Procedure from the point representing
the entry, state WIll thus be generally upward or downward as vapor is,
respecth'ely, gained or lost by the aIr stream while en "route.
(b) For conformity with equation 10-16a, t.h will necessarily be of the
+
same algebraic sense as the sum (Q m.h.), the algebraic sense of Q or
m'l) being as indicated m the above collection of symbuls. Procedure
from the point representing the entry state will thus be generally to the
right or to the left as this sum is, l"t)spectively, positive ur negative.
We have been able to select through ab01'e considerations entry and
departure states wbich satisfy requirements as expressed by above
loading mdcx. We need also to verify wbether these states are suitable
as regards other considerations, such as perrnlssible extremes of tempera-
ture or humIdity or the comfort of occupants, The correspondingly
requiSite mass rate of air circulation (1ft.) is then determinable by
means of equation 1O-16a (or 1O-15a), Example 10-10 illustrates the
use of ioregomg considerations.
§
I
0030
Fig. 11).9. Jr.z diagra.mfor h\lIDld-&ll" IlllXturc.s.

ART. 10-16 AIR CONDITIONING 2Zl
Example 10·10. It is required to aIr conrutlon an audItorium, under summer
conditions, for occupancy by 500 persons for whose comfort it is desIred that the
temperature and humidIty of the leavmg air shall not exceed SO°F and 50% R.H.
and that the temperature of the entenng air shall not be less than 70DF. The
rate of heat entry by transfer through the waJls lS estimated to be about 1000
Btu/mm, lIghtmg eqUipment wIll release about 2000 watts (114 Btu/mID), and
each occupant wIll release about 44 Btu/mm and introduce about 0.0021 Ib of
water vapor per nun. (at 9O"F) by evaporatIOn and exhalations. Air leakages Wln
be negligible. The atmospherIc pressure is 147 psi!!..
Determine that relatIve humIdity of the alf supply (at 70°F) whiCh would
satisfy the above character of loadlDg, and the mass rate of air circulatIOn reqUlred
by the magwtude of the load Use Figs. 10-4 and t()"9, but venfy results by
computation
Solu!,"" Q= 1000 + 114 + 500 X 4.4 = +3314 Btu/min; m, = 500 X
0.0021 = +105 Ib/min, and II. = 1101 Btu/lb. Thu, Q + m,h. = +4472 Btu/
min, and Q/m, + hw = 4260:Btu/lb of vapor.
At SO·F, 50% R.H., and 14.7 psi., '2 = 0.0109 Ib/lb (by Fig. 10-4) or
(18.02 X 0254)/(28,97 X 144) by computatlOn, nnd h, = 12000 + 0,0100 X
1097 = 141.00 Btu/lb.
By pasSIng down and to the left In Fig 10-9 from the J>Oint representmg state 2,
at a "slope" of 4.26 Dtuflb per 0 00llb/lb and to the intersection With the 70°F
contour, the reqUIsite !!upply state 1 appears to be that at which hl = 1376 and
!rl = 0.0101,
wrth a corresponding relative hunuruty at 14.7 pain of 65%. These
value!!, with those at state 2, satisfy
equatIOn 10-18. The temllnal state poinbl are
indicated m Fig. 10-10, to both h,.x and hygrometric chart coord.mates.
Introducing the above items In equation 1D-I6a, rna == 4472/(1410 - 1376) =
1320 lb/min This corresponds to an air circulation of about 20,000 cfm, or 4.0 dro
per occupant, and IDlght be regarded as unsuitably rugh. Effective heat insulation
of the compa.rtment walla would enable 8. large reducuon.
Aside from the determination of the rate, temperature, and relative
humidity .t which the air needs to be supplied to a compartment, it is
evidently necessary also th.t means be provIded [or bringing it to
that state. VarIOus methods for accomplishing this may be devised,
their character depending at least in part on the source of the air and
its st.te at that source ThIS source might in fact be the air leaving
the compartment, in which event that air mnst be restored to the
necessary entry state during its return passage But legal restrictions
and other consIderations will normally require the prevention of the
increasing concentration of contaminants or odors (acquired in passage
through the conditioned compartment) which would result if the same
aIr were continuously recirculated. Special provisions may be neces-
sary for effecting the required purification, but a simple and frequently
adequate one is by ventilation, accomplished by steadIly dIscarding to
the atmosphere a portion of the air leaving the compartment and
inducting fresh air from the atmosphere at the same rate.
In such situ.tions either the recirculated air or the inducted air,
or both, will require such treatment that their mixture may arrive at
the compartment at the necessary entry state The h-x diagram of
FIg. 10-9 furmshes a further convement facihty for associatlllg graph-
ically the necessary prIOr states of the indIvIdual air streams in order
that theIr mixture shall be at the required entry state 1. Distinguish-
ing items relating to the streams of reCIrculated and fresh aIr, and to
2
0153
<9-,
0138 I ,~.
:~:::_-.:_~ 1
0135 I I
0130 -r----I-L f
I I I I
I I I I
•
I
r I
I I I
I
I I I I
h '" .
~
58' 70' SO' 90'
T. OF
2l
0
0
.n_o>
NO 0>
£88
000
•
0
FIg. 10-10
their mIxture, by subscripts r, I, and 1, mixture ratio and enthalpy

accounts anapted to the 11llxing process become
(a) For mixture ratios'
• m.x, + mJX, = (m, + mr)XI or (XI - II)/(XI - x,) = '",1m,
(10-19)
(b) For enthalpies'
m,h, + mrh, = (m, + m,)h, or (h r - h,)/(h, - h,) = rit,/mf
(10-20)
Interpreted in relation to the h-x diagram, the ,Pomt representing the
state of the mixture as regards both h and x wIll lie on a straight line
joining those representing the indivIdual states prior to mixing, and
the distances of the mixture point to the pomts for the partlCipants
wIll be lDversely proportIOnal to the masses of the partICipants. Ex-
ample 10-11 illustrates thIS and other consIderations
Example 10-11. VentilatIon of the auditorium of Example 10-10 wlll requne
10 lb of au per mm per occupant, prOVIded by discardmg and replacmg WIth
fresh a. portIon of the air CIrculated. Dunng return of the recuculatmg portion
It must be brought to such a state that, on mlXlDg with the fresh aIr, state I of
Example 10-10 iB obL!uned Ouuude au 113 at 90°F and 33% R H. DetermIne the
reqUlslte state before mIXing, and the necessary heat removal rate from the
recirculated BJr
Solu!wn. Induded I'''''h air (mf) ~ 5OO1b/min, Xf ~ 00099 Ib/lb (FIg 94),
230 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES CJJAP. 10
thermodynamic nature which become of direct concern in his problems.
These relate in general to:
(a) Barometric altimetry, or the project of ascertaining the vertical
position of the various strata and streams m the atmosphere at a given
geographical location.
(b) Consequences of the ascent (or descent) of typica( air streams.
(0) Vertica! stability or imtability in the atmosphere. the influences
producing instabihty and consequent upward and downward currents,
and indIces whereby unstable situations may be anticipated.
For such analyses the steady-ftow energy relations of equations 3-4
and 3-6a retain their utility, but with geopotential changes now becom-
ing of major concern, organized velocity and assoCIated kinetic energy
change being normally of secondary magni tude, and shaft work being
irrelevant. The adIabatic process is also sufficiently closely approxi-
mated as to be reasonably representative in many instances, at least
during rapid vertical flow, and the reversible adiabatic or isentropic
process retains its signiflcance as an approachable one." The flUId
medium is the famihar au-and-water-vapor mlXture of the atmos-
phere ct levels below the tropopause, but wlth admIxed water in
liqUld or crystalline (snow) phases characterizing fog and cloud
layers
(a) Barometric aUimetry. Determmation of the vertical location
of the various strata and streams in the ctmosphcre is made by "sound-
ings" taken by means of an ascending aircraft or balloon whICh conveys
mstruments for measuring, effectively simultaneously, the atmospheric
pressure, temperature, and relative humidity throughout the ascent.
Translation of these data to terms of the vertical dIstance through
which the ins!J:uments have moved may be made by notmg that, for
vertical equilibflum in a fluid column in the at!"osphere, the pressure
distribution vertICally 18 such that gp dz - -dp t Thus,
0(' - '0) = - [v dp (10-21)
* It may be noted lD these connecwons that in meteorological literature the

term adIabatic is commonly mterpreted 8S SIgnifying also mechaDical reveC'Slblhty.
Qr synonymous WIth the engmeer's term tSentropu: But the meteorologist is not
mclined to utlhze dn'ectly the entropy concept, but wstead employs, 4S a.n indlrect
index of the entropy of an arr mass, the IJpotentIal temperature" atta.ined on
isentropic compression to the reference pressure of 147 psis.
t This relation follows from the conSIderatIOn that lor equdlbrium the pressure
force aD the lower surface of a horizontal lamIna must exceed tha.t on Its upper
. surface by the gravitational force on the Iamma.. The relation IS also that taken
by the energy relation of equation 3-6 If velOCIties or their change become
effectIvely zero and conslstent units are employed (Art 1-6).
ART. 10-17 ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS 231
or regarding the fluid as an ideal-gas mixture,
= -.r: Rm"T (dplp)
and = Rot, (P T, d(ln p)

J..
or = -R.. , T, In (plpo) (10-21a)
if T, = an adjusted temperature known Il.'3 the virtual temperature and
evidently defined as T(Rm ../R .. ,) or, closely, T(l + 061x).
T. = a logarithmic mean virtual temperature which is suitably
representative for the air stratum lying between pressure
Jevels p and Po.
A customary graphicaJ method of determining T. employs a plot of
successive but simultaneous values of T, and p to coordinates of T as
~--"2-Z1 = (cplg) 4r,---;..j

Fig 10-11.
abscissa to linear scale and of p as ordinate to logarithmic scale, Il.'3

illustrated by the ragged lme in Fig. 10-11. A suitable mean value may
be obtained by the familiar toehme of visual area equalizatIOns (Fig. 3-5).
An altematlve and convenient techme is vahdated by noting that not
only an isothermal but also an isentropic line might be selected for which
-f u dp IS the same as that corresponding to the actual vertical distri-
bution of p and" in a stratum As (equation 7-4) (" dp), = (dh). and
also c. (dT). for a gas, it follows that for a plot of T. and p to T - In p
232 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR l\[IXTURES CHAP 10
or T - s coordinates the magmtude. of g(z - ZO) IS also deterrrunable as
Cp times the dIfference between the (virtual) temperatures marked by
the intersectIOns of an uarea-equalizing" mean humld-mr Isentropic line
extending between Isobars p and po Both technics are ilustrated in
Fig. 10-11, and the latter in Fig. 10-12.
The ratio -dT/dz, known as the temperature lapse rate, becomes a sig-
nificant index 10 meteorologIcal analyses and in relation to Its magnitude
both in an actual stratum and for an isentropic ascent The actual rate
To
_L__________
Fig. 10-12
will be denoted by the symbol ,"/, and those for isentropic ascent of dry or
humid air by rd and of wet au (with progressive condensation)
by r., From the above, for dry-adIabatic ascent rd = - (dT/dz) , =
glcp> or [1 O(lbf/lbm)/O 24 X 778(ft-Ibf/lb, 'F) ",;j 0 00535'F/ft, or
9.8'C/1000 ·meters. For wet-adiabatic ascent the rate may range
from about half the dry adIabatic II the air IS warm and quite humid
to about the dry-adiabatic rate if the aIr is cool and fairly dry.
Actual magnitudes are qUlte varied, but one of about 3 "'F j1000 It
(65'C/100 meters) is frequently taken as generally representative
below the tropopause. It is in fact employed extensively for supple-
menting the pressure scale of a barometer by a more-or-less reliable
altitude scale. The relation enabling thIs evolves by noting that
gd. = -RT(dpjp) = -R(T/dT) (dpjp) dT
so that
dT _ !!. dT dp = R'"/ dp
'{= gdzp gp
ART. 10-17 ATMOSPHERIC THERMODYNAMICS 233
or !_ = (E.)RY/U I
To po
But also T = To - 'Y(z - zo)
and thus z- to = ~(~ - 1) = H(:ot' - IJ (10-22)
lI0-22a)
where R y / g becomes 0286 at y ~ 0 00535'F1ft. This IS to say that,

If this lapse rate may be assumed for a stratum IYlllg between an ele-
vated barometer and an underlYing reference station of known eleva-
tIOn, and the pressures are determmed at each, the elevation of the one
above the other may thus be computed if the temperature at either
level IS also known Although tillS procedure is convement and has
been employed in the operation of aircraft, opportunity IS eVident for
appreciable and posSibly serious error
(b) Consequences of the ascent of mr streams. Upward travel of
mr streams may be enforced by their passage over barners such as
mountainous areas, or over underlymg and perhaps advancing wedges
of colder and more dense nIT It mn.y also develop sponta.neously m
situations of vertical Instability to whICh attenlIon is given below.
Present concern is limited to the direct consequences of vertICal travel
and consequent exp"nswn when effectively adJabatIC and IsentroplC.
The elevatIOn and pressure le\'el at which on dry-adiabatIC ascent
the vapor component of an alT parcel becomes saturated is known as
}js h~f/J.'(),p !'.!l.1Jd.t.'r),.$.!JiJ!)''I} ],pjJ.tJ, [\r f'J.flj.Jn JJ'.JJ£'JJ .as pn;.gT&s.,Qjy& VJJpDl' 1:D..1) ..
densatwn and cloud formation may be anticipated on passage to levels
of greater elevatIOn but less pressure, in a state change referred to
above as wet adiabat,c By computatIOns parallelmg those of example
10-9,* or by use of the hygrometnc chart of Fig 10-4, It would develop,
for example, that humId aIT lnibally at 147 psm, gO°F, and 50 per
cent R.H. (or x ~ 0015) .ttams saturatIOn on isentroplC expansion to
about 125 psi a and 63°F and a correspondmg verbcal travel through
about 5000 feet On further wet-adiabatIC ascent, and unless the
vapor becomes supersaturated, progressive condensatwn and water-
cloud formation may be anticipated up to the 32°F level, attained at
• In meteofo]oglCal literature the states accompanymg wet-adIabatic ascent are
normally and qUite suitably estabhsned by equatmg the entropy mCrease of the
~m-component of the mIXture to the entropy decrease of the condensmg vapor-
plus-hqUid component, as Illustrated ID the check computatlOn of the second
portion of Example 10-.9.
234 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES CHAP. lO
a pressure of about 8 psi a or addItional verLlCal travel of 7500 feet.
The accompanying condensatlOn WIll have reduced the rlllxture ratlO
La about 0007 Ib of vapor/lb of alI Snow-cloud formatlOn may be
antiCIpated on ascent to higher levels. The (dot-dash) wet-adIaballc
contours of FIg 10-8 illustrated passage beyond the condensatlOn level;
analogous graphs to T VB. In p coord mates are frequently employed.
Wet-admbatic contours corresponding to a progressn'e mOlsture
departure (as rain or snow), as rapIdly as those are produced, may
also be generated and are desCrIbed as pseudo-wet adiabats, but d,verge
qUlte negligIbly from the above wet adIabats. However, note that
an Isentropic compresslOn by dry-adIabatIc descent after such pseudo-
adiabatic ascent \vauld result, on return to a given pressure level, in a
rna terially hIgher temperature and lower humidity than those existIng
at the same pressure level dUrIng ascent. ThIS IS a typical phenom-
enon accompanying the ascent of mou~t maritime aIr over mountaIn
barflers and Its subsequent arrIval, perhaps as uChlllook wind," at
mid-contmental plams at apprecIably hIgher temperature and lower
mixture ratio.
During wet-ad13batIC ascent the relatively large enthalpy release
accompanying the progressIve condensatlOn of vapor In the ascendmg
wet mIxture operates to reduce materIally the temperature decrease
which would otherWise be reqUIred for compensatmg a glven increase
In.;ts elevation and geopotentlal energy.
(c) Verticalln8tabil,ty and stab,lily. ASIde from the d,rect causa-
tIon of vertIcal travel by passage of an mr stream over an obstructing
barrier, local and more-or-Iess VIOlent ascents and descents frequently
develop in SItuatIOns in which an aIr column becomes vertICally un-
stable. A general criterion mdicatmg such instablhty may be derived
by notmg the consequences if, at any level in a presumably StatIC
column of ~u, an mdiv)dual parcel were in some manner displaced
upward and lsentroplCally a distance dz WIthin Its static enVIrons,
also necessanly WIth the same pressure change (-dp) as that which
corresponds to the vertICal dIfference in elevation in the surroundmg
column. If on such dIsplacement the parcel "finds" that at its new
level the (vlftual) temperature In the environs is less than that of the
parcel after ItS ascent, and the envIronmental denSIty is correspond-
ingly greater, buoyancy effects will operate to cause the parcel to
ascend stIll further and to accelerate upward.
This is to say that, In an orIgmally static column of air, if a
sIt1!atlOn develops m which the lapse-rate of VIrtual temperature
( -dT,/dz) becomes greater Ihan that correspondmg to the uentTOpU;,
the air constItuting the column is to be regarded as in a vertICally
unstable status:
ART. 10-17 ATMOSPHERIC THERl\lODYNAl\lICS 235
SimilarlYi as on downward dIsplacement of a component parcel in
such an envlTonmental column the virtual temperature in the environs
at the lower level would be greater and the densIty less than those of
the parcel, it would now tend to subside stIll further and to accelerate
downward Thus any fortUItous dIsturbance in such a column would
mitmte either upward or downward acceleratIOn, Dr ·both, and 3 con-
I
sequent "capsIZIng" effect in whIch adjacent ascending and descendlllg

aIr currents would develop and operate to restore stabIlity. The
cnLerion for vertIcal in1'ltablhty is thus agam the eXIstence of a lapse
rate of virtual temperature greater than the IsentropIC rate, with the
latter being the dry adiabatic for dry or humid air but the local wet-
adIabatIc rate in alr-vapor-droplet mixtures.
If, conversely, the lapse rate m the column were numerically less
than the IsentropIC, or perhaps of opposIte algebraic sense (, e., dT I dz
IS posltive, as at temperature "InVerSIOn"), a. chance vertICal dlsplace-
ment of a component parcel would for similar reasons be resisted by
.a tendency toward return to its orlgmaJ JeveL Thus the column 18
vertICally stable Furthermore, If upward or downward currents
which had been established III an u!,stable layer should endeavor to
penetrate a stable overlymg or underlying layer, the effect would be
to obstruct and suppress the flow.
A relatIOn expressing quantitatIvely the vertically acceleratIve or
decelerativc force (a) developed per umt mass of aIr IS obtamed by
introducmg in a sUItable adaptation of the steady-flow energy equatIOn
(3-6) the relation assoCIatIng the density and the pressure gradIent
(-dpldz) III an equIlibrial column; ie, gp dz ~ -dp. Thus
u'du' or a' dz ~ -g dz - dp/p' - 0""

- (_l_p' - ~)dP
p
- 0"" (10-23)
where the prime (') denotes items pertaining to the accelerating parcel.
Also, as p = p/RaJrTv,
I: a' dz =- R"<[ (T', - T.) d(lnp) - '" (10-23a)
Observe tbat l' a' dz expresses also the change in kmetIC energy
[(u 2 - uo 2 )/2J per unit mass of air in accelerating or decelerating during
Its change of clevabon; also that the - [ CT', - T,) d(ln p) would
p,
be represented on a graph to T and In p coordinates by the area bounded

by isobars po and p and the lines describing the variation of T'. for
isentropiv vertlCal motion and of T, III the coluUln ill question. An
area as so described thus provIdes a convenient index of the kinetic
energy generation (+) or dlssipation (-) which might be antlcipated,
if respectively unhampered or aided by frictIOnal and turbulenee effects,
as a consequence of the development of unstable or ,table conditions
in an atmosphenc column FIgure 10-13 illustrate, such areas to
T - In p coordinates, and also thejr equivalents to T - 8 coordinates,
wIth (+) hatching denoting the unstable or accelerative situation and
(- ) hatching denoting a stable or decelerative one The ragged lmes
denote the existing T - p conditions.
Dry
Dry adlaballc Wet
adiabalie adiabatic
""' ..
J
Fig. 1()'13.
A translation of equation lO-23a into terms of relevant temperature-

lapse rates is made by writing values of T in the form r (dT/dz) dz
Jr,
T
and then diViding the equation by d.. Thus
a' = -R~, J
(r - 1'). dOn p) - jo>pidZ (10-24)
where r lS the dry- or wet-adiabahc rate, whichever is pertinent.

Local transition from a staaIe to aD unstable status in 8 humid
.tratum overlying a warmer earth's surface very frequently follows
the resultant warming of the air at lower levels III the stratum, with
associated increase in its temperature lapse rate. The generation of
a daytime sea-lo-land breeze is frequently a more-or-less direct result
of this situatiDn.
As the temperature lapse rate for the wet-adiabatic expansion is
characteristically much less than that for the dry-adIabatIC, situations
frequently develop .in which an initially humid but stabJe stratum
ART. 10-18 GENERALIZED ENERGY RELATIONS 237
becomes actIvely unstable if, m pa~sage ovef a barner, Its parts are
raised above their eondensutioD level. This is a typical cause' of the
vi()lcmt and turbulent up and down ~urrents accompanying cumulus~
cloud formation m a thick stratum which, when at low~r elevation, was
characterized by a vertICally decreasing mixture ratio.
The foregoing has served simply to indicate the thermodynamic
aspects of several of the atmospherlc phenomena willch man regularly
experiences and which so greatly affect his well-bemg and actiVIties,
and Illustrate a lew of the "mechanisms" which are utilized in the
operation of the vast heat engme lor whICh the air-and-water-vapor
mixture eonslttuting our atmosphere is the workmg fluid. The work-
mgs ol this engine are providentially so governed and hampered by
frictional or turbulence effects that only occasionally do they produce
dIsastrous results, while also so operating that both the great quantities
of solar energy steadily received by the atmosphere and the water
vapor fllTnished by the seas become distributed to man's advantage.
10·18. Generalized Energy Relation, Humid and Wet Mixtures.
In the loregoing specific attention was SUItably given to several conven-
tIOnal processes which are lrequently .approached quite closely in
the atmosphere and in controlled industrial processes. The following
energy analysis provides for more general situations, although limlted
to steady-flow processes, and accounts for variDus -contingencies.
Contingencies, arul energy quantities. (a) The inflow of a
humid mixture at temperature T, conveying energy in the amount
h, + ",(h, + h,.) per umt mass of air, and an outflow at tempera-
ture T + dT with energy departure in the amount (h, + dha) +
(x + dx) [(h, + dh!) + (h" + dhl.)J.
(b) A concurrent vertical travel through distance dz, with asso-
ciated energy entry in amount (1 + x) gz and departure in amount
(1 + x + dx)g(z + dz).
(c) An influx also of liqUId (water) droplets in aID aunt dm, and
conveying energy m the amount (gz + hi) dm.
(d) An mflux (or efflux) of vapor by diffusion between the stream
and environs at effectively the temperature of the stream, in amount
dv and conveying energy in the amount (gz + hI + h,,) dv.
(e) A departure of condensed droplets in amount dc, and conveying
energy in the amount (g (z + dz) + (hi + dh, ) ] dc.
(j) A concurrent energy transfer as heat, in amount 8q per unit
mass of air.
(g) A concurrent energy tranSItion as shaft work, or change of the
kinetic energy of the stream, either or both of these being represented
by the symbol 8w.
238 GAS AND GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES CHAP IO
The collectIOn of all such energy items gives the relabon
(1 +x )gz+h.+x(hj+h,,)+ (gz+h,) dm+ (gz+h,+h j,) dv+!qHw
= (1 +x+dx)g(z+dz) + (h.+dh.H (x+dx)[ (h,+dh,) +
\h,,+dhj,)]+[g(z+dzH (h,+dh j )] de
But, by expandmg the various terms and droppmg products of differ-
entials, and also observing that dx = dm + dv - dc, this relation
may be reduced to the simpler one:
!q+ow+h j , dv=g dz+dh.+d(xh"Hx(g dz+dh j )
In integrated form, but written with neglect of the minor vanabon
of h" 1ll the third term to the left,
Iq2+I W2+h"IV2=
g(Z2-ZIH (h.,2+X2h j ,,2) - (h.,1 +xlhj"I)+.[' z(gdz+dh,)
(10-25)
The term remaming In integral form IS normally relatively minor III

magmtude and may be expressed Wlth negligible approximatIOn as
[(XI + x.)/2] [g(Z2 - Zl) + (h,,2 - h"I)]' As usual, some of the terms
In this general relation become lrrelevant ill various processes To
Illustr;tc gcopotentIal-energy terms are most sigmficant, but the
shaft-work term IS Irrelevant in meteorologICal processes, With the
converse normally the case in engmeenng processes.
lU-l9-. Problems. 1. A gM mnture lB by volume 1'250/0 C02, 63% (h, anti

the remamder IS nItrogen What are Its molar and mass proporLlOns, and the
partIal pressUre dlstnbutlOD for the mlXture?
2 A mixture of gaseous products, as mIght perhaps be produce-l by the com-
bustion of heptane With some excess of oxygenl IS composed of 7 moles of C02.
8 moles of H20, and 5 moles of 02 The' pressure on the mixture 1B 14 7 pSla,
and the temperature is suffiCiently high that the water is 10 vapor st.!te.
(a) Determme the relative mnss of each constituent of the combustion products,
and thelI mass, molar, and volumetriC proportIOns (b) Determme the partial
pressure attnbutable to each constituent, and report the temperature at which
the water vapor would become saturated on IsobarIC coolmg of the products
3 For the mn:ture of combustIOn products of problem 2, determine the
equivalent g!l8 constant and eqUivalent formula mass, and the denSIty of the
mixture If it IS at 147 psia and 200°F.
4. For the mnture of combustion products of prob1cm 2, determine the IIl3S8,
molar, and volumetnc proportions of the C02 and OJ and the rematl1mg water
vapor If, 'at 147 pSla, the mIXtUre is cooled to 60°F
5. (a) For the nuxLure of combustion products of problem 2, determme by use
of FIg. 9-3 or 9-4 the molar specific heat at constant pressure at 200°F and at 2000°F
and the corresponding per pound va.lues, ~nd also develop by: use (Jf the data of
Table 9-2 (Sweigert and Beardsley values) the equatIOn exp~ng Cz. for the ~I};.ture
(b) Determme the algebraic and logarithIDlc mea.n \'all!E~S (C p and C p ) for the a.bove
temperature range I sUItable values of (k - 1 )/k aDd k for computations rela.ting to
IsentropIC compressiOn of the nuxture, and values of C. 8nd C. for the roi)(tl!!e a.t
ZOO" and at 200Q°F
6. For the mIXture of C'ombustlOn products of problem 2 compute the change
of enthalpy, mternal energy and entrop}" on Isobaric warmmg from 200" to
ZOOO°F.
7. Into a. elo.sed vessel of 135 Cll ft capacIty, aDd originally contaInmg dry an
at 76 0 F and 147 pSIa, 0010 lb of water at 76"F iB mtroduced by spray, and hea.t
18 concurrently supplted In amount sufficHmt to rnamtam the mixture tempera.ture
at 76°F (a) Wbat wIll be the mixture ratio, vapor pressure, llnd total pressure
m the vessel, the relatIVe humid tty of the mIXture, and the number of degrees
of Stlperheat of the vapor? (b) The mtroduetlOn (If l\·hat toLal amount of water
would brmg the mJ'\:ture to 100% relathre humJdity, and what would then be
the total pressure In the "'essel? (c) Represent on sketches to T-s coordinates
the states of the vapor and of the Rlr at terminlltlOI18 of the sC\'cr81 processes
above.
B. Determine the Jtems of problem 7, and also the mn::ture densitIes, If the
vessel is $0 arranged that the total pressure rather than the volume IS m8.mtamed
constant Agam represent to T-s coord mates the terrnmal states of the vapor and
the alf, and determme the amount of heat reqmred for mamtenllnce of the
76°F temperature '
9, For saturated. air at 70°F and 2,0" Hg abs, as at the air-ptlmp suction of 11
condenser, find the vapor pressure and IDll':ttlre ratIO, the partial pressure of the
Air, and the densItIes of each constItuent and of the mIxture
10 The vapor of a gI,,'en hydrocarbon fuel With formula mass of 114 exhibits
a saturation pressure of 0.5" Hg at 6S F. What is the maxImum vapor/air
D
mIXture ratio obtamable with this Cuel at 65-F and a pressure of 285" Hg, as at
the intake of an m~emal-combustlOn engine cylmder, the vapor bemg presumed
to conform adequately to Ideal-gas characteristIcs Ilt the above vapor pressure?
U. Atmospheric air at OOQF, 140 psia, and 75% RH. IS to be conditIOned by
coolmg isobarically untll the mIXture ratio IS reduced to 0012 Ib/lb, and by
rewarming to 80°F after removal of the condensate (a) What is the imtial
vapor pressure, mixture ratio, and dew-pomt temperature, the temperature to
which the mIXture must be cooled to effect the reqUIred rnozsture condensatIOn
and removal, and the heat transfer required per pound of (dry) Illr for each
process? (b) What will be the relative humidIty after rewarming to' 80°F, and
the heat supply reqUIred per pound of (dry) fur? (c) Represent by sketches to
T-8 coordmates the accompanymg property changes of the vapor and of the aIr
12 In a well-deSIgned steam condenser Bllch air as hll8 also entered, from
\'unOI1S 6ources, IS cooled Isobll.rlCally after leavmg the mllill condensmg zone en
route to the air-remova.l pump. The purpose 18 to Increase the partial pressure
of the air, by decrease of the partia.l pressure of the saturated vapor, 'and thereby
to decrea.se the volume of lur-vapor mixture to be handled by the pump. In
the accompl1nymg ta.ble regard the dats. of column A as representative of condI-
tions at inItial entry of the steam and air to the condenser, column B as at the
end of the zone In wmch the primary purpose is the conJenslltlOn of the steam,
aod column C as representing the stream leaving aftcr-cooler and elltermg m
pump. The total pressure is 1000" Hg abs throughout, and 00002 lb of aIr
have entel ed the condenser per pound of entermg steam The temperatures are
those oi the mhture at the several pomts m queshon Items requmng computa-
twn are provIded but underscored 1D the table Check these. Also dISCUSS
briefly the effectiveness of the after-cooling for the above purpose.
Loca.tlon A B IJ
T, of 79.03 7870 7000
pvapor, In. Hg aha 099988 09892 (0 n92)
Pvs.por,Ib/cu ft (000153) (000152) (000115)
PaIr, 1D Hg aha (0000124) (00108) (02608)
Pan, Ih/eu ft (31/10') (26/10') (64/10')
rnvlma 5000 57 (176)
Steam condensed) Ib/lb 0000 09886 (099965)
1\llxture volume, per Ib
of entering steam (650) (7.5) (0 305)
13 RecoolIng of the CIrculating water servmg a condenser (for subsequent

recirculatIOn) IS frequently effected by use of a. ('coolIng tower" to whIch the
warmer water leavmg the condenser 18 deliyered In a SPlay or sheet through wluch
a stream of a~mosphetlc atr IS blmYD, as Illustrated in FIg. 10·5. The coohng
results pnmarIly from aruabatJc (and isobanc) saturatJOn of the aIr by evapora-
tlOn of a portlOn of the water, for which process an energy equation would be,
per pound of dry air supplIed:
Energy receIpt, air = Energy departure, water
(ha,z + X2hll,2) - (ha,l + xlh",l) = mwhj,1 - Imw - (X2 - xl)]hl. 2
where m ... represents the mass of water entenng per pound of (dry) air mtroduced,
and IS the only unknown If data as follows are available:
Barometer, 2992" Hg, energy gaul or loss as heat, neghgl.ble. Entermg aIr,
70°F and 500/0 RH.; leavmg aIr, 125°F and 1000/0 RH. Entering water, 13.1°F,
leavmg water, 80~F. From these data compute the mass and volume of air to be
furmshed per pound of water entenng, and the proportion of thIS water which IS
lost by ,evaporatIOn
14. The wet- and dry-bulb temperatures obtamed by pey'thrometer In a gwen
mass of humId aIr at standard atmospherIC pressure are, respectIvely, 60°F and
70°F. Regardmg the wet-bulb temperatme as effectIvely that resultmg from
adiabatic (and Isobanc) saturatlOn of the humId aIr by evaporatIOn, compute
the mLxture ratio of the saturated air at the wet bulb and that of the ongmal
humid aIr; also the vapor pressure in the humid air and its uew-pomt temperature
and relative humldity Determine 3;:1 by use of equatJOn 10-9 or 10-10, 8S pre-
ferred, but by use of relevant ltems of the data. and results "enfy the equalIty
of equatwn lQ..9a and evaluate und confirm the constancy of the !:-item referred
to followmg equation 10-10b
Represent by sketches to T-s coordmates the state changes of the vapor and
of the air accompanying the saturatIOn-hy-evaporatlOn process
15 To illustrate the influence of the pressure, for humId au exhlbiting tbe
same wet- and dry-bulb temperatures as m problem 15, redetermm€ and compare
results If the atmosphenc pressure is mstead 10 psia (as at about 10,000 it above
sea. level)
ART ]0-]9 PROBLEMS 241
16 It IS pr()posed to maJ.utam the air supply to a glv~n compartment at
75 F and 50% R H. by use of the observed wet-bulb temperature ~s the mdex
g
for humidity control. Determme, by succes~nve trHl.ls, the required wet-bulb

temperature If the air pressure is effectively 14 7 pEna.
17 Humid air at 75 c F and 50% R H. expands effectively adiabatIcally -aria
lsentropically from aD InItial pressure of 147 pSla to a pressure of 100 PSl:t.
Detenmne the tempel ature and pressure on an IVa'! at saturatlOD, the temperature
and mIXture raho and the proportIOn of the InItIal vupor that has condensed
on arrIval at the above terminal pressure, and also the tempel ature at the latter
pres.sure If supersaturation instead of progressive condensation of the vapor had
occurred Suggesteu trwl values of the temperatures are 51°F on arnval at
saturatIOn, and 32°F on expansIOn WIth condensatIOn to the termmal pressure
Determine the aggregate enthalpy change for each phase of the above proces.",
comparIng the results on eXp!lDSlOn WIth condensation and supelsaturated expan-
SIOn. Also, presurnmg that the speCIfied exp.'l.m31on had been one accompanymg
and caused by vertIcal ascent of the alf mass, determme by use of the steady-flow
energy equation the vertical dLstance traveled to the imtIaI condensatLOn level
and that to the termmal pressure level.
18 (a) Represent by sketches drawn to the roonimate aUil contour systems
of the multJpresrure hygrometrIc chart, FIg 10-4-, such states and processes of
problems 8, 11, 14. 15, 16, and 17 as the chart IS capable of representmg, and
check aSSOCHl,ted pnor results by use of the chart (b) Sketch Ilke representatIons
to the coordmate system of the T-a diagra'm of FIg 10-8
19. (a) For the auditorium and occupant.s of Examples 10-10 and 10-11, but
when operatmg under wmter conditIOns, the heat transfer through the wall Will be
at the rate of about 3000 Btu/mm for an outSIde temperature of 35°F. Other
loadmg features WIll be the same as before. but III thIS season It Will be SUItable
for the air to leave the compartment at about 70·F and 550/0 R H. It IS proposed
that for SimplICity no air be reCIrculated and that Instead only the fresh air
mducted for ventIlation (500 lb/mm) be brought to and introduced mto the
compartment at SUitable temperature and relative humidity, these as required
by the character and quantity of the load imposed by the audltorlUm. Determme
by direct computation the correspondIngly reqUlred entry enthalpy, mixture ratIO,
and vapor pressure, and thereby determille graphically (but venfy by computa-
tions) the requisite entry temperature and relative humidity (b) It IS further
proposed that the mducted fresh aIr be brought to the reqUIred state, as deter-
mined above, by (1) warming it to 95°F and then (2) paTtially saturatmg It by
evaporation (lsoharically and adwbatIcaUy) by spraying water at 75°F mto the
warmed I!tream at controlled and suitahle rate Determme the proper rate if the
humidIty of the inducted fresh au IS 50% (at 35°F), and verIfy the propriety of
the proposed temperature to whICh the ventilating au shall have been warmed
Also determine the heat reqUired per mmute for warmmg the mducted air,
compare with the heat loss from the compartment, and justify the ddjerence
Ans (aJ 755°F; 345')'" (bJ 2251b/min
11 . THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Non-Ideal Gases and Vapor
11·1. Foreword. In foregoing surveys of the thermodynamic prop-
erties of engineering fluids attention ,vas given first to those for which
compilations of the essential propertws have been provided in t,bular
and graphical forms, such as the steam tables and charts The uou.l
analytical manner of property correlation was thcn indlC.terl for gases
when in such states that· they conform adequately to the ch.ractens(lcs
of the ideal gas. Although such facilities meet many of the require-
ments in thcrmodynamlc analyses, they may do so only in situatioM
where the fluid employed does in fact conform adequatdy to Ideal-gas
specificatIons, or is one for which the required property compilations
are avaIlable.
Such property compilations have usually represented quite large
expenditures of money and time for the procurement and coordination
of the required pnmary data, extendmg in the case of water vapor to
many thousands of doHars and a number of decades. Consequently
they were for many years provided for only a hmited number of sub-
stances. Expandmg technical mterests are currently necessItating,
however, that. lIke. faCIlities be provided for many additional sub-
stances, as they become of engineering and industrIal COncern The
C\\lI""'UX.£ CIt t..b." Il,,,,,,,,,l ",0."'111..<.' """ 1..0."""(,,,,, t..C\ ",C\,,~i.(k, 1..0." "'0....,"'' '1..,,'
of the primary data which best enable the provision of such facihtlCs,
and'the general technic m Its organizatIOn to de~ired purposes Pro-
cedures will also be indicated "hereby for many substances thc desired
information may be sccured WIth admitted approximations but such
rerluced expendIture of time and money that some mexactness of result;
may well be tolerated.
In analy&es for these purposes It is advantageous to regard the gases
or vapors tbat are of concern as non-ideal in that theIr charactenstlCs
deVIate sensibly from those of the ideal gas, but are at the same tIme
comparable with thc ideal-gas characteristics The non-ideal gas
characteristics may In fact be expressed to advantage in terms of thc
amount of such deviation, for which reason conSIderations and methods
relating to the ideal gas continue to be of concern. The following
material also indicates the considerable innccurocy that will be intro-
duced if the limitations of ideal-gas relations are ignored, partICularly
242
ART. 11-2 p-v-1' CORRELATION BY FORMULA 243
at higher pressures or when the gas state is not greatly removod from
Its critical state.
A nrst requirement in the organization of thermodynamic data for
a particular matenal is that of associating corresponding values" of
pressure, temperatUl'o, and speCIfic volume. Followmg articles relate
to both algebraic and graphical ways of exhibitmg their correlation
11-2. p-v-T Correlation by Formula. It is recalled that, for an
ideal gas, or actual ones at sufficiently low pressures, these properties
arc related by the simple equation of state, equation 9-1 or 9-3,
pu/T = II constant (R) (11-1)
where
v = volume, either per formula mass (Mu, Art. 9-2) or per unit
(pound) mass.
R ~ the molar (or "universal") gas constant Ro (1545 ft-lb or
1.986 Btu/(Ib-mode, °R)I or that divided by the formula
mass for a particular gas.
Or, rearranging thIS relatIOn in the form of a dimenswnless quotient,
pv/RT = 1000 ... (ll.la)
Th,s slmple relation becomes quite unsuitable, however, for actual
gases except at relatively lower pressures. TIllS inadequacy IS
Illustrated in Fig H-l by curves indICating for ethane (O,H a) the
experllneutally determmed values Q{ the ratIO pv/ RT at various
temperatures and pressures, and Its very considerable devmtion from
unity. The present article reVIews briefly sevenil representative exam-
ples of the many equations of state which have from time to time been
proposed for assoclanng, by formula, informatIOn such as is exhruited
graphically by this figure. In effect such forfiulas arc simply equa-
hans which endeavor \0 express, in more or less general fashion, fami-
lies of curves such as tho,e of the figure
A. van der Woals' equation. One of the earliest relations proposed
lor this purpose was evolved by van der Waals (1873) by applying
the laws of meehames to the indJVidual molecules. It may m • sense
be regarded as an extensiDn of the kinetIc theory of gases to the non-
Ideal gas. The equation usually appears in the form
(p+~)(V-b)=RT or ;~=I+V~b-R~U (11-2)

where, for a P'1l'tlcular gas,
a = a coefficient introduced to account for the existence of mutual
attractions between molecules of a gas, and usually regarded
as constant.
244 NON-IDEAL GASES CHAP. 11
•8·
.s'"
~
~
~
0
•
•
~
Q
0. ~
~ ~
"•" E
d: .~
•Co
~
5
<:3
...;,
::::
£
ART. 11-2 '/}"v-T COltRELATION BY FORMULA 245
b =a coefficient to account for the volume of the molecules com-
pnsing the gas, also te~med theIr "co-volume," and usually
,regarded as a constant.
For a given gas values of the Van der Waals coefficients a and b
would presumably be determlllable by simultaneous solution of the
relation when several sets of experimental values of p, V, and Tare
substituted, a minimum of two sets of data bemg reqUIred A feature
of the relation is that It lS a cubic equation m v, so permittmg three
results on solution for v. But recall that at the critical state of a fluid
(Art. 8-3 and Figs. 8-2 lind 8-3) the three values must be identIcal.
This and related considerations enable expression of the coefficients a
and b In terms of the critical preSSlIre Pc and the CrItical temperature
T, of a particular matenal to which the equatIOn is being adapted.
Values of the coefficients as so expressed become a - 27R2T,2/64p, and
b - RT,/8p,. Incorporatmg these values of the coefficients and intro-
ducing the critical volume v, permIts restatement of the van der Waals
equation in the form
[ 1:
p,
_3_J (3'!'. - 1) 8.!T,
+ (V/V,)2 V,
= (11-2a)
The equatIOn thus appears in terms of ratios between existing and

entical values of pressure, volume, and temperature. Such ratios are
evidently dimensionless, but are conventionally and conveniently
described as reduced values of the pertinent properhes and identified
by the symbol for the property but WIth subscript r (e g., pip, = p, -
"reduced" pressure). An equation of state as so expressed is known
also as a reduced equalron oj slale. Employing the above notation
equation 11-2a appears as
(p, + V~2) (3u, - 1) = ST, (1l-2b)
Observe that the indiVIdual coefficients a and b, which in equation 11-2

are characterIstics of a particular material, have disappeared III the
reduced equation.
The van der Waals equation IS more of hIstorical than practical
concern, being neither particularly convenient nor adequately exact for
most practical purposes. However, in the reduced form of equation
11-2a or 11-2b it serves uniquely to suggest severallmportant consid-
eratIOns, to the effect that
(a) The p-v-T relation of a real gas is reasonably expressible in
terms of reduced values of those vanables.
,246 NON-IDEAL GASES CHAP. 11
(b) If the p-v-T relations for all gases were so expressed, in reduced
form, a general relation might perhaps be anticipated whIch would be
Identical for all.
The last consIderation has been interpreted as "preSSIng a "theorem
of correspondmg states," those bcing states at which for various gases
the same reduced properties occur, and suggests a generalIzation which
would be of considerable utIlIty If universally valId. LIke many gen-
eralizations it is of limited reliabIlIty, but will, howcver, form a basIs
for certain useful approximations made in following matcrial
B Berthdot's equation. A second relatively sImple equatIon of
state which was proposed by Berthelot (1903) is of the form
(p + Tv2a) (v - b) = RT or
pv
RT = 1+v
b a
_ b - RT2v (11-3)
It dIffers from the van der Waals relatIOn in endeavorIng to account

for temperature effects on the intermolecular forces as involved in
coeffiCIent a. Coefficients a and b have the same physical significance
ns those of van der Waals but differ in magmtude. Like the van der
Waals relation its coeffiCIents may be expressed in terms of p, and T,.
By evolvmg such expressions for the coeffiClents and substituting them
In equation 11-3, and by makIng assumptIOns whIch are acceptable at
larger specific volumes, thc Berthelot equation may be put in the
modified form
pv
RT =
9P,(6)
1 - 1281', T? - 1 (1l-3a)
Convenient features of tbls modified equatIOn are:

(a) Departures of the item pv/RT from unity are expressed directly
in terms ·of critIcal-point pressure and temperature data.
(b) The need for individual coeffielOnts for particular materials has
disappeared.
(c) The specific volume appears as an explicit variable, so faCIhtat-
Ing its computation when pressure and temperature data are known.
Because of the assumptIons made in its development equation 11-3a
is not SUItable for highly compressed materials, becoming unreliable
for pressures and temperatures such that p, > T,/3.
C. ViTial types of equation of state. Useful types of equations of
state are ones of the general form
pv = A + B/v + C/v' .. . (11-4)
or = A + B'p + C'p2 .. . (11-4a)
where A - RT and B, C, B', C', ... are regarded possIbly as constants
ART. 11-,'3 GRAPHICAL p-v-T CORRELATIONS 247
but usually as 'functions of t.he temperature. These arc frequently
identified as virial relations. The/have some theoretical Ju,tlficatlOn,
and also offer some advantage in that, as a convergmg power series)
successive terms become of progressively less Importance. Further-
more they may be made to fit expellmental p-v-T data and curves
wIth reasonable exactness wIthout too great nuisance m ascertaming
sUItable values of the coefficients.
D. Beattie-Bridgman equatwn. ThiS relation IS quot.ed as repre-
sentative of more elaborate ones whICh have been proposed and which
require the dclermmation of numerous empIrical coeffiCIents but corre-
spondmgly serve to express partICular data or curves with hIgher
precision The relatIOn takes the form
pv/RT = 1 + (Bolv) (1 - blv) (1 - C/VT3) - Ao(1 - a/v) (11-5)
in which five coeffiCients are evidently to be determined."

A vlrial modification of the Beathe-Bridgman equatIOn has also been
proposed which exhibits the volume term as a first power or expliCit
varIable only, and takes the form
pv/RT = 1 + ~p/R27'2 + 'Yp2/R"T" + op"/R'T' (11-50)
where f3 = ETB. - AD - R (cIT2), Y - -RTBob + Aoa - REo X

(cIT2), and S - RBo (beIT2).
11-3. Graphical p'v.T Correlations. Formulations such as the
foregoing are most valuable in perllilttmg preCision m property corre-
latIon and also in that they may be employed to find values of various
parhal derivatives (as, lor example, av/aT) which become of dlstmet
thermodynamIc ulllity In order, however, that emphasis may here
be placed on pnmary consideratIOns, with minimum diverSIOns of
attention to inCIdental mathematIcal mampulatlOns, the following
material will in the main utilize graphical methods of exhibiting p-v-T
relations and of translormmg then information to other thermo-
dynamic purposes.
A convenient and conventional manner of such representation IS
illusl.rated for ethane in Fig 11-1, in which contour lines of constant
temperature appear to coordlll.tes of pv/RT and p. AlternatIVely,
pressure contours mlght be drawn to coordinates of pv/RT and T, wlth
,. A table of coefficients for some 20 common gases appears in Chemical
Engmeering Thermodynamtcs, by Dodge, McGmw·Hdl. It may be Doted that
in preparatIon of the Keenan-Keyes tables for water vapor the p-v-T relation
employed for assoclatmg experimental data IDvolves 10 constunts and 6 powers
of p and T EVldently the formulatIOn of such relations and their uhhzatlOn for
further correlatlOus of other thermodynamic properties may become a rather
formldable task
logarithmic abscIssa scales perhaps used m either mstance. Figure
11-2 Illustrates the last arrangement, figam for ethane data. In
rcfeITmg to such graphICal correlations the mdex pvlRT is conven-
tionally idcntlfied by the term compressibihty factor and by the symbol
Z. The graphs are correspondmgly described as compressibility charts,
or, for Lrevity, as Z-p-T dlBgrams.
..:
~ 07~----t---~~L-~~~1,~~77~~r--t--i-_,--i-_,
~
~
] 06r_----~----~f-~-+~~~V#L-~~r__+--+__,--+__1
~ 0sl------t----+--+t+-hfJf-.1ft
5.E
8 0 41------t----+----IH-hfID
600 BOO 1000

Temperature, OR
FIg 11-2 Compressibility factor for ethane to coordinate! of Z and T (log scale).
Observe in the figures for ethane the significant features of an ap-

proach at low pressure to the UnIty value of Z which is characteristic
[or the ideal gas, but a very considerable departure from unity at
states characterIzed by joint hIgher pressure and moderate superheat
The following examples illustrate the use of compressibIlIty charts
such as Fig. 11-1 or 11-2.
Example 11.1. Deternune from FIg 11-1 the specIfic volume of ethBJIe at
120°F (580"R) and 900 psta, and the percentage error Involved If the ideal gas
law were taken to hold at this state.
Solulton. At a -formula mass of 3006 for ethane, R =- 154513006 _ 51A
ft-Ibl(lq, OR) From Flg. 11-1 .t the specUied state, pvlRT = 0430 and v-
(0430 x 514 x 580) 1(900 x 141) - 00065 eu ft/lb A volume computed as if
Ideal gas - 00965/0430 = 0224, With correspondmg enor of (0.224 - 00005)/
00965 -1.33 or 133%.
ART. 11-4 GENERALIZED Z-p-T CHARTS 249
Example 11·2. Over what apprOXimate range of pressure would the error
in USIng the Ideal-gas law for ethane not' exceed 17'0 at temperatures of, lOO°F
and of 500'Fl
Solution. From FIg. 11-1, Z is not less than 099 at lOO°F up to a. pressure of
a.bout 20 pSl6.. and a.t 5QO°F up to B. pressure (Jf a.bout 130 psia
E.'"<3mple 11-3. What Wlll be the pressure reqUired to mamtnm ethane at
a specific volume of 10 cu ft/lb at 80'F (MO'R) 1
Solutton. By successive apprOXImatIons made by entermg FIg. 11-1 at 200,
150, and 175 PSIR, to find that pressure at which ZRT/p = v = 1.0,
P p"/RT, or Z I), eu ft(lb
200 0880 (0.880 X 514 X 540)/(200 X 144) ~ 0.885

150 0.920 (0.020 X 51.4 X 540)/(150 X 144) ~ 1.18
175 0905 (0.005 X 51.4 X 540)/(175 X 144) ~ 1.00
11-4. Generalized Z-p-T Charts. A significant observation when

compressibility charts such as Fig. 11-1 or 11-2 are drawn for various
materials is that the appear.nce oj corresponding charts lS very
slmilar. This becomes increasingly eVldent 11 the temperatures and
pressures are expressed in terms of their ratlO to the critlOal values
of these, i.e, in terms of reduced values. Such a situation is m con-
formity with the theorem 01 corresponding states 01 Art. 11-2, WhlOh
states that the values 01 Z would become identical for all materials
at the same values of the reduced temperature and pressure.
In consequence of such observations it becomes possible to provlde
charts exhibiting a Z-p,-T, correlatlOn which will possess a consider-
able degree of general sUltabllity, and to regard such a chart as rea-
sonably representahve Jor the majonty oj the non-ideal gases. Such
a chart is known as n generalized compressibility chart." In principle
* A ratlOnalizailon of the umver6ll1 npplicablhty of the generalIzed compressi-
bliity charts may be made in terms of the kinetic theory if extended to non-ideal
gases. The nOD-Ideal gas is regarded as a. matenal whose deviation from the
Ideal-gaB laws results from the attractive forces between molecules and from the
effectB of fimte molecular size. Both these eifer:!ts are unlmportant at low
pressure, when the spaClllg of the molecules is relatively great, and in thiS regIon
the kmetlc theory holds without modIticatlOD.
At higher pressures the effects become Important and some measure of them
lB reqUired. The critical temperature, above which hquefaction does not occur,
may serve as one such measure and represent a SOl t of eQuivalence between the
organiZing effects of the attractlve forces and the dIsorganizing effects of the
random motions lLSSoclated with temperature SlmJiar cODSidern.tlons apply to
the critical pressure Expressed mathematICally. the volume occupied by 8. non-
ideal gas is a function not only of the pressure and temperature but also of the
cntical valu~ of these, or
f(v, p, T, pc, Ttl) ... 0
This may be regarded also as a statement of the theorem of correspondmg states

(Poomote cON,nuai Oli tnOt 250 )
250 NON-IDEAL GASES CHAP, 11
It 18 merely a compromise between charts representmg the character-
Istics of numerous indIvidual gases, VarIOus charts have appeared
In the lIterature, and acceptable versions are Illustrated in FIgs, 11-3
1.2~
I::: ,"'
1.1
,~o
f-
1:9
09§,l" '0' !o~
~~,
t- Il. I
rl >-, 1/ I!
1/
)'"f' )'" ~
[' 1"- '(jj
08 ~, ~~~ 1'\ ]\ 1\ 1/
1\1\ 1\ III
u
10;'
1\ 1\ I"
0 II I,,~
Co I\
051= 1\ rj
041' 1>-
I\ I, <i
03
10 V
n?
( 0 0 1
Reduced pressure, pIPe' or Pr
Fig 11-3 Gener~ed cornpre~lblhty chart to coordmates of Z and Pr (log sca1e)
and 11-4, using a linear scale of Z but logarithmic abscissa scales,

respectIvely, of Pr or T,. *
The order of agreement between indiVIdual compressibility charts
Arrangmg this relatIOn III conformIty WIth dimensIOnal consIderations, or as a
functIOnal relatIon between dimenslOnless parameters,
(.!"'
RT
_) ~ ~ (E.'Pc ,I.)
Tc
The generahzed compreSSIbilIty chart exhibits graphically exactly such a relation
>I< A more elaborate graph parallelIng Fig. 11-3 appears In ChemIcal Process
PnllC'tple8 Chart8, by Hougen and Watson, \Viley. Thm convement compIlation

of charts mcludes also charts paralleling subsequent figures 11-7 a.nd 11-9
ART. 11-4 GENERALIZED Z-p-T CHARTS 251
and the generalized ones lS m many , mstances remarkably good,i and
agreement withm some 2 per cent may well be expected for non-polar
compounds when not too near the critical point. For polar molecules,
including water, and also for non-polar matenals when very close to
,3§
2
"- Pr::=10 t-- I-}-i
70
1 50
t-:
V 30 I'
20
0 V 5
~lO
E-- 0\0
I- ~ OSO I~
9l?-1'~ V v.: I~
~, /-70 lo-'V I '
8
F= \ C""
E--t£ \
V 1/11
$I
o ",I_J .,.,
\~
=--'-;.
~, i/
~~,;~
7 E--- ~ ,,0 :;
• I'
6§ \ III
~ \
I
o5 n
..,
~I
os0
o4 ,
o3
1- l
o2E
07 09 1.1 13 15 2 3 4 5 6 7
Reduced temperature. T/T~I or Tr
Fig. 11-4. GenerB11Zed eompressiblbty chart to coordmates of Z and Tr (log Bcale),
the critical point, somewhat larger errors may be met, Hence the
generalized chart may not be regarded as indlscrlminately applleable
to all materials under all conditIOns, and judicIOus care is requlred in
its use. But the great convemence of the chart, m contrast wlth the
time and expense required for direct experimental determinations, is
often sufficlent to Jusbly its use.
The generalized compresslbllity chart depicts the general trends
shown by all materIals, .and this observation may be capItalIzed on
to extend the range of limIted p-v-T data. As an example, the
Keenan and Keyes tables give the specific volume of stcam only up
to 5500 psia at, 750'F (p, ~ 1.72, T, - 1 04). In tins region the
direct use of a generalIzed chart is of doubtful validity, but the chart
still permits a reasonably rehable estimate of specIfic volumes up to
perhaps 10,000 psia or more For this purpose, compressibility factors
for various pressures up to 5500 psi, and all at 750'F are computed
from given specIfic volumes, and plotted as an Isotherm on the general-
Ized chart vs. the correspondmg reduced pressure. The resultmg line
WIll not exactly overlIe any Isotherm of the chart; nevertheless the
line may be extrapolated 'Yith reasonable confidence USlIlg the iso-
therms of the chart as guides. From the extrapolated values of Z,
corresponding specific volumes may be computed at these higher
pressures.
Use of the generalIzed chart requires a knowledge of the crItical
values for the partIcular material of mteres\. A table for representa-
tive materials IS provided below. Use of the generalized chart is
illustrated m the followmg example.
Example 11-4. What IS the specIfic volume of carbon diOxide at 2000 pSIS
and lOO°F, according to the generalIzed chart? Carbon dlDxlde exhIbIts a critIcal
pressure of 1072 pSla and a. cntIcal temperature of 5477°R
Solulion. p, ~ 2000/1072 ~ 1.86.
T, - (100 + 460)/547.7 _ 1022
Entering Flg 11-3 with these values gives Z - 0.31. WIth a va.lue of R of
1545/4401 or 351 ft-Ib/Ob, OR). v - (031 X 35.1 X 560)/(2000 X 144) ~ 00212
ru ft/lb
11-5. Non·Ideal Ga. Mixtures. In prmciple, generalized com-

pressibility charts cannot be applIed to gaseous mIxtures with full
propriety for the reason that a mixture exhibits no true critical "point,"
and the concepts of reduced pressures and temperatures have there-
fore no real significance. Experimental findings indIcate, however,
that many gaseous mixtures may be brought mto reasonable con-
formity with the generalIzed Z-p-T curves If suitable ficbtious or
pseudo-values of critical pressure and temperature are assumed
Pseudo-reduced pressures and temperatures may then be computed
for the purpose of entermg the generalized chart but should be used
with reservation if near the saturation state for any constituent.
A convenient graphical technic for selecting SUItable pseudo-critical
value~ from a more or less limited amount of p-v-T data is as follows:
Plot isothermal contours of Z vs. the logarithm of the pressure, usmg
the same scales as those of • generalized chart to which It is desired
ART. 11-5 NON-IDEAL GAS MIXTURES 253
to force a fit Superimpose the two plots, and, while maintaining
superposition of the hnes for whIch Z 18 unity, shift the plots until the
two familIes of contours agree. Matching isothermals give simulta-
neous values of actual and pseudo-reduced temperatures, from which
To' ~ TIT:. SimIlarly, Po' ~ pip: at matching pressures.
'Yhere experImental p-.v-T data for a known mixture are lackmg,
pseudo-critical values may often be estimated with reasonable accepta-
bilIty by a semi-empIrical method proposed by Kay. In thIS the
crIbcal values for the pure components are weighted in accordance
with their molar proportIOns That IS, the pseudo-critical pressure
Pc' for the mIxture IS
(11-6)
and correspondmgly, the pseudo-critical temperature To' is

Vel Vb
I
T. ~ 2V T •.• + 2V T, .• + ... (1l-6a)
The procedure is analogous to that of Art. 10·3 and 10-4 for finding
the equivalent gaB constant and the specific heat of a mixture.
Example 11-5. Det.ermine by Kay's method the pseudo-critical values oC
pressure and temperature for 8. gas mixture of 88% rutrogen and 12% ca.rbon
dlOxlde by volume
Solution Fmd critical constanm for componenUi In Table 11-1
Mixture po' ~ 0.88 X 33 5 + 0.12 X 73 ~ 38.3 atm
To' ~ 088 X 227 + 0.12 X 548 ~ 226'R
Table 11-1. Critical Pressures and Temperatures

For- Formula Temperature Pre8Sure
Materja] mula Mas.s OR OK pSIS atmospheres
Au 2897 239' 133- 570· 37.4'"
Carbon dioxlde CO, 44.01 M7.7 304 3 1072 730
Carbon monoxide CO 28.01 2395 133.0 507 345
Ethane C~HI 30.0B 5498 305.4 715 487
Ethylene C~H, 2805 609 283 749 50 9
Helium lIe 4002 9.47(14') 53(7.7') 33 2(60') 2 26(4.)
Hydrogen II! 2.016 09.9 33 3 187(212') 128(14.4"')
Methane ell. 1604 3437 190.7 500 40.8
Nitrogen N! Z8 02 2270 1281 492 335
Oxygen O2 3200 277.9 1&14 730 497
Sulfur dlOXlde SOt 64 06 7748 430.5 1142 777
Water H~O 18016 11651 647.3 3205(3330') 218.5(227')
.IndlClltes pseudo-value; {or p-"..T computatIons {rom generalJ.zed chart.
The pseudo-critICal concept and the graphical method for determm-

ing pseudo-critical values may also be applied to thoae pure materials
,254 NON-IDEAL GASES CHAP. 11
which exhibit non-conformity wIth a generalIzed Z-p-T chart. Thus
the compresslbilIty behavior of hydrogen may be brought into better
conformIty WIth Fig. 11-3 or 11-4 if a pseudo-cntical pressure of 14.4
atm IS used rather than the true crItIcal value of 12.8 atm. Water
may also be brought into somewhat better agreement with the general-
ized chart by usmg a pseudo-critical prcssure some 120 psi higher than
the true critICal (T, used wIthout change) Helium is quite excep-
tIonal. But, for most other materIals for which data are available,
pseudo-cTltical values as determined graphIcally agree reasonably well
with critIcal values established by expenment Table 11-1 providcs
both observed and sUItable pseudo-values of crItical pressure and tem-
perature for a number of common gases.
11-6. Thermodynamic Properties, Non-Ideal Gases, In the fore-
going, p-v-T data Were organIzed III terms of the Ideal-gas relatIOn
(pv ~ RT) and a multiplying corrective factor (Z), so that, for the
non-ideal gas, pv ~ ZRT. For effecting analogous organization of
data on thermodynamIC or energy-type propertIes such as the internal
energy, enthalpy, or entropy, It is convenient to adopt somewhat the
same approach, but now in terms of additive rather than multiplymg
corrective factors That IS, the thermodynamic properties of the non-
ideal gas WIll be computed as If the gas were ideal, but a corrective
term is then added (or subtracted) to account for departure from this
ideal-gas value. Such corrective terms are called residuals For
example, the (relahve) enthalpy of the non-ideal gas becomes that of
the ideal gas (hO) at gIven temperature, plus a reSIdual enthalpy (h,)
accounting for its departure from the ideal gas at other than "zero"
pressure; or
hp •T = hOT + (h,) •. T (11-7)
The enthalpy change in passage of a non-ideal gas from a state (1) to

a state (2) is thus
h2 - hI = (P2 - h*l) + (h,.2 - h,.I) (1l-7a)
A fortunate feature of this approach IS that the "correctIve" or residual

magnitudes are normally less than the ideal or actual-gas items, and
their difference still less, so permlttmg a good order of precision in
evaluation of the actual enthalpy change.
:Methods of determimng such residual items (e.g., h, or 8r ) are con-
sidered below. Requisite experimental data may be of several alter-
native natures, such as
ART. 11-7 RESIDUAL ENTHALPY, p-v-T DATA 251i
(a) Data on thermal capacities, as, for example, (Sq/iJplr, and
determmed calorimetrically. .
(b) p-v-T data, with correlation of these by formula or graph-
ically.
(c) Data on the temperature and pressure changes accompanying
wholly Irl"eversIble flow of the gas through a 'throttling device.
The calorimetric method may seem to be the most direct and natural
one. However, unless the data are secured with extreme care it may
well be of doubtful relIability, primarily because of experImental dIffi-
cultIes in accounting for heat leakages betwcen the flUId and calorim-
eter and theIr enVIrons The second method, employmg p-v-T data, IS
capable of conSIderably greater experImental preCISIOn, although It
requires somewhat devlOus mampulatIOn of such data to enable Its
transformation to forms WhICh offer the required evidence on energy-
type Items. The transformatIon I8 possible because of the phase-rule
consideratIOn that two properties only, as for example pressure and
temperature, fix the thermodynamic state of a fluid. Any third
property such as volume, enthalpy, or entropy is therefore fixed.
The manipulative details requIred to make practical use of this
observation develop mathematICally f~om the statement that, if
pressure and temperature are selected as mdependent variables, values
of the enthalpy, for example, arc fixed; that is,
h •. ? = I(p, T)
or, in differential form paralleling equation 7-16,
dh = (iJhjaT)pdT + (ahjap)rdp (11-8)
Example 11.6. By extrapolating to zero pressure in the superhented-steam
tables, determine the correspondmg relative value of h· at 500 F. Thereby find
Q
also the magrutude, algebrruc sense, and trend ill change of the reSIdual enthalpy
(h r ) WIth pressure, by determming Its values at 50,200, and 500 psia.
Solution. By extrapolation to zero pressure, h· = 1288 4 Bt.u/lb.
o paia 50 paia. 200 pSI. .500 psis.

h = 12884 1283.9 1268.9 1231.3
h. = (h - h') = 0 -4.5 -19.5 -57.1
h,/p = -0.090 -00975 -01142
The indlcated nega.tive values of hr are tYPical. The IDcreasmgly negative
values of the ratio hrJp are also tYPical. except at qUite high values (If the
reduced temperature and pressure.
11-7. Residu3l Enthalpy, from p-t>-T Datu. By defimtion (h,),.T -

h,.T - hOT But to enable its specific evaluation it is necessary to
256 NON-IDEAL GASES CHAP. 1!
note or recall the pnmary considerations that
h •. T
dh = v dp
- h Po•T , =
+ T dB
1: (:~),'
or (ah/ap)T =
dT + l' (!;).
V
dp
+ T(a8/ap)r
(11-8a)
(7-4a)
(a'lap). = - (avlaT).t (7-14)
The physical interpretation of equatlon n-Sa is seen by reference to
Fig. 11-5. There a stepwise passage of a flmd is indIcated, to p-h
coordinates, from an initial reference slate at To and a low or nominally
zero pressure Po and associated enthalpy ho, to a term mal state at p, T,
and h. The first step IS an isobarIc warming at po through the entire
wmperature range T-To. The concurrent enthalpy change (h Po •T -
p.T
p ------------------ ---~
I I
I I
I I
I I
, I
I J
f_ p (ak)
Po
iJp
r
dp ,or
r.
h/ i
I
I
F,g. 11-5.
h",.T,) is that expressed by the first integral of the equation. It might

'be expressed also as r
Jr,
T
e.o dT, where e.o denotes the specific heat of
the flUId if at nominally zero pressure and is the item for which data
appear, for example, in FIg 9-3 or 9-4. Tbe enthalpy cbange is that as
would be determined, for example, by a T-h-s chart BUch as Fig. 9-5 for
air or by tbe gas tables.
But observe that this cbange would further evaluate tbat for the
entIre state change, from po, To to p, T, .f the enthatpy of the fluid 'lrere
not affected by pressure Increase (at T) from refeTena pressure Po to
t In this and the followmg the factor J doe-s not appear, the reader presumably
bemg sufficiently sophIstIcated not to require it But due care IS stlll needed so
that COllSlstent uhlts are employed throughout.
ART. 11-8 RESIDUAL ENTHALPY, Z-p-T DIAGRAMS 257
terminal pre8&ure p, I e., if the fI)ud were an ideal gas. This enthalpy
change is the quantity denoted above by the symbol hOT a.D.d a most
useful although perhaps fictitious one for a non-ideal gas.
The second step of the state change of FIg. 11-5 indicates the·actual
departure from constancy of the enthalpy for a non-ideal gas on iso-
thermal compression (at T) from Po to p. This departure is that as
expressed by the second integral of equation 11-8a, and described above
as the resIdual enthalpy or denoted by symbol (h,) •. T.
Expressing equation 11-8a in abbreviated form, h•. T = hOT (h,),.T, +
which is in agreement with the definitive relation of equation 11-7, and
in which h,. T and hOT represent values relative to reference state po,To
For the actual (non-ideal) gas the second integral (equation 11-8a)
may be put into the form l' [v + T(as/ap )T]T dp by introducing
equation 7-4a, or m the form f [v - T(av/aT).]T dp by further in-

troduction of equation 7-14.* Correspondingly, for the non-ideal gas,
h,.T = rT
JTo cpo dT +Jo(P [v - T(aV/aT).JT dp (11-9)
Also, (h,) •. T I:
= [v - T(av/aT),lr dp (11-10)
If for a given gas an acceptable p-v-T relation is avaIlable, but explIcit

in v, the indicated operations may be performed.
Enthalpy differences for the non-ideal gas thus become
h. - hI = h', - h*1 + h, .• - h..l = c.,O(T. - T l ) + h,.2 - h,.l
(Il-7b)
11·3. Residual Enthalpy, from Z-p-T Diagrams. To transform
the relation of equation 11-10 to a form permitting utilizatIOn of a
Z-p-T dIagram (particular or generalized) for determming'the residual
enthalpy of a non-ideal gas at p,T, It 18 necessary to note that, as by
definition pv ~ ZRT (and dT /T - dIn T),
(aT,
~) = RT(aZ) + RZ
p aT, p
(11-11)
or R( az)
=pa-tnT.+T
v (Il-lla)
* The Bubscnpt T outsIde the bracketed term needs to be retained 813 the term
18a. point function capable of a wide variety of magD.ltudea, but the integrallS
one relating stnctly to isothermal comprE!f!Sion.
Introducing this relation in equation 11-10,
(h,),.T = Eolv - T [~(a~:T), + ¥l dp

or .!!:._
RT
= -1' [(aZla T)'J
p--<l P
In
T
dp (11-12)
Observe that the terms of the last relation are dimensionless. The
dimensionless parameter h,/RT Will be referred to as the residual-
enthalpy Junctton.
The magmtude of this function, but as expressed by the above
integral, may be determmed from a Z-p-T diagram as follows:
(a) On a diagram with p·contours to Z - In T coordinates, at temper-
ature T determme the slope (aZla In T). of a sufficient number of iso-
10 J.!..--'--::t'I :::::~~~
z ~h'9'"
..,
I
I
--I--r-
I
1
,
(--"L)
I I alnTp
~,/ "'~:-~I'i , h
M p=o
JP
T (log scale) o p (linear scale)
(a) (b)
Fig. 11-6.
bars, and compute also the corresponding quotients [(aZla In T).J/p.·

Sketch a of Fig 11-6 Jllustrates the slopes in question
(b) Having plotted values of this quotient as the ordinate to an
abscissa of pressure, the function is the area under the (Isothermal)
curve between pressures Po - 0 and p. Sketch b of the figure illus-
trates.
Sufficient repetihons of this procedure permltll the generatIOn of a
diagram having a family of Isothermal bnes to coordinates of the
pressure and the residual·enthalpy function.
Although in the above procedure the use of the Z-p-T diagram for
a particular gas was presumed, an identiCal procedure may ,be em-
• The mathematical operatIons DC dllferentlatlOn and mtegratlOn involved
here -may be performed readHy and rehably by modern computmg machmes.
ART. 11-8 RESIDUAL ENTHALPY, Z-p-T DIAGRAMS 259
ployed with a generalIzed chart mvolvmg values of T, (~ TIT,) snd
p, (~plp,). The validIty of this is seen by nothlg that, as T, and
p, sre constants, d(ln T) - d(ln T,) and dp - p,d(p,) or dplp-
d(p,)lp,. Generalized values of the residual-enthalpy function' at
various reduced pressures and temperatures" as obtained by foregoing
technics through t,he Z-p-T dia'gram of Fig. 11-3, are given by the
-5
T.= 10
-4 h05
_/ J....- il10
1/ V
-3
V
/ I I.---
It
§ -0/ ; V J..--
EiJ V ..) ~
~W/J V V V
-:1
W9-
l:/ -v v
!--
v
I 20
30 -50
70
1
P,
Fig. 11-7. Generalized residual enthalpy.
curves of Fig, 11-7, The advantage of such a generalized chart is one

of convemence. The disadvantage is a generally moderate but ad-
mitted order of approxImation, But this may well be tolerated when
the time or cost reqmred for securing indlVldual and more reliable
data is not justified.
As the quantities (aZla In T,), and p approach zero simultaneously,
their ratlO appears to become indeterminate at zero pressure It may,
however, be found (a) by extrapolatlOn of lower-pressure values or (b)
by ddIerentiating an equation which fits the data at lower pressures.
For generalized values, the Berthelot equation indIcates that
[
(az/a In
p
T).] .-0 -_ 9 (~ _ 1)
128T,p. T.'
260 NON-IDEAL GASES CUAP. 11
Example 11.7. By use of FIg. 11-7 and the water-vapor table of the g8..'l
tables (or the specific beat data of FIg 9-3), estlID3.te tbe enthalpy difference for
steam 8.'3 between (1) 10 pSla and 340°F and (2) 2400 pSla and 940°F Employ
the pseudo-critical pressure of table 11-1 Compare the result WIth the value as
obtamed dIrectly from the stearn tables.
Soluhon. Reduced pressures lUld temperatures become pr,l = 10/3330 = 0003
and T,.1 = (340 + 460)/1165 = 0687; P'.' = 2400/3330 = 072 and T,.2 =
(940 + 460)(1165 = 1.20.
Entering Fig 11-7 with these arguments: h,.1 = - (1.986/18 016) X (340 + 460)
X 0.02 = -17 Btu/lb, and h...' = -(1.986/18.016) X (940 + 460) X 0 53 =
-81.8 Btu/lb. From molar apecific heats l FIg. {)-3, h·2 - h.· 1 = 872(940 - 34.0)/
18016 = 290.1 Btu/lb. Or/rom gas tables, "', - h', = (11622 - 6394)/18.016 =
290 1 Btu/lb. Thus the estimated enthalpy dIfference h2 - hI = 290 1-
(81.8 - 1.7) = 210.0 Btu/lb.
By steam ",b)"", n, - h, = 1424.3 - 1212.5 = 211.8 Btu/lb.
The wsagreement of 1.8 Btu/lb is neither too surpnsmg nor too discouraging.
,...2,._ f_ PR !!!----l
I I P. P I
p _____ y!_T I ' II
I
I
f.<-~~", p .. J. PC" ) T dp i I
"\ II
, I
, I
T. ~ I
Po' 0 Ip T
~c=~==================~~,~,~
t--f/CM,),
, 0
dT---~'1
Fig. 11-8.
11-9 .. Residual Entropy. The residual entropy of a non-ideal gas

is analogous to its residual enthalpy, being defined as
(Sr)J),T = Sp,T - 8* p,T
Specific evaluations proceed from the basic relatIOns
8,.T - 8 po T, = fT (as/iJT.), dT + f' (as/ap)r dp

JTo Jpo
and (as/ap)T = - (au/aT), (7-14)
In interpreting the first relabon, if Po is suJliciently low and ap-
. proaches zero, even a non-ideal gas will conform to ideal-gas charac-
teristics. Figure ll-8 represents the successive processes indlc.ted in
the relation.
ART. 11-9 RESIDUAL ENTROPY 261
For an ideal gas at p,T,
T
S',.T - s'.,r, = r c: dT/T -
J1'a RiP dP/;
Po
(9-lOa)
The item", of the gas tables is the first term of this relation For the
actual (non-ideal) gas,
s•. r - S.,T, = (T c. dT/T

JTo +[ (aslap). dp
Po
but, by introductIOn of equation 7-14,
r
= JTo c. dTIT -i' Po
[(avla'l').1T dp (11-13)
Thus, as .sPoT~ approaches s*PoTo as Po ____,), 0; ruso Cp ___,l, C1J 0,
(S,) •. T = - J~[(:~). - inT dp (11-14)
If for a gIven gas nn acceptable. p-v-T relatIOn IS avaIlable, but

expliCIt in v, the mdlCated operations for evaluating the resIdual
entropy may be performed.
To so transform thIs relation as to permIt the utilIzatIOn of a Z-p-T
dIagram (particUlar or generalIzed), by the introductIOn of equa-
tion 11-11,
( _ Rl' [(az/a
Sr)p,T - -
P"-'<l P
In T). -
1 - Z] dP
--
P T
or (s,)...
--= -
R
l' [(azla p->l) P
In T)'J dp+
T
l' P"-'<l
_-
(1 -
P
Z) T
dp
and, by equation 11-12,
= (~;.• + J:..aC ; Z)T dp (11-15)
The dimensionless parameter (s,) .,.1 (R) is known as the residuaZ-

entropy function. From the eVIdence of the last relation, it dIffers from
the residual-enthalpy function by the amount J:..a[(1-Z1/P]TdP.
This item is determined graphIcally, from a particUlar Z-p-T diagram
or the generalized one, by determining the quotien& (1 - Z)/p when
at temperature T, but a number of values of p, plotting the quotIent
as ordinate to the correspondmg values of p as abscissa, and measuring
the area below the resulting curve.
Flgure 11-9 gives the results of these procedures when employing the
generalized diagrams of FlgS. 11-7 and 11-3 The advantages and
hmitatlOns of thlS generalized chart are agam those of convenience
although moderate but admltted approXlmatlOD.
Reduced pressure, Pr
Fig. 11·9 Generalized residual entropy
As (1 - Z) and p approach zero slmultaneously, thelr ratio appears

to become indetermlllate at zero pressure. Its value may, however,
be determined (aJ by extrapolation of lower-pressure values or (b) by
differentIating an equallon that fits the data at lower pressures. For
generalized vahlCs, the Berthelot equallon indicates that
C: Z)p-o = C28~,J(;a -1)

Entropy dlfferences for tbe non-ideal gas thus become
= c.' In (T2/Tl) - R In (p2/Pl) + 8,.2 - 8,.1
= <P2 - 'Pt - R In (pdPl) + 8,.2 - 8,.1 (11-13a)

Example 11~8. By the use of FIg 11-9, and other requlSlte faclhtles, estImate
the entropy dIfference for steam as between (1) 10 psm and 340°F, and (2) 2400
psut. and 940°F. Employ the pseudo-cntlcal pressure of TabLe 11-1. Compure
the result With the vlllue as obwined from the steam tables
&luticm. For water vapor, R -1.986/18016 - 01102 Btu/(!b, OR). The
AnT. 11-10 CONVENTIONAL PROCESSES 263
reduced pressures and temperatures are !U?'computed III Example 11-7. By enter-
mg FIg. 11-9 With these, and the gas tables or Fig 11-4 WIth th~ above
temperature~J
8,.2 - 8,., ~ 0.1102 X (-038 + 0.016) ~ -00401.

cpo In (T,/T I ) ~ (867/18016) In [(460 + 940)/(460 + 34O)J
. or
~ ~ +02693
"'2 - "1 (53.162 - 48.313)/18.016
-Rln (P'/PI) ~ -0.1102ln (2400/10) ~ -06040
82 - 81 = -03748
By steam tables, " -" ~ 1.5073 - 1 B834 ~ -03761
11-10_ Conventional Processes_ For anaJysls of the conventIOnal

processes With a non-ideal gas a T-s, h-s, or p-h diagram would have Its
usual convenience, if avmlable. However, the residual-enthalpy and
residual-entropy dmgrams may be used fairly directly to the same pur-
pose. Such utihzations are surveyed and Illustrated below, but em-
ploying the generahzed charts of Figs. 11-7 and 11-9. For convenience
values of h* and <p from the gas tables are uscd; in thelt absence, but
having data available of c.' VB. T, use 'rou!d necessarily be made of
their respective equivalents cpo (T - To) and cpo In (T,jTI).
A. Isothermal process The special consequence of the constancy
of the temperature is that h'. - h', and 4>2 - 4>,.
Exnmple 11-9. For aIr entermg a compressor at 20"F and 15 PSIa, estunate
Its actual change of enthalpy and entropy If compressed isothermally (with
negllglble fnctlOnal effects) to 3000 PSID., the required energy departure as heat,
and required work input. Also compare results WIth those computed With the
aIT regarded as an Ideal gas .,
Solulton For air, R = 1.986j28.{)7 = 00686. From the speCificatIOns,
T,.I ~ T,.2 ~ 480/239 ~ 20, R In (p'/PI) ~ 0 06861n (3000/15) ~ 0363
h' l ~ h', ~ 1I4 7 Btu/lb; ~1 ~ ~2 ~ 0.5726 Btu/(lb, OR)
P,.1 ~ 15/570 - 0065 P,.' ~ 3000/570 ~ 525
8,.1 ~ 00686 X (0 0) ~ 00 8,., ~ 00686 X (-0 46) ~ -0.033
h,.1 = 00686 X 480 X (0 0) ~ 00 h", ~ 00686 X 480 X (-057) ~ -188
~ 114.7 h, ~ 114.7 - 18 8 ~ 959
Actual A. Ideal Gll/!
h,-hl ~114.7 -95.9 ~ -18 8 0.0 Btu/lb
8'-'1 ~O.O-O 363-0 033 ~ - 0.396 -0363
lq2~T(.,-,,) ~48OX( -0.396) ~-190 480 X (-0.363)=-174
+174
16.9 Ibm/eu It
B. Isobaric process: The specIal consequence of the constancy of
the pressure is only that R In (p';pd ~ O.
Example 11.10. AJ.r entermg a. heater at 1700 psis and 20°F IS warmed at
effectIvely constant pressure to 500 F Estimate Its change of enthalpy and entropy,
Q
the heat reqwred, and the corresponding mean specific heat (c p ) at this pressure.
Also compare results wlth those computed with the air rega.rded as an ideal. gas.
Solutton From the specIficatIOns, of Pl = p~ = 1700 PSiLL, Tl = 480"F, and
T2 = 900"R,
P,.l - P,.' = 1700/570 = 2.£8; R In (P';P1) - 00
T,.l =480/239 =20 T,., = 900/239 =40
h•. 1 =0,0686X48OX (-0.38) = -12.5 h,.,=O 0686X900X (-004) = -2 63
A· I = 1147 h·2= 231.4
hl-114 7-12 5 =1022 h,=2314-2.6 =228.8
4>1 = 0.5726 4>, = 0.7403
',,1=0,0686X(-0.30) = -00206 ',,'= -00062
'1 =05726-0.0206 -0.5520 .,=07403-0.0062 =07341
A.
Ideal
Actual aM
11' = h, - h, = 228.8 - 102.2 = 126.6 231.4 - llO = 116.7
'p = 126.6/480 = 0264 1167/480 - 0243
., -" = 0.7341 - 0.5520 = 0.1821 0.7403 - 0 5726 - 0.1677
C Isentropic process. A convenient consequence of the constancy

of the entropy is that, as 52 - SI = (8*2 - 8*1) +
(S •• 2 - 8.,1) =
[(<I', - <1'1) - R In (p2/Pl)] + (S.,2 - S",) = 0, one may write that
8.,' + <P' = 8,,1 + <PI + R In (p'/PI).
Il the. imtial state and the preBBure ratio are specified, the mdividual
terms to the right provIde a c'eterminable constant.·
Estimate of the temperature resultmg from the process, and thereby
of relevant additional items, requires only the determination by suc-
cessive trials of that temperature for which the quantIty to the left
+
(8.,' <1',) equals the predetermmed constant. If gas tables are not
available, but specific heat data are, the relatlOn may be used in the
eqUlvalent form
8,.2 + c: In (T2(T , ) = S,.1 + R In (p2/pI)
Exalnple 11-11. Au that lS initially at 3000 psis. and 4000R (-WOF) is per-
rrutted to expand lsentroplcally to 750 psia. Estunate the resuitmg temperature and
the. enthalpy change. Compare the results with those computed WIth the air re-
garded as :m ideal gas.
Solulum. At the specified 3000 psis and 400 oR, with P2 = 750 psis., R In (p2!Pl)
- 0.06S6 X In 4 = -0.0951.
ART. 11-10 CONVENTIONAL PROCESSES 265
P,.' = 3000/570 = 525 h,., = 00686 X 400 X (-0.95) = -26.0
T,., = 400/239 = 1.67 h,' = 95.5
".' = 0.0686 X (-085) = -0.0515 h, =955 -260 = 69.5
0.5289 P,.' = 750/570 = 1315
"" + 4>, + R In (p,/p,) = -005[5 + 05289 - 0.0951
= 0.3823 and constant
Tnals
T, T,..2 8 r ,2 0/>, 8T ,2 + q,2
270 1.13 0.0686 X (-1.1) = -00754 0.4349 03595
2;5 1.15 00686 X (-1.0) = -0.686 0.4392 0.3706
280 1.17 00686 X (- 09) = -0.0617 0.4436 0.3819
Accepting 280'R h,., = 0 0686 X 280 X (-1.15) = - 22 1; h', = 66 8, and

h'l = 66.B - 22.1 = 44.7. Thus
(h, - h,)(octual) = 95 5 - 44.7 = 248 Btu/lb
A. Ideal Ga,
At 400 o R, urelauve" pressure (by gas tables) = 0.4858. At 8. ffrelative" pres-
sure of (0.4858/4 =) 0.12145, T (= T,) = 269'U (vs. 280'R). Thu. (h, - h,)
(,deal) = h', - h', = 955 - 642 = 3[ 3 Dtu/lb (v,. 248)
D. Throttling process. As for the (adiabatic) throttlmg process,

h2 = h" h*2 +
h•. 2 = h' l +
h•. I, and the term to the right'" a constant
estabhshed by the InItial temperature and pressure.
Example 11-12. Air at 3000 pSIS and 20°F 18 throttled adJabaucally to 85
psia EstImate the leavmg Illf temperature and the entropy Increase, also com-
pare results With. those With the au rega.rded as an Ideal gas.
Solution. For the specl.fied data,
P,.' =3000/570 =525 h •• , =0.0686X480X (-057) = -18.8
T •• , =480/239 =20 "·1 =114.7
".' = 0.0686 X (-0.46) = -0 033 h,=1l4.7-188 =95.9
., =0.5726 =0.149
-R In (P,/p,) = 0.06861n (3000/85) = 0.2442
TT'/,als
Tz ,Tr ,2 hr ,: h$z h:
410 172 0.0685 X 410 X (-0 02) ~ -06 979 97.3 (v•• 959)
404 169 0.0586 X 404 X (-0 02) = -0.6 96.5 95.9 v'
Accepting 404'R (-56'F):
" - " = [4>, - ¢, - R In (p,/p,)l + (8, .• - .,.,)
= (0.5313 - 0.5726 + 0 2442) + (-0.001 + 0 033) - +0.236.
A8 Ideal G""
T, = T, = 20'F (v•. -56'F) ., - '1 = R In (p,/p,) = +0.2442
255 NON-IDEAL GASES CHAP 11
E Conslanl-volume process. The special consequence of the con-

stancy of the (specIfic) volume IS that "1.2 = RZ,T,!P2 = RZIT'/PI.
As the last term is a deterrmnable constant, the terminal values of the
pressure or temperature may thereby be estImated. As for thIs process
the change of internal energy (e) is the energy magnitude of prImary
concern, note that e = h - P" = h' + h, - ZRT.
Example 11-13. The aIr confined In a tank of 500 ell it capacJty, 1Il1bally
at 1700 pSla and 20°F. J.a warmed to 500°F. Estimate the terrnm.al pressure, the
change in enthalpy and mternal energy, the heat reqUIred per pound and total
(for air alone), Ilnd the mean speCIfic heat Also compare results with those If
the aIr were regarded as nn Ideal gas
Solution. From the speClned data,
p,.,-1700/570 -2 UB h"'l= -1147

T,.,-480/239 -2.0 h,.,-O OG86X480X (-038) - -12.5
Z, -095 ,,-1147-125-31.3 -70.9
Z,RT,-O 95X00686X480 T,.,-980/239 -401
-095X32.9 -31.3 h', -2311
RT, 313 X 778
' " - Z1 - - - 00994 eu ftflbm m - 500/00994 - 5080 Ib
• p, 1700 X 144
A,t Traal Yalues of P'J.

p, pr,2 z, Z,RT,/p,
4000 7.02 113 01004
4050 710 1135 0.009611'
Ac~pting 4050 pSla for P2,

h,.• - 00686 X 9UO X (-009) - -0.9 e, - 241 I - O.U - 747 - 150.5
e, - el - 1505 - 70 9 - 796 IQ, - 5080 X 796 - 404 X 10' Btu
c, - 796/(960 - 480) - 0.166 Btu/(Ib, OF)
As Idea! Gas
" -" - (h', - h',) - R(T, - T,) - (231.1 - 1147) - 00686(960 - 480)
- 116 4 - 32.9 - 83 5 Btu/lb (v, 79 6)
c,' - 83.5/480 - 0.174 Btu/(lb,OF) (v, 0166)
H-ll. Joule-Thomson Data_ The third type of data whereby the

energy properties of non-Ideal gases may be determined, or be verified,
is provided by precise measurements of the upstream and downstream
pressure and temperature of a gas stream when caused to flow steadily
but at neglIgible velocIhes through a porous obstruction (or "plug")
in' a heat-insulated tube The arrangement IS indicated in Fig 11-10.
Such data, whose utilIty was Ii"t recogmzed by Joule and Thomson
(1853), are convention.lly referred to by their names. The process
ART 11-11 JOUL.E-THOlllS0N DATA 267
is simply an adiabatIC but irrev~rsible throttling, for which the energy
equatIOn is h - ho , and m which an Ideal gas would exhlDlt no tem-
perature change.
The chart to poT coordinates in Fig. 11-11, whICh relates to 'aif,
indicates the temperature decrease which III most instances accom-
panies the pressure decrease across the plug." Each Ime of this chart
is the locus of individual points reporting the downstream temperature
when entry of the gas is mamtained at a given p",To , but a series of
downstream pressures arc imposed. The family of hnes represents
Fig. 11-10
lIke findings but for a series of upstream states, perhaps with the same
supply pressure throughout but • series of temperatures. Observe
that, if the lines are extrapolated to zero pressure and speclfic-heat
data at that pressure (e. 0) are available, correspondmg values of the rel-
atn'e enthalpy may be assigned to each line
Figure ll-llb is in effect a replot of the data of a, but now providing
T-contours to p-h eoordmates. Data whereby this chart may also bc
generated directly, and the origmal may thereby be verified, may in
principle be provided by a modification of the Joule-Thomson arrange-
ment and procedure. Except at states at which there is inversion, the
modification may be (0) the imbedding of an electric heatmg coil m
the plug and (b) such control of the associated heat input that the
temperature of the leaving gas shall be the same as that at entry. As
for this process (JIm ~ h - ho, data as so secured determine the
enthalpy increase required for Isothermal expansIOn
For utihzabon of the various data the items of major significance
are the magnitude at any state of (1) the gradient (aTjav)., known
as the Joule-Thomson coefficient and here represented by the symbol
1'0" and (2) the gradient (ahlap)T, known as the lSothermal coefficient
and represented by the symbol I'oT' GraphlcaUy these are the local
slopes of the isenthalpic and isothermal conlour lines of, respectively,
Figs. ll-lla and b.
• At hlgher reduced temperatures and pressure an inv8TS'ion occurs, in the sense
that temperature rise instead of decrease accompames the pressure decrease.
Isenthalplc contours Isothermal contours
II -
0'
H-j-t+-+t--~+-t--i 2000
i \T
1ii
1000
1!~T=f
~ \\
..0-
!>C--
o
v 1\ 1 \
Relative enthalpy. h _
(h,.Jp, r= hp, T-h;' atp~O.h=ht
fa) fb)
T,OR-
(e)
FIg 11-11.
Indicatmg briefly the nature of the utilItIes of the charts and such
parameters:
A. The residual enthalpy (h,. T - hOT) IS procurable quite dIrectly
from chart a by passing at relevant T from p - 0 to p, and noting the
value of h at p. Thc difference between this value and that at p -0
is by definition the residual enthalpy at p,T.
B. As dh - (ah/aT). dT + (ah/ap)T dp, one may wrIte that
(ah/aT). - - (ah/ap)T (ap/aT),. That is, (e.)"T - -I'T/I'" or a
focal specIfic heat (e.) IS thereby determinable from the ratio of the
above coefficients at any state Or, if from Fig. 11-11a a replot were
made providmg contours of constant pressure to h·T coordinates, the
ART. 11-12 PRESSURE INFLUENOE. ON c, 269
local slope of an Isobar would, gIve dIrectly the local specific heat co.
FIgure l1-Ilc Illustrates.
C. As (ah/aT)., = c:, and as the second coefficient in equation 11-8a
is the above coefficient PT, that equatIOn may be written in the form
h p •T = r c.odT +J~o
JTo
T
r (PT)rdp p
(11-16)
where the values of JJ.T are at eonstant T but the relevant values of p
Also, as h* = r
JT,
T
cpo dT,
(h,) •. T = 1:...0 (JJ.T) dp (11-17)
D. As (iJsliJp)r = (oq/Taplr = (ah/Tap)r = (PT/Th, the relatIon

preceding equation 11-13 may be written as
,sp,T - .sPa,To =
(" Cp° T
JTo dT {' (PT) p
+ JP-iO T l'd (Il-IS)
Also, as S' •. T -"*".T, = (" c,o (dT/T)-R (. dp/p,

Jro J1>-O
(11-19)
E By equatmg the above expression for hr to that of equation 11-12,

(iJZ/T-I aT),= - (p/RT)PT, or (Z-Zo),= - (pIR) (" (MIT'), dT.
J1,
That is, having the magnitude of Zo at a given pressure p and tempera-
ture To, and also the required local values of PT at that pressure but the
relevant temperatures, the change in the compressIbility factor Z on
passing at that pressure to temperature 7' is determined by performing
(perhaps graphically) the indicated integration. Data on Zo at To but
on PT for a range of pressures will thus enable generatIOn of the compres-
sibilIty chart through Joule-Thomson data.
11·12. Pressure Influence on c..
The eonsiderable mHuence of
pressure on the specific heats of a gas, at a given temperature but at
p > 0, become evident from the hoT chart of Fig. 11·11e when it is
recalled that the slope (ah/aT)p of an isobar at any.point is also e,.
Or, by paragraph B of Art. 11-11, (C.) •• T - -I'Tlpk' Joule-Thomson
data are thus directly adaptable to determination of the pressure
influence.
n is again advantageous to express this influence ID terms of cor·
rective items, i.e., as the quantity (e, - C,O)T, where the symbol e,
270 NON-IDEAL GASES eHA-p. 11
denotes the value at pressure p [or (C,l"TI. This difference will be
referred to as the re"dua! spee'fie heat (.t p,T) , and the dimension-
less ratio [(e, - e,O)T)/R as the residual-specific-heat JunetlOn.
These correctlve quantlties are perhaps determinable more readily
by utlhzmg p-v-T data. As c, - (oq/aT), - (Tas/aT)" (ae,/ap)T-
[T a(as/aT),/ilp]T and, as the order of dlfferentiation m this second
order denv.bve is lmm.tenal, - [Ta(Bs/Bp)r/aT),. But, by the
Maxwell relation of equation 7-14, this may be written as
(aC,/ap)T - - T(a'v/aT'), (the "Clausius equation")
(1l-20)
and
(1I-2!)
100
1;=105
JJ
12
13
20
50 30
5 10
FIg. 11-12. Residu"! svecific host function.
With an equation of state that is explicit in v the mdicated pro-

cedure 15 quite manageable. To illustrate by performing the mdi-
cated operation on the generahzed Berthelot relatlOn, equatlOn 11-3a,
(e, - e/)/R - 81p,/(T,) '.
By operatlOns resultmg in the followmg relatIOn, equation 11-21
may be so adapted as to enable utihzation of a dJagram of residual-
enthalpy function, if drawn with contours of constant pressure to
a (l~garithmlC) scale of temperature (both elther actual or reduced).
Ce p - c.o)" = (.l!!._) + (P ([a (h,/RT)/a In T]p) dp

/I ' liT" Jp-o p "
ART. 11-13 THERMODYNAMIC DIAGRA1fS 271
A Z-p-T dJagram may also be uS,ed to the same purpose, but m rather
indIrect fashIOn. Due to the inherent indircctness, results! from the
use of either dIagram may well be of doubtful preCISIon.
FIgure 11-12 indIcates the typical manner of vanallon ~of the
residual-speCIfic-heat functIOn, by contours of T, and abscissa of p,.
11-13. Generation of Thermodynamic Diagrams. The faC1hties
provIded above may be utilized in thc preparatIOn of conventIOnal
thermodynamic dIagrams. PrImary data requIred are about as
follows:
(a) Thlt. on speCIfic heat c. o for the gas over a range of tempera-
tures.
(b) Saturation T-p data over a rangc of pressures.
(c) InformalIOn on the residual enthalpy and res1dual entropy, such
as obtained from the p-v-T relahons or from .Joule-Thomson data
(d) Information on the enthalpy of vaponzation ("latent heat")
over a range of temperatures, perhaps as obtained from saturation p-T
data (equation 8-2), or perhaps as found experimentally
(e) Additional data on saturated and compressed llqmd as reqUlred
for a delineahon of thIS regIOn of the' dIagram.
The generation of an h-T d18gram, as in Fig. 11-13, may perhaps
be conSIdered to belter mitial advantage. A first requirement IS the
selection of a reference state to which a relative but definIte (possibly
zero) value of the enthalpy is arbItrarily assIgned This state may
suitably be, for example, the saturated ItqUld state at temperature To
where the saturatIOn pressure IS sufficiently lo~' that the vapor may be
considered an ideal gas. In Fig. 11-13, point a represents such a
state, and IS also a pomt on the saturated-lIquid line.
HOTlzontal line a-b represents the enthalpy of vaporizatIOn at
To ,Po Point b IS jointly one on a saturated-vapor lme and thc initIal
one of the po-isobar through the superheated vapor or gas region
of the d18gram The isobar, Illustrated by lme b-c of the figure, 1S
generated from speCIfic heat data by use of the Ideal-gas relatIon
dh - c. o dT. To h-T coordinates, any departure of the po-isobar
from a straight line reflects the variation of c. o with T Having the
po-isobar, others for higher pressure are SImply ones that at tcmpera-
ture T are offset by the amount of the reSIdual enthalpy h,.
At pressures less than crItIcal, the i~obars in the gas region discon-
tinue at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure, as
at point b' This provides in prinCIple one manner of locating pomts
On the saturated-vapor line. A line extended hOrizontally across
through the saturated-mIxture (two-phase) reglOn, as Illustrated by
Ime b'-a', represents condensation with enthalpy decrease of amount
hI' at the indICated temperature. The amount of such decrease pro-
vides one method of locatlllg the saturated-liquid line. Lines of
constant quality may then be located as mtermediates within the
two-phase region. The isobar contmues from point a' as a compressed·
liquid line, shown as a'd, which is t.o the right of the saturation line
but has no significance of quality. The slope III the compressed-lIqUId
FIg. 11-13.
re~ion is fixed by the specific heat c, at the given pressure. The

point d is at distance from point a in amount r' [v-T(av/aT).l. dp
(by equation 11-9)
J"
and approximately equals pv for the liquid.
At pressures greater than critical, the isobars continue below the
critical temperature, forming compressed-liquid lines that cross the
saturated-liquid line without discontinuity. Their precise location
requires data on the compressed hqUld, but a terminus may be located
approximately as above.
In the absence of direct experimental data, some of the required
items may be approximated. For example, the generalized charts
permit an estimate of residual enthalpy (and also residual entropy)
·that may be acceptable. Other approximatIOn procedures are suitable
for latent heat, saturatIOn Tcp data, and even for values of the critical
constants. ,In the actual construction of a diagram where approxima-
ART. 11-15 GENERAL THERMODYNAMIC RELATIONS 273
tion methods must be used, it is frequently advIsable to compare with
a similar diagram for a matenal for which the thermodynamIc proper-
tIes are adequately known.
Observe that the procedures descnbed above would ser.ve equally
well for generating tho constant-temperature and saturation hnes of
the conventional p-h diagram, such as-,llustrated in Fig. l1-llb. Pro-
cedures for the. evolution of the T-s diagram rather parallel these.
Generation of the h-s diagram may be effected by coordination of the
separately generated hoT and T-s dIagrams.
11-14. The Fugacity and the Activity Coefficient. In the follow-
ing chapter application of the Gibbs "free-energy" function is made
in the study of chemical cquillbrium m combustIOn products, but for
Ideal gases only. For non-ideal gases a correctlve item would be
required. The corrective item conventionally used in such studICs
IS the fugacity. By relatIOn ll-b, Table 11-2, (aO/ap)T - v, whence,
for the ideal gas, dG· - RT d (In p) for isothermal changes The
fugacity I is defined imp!Jcity by the parallel relation dG = RT d(ln f),
with f ..... p as p ..... O. Hence, on mtegrating and su btractmg,
G - G* = RTlnf- RTlnp
and also by definition,
= h - T8 - (h* - Ts*)
For the speCIfied temperature,
h.
InU/p) = ( RT - R
8.) (11-22)
The ratio fugacity/pressure is termed the actIvity coefficIent. For

ideal gases, I/p is umty, values for non-Ideal gases may evidently be
obtaIned from the p-v- T data or throttling data used to provide
h,. or s" or perhaps from data on chemical equilibrium.
11-15. General Thermodynamic Relalions. Throughout the
foregoing it WaS necessary to have available or evolve, and to utIlIze,
several property relations of general nature. These included one of
the Maxwell relations (equation 7-14), the Clausius relatIOn (equa-
tIOn 11-20), and the Clapeyron relation (equatIOn 8-2). Their utihty
lay m the facilitICs provided whereby transformatIOns might be effected
between the more readIly and reliably measurable p, T, and v proper-
ties and the more difficultly determmable energy properties, sucb as
e, h, s, G, or A. The followmg material surveys briefly the prinCIples
and methods whereby these and others of lIke nature may be evolved,
and reports a few of more frequent utility. All are known as general
thermodynamic relattOns.
Both the detecting of such methods and the venfication of their
vahdlty require the utlhzation of mathematIcal technics which involve
the concept of the partial derIvative. In Art 7-14 we endeavored to
make eVIdent the phYSIcal slgmficance and utihties of this concept, it
being essentially the rate of change of one thermodynamIc property
relatIVe to that of a second whIle a selected thIrd IS mamtained con-
stant. It IS capable also of graphIcal mterpretation as the slope of
a contour line descnbmg on a thermodynamlC surface the concur-
rent manner of change of the two propertJes If a thIrd IS maintained
constant
Recall further that, If In any manner a fluid is caused to pass from
one state to a second, possibly wIth accompanymg changes of all ItS
properties but wIthout phase or composition change, as each is a state
function the total change of anyone is mdependent of the intervening
manner of passage between the two statcs. Thus It may legitimately.
and perhaps advantageously be regarded simply as the sum of (1) a
partial change (az), sufficient to have effected the entire change of a
second property (dx) whIle a third (y) is maintained constant, plus
(2) the remaimng change (8z). suffiCIent to effect the entire change of
the thIrd (dy) whIle the ",Bcond is maintained constant. In mathe-
matICa.1 notatIOn,
dz = (azlax), dx + (azI8y). dy or III dx + N dy

where III and N are partial differential coefficients To Illustrate in
terms of, for example, properties h, 8, and p, dh = (ahlas). ds +
(ahlap). dp. Observe that such a relation IS capable of dIrect integra-
tion to the form h - ho =1' So

(ahlas).ds + J('
pc
(ah/ap). dp
Bllt, again with reference to the enthalpy fjlnctlOn, recall that,
wholly through thermodynamIc reasoning which proceeded from the
+
first and second laws, it was developed that dh = T ds v dp (equa-
tion 7-4"). Significant conclusions which are so established are that,
for the requisite satIsfaction of both the mathematical and the phYSIcal
relation, (ahlas). = T and (ahjap). = v. This IS to say, for example,
that at any state (T, v) of a fluid the gradIent of enthalpy with respect
to entropy on an Isobanc state change, at that state, must equal the
absolute temperature of the fluid; parallel conclusions are indicated as
regards the specific volume Further, it thus is emphasIzed that any
partIal differential coeffiCIent is itself a function of state, and so may be
regarded as a derived property
Thus one may legitimately express the partIal derivative of any such
derived property with respect to a suitably selected pnmary one. That
i., to continue ,nth the above illustratIOn, [a(ah/as).18p]. = (aTlap).
ART. 11-16 PROBLEMS> 275
and [a (alt/ap)./asl p = (aV/a8).. But both the bracketed terms are
second derIvatives of the fo;m a'lt/ (as api, for wmch the order of dlf-
ferentiatlOn is immatenal and which are thus identities 'Consequently,
for any gIven fluid at a particular state, (aT/ap). = (aV/a8).
Expressmg such a conclUSIOn III general mathematical form, if
dt = Mdx + N dy, then (aM/By), = (aN/ax),' This IS to say that,
again having a basic thermodynamlC relation such as dh = T ds + v dp,
one may WrIte dIrectly that for a smgle material (aT/ap), = (av/ash.
By operations such as the foregomg on thc relatIOns expressmg the
energy [unctrons e, h, G, and A, as provided in equatIOus 7-4 and 7-5
and by the definrtion of the GIbbs and Helmholtz functions mArt.
7-12, one may write more or less directly a great number of general
thermodynamic relatrons which are mvarrably valid, and some of
whIch find very definite utIlrty. A few are quoted in Table 11-2 Two
of the four appearmg in the column to the rIght WIll be recognized as
the two of the Maxwell relatrons which were developed in more de-
scriptive manner III Art. 7-13 A partIcularly useful feature 18 their
ability to replace coefficients Illvolving energy items by ones involvmg
properties p, T, and v.
Table 11-2
(ah/as), = (ae/as), = T (ll-a) (a'h/aT ap)[ = (aC./ap)TJ

(ah/ap), = (aG/ap)T = , (ll·b) = -T(a'v/aT'). (lH)
(a,jav), = (aAla')T = -p (ll-c) (a'elaT ap)l = (ac,,/ap)T
(aG/aT). = (aAjaT), = - , (ll-d) = T(a'p/aT'), (11-;1)
(as/ap), = v/T (ll·e) (a8/ a, l. = (ap/aT), (ll-k)
(as/av), = piT (ll-f) (a,/avlT = (aplaT), (11-l)
(ah/ap)T = v - T(a,/aT). (ll-g) (a,/ap), = -(av/aT), (ll-m)
(a,/a")T = T(ap/aT), - p (ll·h) (as/ap)T = -(avlaT), (ll-n)
11-16. Problems. 1. (aJ An equatIOn proposed by Callendar as sUItable for

aSSoClatmg p,v-T values for superheated steam IS of the form v = RT /p + b -
c/Tlora. Takmg values from the current steam tables at (1) 50 psm and 300°F,
and (2) 600 psta and 800°F, determme the correspondmg values of coefliClent!3
band c. Also, UStng these, compute v at 300 pSIa and 500°F, and compare the
result with the steam table value. (6) Develop from thIS equatIOn of st~te the
relatIOn expreSSIng the quantIty v - T(fJ1)/aT)p Also, employmg the abovf>
values of the coeffiCIents, evaluate this quantIty at the above two states
Am, (a) b = -00120; c ~ 1.032 X 109 , (b) b - 13c/3Tl.".
2 By scrutmy of the generalIzed compressIbilIty chart esb-mate the maXImum
pressure for which the actual den.sity of air at 20°F might be computed by the
Ideal-gas rela.tIon With an error not exceeding 2%
3. Compare the actual specmc volume of ethane at 100°F and 1000 psia., &9
.. An Initial utIlity of the consideratIOn as so expre~ed hes In Its ablhty to
deterrnllle If eyen the form of a proposed p-I)-T relatIon 18 UltrmSIC.'111y capable
of servmg as an equation of state It IS not so capable Ii the reqUIrement as
expressed In thIS equahty can not be satIsfied.
found by use of Its compresslblhty chart, With (1) that computed on the premISe
iliat It conforms to the Ideal-gas law, and (2) that mdlcated by the generalued
compressibilIty chart. Ans 0052 VB 0200 and 0050.
4. (a) ExtrapolatJ.ng to zero pressure lD. the superheated steam tables at 300°F
and 800°F, to evaluate h" at those temperatures, determme the correspondmg
residual en.thalpy (h.~) when under, respeebvely, 50 pIne. and 600 llsia.. (b)
UtIllzmg the coeffiCIents and other results of problem 11-1, determine the residual
enthalpy at the above states If computed through the Callendar equation of
state. Cc) EstImate the reSIdual enthalpy at the second of the above states by
use of the generalized dIagram If the pseudo-cntIcal data of Table 11-1 are ac-
cepted. A .... (a) -10.5 and -209 BtuJlb; (b) -77 and -251.
5. Determme from the Keenan-Keyes tables values of h .. at 940°F and a
number of pressures from 3000 psis to the upper hImt of the tables Plot WIth
reasonable care to an a.bsCissa of pressure. These experImental values are to be
extrapolated to 7500 psia and to 10,000 pSla. As a gUIde to extrapolatlOD, con-
struct a curve of values of hr for the entire pressure range as gIven by the gen-
eralized chart From the extrapolated value of hr, compute the enthalpy of
steam at 7500 psia and 10,000 psia nnd 940°F. Outlme an analogous procedure
for estImatIOn of specific volume and entropy for steam at these superhigh
pressures.
6. Devise a method of findmg reSidual entropy values from the entropy
quoted In the steam table Determine the resldual entropy of steam at 8QO°F
and 2000 pSIa as given by the tables. Compare With the value obtruned from the
gelleralized cha.rt. Am. -0058 YS. -(1055
7 For steam Inltla.lly at 2400 psis and 940°F estimate for follOWIng processes
the enl.halpy and entropy changes, aDd the accompauywg energy transitIon aB
heat or (IS work Ca) if regarded as an effectlvely ideal gas, using both the speCific
heat diagrams of Figs. 9-3 and 94 and the gas tables; (b) If regarded as a non-
Ideal gas and emplOYing the residual charts of Figs. 11-7 and 11-8, and (c) by
use of the steam tables'
1 On ISothermal expansion to 500 psia..
2 On ISobaric warffimg to 1400°F.
3. On Isentropic expansIOn to 500 psia..
4. On thrQttilDg to 500 pSI'.
8. Compute the theoretIcal (IsentropIC) horsepower reqUired-to compress, In
a smgle stage, 500 1m it/mm of C02 at standard atmosphere pressure and 60°F
to a final pressure of 1200 pSla. How much heat must be removed to cool the
compressed gas to 60°F, at constant pressure of 1200 PSla?
9 Va.lues o{ c,/ {or ethane (C~Ho) are prOVided in :E\g. 9-3 Using the general-
ized charts, compute With reasonable care the following Items permlttmg the
development to h-s ooordmates of several isobars and isotherms [Suggested
scale, I" ~ 50 Btullb and 01 Btul(lb - Om) (a) The isobar lor 10 p'm, by
determmmg k and 8 at 90", 200°, 365°F. (D) The isobars for 100,400, and 1000
PSIR, by determining h and 8 agam at 90°, 200°, and 365°F. (c) The lSothenru
for 90°.200°, and 365°F. The followmg data Will serve to dehneate the saturated-
vapor hne Values of h and 8 quoted are relative to the solId at O°R.
.
T, OF -140 -100 -50 o 50 901(cnt)
p, psia 10 31.3 93.8 219.7 437.5 716
h 3766 3866 397.0 403 9 403.3 3620
• 1.659· 1614 1.576 I.54B 1.518 1.423
12 . THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION
12·1. Foreword. In Art. 4-1 passing reference was made to the

energy supply which nature has provided in the fuels and which man
has learned to release and to convert in part to mechamcal forms
Tbis release is effected by a combustion process which serves to furnish
a flutd medium at an elevated temperature. Intervening material m
thIs work has in tbe main related to essential characteristics of these
and other IIUld media, and to the processes encountered m heat-power
equipment employing them. Although our primary energy resources
appear to have been extended through the more recently developed
facilities for the release and control of nuclear energy, the combustion
of the conventional fuels is at present and will very probably contmue
for many years to be a major energy source.
The process of energy release by the. combustion of the ordinary
fuel has two signIficant practical aspects. One is that the oxygen,
which is essenbal for effecting the combustion process, is so abundantly
and accessibly provIded in our atmosphere. A second is that the
chemical energy initially stored in the fuel and in the oxygen m a
manner associated with the electronic structure of the atoms is trans-
formed in major degree into intense although haphazard molecular
motions. This is to say that the temperature of the products of com-
bustion becomes greater-and it has been indicated repeatedly and
emphatically that such an elevated temperature is the first prerequisite
of all processes which man has so far been able to devise whereby dis-
organized molecular energies may be converted, III part, to organized
mechanical forms"
12·2. General Nature of Fuels and Combustion. The term com-
bustion implies a more or less rapid chemical reaction between a fuel
and oxygen. The kinetics of this reaction are most complex, but It IS
fortunate that for the SImpler purposes of energy accountmg a com-
plete picture of the molecular mechanism is not required. It is essen-
tial, however, that there be available a method of evaluating or
• In some situatlOw such as those with rocket motor fuels the combustion does
not necessarily utilize oxygen from air, but the same thermodyn.am.Ic prInciples
.st..ill apply. It lS not inconceJVabJe, however, that means might elrentuBlly be
devised whereby the energy of some pnmary Source m nature may be transformed
by a "fuel cell" rather directly to electric energy, WIthout introducmg an Inter-
vening and chsadvantageolls temperature phn.se.
277
278 THERMODYNAMICS OF COi\lBUSTION CHAP. 12
predICtmg quantItatively the. amount of energy transformed as the
result of a gIven reactIOn, and for determmmg the relative masses of
fuel, aIr, and combustIOn products involved.
A charactetls(Jc qUIte common among industrial fuels is. that they
contam but two combustible elements m slgmficant quantities, carbon
and hydrogen, although m some fuels there IS a small proportion of
the additional combustible element sulfur. Many fuels contain also
certam non-combustIble matenals such as oxygen, which may per-
haps appear in moisture, and the compound~ of sIlicon, aluminum, iron,
and calcium which form the ash of the fueL Nitrogen may also appear
III relatIvely large quantIty III artificially prepared gaseous fuels All
of the non-combustIble material of a fuel may be considered as passmg
through the combustIOn chamber unchanged The ash, being non-
combusllble mmeral material, fonns the major portion of the refuse,
while the non-combusllble oxygen and mtrogen depart in mIXture WIth
and as a part of the combustIOn products A chemical analysis of the
sohd refuse and of the combustIOn products as well as of the fuel is
required for full energy accounting
The products formed by the combustion of the carbon in a fuel
depend on the condItions under which the combustIOn occurs. The
carbon may imtially burn completely to carbon dIOxide, then perhaps
a portion of the carbon dIOxide may promptly react with hot carbon
in the vicinity to form carbon monoxIde, and later a portIOn of this
carbon monoxIde may combine with addItional oxygen to reform carbon
dioxide. An mdetermmate portion of the carbon IS thus transformed
to carbon, dioxide with complete conversion of the chemical energy
into molecular energy, a smaller but uncertain portion of the carbon
being possIbly transformed into carbon monoxide WIth incomplete
release of its energy. At very high temperatures the reqUIrements of
che~lCal equilibrium in fact necessitates that a certain 'amount of
carbon monoxIde shall remain in the combustion products There is
also the possibility that a portion of the carbon may pass through the
process unchanged and depart as soot or smoke or as unburned carbon
mixed with the ash.
The second combustible element of most fuels, hydrogen, is almost
invariably converted completely to water in ordinary furnace opera-
tion. Under the high-temperature conditIOns met III the internal-
combustIOn engme appreciable amounts of hydrogen may, however,
exist in chemical eqUlhbrium in the combustion products.'
• The exhaust from an internal~combustion engme operating under rich-mlXture
condItions (see Art. 12-8) may m fact contain hydrogen to the extent of ~ to t
that of carbon mono::ude, by moles.
ART. 12-3 MATERIAL BALANCE 279
The losses assoCIated wIth lllcomplete combustIon may be mmlmized
by lllsurmg the presence of an adequate supply of aH and thus of
oxygen m the .combustion zone, and Its mtlmate mlXlng wIth the fuel.
An excess of aIr acts, however 1 as a dIluent which operates to lower
the temperature of the combustlOn products, whlCh sltuatlOn tends
to be thermodynamically dlsadvantageous but may well be metallur-
glCally necessary. It may be seen that these twa appasmg conditions,
lof (a) sufficient aIr to insure complete combushon and of (b) a mllll-
mum excess of air for obtammg the maxImum temperature of the
combustlOn products wlll give nse to an optlmum set of operating
condItions for a partlCular fuel m a parneular combustlOn chamber
A concern of the engmeer IS to ascertain and mnllltam that optImum
condltlOn, for the determinatlOn of whlCh a knowledge of the chemIstry
of combustIOn is essential.
12-3. Material Balance, Ideal Combustion. A techmcal study of
the combustlOn occurrmg III a particular furnace or engme, and wrth
a partlCular fuel, requires a knowledge of the relabve amounts of the
materials mvolved For such materIals accountmg, which 18 more a
chemIcal than a thermodynamIC consIderatIOn, recourse IS sUltably
had to the conventJOnal methods used by the chemIst These mvo)ve
the law of the conservation of mass in that the masses of carbon and
hydrogen eXIsting in v~nous of the combustIOn products must equal
those originally eXlstmg m the fuel, except as free carbon may depart
WIth the ash or m soot or smoke LIkeWIse, the masses of oxygen
and mtrogen existing in vanous of the components of the combustlOll
products must equal the masses suppbed by the alr supportmg the
combustIOn, except as mmor amounts of these may ongmally have
been in combmatlOn in the fuel.
In conformIty WIth canvenhanal chemlCal technIC It IS advantageous
m expressing and accounting the quantItIes mvolved m the combustIon
reactlOn to do so lD terms of the number and formula mass of the
molecules of the vanous matenals, employing also the concept of the
pound mole This IS recalled to be that quantIty whose mass in
pounds equals the formula mass of a molecule of a substance (i e, ItS
"molecular weIght") For example, the pound mole of carbon dioxide,
CO 2 , IS (1201 + 2 X 16 00 ~) 4401 lb A pound atom is Slmilarly
a mass III pounds equal to the "atomIC welghV' of an element Also
recall (Arts. 9-2 and 10-3) that dry atmospheric all may be regarded
as havmg an equivalent formula mass of 2897 lh/mole, and molar or
volumetric proportlOns uf 02099 moles of oxygen and a 7901 moles of
"atmospheric" mtrogen per mole or aIr (also 23.2 and 768 mass per~
centages). For convemence the formula mass of several relevant
280 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION CHAP. 12
materials is provided III Table 12-1. Items that regularly become of
concern in combustion analyses are Illustrated In the followmg
examples.
Table 12-1
Formula Mass Formula

MaterIal !\Iaterial l\!ass
Atomic Molar Molar
Carbon (C) 12.01 Au, dry 28.97
Hydrogen (H;) 1.008 2.016 Methane (CR.) 16.Q4
NItrogen (N,) 14.01 2802 Carbon dioxide (CO,) 44.01
Nitrogen (atmospheric) 28.16 Carbon monoxide (CO) 2801
Oxygen (0,) 16.000 32.00 Water vapor (H,O) 1802
Sulfur (8) 32.06 Sulfur dIOxIde (SO,) 64 06
Example 12-1. A furnace IS :fired WIth a coke the composrtlOn of wIlleh IS

90% carbon and 10% ash (mass proportloru). However, the refuse from the
furnace con tams 30% carbon. What percentage of combustible material 18 lost
in the refuse?
Solulum.
Mass of ash, per pound of fuel, by fuel analysis = 0.100
MB.B8 of refuse, per pound of fuel, by refuse analysis 0.1/(1 - 0.3) = 0.1428
Ma.ss of cnrbon in refuse, per pound fuel = 0.30 X 0.1428 = 00429
1.Jass of carbon In refuse, per pound of calhon in fuel 0.0429/0 9 = 00476
or 4.76%
Example 12-2. (a) Determine the mlDlmum mass of air reqrnred for com-
plete combustion per pound of 8 bqUJd fuel the compoSItion of which is 87.0%
carbon and 1300/0 hydrogen (mass percentages). What IS the volume of th18
air If dry and at 117 pSI!!. and 7S F? (b) Determine also the volumetrIc analysIS
G
of the Ideal combustion products and their volume per pound of fuel If at 147
PSl8 and' l(x)O°F, their dew-pOInt temperature, thelt volume at that pressure
on recoolmg to 75°F, and the mass of water vapor condense(! per pound of fuel
burned on such recoolmg of the combustion producUl.
Solution
Pound-atoms carbon per pound fuel = 0.870/1201 = 00724
Pound-atoms hydrogen per pound fuel - 0.130/1.008 - 0.1290
(a) Oxygen reqwrement, carbon to C02, 0 0724 X 2 = O.14491b-atoms
Oxygen requirement, hydrogen to H,O, 0 1290/2 = 00645 Ib-atoms
Total oxygen requirement (per pound fuel) = 0.20[14 lb-atoms
or (0 2094/2 =) 0.1047Ib-rnoles oxygen
Air requirement = 0.1047/0.2099 = 04990 Ib-moles, or 28 97 X 0.4990
= 14.45 Ib/lb of fuel
. 1545 X (460 + 75)
Air volume = 0.4900 X 147 X 144 = 195.8 eu ft/lb of fuel
(0) Mass of combustIOn products, 1 + 1445 = I5.45Ib/lb of fuel
ART. 12-,3 MATERIAL BALANCE. 281
CoropoSltion of 9ombustion Products
Material per pound of fuel Molar (or Volumetric) Proportions

moles pounds Indudmg H 20 Excludmg H 20
C02 0.0724 3.19 0.0724/0.5312 = 0.1363 0155
H 20 (0.1290/2 -) 00645 116 00645/0.5312 = 0.1215
N2 (04990 X 0 700 =) o3943 11.10 0.3943/05312 = 07422 0.845
Totals 0.5312 1545 10000 1 000
1545 X (460 + !OOO)

Volume of product. at 14.7 psia and 1000°F = 05312 X 147 X 144
= 05312 X 106S - 564 eu ft/lb fuel

Dew-pomt temperature Saturation temperature of water vapor at its partial
of products pressure of (0.1215 X 147 =) 1 785 psia, or 122°F
Volume of products at 147 psis. and 75°F IS also the volume of the (00724 +
03913 =) 04667 mole of C02 and N: (or the "dry" products) at thejr own partIal
pressure of (147 - 043 =) 14.27 PSl8., where 043 is the satura.tion vapor pressure
of water vapor at 7S F. Thw.
G
1545 X (460 + 75)

Volume = 0.4667 X 7
14.2 X 144
= 1875 cu {t/lb fuel
SpecIfic volume of remainIng saturated vapor at 75°F (by steam table), 74.0
cu-ftllbm [or (1545/1802) x 535/(0.43 x 144)] Remammg m8.5S of vapor -
IB7 .61740 ~ 0.253 lb/lb fuel.
Vapor condensed""" 1.16 - 0.253 """ 091 Ibllb fuel, or 78% of amount formed.
The air ideally (i e , stoichiometrIcally) required, as evolved III part

(a) of Example 12-2, may evidently be fonnulated for a hydrocarbon
fuel of gIven analYSIS by the relation
Air requirement, _
ideal, Ib(lb fuel -
(c X 12.01
_2_ H~)
+ X 1.008 X 2 X 0.2099
28.97
= (C + 2.98H) X 11.5 (12-1)

where the symbols C and H represent the mass proportions of, respec-
tIvely, the carbon and the hydrogen in the fuel as determIned by
chemICal analysis. If the fuel can tams oxygen, and symbol 0 repre-
sents the mass proportion of oxygen in the fuel, equation 12-1 ;,
modified to the form
Air requirement, =
ideal, Ib(lb fuel
(C _2_
>< 12.01 +
H 0.5 _
X 1.008
_2_)
28.97
16.00 X 2 X 0.2099
= (C + 298H - 0.3750) X 11.5 (12-la)
If the fuel contains sulfur which IS converted to sulfur dioxide during
ItS combustlOD, the above equations must be modified to allow for a
term (8 X 2/32 06), where the symbol 8 represents the mass propor-
tions of sulfur in the fuel The air requirement so becomes
Air requirement,
ideal, Ib/lb fuel =
(C + 2.9SH + 0 3758 - 03750) X 11.5
(l2-lb)
It should be noted that the presence of mtrogen or any other mert
material does not modIfy any of the relatIons 12-1, la, or lb.
For subsequent reference note that, III part b of Example 11-2: (1)
the volume of the recooled combustion products is slightly less than
that of the air supply, which is charactenstic of hydrogenous fuels; and
(2) per pound of fuel burned a relatIvely considerable quantity of
water vapor is condensed on recooling of the combustion products.
The foregomg examples and formulations have related to the usual
situatIOn where the compositIOn of a fuel is given as 3 chemical analy-
sis lind in terms of mass proportIOns But for 3 simple chemical sub-
stance which IS also a fuel, composition may well be expressed in terms
of II chemical formula. An example is octane, C8 H lB , the formula for
whICh indIcates that SIb-atoms (95 08lb) of carbon arc combined with
IS Ib-atoms (1814 Ib) of hydrogen The technic 01 computatIOn of
the air Ideally reqUIred for combustion of such a fuel is illustrated in
Example 12-3.
Example 12-3. Determine the minimum quantIty of air required for com-
plete combustion, pounds per pound, of a hqUid fuel the chemIcal formula for
which is CrH1 6.
Solutwn.
Formula mass of fuel 7 X 12 01 + IO X 1.008
=
~
100 lIb/mole
Oxygen required, C to CO 2 , 141b-atoms. per Ib-mqle fuel
Oxygen reqUlred t H to H 20, ~ lb.-atoms per Ib-mole fuel
Total oxygen required 22 lb-atoms, or 11.0 lb-molea
Air reqUlrement = 11 % 2099 = 5241 moles/mole fuel
Air requirement, Ib/lb fuel _ 5241 X 2897 _ 152 lb/lb fuel
1.0 X 100.1
The ideal, or stoichIometric, air reqUIrement as so evolved in Example
12-2 may evidently be formulated by the relation
Air requirement, 2 + 05 28 97
ideal, lb/lh fuel = 120:' + ;.;08n X 2 X 0.2099
= m + 0.25n X 11 5 (12-2)
m + 0084n
ART. 12-4 PRODUCTS ANALYSIS 283
where m and n represent the numbers of atoms of, respectIvely, the
carbon and the hydrogen in the 'formula aSSIgned to the fuel.
For a fuel containing oxygen, with a (perhaps hypothetJcalj formula
CmH.O" there is a decrease III the atmosphenc oxygen requirement in
the amount of 1 atom/atom of oxygen in the fuel. The above relation
is therefore modified to the form
Ai: requirement, m + 0.25n - 0 50

Ideal, lb/lb fuel = 08 + 33 X 11.5 (12-2a)
m + O. 4n l. 0
Table 12-2. Ratio of CombustIble Hydrogen to Carbon, by Atoms

Pure Compounds Typical Fuels (Appro •. )
Methane CHi 4.00 Natural gas 3.5
Propane C,Hs 267 CIty gas 2.3
Heptane G,H" 2 28 Gasolme 2.1
Octane CSH1S 2.25 Kerosene 21
Cetane C1s H34 212 DIesel fuel 1.8
Methyl naphthylene CllH 10 091 Heavy fuel oil 1.5
Alcohol (ethyl) C,H,O 3.0 Bltummous coal 06
Carbon C 00 AnthracIte coal 0.05
Coke 00
Crude oils I 6-1.9
Complex fuel mixtures have also on occasion been ascnbed hypo-

thellcal chemical formulas, pnmarily for the purpose of making com-
paratIve combustion computahons Thus certain fuel oils have been
said to be representable by chemical formulas of the general type
CmHn (m and n not necessarily mtegers). The fuel oil of Example
12-2 contained, per pound of fuel, 0.1290 lb-atoms of hydrogcn and
00724 Ib-atoms of carbon; whence nand m must be in the ratio of
(0.1290/00724 -) 1.78/1.0. Companson with the hydrogen/carbon
ratios of Table 12-2 mdicates that this value IS typical of the lighter
fuel oils.
12-4. Interpretation of the Analysis of Combustion Products.
In addItion to determmations such as the above, relating to the mate-
rials balance corresponding to ideal combustion condItions with a
given fuel, it IS essential that means also be avaIlable for determining
the balance existmg under actual conditions, particularly WIth respect
to the completeness of the combustion and to the suJliclCncy or the
excess of the air supply. The last informabon might conceivably be
secured by metering the fuel and the air. However, air metermg is
284 THERMODYNAlIHCS OF COMBUSTION CIIAP. 12
seldom feaslble in practlce, and ordinarily dependence is instead placed
on evidence secured indirectly by a volumetnc chemical analysis of
the "dry" products of combustion (i.e., excluslve of the water vapor)
departing from the furnace or the engine cylinder
For the purpose of air control in routine operatlOn it may even be
sufficJent to determine by such analys1s only the percentage of CO2
in a representative sample of the products, perhaps automatically by
indicatmg or recordmg equipment. For test purposes a more complete
analysis of the sample'!or CO 2 , O2 , and CO 18 made, by the Orsat type
of apparatus, or also for H2 and various simpler hydrocarbons (such
as methane, CH,) by more complex equipment. The residue remain-
ing from such analysis is taken to be atmosphenc nitrogen. Indlrect
evidence of the amount of water vapor existing in the products may be
secured from the analysis by methods mdicated below, and also
essential eV1dcnce enabling a check of the propnety of the sample or
of the analysis. These and other considerations arc indicated in
Example 12-4.
Example 12-4. Volumetric proportIOns of the (dry) combustion products

leaving a furnace were found by analYSIS to be ns follows
co, 0.3%; No, 83 6%

The fuel bad a mas:! composition of about 87% carbon and 13% hydrogen (as In
Example 12-2); the air supply WR!3 at 147 PSlB, &5 e F, and 50% R H. (a) From
these data determme the correspondmgly mdlcated compositlOD of the fuel bemg
burned, the percentage of stOichiometriC fuel used, the m8.SS of air actually sup-
plied per pound of fuel, and its volume at the above supply conditIOns. Cb) Also
determine the volume. of the combustlon \Iroduc:ts. a.t 14.,( ~s.tB. Il.D..d 601)DF, th._~1..l'
dew-pomt temperature, and the mass of water vapor condensed on recoohng the
products to 85 e F at 14.7 psia
, Solution. (a) Supplementary items provided by the above volumetrIC (or
molar) ,a.nalysI.!~ of the combustIOn products are as follows.
Gas Moles/Mole of AtoIllB per Mole of (Dry) ProductB

(Dry) Products
Cllrbon Oxygen Nitrogen
CO, 0.130 0.130 0.260
0, 0031 0.062
CO 0003 0.003 0.003
N, 0.836 1672
Totals 1.000 0133 0325 1.672
Atmospheric oxygen correspondIng to and furnished with the above nitrogen _
(0836/07901) X 0.2099 - 0222 moles or 0444 atoms/mole of (dry) producl8.
Exces:I of this oxygen supply over that appeanng in products = 0444 - 0.325 """
0119 atoms/mole of dry products, and IS to be regarded as that used for com-
ART. 12-4 PRODUCTS ANALYSIS 285
bustion of hydrogen of the fuel to water vapor, and,in the proportIOns of 2 atoms
of hydrogen per atom of oxygen or per mole of vapor produCed
Inrucated hydrogen m fuel - 0.119 x 2 = 0238 atoms, or (0.238 x 1 DOS ~)
0.240 Ib of hydrogen pel' mole' of dry products.
Indwated carbon lD g38e3 (from fueD = 0133 atoms, or (0133 X 12.01 =)
1.597 Ib of carbon/mole of dry products.,
Indicated H/C ratIO (by atoms) ~ 0.238/0.133 ~ 1.79, and is consistent WIth
vaiues of Table 12-2.
IndIcated hydrogen/carbon ratio (by mass) = 0.240/1597 = 01502, which
agrees qUIte rea.sonably wlth the presumed proportIons of 0.13/0.87 ()f 0.1495.
Oxygen required for combustlOn of hydrogen and carbon of fuel""", 0238/2 +
0.133 X 2 """ 0.385 atoms/mole of dry producbl.
Ratio of oxygen supplIed to that reqUlred (or also the air ratto) = 0.444/0.385 =
115; frachon of stoicruometric fuel = 1/1.15 - 0867
AIr supply correspondIDg to the N 2 appearmg in combustIon producLs =
0.836/07901 = 1.058 moleslmole of dry products, or 8 lllIlSO of 1.058 X 2897-
3064 Iblmole of dry products.
IndICated mass of fuel (hydrogen plus carbon), from above = 0.240 + 1.597 =
1.837 Iblmole of dry products.
IndIcated air/fuel ratIO .... 3064/1837 """ 1668 lb Rir/lb fuel.
Volume of rur supply, at 85°F and a (partIal) pressure of (14.7 - 05 X 0596 =
147- 0.298 =) 1440 psi., is
1545 X (460 + 8.5)
16.68 X 2897 X 14.4 X 144 = 234 eu fl/lb fuel
(b) Vapor lD. entering air, nt molar and partial pressure ratio of (0298/14.4-)
0021 mole/mole of air, and equals (from above) 0021 X 1058""" 0_022 mole/mole
of dry products.
Vapor from combustion of hydrogen of fuel equals. from above, 0.119
mole/mole of dry products.
Total vapor in products = 0022 + 0119 - 0141 mole/mole of dry products,
and (0141 X 1802)/1.837 = 1.383 Ib/lb of fuel.
Total products - 0022 + 0.119 + 100- 1141 mole/mole of dry produc", and
1141/1.837 - 0621 mole/lb of {uel.
Volume of total products, at 147 psia and 600°F, = 0621 X [1545 x (460 +
600)11(147 X 144) = 483 ell ltllb of fuel.
Dew pomt of products. at partial va.por pressure of (0141/1.141) X 14 7 or
1.82 paia, is 1226°r_ '
Specific volume of remaimng saturated vapor (at SSOF) =0 (from steam table)
643 eu ft/lb.
Volume of total products at 147 psis and 85°F ]s also the volume of the dry
products at the same temperature but theIr partial pressure of (147 - 0.596 =)
1410 psi" .nd so equals (1.00/1.837 =) 0544 mole/lb offuel, or 0..544 X 11545 X
(460 + 85)]/(1410 X 144) ~ 2255 cu It/lb of fuel.
Remairung vapor _ 2255/643 = 0415 Ib/lb of fuel.
Vapor condensed - 1.383 - 0415 - 0968 lbllb of fuel.
The hydrogen/carbon ratio by mass in a hydrocarbon fuel, as indi-
cated by a given products analysis and as evolved in part (a) of the
286 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION CllAP. 12
above example, may be formulated by the relation
0.2099 ]
Hydrogen,lb [ N2 Xo:7W1X2- (C0 2 X2+02X2+CO) X2XI008
Carbon,lb (C02+CO) X12 Ol
N 2-3.77(C02 +02+O 5CO) 0089 (12-3)
= CO,+CO X .
where symbols CO 2 , O2 , CO, and No represent the volumetric or molar

proportIons of the indICated gaseous constItuents of the dry combus-
tIon products.
The ratio of the actual 3lr supply to the Ideal requirement, the
fractIOn of stoichiometric fuel, and the air supply per pound of fuel,
may also be formulated for hydrocarbon fuels by the relations
Air suppliedjAir required
0.2099N
2XO 7901 X2
=----------~[--~O~.2~0~99~~-------------=J
(C02+CO) X2+ N2Xa.7901 X2- (C0 2 X2+02X2+CO)
(12-4)
-,N, - 3.770, + l.88CO
F raction of stOlC . f ueI
. h'IOmetnc = 1 - 377 O - NCOj2
2
2 (I2-4a)
Air supplied, Ibflb of fuel
2897 N
'XO 7901
=----------=-~~~~----------=--
(CO,+CO) X12.01+[N2X~:~~~~ )(2- (CO,X2+02X2+CO)]
X2Xl.008
N2
=----------~~--------~- (12-5)
O.0292N2+0 2175C02-0 lI002+0.2725CO
If analysis of the dry products extends to determmation of the vol-
umetTlC proportions of any hydrogen (H 2) and methane (ClI.), the
last relation is modified by add,tIOn of the term (0055H, + 044CH.,
in the denominator.
When burning a fuel for which the mass proportion of carbon (C)
is known from chemical analysis of the fuel, the aIr supply indIcated
by the analysis of the combustIOn products may be expressed by the
AltT. 12-4 PRODUCTS ANALYSIS 287
sImpler relation
. N2 X (28.97/0.7901) .
AIr supplIed, lb/lb of fuel = (C
12.0l 02 +
CO) X (J
_ 3.05N2 C
(12-6)
- C02 + CO X
except as the carbon proportIOn (C) may reqUIre correction for such
carbon as departs unburned m the refuse (as in Example 12-0.
The total mass of products per pound of fuel burned (excepting the
water vapor whICh enters with the air supply) eVIdently equals the
air supply, as determmed in any of the above manners, plus 1.00.
An adequately exact formulation expressing the mass of dry products
per pound of fuel is
7.04 + {C0 2 + 02
Dry products, lb/lb of fuel = 3 (CO. + CO) X c (12-7)
If the mass proportIOn (C) of the carbon in the fuel, and burned, is
known; or
= ,..--.,..:..7.::.0.:..4..c.+-:::-4::C:.::O~,-c+c_.·.,:0::.,-:-= (12-8)
0.268No + 2C02 - 00 + 25CO
if the fuel analYSIS IS unknown and computations are based wholly on
data provIded by the products analysis.
It should be noted m present connectIOns that the precisIOn implied
by the number of significant figures employed in the above computa-
tions and formulatIOns is In fact mlsleadmg Reasons are the con-
siderable dIfficulty in securing a properly representatIve gas sample
for analYSIS, and the frequent unrelIabIlity of the analysis of the
sample, except as the equipment is carefully mamtamed and the
operator IS exceptIonally skillful.
Combustion-products computatIOns for fuels that contain other than
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen must proceed with due allowance for
such materials. Sulfur offers something of a complicatIOn, but is
rarely present in common fuels In significant amount. When it is
present it usually burns to give the dIOXIde, S02' However, this may
<not appear in the Orsat analYSIS If the gas sample lS collected
over water as the S02 will be largely dissolved, and the gas actually
analyzed will thus be effectively SO,-free. OccaSIOnally the Orsat
analysis of combustIOn products from hIgh-sulfur fuels IS made on a
sample collected over mercury, so that the S02 IS retamed. However,
It will also be absorbed by the caustic which absorbs the CO 2 , and a
reported CO 2 content in the gases represents actually a sum of CO 2
and S02' Or perhaps the sample may ·be taken through a tube of
material which absorbs S02, such as certain compounds of lead. The
modification necessary in the accounting procedure for high-sulfur
fuels thus depends on the method In whICh the primary data are
secured.
12-5. Heating Values of Fuels. The energy relation of equation
3-14 provides a general facility for energy accountIng in steady-flow
sltuatlOns where chemical reactlOn accompanies a process and (a) the
products of the reactlOn therefore differ from the original reactants,
and (b) energy stored at submolccular levels is concurrently released.
Adapting the relatlOn to the combustlOn of a mass (m,) of fuel wlth
mass (m,) of aH, furnishIng the oxygen, and with condensIble products
(that is, H,O) of mass m" and uncondensed (or "dry") products
of mass md,
m/(h, - hO)/ + m,(h l - hal. + m/(-MO) + IQ2 + lTV, =

m.(h, - hal, + md(h, - hOld (12-9)
Here the items of the form (h - hO) are recalled to bc correctlve
ones accounting for an actual entry or departure of the matenals in
phases or at temperatures, and corresponding enthalpy, which differ
from that (hO) at those reference states used when determining the
"heating value" (-ahO) by fuel calorimeter. It will also be recalled
that tlie quantity -ah ° originates In the energy equation for the
process occurrIng at the calorimeter, or
m.h: + m,h/ - m/(q"" or AhO) = m.h: + m.h:
in which device qou' is carefully measured.
For the ..ir, and for products mi,tures when the vapor rernams in the
gas phase on departure, at moderate pressure the items (h - hOl may
conveniently be 'expressed as cp(T - TO). The curves of Fig. 9-3
permIt ready selectlOn of the suitable cp for air, and also for the com-
bustion products of representative hydrocarbon fuels on effectively
complete combustion at vanous percentages of the stoichiometric fuel.
Facilities which are in part equivalent are provided in the gas tables.
Recall also that for a non-flow combustion process a parallel relation
would suitably associate the relevant eaei'gles, but now written m
terms of internal energies (e) and a heating value identified as (-aeO).
ThIS last consideration suggests that two "heating values," -aha and
- aeo, IDlght with propriety be ascribed to a glven fuel. One or the
other would m principle be determined by a calorimeter through which
there lS steady fiow, or by one ill which there is no flow; one or the other
would suitably be employed in connection with the energy accounting
ART. 12-5 HEATING VALUES OF FUELS 289
of combustion processes occurring, under like circumstances. Both
types of calomneters are in fact used, being distinguished as constant-
pressure types and as constant-volume or "bomb" types. But It will
be indicated in the following that under nonnal combustlOn condltions
these two heating values differ relatively negligibly,
In addition to these mhercntly but rather neglIgibly differing heat-
ing values, quite practical reasons have caused a dlstinguishing between
and employment of two further heatmg values for hydrogenous fuels.
Reasons are that m the calorimeter the water vapor in their combus-
tion products mayor may not have departed at a temperature below
the dew point of the products mixture, Or perhaps the temperature
may have been sufficiently low that, by its condensation, thlS vapor
will have released the majonty of its enthalpy of vapoflZation (h", or
its internal energy e,v)' The twa further values correspandmgly
ascribed to a gIVen hydrogenous fuel are known as the (a) lower
heatmg value (LHV) , in the detenninatlOn of WhICh no vapor con-
densatlOn and assocIated energy release is presumed to have occurred,
and (b) higher heatmg value (HHV), ill which there is presumed to
have been virtually complete condensation.
Although a steady-flow and constant-pressure type of calorimeter is
used in the gas industry, and although further many combustion proc-
esses encountered m engineering practice are of the Bame character, the
constant-volume or bomb type of calorimeter IS more generally used
because it is capable of greater preCIsion and is in fact necessary in the
case of solId fuels and most liquid fuels. The value of -Ae', which
is determined by tIns type of calorimeter, differs from the correspond-
ing value of - Aha by the amount p(V""tan'" - VP''''''''t.)/J.* This
differenc~ is rarely greater than 35-40 Btu/lb of fuel, and is rather
mmor relative to the heating values of 10,000 to 18,000/lb character-
izing hydrogenous sohd and liquid fuels. It is quite commonly
ignored, as the precision 01 the calorimetric measurement can scarcely
be guaranteed to this order of exactneSll.
The combustion condltions existing in the bomb calorimeter are
• If expressed in terms of the number (If moles, N, of reactants and of gaseow

products, p(Y,. - Vp) = RoT(N,. - N p ). For a fuel represented by the iOlmUJ8
C,Jl. snd of formula mas. (12m + n), N, - N. - (m + n/4) - (m + n/2) =
-11./4 If the water rem810B In the gas pha.$e, or is (m + 11./4) - m = +11./4 U i~is
wholly condensed. Thus (-MO) - (-A'O) = 'F(RoT/J)[(n/4)/(12m +n)l, or
'FRoTJ/4J if f - the IIll1B' proportiOn of hydrogen in the fuel. At Ro/J = 1.986
and for 8. representative liqUId Cuel for wluch n/m is about 2, the dtfl'erence equal
=FO.071 T and becomes ::P3S Btu/lb of fuel at T = 537~n (1 e., 25°C). It is pOSitive
or negative as the water vapor does or does not condense in the calonmetei"r but
relatIvely tnvialm either IIlstlUlce
290 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION CHAp. 12
such that there IS effectively complete condensation of any vapor
produced by the combustion, and the mdicated heating value is thus
the "higher" value (H HV). ThIs is msured by the introductlOn
before combustlOn of water droplets sufficient that the space within
the bomb is saturated both then and after the combustion.
In the rnalonty of combustlon proce~;:,es encountered in engineenng
practice the combustIon products depart, however, at a temperature
well exceeding theIr dew-point temperature This may in fact be
essentIal, in order that rusting of metal surfaces may be mimmized,
or to aVOld attack by the aCIds WhICh WIll occur if S02 or SO, in the
products has the opportumty to combine WIth hquid water. Conse-
quently it is normally rea~onable, and frequently more convenient,
to analyze combustion processe; III terms of the lower rather than the
hIgher heatlllg value. The amount by whIch the lower is less than
the hIgher, the latter as determined by the bomb calorimeter, is con-
ventionally taken to be the excess of the enthalpy of supersaturated
vapor over that of water, at the calOrImeter temperature. This dif-
ference vanes quite moderately from about 1050 Btu/lb of vapor.
Consequently it is conventIOnally taken that (after mmor adjustments)
LHV = [{HV - 1050 X 1I1aoo of vapor per Ib of fuel
= [{HV - 1050 X (18.02/2.02)[
or = 1I1IV - 9450[ (12-10)
where f = mass proportion of hydrogen in the fuel, lb/lb.
The constant pressure calOrImeter operates at atmosphenc pressure
and, as at thIs pressure the dew-point temperature of the combustion
products of hydrocarbon fuels does not usually exceed about 120'F
(see Example 12-2), only partial condensatlOn of the water vapor In
the products leavmg the calOrImeter may be antICipated A common
practice IS to collect such proportion as may be conden'sed and eslImate
a lower heatmg value by the relatlOD
LHV = Indicated heating value - 1050m.
where mw - mass of condensate per pound of fuel burned.
The lower value is used exclusively by European engineers in
efficiency computations, and by United States engineers in such com-
putatlOns for internal combushon engmcs: As the vapor m combustlOn
products might conceIvably be condensed in passage through the steam
bOller and Its accessones, a current practice in the Umted States is to
charge boIler and steam-power-plant installations WIth the higher
value.
Table 12-3 reports representative heating values for several mate-
nals, . and also corresponding magnitudes of the heating value per
AnT. 12-6 ENERGY BALANCE, LOSS DISTRIBUTION 291
pound and per cubIC foot (at 60~F and 14.7 psia) of their mixture with
the ideally required quantity of air. Those per unit volume of mix-
ture are seen to exhibit an interesting degree of umformlty.
Table 12-3
Lower Heating
Value, Btu, for
Higher Lower StOichlO- Stoichiometnc
Heating Heating metric Air-Fuel Mixture
Material Value, Air/Fuel
Value,
Dtu/lb Dtu/lb Ratio, Ib/lb rer Cubic
Per Foot at 60"F
Poun(l and 14.7 pSla
Hydrogen 60,960 51,5;0 343 1,460 81
Carbon H,450 14,450 115 1,160 87
Carbon monoxide 4,340 4,340 2.46 1,250 94
Ethyl alcohol,
C,H,O 13,170 11,930 6.9 1,510 120
Methane, CH4 23,860 21,500 173 1,170 85
Representative but ApproXImate Values
Gasolmes 21,000 19,500 15.3 1,190 96
Fuel OIls 19,100 18,000 140 1,200 96
Excludmg ash and
mOIsture
Llgrutes 12,000 11,500 9.2 1,130 93
Bituminous coals 14,500 14,050 11.2 1,150 94
Antbracltes 15,200 14,940 11.8 1,170 95
Formulas expressing fairly reliably the hIgher henting value of the liquid
and solid fuels are:
(a) For oils, 17,800 +
55 X densIty, "API at 60"F.
(b) For o~s and solld fuels, (160.5 - 0.112C I) C + 486(JI - 0/16) + 458.
(c) For coals, 14S.4C + 620(JI - 0/16) + 418.
where C = mass percentage of carbon in fuel.
e 1 = mass percentage of carbon in fuel, on ash- and moisture-free
basIS.
H, 0, and S = mass percentages of hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.
12·6. Encrgy Balance, and Loss Distribution. Having facilities

for determining the Ideal and actual masses of air, fuel, and products
participating in the combustlOn process, and the calonmetnc heatmg
value of the fuel, the energy balance expressed by equatlOn 3-14 may
be made if for the above partIcIpants the states at which they actually
enter and leave a combustwn zone are known. That is, relevant mag-
nitudes of the quantities m (h - h0 ) may be evaluated and the energy
account completed. Example 12-5 illustrates.
Example 12.5. The fuel 011 of &a.mple 12-4 exhibited a hIgher heating
value of 18,500 Btu!1b and a corresponding lower value of (lS,500 - 0 la X
M50 -) 17,270 Btu/lb at SS'F. In overolion. the fuel went 10 the burners of
a. boiler furnace at 150°F, and air of the same moisture content as In the exampJe
was supphed to the burners in the same proportion but at 120°F. If the compos]-
tlon of the cornbustlOu products was also the same as In the example, what
quantIty of energy was delivered as heat to the boiler per pound of fuel if the
combustion products left at 600°F?
8olutwn. The followmg data are available from Example 12-4
An supply (dry): 1668 lbmflbm of fuel.
Entering water vlI.por: 0013 Ibmflbm of air, or 0.0121 molcs(lb of fuel.
Departmg products: 0 621 moles/lb of fuel
Usmg specific Ileat data from FIg. 9-3, at a mWD specific heat for the air supply
(equation 10-iJa) of (0241 + 0 45 X 0 013) ~ 0246 Btu/Ob. 'F). m,(h, •• - h.') ~
1668 X 0.246 X (120 - SS) ~ 144 Btujlb of fuel
At t\ me:J.D specific heat for the (lIquid) fuel 011 of 0.4SBtujlb, mj(h" l - hJD) ",.
1.0 X 0.45(150 - 85) ~ 29 Btu/lb of fuel.
Interpolntion in Fig. 9-3 at 86.7% stoichIometric fuel gives C/ = 7.56 for the
indicated temperature range, whence mo:(h c,2 - he") + md(hd,2 - hdO) "'" 0.621 X
7.50 X (600 - 85) ~ 2420 Btu
. In add.JtJon to the eDergy departure assOCIated with the temperature of the leaving
products of combustion there is an energy loss due to the presence of CO in the
amount 010 003 mole/mole of dryproductB. or (0003 X 28.01)/1837 = 00457 lb(lb
of fuel. The corresponding energy departun-' resulting from incomplete combustion
is 0 0457 X 4370 = 200 Btu/lb of fuel, where 4370 is the heating value of the mon-
oxide (Table 12-3).
With consequent JDowfiea.tion of equ!ltion 3-14 to account for thif3 energy loss,
.Q,/"" - 200 = -17.270 - (144 + 29) + 2420
.Q';"" ~ -17.270 - 173 + 2420 + 200
= -14.823 Btuflb of fuel
It is frequently desired to supplement a general account such as the
aboye by a dlstribution of the energy departing in the combustion
products into components assignable to particular [eatures or faults
of the combustion process or other equipment. In the ahove example
the 200-Btu departure as a chemical loss would be regarded as attnb-
utable to an inadequacy of the burner or furnace. The 2100-Btu
departure associated with the excess temperature of the dry com-
bustion prodUcts would be regarded as attributable to their departure
at a temperature in excess of the lowest temperature to which they
might ideally be cooled in passing over the coolest heating surfaces
of the boiler. However, a portion is in principle attributable to the
actual provlSion of air, and consequent departure of products, exceed-
ing that ideally required.
. Regarding as an inadequacy of the equipment lts failure to condense
the vapor component of the combustion products, which in effect corre-
sponds to accounting the higher heating value of the fuel as the prop-
AUT. 12-7 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM IN COMBUSTION 293
erly chargeable energy input, a further loss itcm will be the latent
heat of that vapor. For the conditions of Example 12-5 it becomes
(1.383 X 1050 ~) 1450 Btu/lb of fuel, exceeding somewhat the differ-
ence bctween the higher and lower heating values because of the vapor
entering with the humid aIr supply.
Conventional rules and formulations for allocation of loss items to
these and other specific sources are provided in standard test codes
arranged by the American Society of Mcchanical Engineers and other
agencies.
12-7. Chemical Equilibrium in Combustion. In foregoing anal-
yses, relating simply to the accounting of materIal and energy quantities
in combustIOn processes, no intimation appeared as to limitations WhICh
may eXIst regarding either the pOSSIbIlity of a chemical reaction pro-
ceeding in a presumed manner, or the completeness with which it might
so proceed. In such rcspect progress to this point parallels that noted
in the foreword to Part II (Art. 4-1) of this book. There it was recog-
nized that the facilities of the encrgy equations, cssential as they are,
had provided no information concerning even the possibility of thc
transformation of energy at disorganizcd molecular levels into work,
or concerning any lImitations to the completeness to WhICh such trans-
formations might ideally and actually occur; i.e., concerning the me-
chanical availability of energy in a given state. It then remained to
survey such limitations and to develop in Part II the entropy concept
and property as a baslC facilIty for associated determinations; it now
remams to survey comparable limitations in the degree to which
chemIcal energy may be transformed to energy at the molecular level,
and to develop the required facilitIes for organizin~ related evidence
and dat•.
These facilities derive from the general and prevIOusly recognized
principle that all processes (whether thermal, mechanical, or chemical)
tend to be accompanied by an entropy growth for the entire system
which is affected by the process This concept will be recalled as one
aspect or statemcnt of the second law of thermodynamics, as expressed
in Art. 7-8, and has been employed directly and indirectly througbout
the earlier surveys of actual thermal or mechanical processes. Its
further acceptabIlity in relatIOn to chemical transformations is well
established. An essential corollary of this principle is, however, that,
although entropy growth so constitutes in effect an impetus or directive
governing an actual proccss, as it proceeds there may well develop an
eqUllibrial situation in whieh this Impetus approaches zero and the
process "stalls." Such situatIOns are in fact wholly representative
and in combustion processes operate quite realistically to set effective
'294 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION CHAP, 12
although vanable "ceilmgs" on the amount of energy releasable and
temperature atlainable by a given reachon.
In adaptmg these broad constderatIons to the combustion process
consider an cnvjronment or reservoIr at temperature T (a8, for exam-
ple, the relallvely large mass comprising a calorimeter bomb and the
surrounding water) and a contained aggregate of materials which are
also at T and betwecn which a chemICal interaction of greater or less
completencss may take place. Presuming for convenience that the
interaction is accompamed by chemical energy release, and consequent
tendcncy to temperature rise, the progress of the reaction wIll tend to
induce energy passage as heat (in amount 8Q) from the materials to
the rescrVOIr, In associatIOn with such energy dcparture from the
material thcre would be a trend to decrease of the entropy at the
material m amount -8QfT. But, as the reaction constitutes also
a change in the molccular compositIOn of the partICipatmg components,
it is necessary to entertain further the possibility of change of the
aggregate entropy attributable to those components by vlItue of the
change m their chemical nature.
Reprcscnting the last Item as dS, applIcation of the above principle
requires that for the system the sum of any entropy change due to
energy transition, plus that ~ssociated with the changing nature of
the intcracting materials, shan be positive if the process may proceed,
or becomes zero on amval at an equilibrIaI condition, that is,
-oQIT + dS;::; 0 (12-11)
It will be suffiCIent to limit subsequent attentIon to the condition of
equilibrium If umformHy of pressure and temperature is main-
tained throughout the region of possible mteraction (i.e, there is no
mechanical irreversibility) this relation may be put into terms of
thermodynamic propertIes by recallmg that (equations 3-7a and 3-9a)
oQ = dE + P dV or dH - V dP
Here dE or dH relate to the aggregate mass of the interacting materials
and include their chemical energies. Thus, at equihbnum,
dE PdV (dH V dP )
T + r - dS o r T - r - d S =0
But in the following the direct concern is With Situations in which

chemical eqUlllbrmm exists when the mteractmg materials are at (and
are mamtamed at) a partICular temperature and either volume or
total pressure. Under these circumstances,
(aE)v T - T(aS)v T [or (aH)p T - T(aS)p.TI = 0
ART, 12-7 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM IN COMBUSTION 295
These last relatIOns may also
,
be stated with conSIderable
I
advantage
IIIterms of the single thermodynamIc functIOns A and G, (~ E - TS
and H - TS, Art 7-12 or, respectively, the Helmholtz and GIbbs func-
tions), Thus for eqUIlIbrium and for the above condItions,
(aA)V,T = 0 or (aG)p,T = 0 (12-12)
AlternatIve but direct indIces descnbmg the attainment of equilib-
rium, when [l. number of mater13.ls may In prmciple interact and are
at a temperature T, are thus that
§ P,T constant /
~ /
5 /
,ff
" I ,/
" I
.......... __ +--- ".,..../
I
I
Composition
t
Species Equllibrial Species
A and B mixture of C and D
only A,B,C,.ndD only
Fig. 12-1
(a) At maxmlUm entropy of the aggregate Its Helmholtz functIOn

wIll have a unique mimmum magmtude if Its volume and temperature
are maintained constant.
(b) The Gibbs functIOn will sImIlarly have a unique minimum mag-
mtude if the total pressurc and temperature are maintamed constant
The sItuation IS Illustrated in FIg. 12-1, one coordmare of which is
the aggregate Gibbs "free energy" function for a system' of given total
mass and maintained at constant total pressure and temperature, Th,s
IS plotted versus the compoSItIOn, expressed III terms of relative propor-
tions of the various chemICal species which it IS assumed can be present,
That compositIon whieh represents a mllllmum III aggregate GIbbs
function for the mixture is the one toward which the system tends
to shift,"
* In thIS connectIOn It may be noted that these analyses have involved DO
cOD.SlderatlOn of the tune-rate of arnval at the eqUIlIbrlal ('ondition ThIS rate
may be active or It may be sluggIsh, but may also be greatly mfluenced by the
presence or absence of a catalyst
Recall that any changes m composlhon which occur in order for the
system to approach equihbrium must also conform to the law of con-
servation of mass. That is, the mass of products species C and D
formed durmg any composition change must equal the mass of reactant
species A and B which dIsappear. In other words any composition
changes must al80 meet the mass requirements expressed by the
chemical equatlOll describing the transformation
VIA + '2B .•• = '3C + .,D ...
where the stOIchiometric coefficients VI, V2 ••• describe only the rela-
tive (molar) proportions m which the vanous species can and must
interact. They arc not to be confused with the quantities of these
or any miscellaneous materials which may actually be present.
Further analyses will for convenience relate only to constant-
pressure combustion, and thus to aspecLs of the Gibbs function. As.
that function is an extensive property its change accompanying com-
position changes m,y be expressed also as
aG = [a(.,G,) + a(V40,) ...J - [a(V1Gl) + a(~2G2) ••.J
But a(.G) = vaG + G a., and an mherent aspect of equilibrium is
that on its attainment the molecular apportioning is not changing.
Therefore terms of the form G ii. are zero. Thus as an alternativc
index of equilibrium, with respect to possible composition changes,
[va aGa + " aG, .. ·J,.T - [VI aG l + V2 aG2.. ·J'.T = 0
But, for any individual material, dG ~ dh - d(Ts) or - (T ds +
v dp) - (T ds + • dT), where p is the partial pressure of that mate-
rial. The differential (aG)p,T so equals alternatively (v dP)P,T" For
ideal gases v - RT/p and (aG)p,T = RT d(ln p), so that the last
relation m~y in these mswnces be put in the form
RoT[va a (In p,) + V4 a (In P,)Jp.T - RoT[" a (In PI) +
'2 a (In P2)J'.T = RoT a [In ~P3;"~4;"]
PI'1 2 "J P,T
= 0
Thus, for mixtures of ideal gases when in chemical equilibrium,

(P3)"(P')"]
[ (PI ) '1 (P2) 't P,T = Constant (Kp) (12-13)
To e~press this formulation verbally, for an assembly of gases which ar,

capable oj interacting chemically, but are in fact in clwmical equilibrium at
• Constancy of the total pressure does Dot preclude variation of the partial
pressure inapp~oRcbing eqUIlibrium
ART. 12-7 ·CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM IN COMBUSTION 297
15
14
, 1 1 1 1 1 1 11\1
I I 11\ I I
l I
I
1
Approllimale temperature
limit for equIlibrium
Chemical
13 equillbnum
In com~sl,on produtlS
12
--. constants
1
,.,
-1-
•
-1-
10 ~I
"_f "0 ,,z..,
9 ~~ ~~ cfJ'
8 "Cl
'ofo
~ -
f'>-
<J>
~I
.1,0*
.,>-
.. ~ )Co if':-!..
(.;'''Js~
~~"'i
7
~CQ
t<' t'- 10 6
j 6 50'"
'0
5 '1',
of
4
_" "', 'r Ci
,-IICJ _ ~ I o·
3 ~• t "
1000
2
1}~ 100
,,~, ~ 40
2o
I-~O,=NO,,"lSo, N""o, I~
•o
1
2
o t'-1
-I CO"'H20~C02+H2 (water gas) 0.I

so, ?7'-so,
-2 0 01
I
I T. oK
1 I 11 1
00008 00007 00006 00005 00004 00003 00002
22CO 2500 3(00 4000 6000 8000 OR
t!
Iii
I I! !!!III!!itIJII!!!III'"'I'
i i ' I i i i iii i i i i i i Iii i 1 { I II8000
iJ of
1700 2000 2500 3000 6000
Temperature
Fig. 12-2 EquilIbrium constants.
an existing total pressure,P and a temperature T, a unique magnitude

attaches to the above june/zan oj their part,al pressures. This is known
as their equilibrium constant, and is conventionally represented by the
symbol K p • Figure 12-2 furnishes accepted data on its ID"llnitudes
for a number of representative reactants and products, over some
range of temperatures, but sUltable only for pressure evaluations III
atmospheres
298 THERMODYNAl\f1CS OF COMBUSTION CHAP. 12
Observe again that valuea of the items represented by the symbol
• (nu) are simply integers representing the stoichiometric molar coeffi-
cients in the equation for n given chemical reaction, such as 1.0, !, and
1.0 m the equation CO + ~02 = C02. To illustra~e, and utilizl1lg the
evidence of F,g. 12-2, at a temperature of 4000'F thcae materials may
eXlst together in chelllical equilibrium only if the magnitude of the above
function of their partlal pressures is 10 1••', or pco,lPco(po,)'A = 282
For any individual material the partial pressure will depend OIl the
total pressure P of the mixture alld, for mixtures of ldeal gases, will be
such that p = P(n/~n) (equation 10-3), where n is the relat,,·e number
of molecules of any materlal wluch actually is ]Jrescnt and ~n is the
assoCIated total number of all molecules actually present, including not
only the znteractzng maierwl but also any accompany'ng ,nert (Joses.
Equation 12-13 may thus be tranSformed to one in terms of the relative
number of molea of gases present, or
(n3)-·(n.)-· ( ['
-
)-,+..--.--' =K p (12-14)
(n,)-'(n2)" ~"
Although the reqmrement expressed by equation 12-13 or 12-14 lS
essential when endeavoring to as"ertain, for example, the actual pro-
portlDning of a mlxture when in "hemICal eqUIlibrIUm under specified
total pressure and temperature conditions, by ltself it lS mathemat-
ically msufficient to estabhsh the unknown magmtudes of the partial
pressures (or relative volumes) of the individual matenals. EVidently
the number of these unknowns is also the number of the matenals
compming a mixture, some of which may be capable of lllteracting.
Relations in the same total numb"r will be required for mathematical
determinatIOn of these unknowns. When the gases rcsult from the
combustIOn of primary material of known compQsltion, and supplied
in stated proportIOns, SUItable additional relations may be written by
equatmg the numbers of atoms of each element that occurs in the
primary materials and the numbers that may thus appear as com-
ponents of the molecules of the resultmg gases. Example 12-6 illus-
trates procedures to the above purposes.
Example 12·6. Determine the equil1bnal compOSItIOn, at 2 atm pressure and
3000o K, of B. unxture of CO. 02. and CO 2 resultmg from a leactlOll m which 16
atoms of oxygen are supplied per atom of carbon b'urned. Note also the effects
if the mIXtUre 18 Instead at 1 stm preSSlJ.re and the above temperature, and If at •
1800 0 K but at the above pressure .
. Solutwn. Although the 1 {) atoms DC ()'(ygen as supplied IS less than that ('orre-
sponding to complete combustion of the carbon to C02, it IS nece!'!sary to anticipate
the conting-ency tlutt, lit tin! 6f;Jedfied d~trJl.ted temperature, eqwiJbrium condItIOnS"
may cause the ooncurrent existence not Qnly of C02 and CO but alao of 02 In the
'ART. 12-7 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM IN COMBUSTION 299
"products" of the reaction In an alternative way of speaking, at such .w:mperatures
there may be a dissociation of C02 to CO and 02. The solutIOn proceeds, therefore,
on these prerni!;1es.
As ea.ch mole of CO or of C02 has 1 atom of carbon, each mole of CO has 1 atom of
oxygen and cfI,.ch mole of 02 or of CO 2 has 2 a.toms of oxygen, the above carbonI
oxygen proportion in the primary materlllls Wlll require that In the products (nco +
1I.cOz)/ (nco + 2n~ + 2neos) = 1.0/1 6 Or, as we are concerned only with relatIve
numbers of moles, we ma.y for convemence conSIder a quantity of combustIon
products contaimng I atom of carbon and I 6 atoms of o'<ygen, and write that
+ nco.z = 1 0
nco (a)
and nco + 2no, + 2nco, ~ I 6 (b)

The eqUihbrium equation for the reactIon CO + O 2/2 == C02 provides the reqUlred
third relstlOll for determmlng the tbree unknoWZis. SeJecting from Flg. 12-2 magni-
tudes of logLO Kp of 0 47 at 3000 oK, and of 3 fi!J at 1800 oK,
Pco,
pco(po,)!l [ or
nco, ( -P
noo(n~)~ !n
)-»] = 10 0 47 = 2 95 (c)
and at 1800 0 K the same function equals loa 69 = 4900 In thIS connection recall
that pjP = njr.n, where P = total pressure.
Although analytIca.1 solutIon of these ,three simultaneous eqU&tioDB is posslble, for
simplICity I~ is here preferred to make'the solution by successive approximations
through mtroduction of trial values of nco and corresponding values of ncO,z and
TlOI In equation c untIl that equatIOn IS satisfied, The following table illustrates for
the first combustIon condItIOn,
At 2 Atm and 3000'K
Per Cem
Items Trull Values by Moles
(I) (2) (3) (3)
nco o 500 0550 0510 48.4%
nc~, by equation a 0500 0.450 0490 464%
uo" by equation b 0050 0075 0055 ~%
~n 1.050 1.075 1.055 1000%
nco
P~n'=PCO 09525 1023 0967
nco,
P ~n ' = pro,. 0.9525 0837 0.929
p"'"
-;=POt 0095 0.140 0104
~n
P 2000 2.000 2.000
pco,
or
r»
pco(po,)> 3.24 2.19 2.97
(vo.2.95)
ncO, (P
nco(no,)fi ~n
The Ia.st trial value will be regarded 89 acceptable, Note thaL at 3000 K (4960°F),
0
even WIth oxygen supply insufficient for complete combustion of the carbon, the
combustion products will. still contain oxygen (in the amount of 52% by volume)
at the equilibrium state.
Like computations made for a total presswe of 1.0 atm mdICate an eqUIhbrIal
composItion at 3000 0 K of 51.6% CO, 41.1% CO 2, and. 7.3% O 2 Note the greater
amount of uncomhmed oxygen a.t tho lower pressure.
It will be evident that on cooling to 1800 0 K (2780°F) at 2 atm, with Kp = 4900,
(no.r)J.i will be In the order of
0.60 (1 0»)<1 1
0.40 2.0 X 4UOO
or 1lOt 4.9 X 10- 8, That is, cooling even to 2780 cF Wlll have permitted an
::::;0
effectively complete combination of the a.vailable oxygen either to CO 2 or to CO,

with these appearing in the mola.r proportioDS' of 60% and 40%, resI:leCtively.
12-8_ "Rich-Mixture" and "Lean-Mixture" Combustion. The
above methods are readily extended to determinations of the eqUlhb-
flal composition of the products of the combustIOn of more complex
fuels with air, and also when there is either a moderate deficiency in
the air supplied or an appreciBible air excess.' In the latter circum-
stances the fuel! air mixture is said to be, respectively, rich and lean.
Procedures in the two situations are rather parallel, but are best con-
sidered individually, as in the followmg examples Each relates to
a hydrocarbon fuel C,HJ8 having effectively the s.me hydrogen/car-
bon ratio as gasolIne.
(a) Rich mixture. Aside from possible traces of free carbon and
other materials the major components of the combustion of a hydro-
carbon with moderate air deficiency are CO, H 2 , CO2 , H~O, and N 2 .
Five unknown partial pressures Rre thus involved in the equilibrium
relation relating to these materials. As the four elements carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are involved, the material balances for
these provide four of the required relations. As a fifth relation the
equilIbrium relation and constant for the reaction CO 2 + It2 p CO +
H 2 0 IS available and suHicient. Example 12-7 Illustrates .
• QUIte comprehensive sets of charts are aVaIlable, as prepared by Hottel,
Willillms, and Satterfield (Thermodynamtc Charts JOT CombmhOn PTocesses,
Wiley) whIch exhIbit (0) families of IsobarIc and isometric (i e • conslani;.pressure
abd specifie volume) contour lines to T-S coordmates for air and for unburned
mixtures of air and hydrocarbo.D.'3 at ratios moderately greater or less than
stoichiometrIC, these also with supplementary hand e scales and With accounting
for departure from ideal-gru! cha.ractenstlcB at higher pressuresi (b) famIlies of
IsothermaJ, mobaric, and isometric contours to h-e-s coordmates for the com-
. bustian products for such mLXtures, these With accounting for the effect of
chemical eqU1hbrium at higher temperature but not for departure from ideal-gas
characteristics; and (c) graphical faCIlities prOViding further for properties cor-
o rela.uoD for hurned mixtures of more geDerai Dature.
ART. 12-8 RICH AND LEAN MIXTURES 301
Example 12.7. A hydrocarbon fuel with a composition eqmvalent to the
formula. CaHlS IS burned witli 80% of the ideal aIr requJrement. DetermJne the
eqUJhbrmm composItlon of the combustIOn products at 5 atro pressure if a.t
2540'F (30oo'R) and at lOOO'F.
Solution. l~or ideal and complete combustion of the above fuel the chemlcal
eqll1>tlOn is CsH" + + +
(8 4.5 =) 12.50. - SCO, 9H,O. For an air supply of
80% of the ideal (08 X 12.5 =) 10.0 mole. or 20 .tow of oxygen and (10 0 X
3.76 =) 37.6 moles of nitrogen 0.1'6 provided per mole of fuel. AB tl1e nitrogen is
here taken to be effectively inert it will appeal in the same amount in the actual
products of combustion. A material balance for the over·all process may be written
In the form
C,Il" + 100, + 37.6N, = ncoCO + 'n,oH,O + nco,CO, + n",H, + 37 6N,

Here the symbols CO, H 2 0, C02, .a.nd II: represent not only the productfl of the
combustIon of the fuel, but also materials between which interaction may and will
occur until cqUllibrmm is established.
Whatever distribution between these species may be attained at equilibrium,
it must be in conformity with the law of conservation of mass; that IS, the molar
distribution between the components must be such that
(a) For balance in carbon, nco + neos -= 8.0
(b) For balance in hydrogen, 2nHIO + 2nHs = 18.0
(c) For balance in oxygen, nco + 2ncos + nuzo = 20.0 ,
(d) For balance in nitrogen, nNI =- 37.6
By FIg. 12-2 and for the reaction CO + H 20 = CO 2 + H2o, known as the waler-gas
reactwn, the value of Kp at 2540CF is 10- 0.62., or 0.302 Thus, by equation 12~14,
(e)
(nca:z)l D(nEs)l D(5
-
0)00 = 0 302
(nco)l O(nff,o)l' x.
To solve these rela.tions by the method of successive approximalloDa, an mibal eati~
mate of n8tO wi]) probabJy be IDostprofit..abJe. That item is seJected as hyrJrogen ex~
hiblts particular I1vidlty for available oxygen and, because of the al1 deficiency, l1UIO
may therefore be expected to be]n the vicmity of [08 X (18/2) = ]7.2 Trial values
and the solutIO!] appear beJow. Note that, by equations (l and c, nco = nafo - 4.
n1110, nco,
Tnal nn" byeqa nCOo, nNs. (nCOo)(nn,)
Value by eq b andt byeqa byeqd :!:n (noo)(n",o)
7.2 1.8 32 4.8 37.6 54.6 0.375
7.4 1.6 3.4 4.6 37.6 54.6 0.292
7.37 1.63 3.37 4.63 37.6 54.6 0302 (~Kp)
Per cent by Volwne

13.5 3.0 6.2 8.5 68.8 100.0
Note that, as for the above reaction the sum of the exponents of the term (P/1;n)
is zero, the eqmhbnal distribution Will be unaffected by the pressure so long 8.8
the partial pressures a.re not such as to cause material departuT(! from ideal·gll.8
characterBuCB.
By paraUel procedures it develops that on coolmg of the products to lOOO°F their
equillbrial composition, m per cent by volume, would be 9 6% H20, 68% H2.
2.3% CO, and 12.4% CO2_ At tills temperature the hydrogen would have relIn-
quished oxygen In favor of the carbon in o.pprecwhLe amount. However, there IS
eVldence that attamment of eqwhbnum 18 very slow at temperatures less than
about 1800°F.
(b) Lean m1Xiure. Because of the excess of air supply connoted

by this mIxture designahon the combustion products may be expected
to contam not only the five components CO, H 2 , CO 2 , H 2 0, and N2
but also uncombIned a" or a total of six components (exclusive of
traces of other products) As again only the elements carbon, hydro-
gen, oxygen, and mtrogen are involved their materIal balances Will
provide four of the six relatIOns reqUIred for establishmg the eqUIlIb-
rium composItion of the products, and two equilibrium relations and
constants wlll thus be required. AvaIlable and suitable ones are those
corresponding to any two of the following reaction equatIOns:
CO + 02/2 ~ C02
R,+ 0,/2 ~ H,O
CO + H,O ~ CO 2 + H2
A procedure utllizing these facilities is illustrated by Example 12-8
Example 12.8. A hydrocarbon fuel with composition eqUivalent to the
formula. CaRls lS burned With .an 8U supply 200/'0 lD excess of the stOIchIometrIC
reqUirement. Determme the equihbrIUm compOSItIOn of the combustIOn products
under 5 aim total pressure (I) at 2540°F (3000 0 R) and (2) at 4000°F
Solution By reference to the combustIon equatIOn of Example 12-7 for the
same fuel, an SIr supply 200/'0 In excess of the Ideal corresponds to an oxygen
supply of 15 moles (30 atoms) per mole of fuel and a rutrogen supply of 56 5
moles. The materul.is balance so becomes
(a) For balance III carbon. nco + nC<>2 = 80

(b) For balance in hyurogen' 2nH20 + 2nHJ = 180
(c) For babnce In oxygen. nco + 2ncOJ + nB20 + 2nOt = 30 O.
(d) For balance in rutrogen' nNI = 565.

By Fig. 12-2, equilibrium data for the above CO and H2 reactions are
(e) Kp [ "" nC02 ~ (~

P )-MiJ .".
at 2540°F 4000°F
10 417 or 2 37 X 10 4 , 101111 or 30.7.
nco X (n0 2) ~n
(f) Kp ["" nH!O~ ( : )-MiJ := 10' gg or 7.76 X 10 4 , 102266 or 180

nU2 X (nOt) ..... n
At the lower temperature the initial assumption W11l be made that the combusbon lS
effectively complete, and therefore tootS moles of C02, 9 moles of H 20, and2.5 moles
of 0, will appear in· the products, WIth a total (:!:n) of (8 + 0 + 2 5 + 56 5 -) 76 0
AUT. 12-8 RICH AND LEAN MIXTURES 303
moles. On this basis and from equation e,
8 X (76(5)!! ,
nco - 237 X 10 X (2 5)l-> = 832 X 10- or 0.00083
In a Similar manner by equation J, nlI2 = 00002\:1

j
As these molar quantitIes of CO and H2 have qUIte negligible mf.luencc III equations
a, b, and c, ail reqULrements may'be regarded as satisfied by the initIal assumptiOn.
At the lngher temperature, havmg selected III hke manner rea.sons.ble initial but
trial values of nco and nn2J the propnety of thf'se or of mowfied values and of values
consistently expressing the further components of the mixture may be determIned by
comparing correspondmg values of the ratioB of above equatIOns e and f wIth the
relevant quoted values of Kp The table below illustrates such a procedure and
arrives at an adequately exact solution.
nee, nUt, nco., llH~, nO" nN,. noo, nuzo

Trlll.l TnaJ by by by by 2::. nee (no,)l-> X ng,(n03JP-i X
Value Value eq a eq b eq' eqd (2::n/P)!! (~n/p)f>
000 010 1.40 890 285 56.5 1635 28.5 2025
055 011 1.45 889 2.83 565 1633 314 1876
057 0115 7.43 8885 2.84 665 76.34 30.2 1790
(v,. Kp = 30.7) (v,. 180)
Per Cent by V Qlume
0.75 015 9.74 11.65 3.72 74.1 100 0
It IS to be understood that the above examples represent only
SImpler eqmlibrium sltuahons. At higher temperatures the actual
products of a combustIOn may well be a qmte complex mixture con-
tammg not only major constitaents such as hal'e been accounted above
but also traces or minor amounts of other reaction products. This
situation becomes of definite concern in processes, such as jet-propul-
sIOn reactIOns, where less diluents (such as atmospheric mtrogen m
the above examples) are mixed WIth the reacting materials and the
temperatures so encountered tend to become exceptionally 111gh
Among such trace or IDmor components are materials such as:
Free carbon, C NItrous OXIde, NO
.MonatomlC oxygen, 0 NItnc OXide, N0 2
Ozone, 0 3 Ammonia, NHa
Monatomic hydrogen, H Cyanogen, C2 N 2
Hydroxyl,OH Methane, CF4
The task of determining the eqUllibrmm composlbon when a multi-
plicity of such components may uppear becomes most burdensome, but
m prmciple the procedure IS the same as that used above. A technic
for reducmg somewhat the com ph cation is first to neglect those com-
ponents whIch It is known by experience will be minor and to find a
dlstribution of major components only, and then to modIfy these pro-
3M THERlI10DYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION CHAP. 12
gressively by successive mtroduction of the eqUIlibrIUm constant,
reaction equation, and material balance when individual minor com-
ponents are successively considered. In effect that method was em-
ployed in connection with tbe first portion of Example 12-8.
As regards the probability that III active combushon processes
the equilibrium composition will actually be attained at a given tem-
perature, or be maintamed on rapid temperature change, at least two
factors are known to be of influence. One Concerns the time element,
to which reference has been made ID a footnote, Art. 12-7 That is,
combustible materials that would appear at higher temperatures but
would normally disappear on cooling, such as the CO and H2 in
Example 12-8, may In fact persist durmg the cooling if the temperature
change IS sufficiently rapid. At lower temperatures the rate of de-
parture from a prior equilibrium and arrival at the new one may in
fact be quite sluggish.
A second consideration is that intimate physical mixmg of the
reactants is necessary. The frequent appearance simultaneously of
O2 and reactable materials such as CO or H2 in the combustion
products of the furnace or the internal-combustion engine is nor-
mally due to stratifications which accompany inadequate mixing. An
eventual fuller knowledge of the micromechanics of the combustion
process should contribute to a more adequate recognition of the char-
actet of the factors which influence the degree to which equilibrium
may actually be reached, and the character of thelr influence. .
12-9. Combustion (Flame) Temperatures. Foregoing analyses
and examples were directed solely to determinations of the equilibrIal
distribution of reactants and proQucts in combustion processes at a
specified temperature. A consideration of equal or greater practical
concern may be the determination of the temperature that is actually
attamable by a given combustion. .
Influences which evidently affect this temperature include:
(a) The amount of energy released by complete combustion of the
fuel, or its heat of combustion.
(b) The failure to release a portion of that energy because of the
presence of combustible materIals in the products, such as the CO and
H2 of above examples, and in association With chemical equilibrium
conditions at higher temperatures.
(c) The amount of any diluents, such as atmospheric nitrogen, which
are mixed with the reacting materials but contnbute no energy for
their .warming.
(d) Any energy departure as heat from the burning materials to
their .environs during
. the combustion.
ART. 12-9 FLAME TEMPERATURES 305
(e) Accompanying energy transformation to mechanical effects such
as work output or kinetic energy mcrease.
For sjmpiIcity and also for general mterest following analyses will
relate only to that limiting temperature corresponding to adlabaBc
combustion conditlOns which also are .accompanied negligibly by
meehameal effects. This sItuation may at least be approached in the
rapid combustIOn phenomena occurring in vessels such as tho combus-
tion chamber of gas turbine or let propulsion equipment. Less vlOlent
reactions occurring in combustIOn chambers encased by liquid-cooled
metallic walls, such as m the boiler furnace or the internal-combustion
engine cylinder, typify definitely non· adiabatic conditions.
The problem encountered in the determination of the adiabatic
flame temperature differs in principle from those considered in fore-
going examples only in the appearance of the temperature as an
additional unknown. It is correspondmgly necessary that a sUltable
additional relation be aVHllable m order to permit simulta.neous solu-
tions determining not only the equilibria I composition of the combus-
tion products but also their associated temperature. This is provided
by the energy equation for the process. The procedure in coordinat-
ing that relation with other facilities is again one employing successive
trials and is best indicated by example. In Example 12-9 the simpler
combustion conditions of Example 12-7 are employed, and also results
found in that example, in order to minimize complications that are
extraneous to present obi ectives.
Example 12·9. Determine the flame temperature developed on adiabatlc
combustion of iso-octane CaRls when burned at 1 stm (total) preS3ure WIth 8070
of the ideal aIr reqUIrement If the air and fuel are supplied at the calorImetnc
reference temperature of 77°F (25°C) The lower heating value of CSBIS is given
as 2.2 X 10 6 Btu/mole (i e, 114 Ib).
Solution. A suItable general ma.nner of procedure is (a) to determine the
eqwltbrlRI composition of the combustion products at some selected tI1at tempera-
ture, (b) to compute, by means of the energy equation for the combustIOn, when
written in conformIty wIth the corresponding reaction equation, the temperature
to which the energy released would brmg those combustion products, and (c) to
repeat these deterIDmations until the trial temperature and the computed tem-
perature agree.
As the fuel and Its air supply are the same as those of Example 12-7, and m
that example the molar composItIon of the products at 2540°F was found, those
results WIll be ubhzed by making 2540°F the first trial temperature It was noted
that the dLfferent pressures of the two examples will in thiS instance be of no
concern The matenal bal!lIlce found in Example 12-7 Wru:l
C,HlS + 100, + 37 6N, = 7.37H,O + 1.6311, + 3 37CO + 4 63CO, + 37 6N,
The energy equatlOn for the process becomes, when written in a manner
paralleling equatton 3-14 but with individual quantrues and enthalples now mter-
306 TIIERIIWDYNAJllICS OF COllIBUSTION CHAP 12
preted as expressed on the basIs of the mole, and with due accounting of the
energy that falls to be released becallse of the presence of H2 and CO In the
combustIOn products,
1 o(H. - H')c,',h. + 10(H, - H')en + 37 6(H, - W)N, +0 + 0

~ 7,37(lI, - lI')H,O + 163([[, - H')H, + 3 37(H, - H')eo
+ 4.63(H, -II')eo, + 37 6(H, - W)N,
- [1 O( -"H'colI,,) - 1 63 (-"WH ,) - 3 37 (-"Wco)] (12-15)

As It was specified above that the fuel and. air were supphed at the same state as the
reference state at the calonmet~r, the terms m (HI - HO) m this relation become
zero The terms In (1I2 - [[0) may be expressed and ev,a.luated as the product
of the mean molar specific heat Cp for each material and the temperature dIflerence
(T2 - TO), where TO is 77°F and T21s the temperature whIch IS to be computed and
compared Wlth the adopted trial temperature. The heattng; value (- IlEr) for the
fuel waa given n.bove as 22 X 10 6 Btu/mole, and those for CO andH2 (l,re, respec-
tively, 121,000 a.nd 108,000,
With such elimmatIOns and substitutions, and employmg values of Cp as taken
from Fig 9-3, the energy equation becomcs
(737 X 10 1 + 1.63 X 74 + 3 37 X 80 + 4.53 X 125 + 376 X 8,0) (T, - 77)
~ 2,200,000 - 1 G3 X 108,000 - 3 37 X 121,000
or T, ~ 77 + 1,616,000 _ 77 + 3430 ~ 3507'F

471.4
This computed temperature does not agrec well With the trIal temperature of
2540°F. At a second tnal temperature of 3500°F, Kp for the reaction CO + H 20 :;::::=
CO 2 + H2 IS shown in Fig. 12-2 to be 10- 072 or 0.102 A solution employmg the
technic of Example 12-7 for determmmg the correspondmg eqUIlIbrial dlstnbutJon of
constituents at thiS temperature gives 0. compositIOn of combustion products 3.!1
follows'
(nco,)(no,)
(nco) ("lI,O)
7.72 128 372 428 0.191 (v. 0192) 37.6 546
ReVIsing correspondingly the values of n used in energy equation 12-15, and also
usmg values of Cp conforming to the revised range of (T2 - TO), that equatIOn
becomes
(7.72 X 1035 + 128 X 7.55 +3 72)( 805 +4 28 X 130 +37.6 X 8 25)(T, -77)
~ 2,200,000 - 1.28 X lOB 000 - 3.72 X 121,000
I,GI2,000
and T, (computed) ~ 77 + 485 7 ~ 77 + 3320 ~ 3397'F
The agre(lment betw€en trIal and computed temperatures IS now more SUItable
By 'the aid of a graphical mterpolatlOn method such as that Illustrated In FIgure
12-3, contours of tnal nnd computed temperatures as the ordinate ale plotted to
an abscissa of equ1hbnal compositions at the trJaI temperature The mtersectIon
ART. 12-9 FLAME TEMPERATURES 307
of these contours mdlcates that the sa.tlSfying combmatwn of all vanables
becomes.
T = 340S'F
nBzO = 7.7, Dr 141%!Jy volume
nH~ ....0 13, or 2 4% by volume
nco = 37, or 6 8% by volume
nC01 = 43, or 7 0% by volume
nNJ = 37.G, or uS G% by volume
3600
3500 - -~~ 1/
/
3400 --.. l"-
3300
I
3200
/
L.L.
•
3100
f7
.!' 3000 J
2900 '" !/
2800
V
2700
/
2600
f7
2500
/
73 74 75 76 77 78 nHlo
17 16 15 14 13 12 nH,
33 34 38 nco
47 46 45 44 43 42 "coJ
F,g 12-3
Observations of some practICal concern relatmg to or made evident

by the above example are as follows:
l. The facilities of the energy equatIon 12-15 perm1t like flame tem-
perature determination for non-adiabatIc combustlOn lf the amount
of any concurrent heat energy emIssion from £:lame to environs were
known (i c., the item 1 Q2, or the first item denoted as zero in the above
308 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTION CRAp. 12
equation). Or if the flame temperature were measured the heat elills-
sian per mole of fuel mIght oppositely be computed. To illustrate
from above data, if 2540°F temperature were observed m " presum-
ably equillbrIal ilame resultmg from combustion of the specified
fuel and statcd air supply, equation 12-15 would indicate a concur-
rent heat energy departure from the flame in the amount required to
balance, or [1,616,000 - 471.4{2540 - 77) ) - 452,000 Btu/mole and
(452,000/114 -) 3965 Btu/lb of fuel.
2. The deficiency of oxygen and consequent appearance of H. and
CO in the combllstlOn products reduced the net available energy release
by (2,200,000 - 1,612,000 =) 588,000 Btu/mole of fuel It will con-
tinue to produce a loss of the same order of magnitUde on subsequent
further eoolmg of the products.
3. An adiabatic flame temperature sensibly exceeding tbe llldicated
3405°F would be obtained If the amount of nitrogen entering with the
oxygen were reduced. ThIS is evident on notmg that, of an aggregate
energy assocIated WIth the temperature excess of the combustion
products, [(37.6 X 8.25)/485.7 -) 639 per cent went to warming the
nitrogen component of those products.
Combustion computations may be faCllitated by use 01 the gas
tables whIch provide directly (molar) enthalpy values for the common
gases. Computation of adiabatic flame temperature may proceed by
successive approximations in which (a) a trbl temperature is selected
and the eqUIlibrium composition is computed for this temperature,
(b) tbe enthalpy change of combustion and the enthalpy of the
products are computed, and (e) the steps repeated for other tem-
peratures until the two enthalpy values are equal. Example 12-10
illustrates.
Example 12-10. Solve Example IZ-V by use or the gas -tables.
Sohttion. For' an initial tnal temperl).ture of 2540"F {3QOO"R) the cmnprnnticn
found in Example 12-7 maY be used. The enthalpy change on combustlOn then
becomes (per moJe of fue1):
2,200,000 - 1.63 X 108,000 - 3 37 X 121,000 - 1,617,200 Btu
The enthalpy of the eOIllbustlon products (relahve to 77°F) becomes
7.~7(28,386 3 - 42583) + I 63(21,5769 - 3640.2) + 3.37(22,973.4 - 37295)
(HtO. Table 16) (Rio Tilble 19) (CO. Table21l
+ 4.63(34,806.6 - 40302) + 37.6(22,761.5 - 3729.5) ~ 1,135,800 Btu
(C02. Table 17) (N s. Ta.ble ]1)
The disagreement indicates that the ossumed temperature is too low A
second trial temperature iEl selected sufficiently higber to account for the dliIerence
between the two computed entllalpy .... alues, which corresponds to some 8800
Btu/mole. Figure 9--3 mdicates that for combustIOn products ID tMs temperature
range Cp -= {I appro:J:lmateIy, IndicatIng that a second tria] temperature should
AnT. 12-10 PROBLEMS 309
be some 900-1000° higher than the first. Select for the second trIal temperature
35OO°F, alld use compoaitlorul as computed for thlS trial value In Example 12~9.
For thls composItion. the enthalpy of combustIOn becomes
'2,200,000 - 128 X 108,000 - 3 72 X 121,000 = 1,611,640 Btu
Enthalpy associated with combustion products.
7.72(39,988 7 - 4258.3) + 128(29,3700 - 3640 2) + 372(31,256 - 3729.5)
+ 4.28(48,646 - 40302) + 376(30,982.5 -3729 5) ~ 1,626,700 Dtu
The two enthalpy values are now more near]y m agreement. More preCISe
agreement may be obtained by repeatmg the computatlOD.$ at addLtional tempera-
tures, and by the use of a graphical interpolatlOn method Illustrated m FIg. 12-4.
16
I
I
~ I
~
I
...00!7
I
2 14
,JS .1
~ ,Q EI
.:'!I
"
0
;;;
'§ ~I
~I
"' ~I
I
I
I
10
2500 3000 3500 4000
Temperature, OF
Fig. 12-4.
The computed temperature IS obtained as 3470°11', In substantial agreement Wlth

the value 34.05°F 88 computed by the use of speCIfic heat data. Identical results
are obtaJned for the eqUllibrial composItIOn at flame temperature by either
method of computatlon.
12 .. 10. Problems. 1. A fuel 011 that analyzes 84.5% carbon by mass, re-
mainder hydrogen, IS burned With air 2070 m excess of the Ideal minimum. Fmd,
per pound of fuel, tbe following: (a) the volume of dry w.r ideally reqUlred, a.t
70°F Rnd 14.7 psis, and that actuwly supplied; (b) the total volume of com·
bUBtion products at lOOO°F and 147 PSI&, on the presumptIon that all the hydrogen
is burned to water vapor but that 00% of the carbon IS burned to carbon dIOXide,
and 10% to ca.rbon monoxide; (c) the volumetrlc analysIs of the combustion
products, lllcludmg water vapor, (d) the volumetric analysia of combustion
products, excluding water. Ana. (a) 242 cu It; (c) 95% CO2; (d) 10.8% C02
2. The dried stack ga.ses from a. furnace burning a hydrocarbon fuel gave the
volumetric Bll.!l.iysis: carbon diOXide, 12.8%; carbon monoxide, 0.3%; oxygen,
3.1%; nitrogen, remainder. (a) Wha.t is the mdlcated hydrogen/carbon ratio m
the fuel oil? (b) What is the percentage of stolchiometrlc fuel being used?
310 THEHMODYNAl\IICS OF COMBUSTION CHAP. 12
(c) 1Vhat volume of dry air at 7QoF and 14.7 pSJa IS bemg used per pound of
fuel, and how many pounds of rur per pound of fuel? (d) What IS the complete
volumetnc analysIs of the combustIOn products? (e) What IS the total volume
of combustlOn products, per pound of fuel, if measured at lOOO°F and 147 PSIR,
and If measured at 70 a F and 14 7 pSla? (J) What mass of hqUld water, per pound
of fuel, may be recovered when the products are cooled to 70°F find 14 7 pSJa?
Am. (b) 87%; (d) 114% C02.
3 A "C02'"meter " mdlCates that the stack gases contain 10% carbon diOXide
when operation IS with a typical fuel OIl Make any necessary assumptIons, and
arrive at sUItable values for the percentage of excess air used, the volume of
combustIOn products, and the mass and volume of air supply State all the
RSSumptIODS necessary,
4 A comprehenslve hOller test was conducted with a fuel 011 of chemical
annlysis liS follows' carbon, 8758%; hydrogen, 11170/'0; sulfur, 0 927D; mtrogen,
013%; oxygen (by difference) 020%, HeatIng value of the fuel was determmed
in the bomb calonmeter as 18,640 Btu/lb The test conSisted of a senes of 4-hour
runs under a vanety of operatmg conditIons Analysis data for the dried stack
gases were obtamed 8.9 shown below_ Chp.ck each run for mternal eVidence 0(
relIabilIty, and find for each the mdlcated percentage excess air used_
Run Number 31 33 34 26 42 . 16 87 100

CnThon woxide 138% 144% 146% 149% 143% 146% 134% 125%
Oxygen 28 1.7 1.8 13 23 20 29 46
Cnrbon monoxide 00 0.0 00 00 0.0 0.0 00 00
5, An mternal-combustIOn engine was operated under the followmg test condi-

tions' air temperature, 74 D F, relative humidIty, 880/0, rpm eqUivalent to 20 mph,
'The fuel used was regular-grade gasohne, and the foHowing analyses obtamed on
the (dried) exhaust gases' Run # 3, carbon dioxide, 101%, oxygen 4.30/0, carbon
monoxide, o70/'0 j Run # 4, carbon dioxide, 11.3%, oxygen 4.50/0) carbon monoxIde.
06%, Select the run that mternal eVIdence shows to be of greater relIabilIty,
'and find indIcated values for (a) pounds of mr used per pound of fUtll, (b) per-
centage of theoretical fuel, and (c) the completeness of the combustwn, computed
a3 the ratio (oxygen actually combmed)/(oxygen ideally required) (d) Com-
men't on the effect that would be observed i~ the above computations If small
amounts of carbon dIOXIde were lost from the analysi; sample, presumably by
bemg dissolved 1D the 'Water vapor condensed durIng the samplmg procedure or
In the rubber tubing of the sampling line
6 A fuel Oil contaInS 126% hydrogen, by mass, and shows a Uheat" of com-
bustion as measured in the bomb calorimeter of 18,700 Btu/lb Fmd, for con-
stant-pressure combustions: (a) a. higher heating value, and (b) a lower heatmg
value (all at 77°F)
7. The folJowmg are test data obt.ained in connectIOn with tnals of a new
design of oil burner, furnace, and boIler From them evaluate ID Btu per pound
of fuel, Ilnd in percentages of a (hIgher) heatmg value of 18,600 Btu/lb, quantities
that you would regard as (a) attributable to the hot departmg dry stack gases,
but dIstributed into portions that in theory may be regarded as unavoidable or as
.aVOIdable (I e, WIth cOIlSlderatlOD of the temperature of the entermg feedwater);
(b) attributable to the excess-aIr portion of the dry stack gases; (c) attrIbutable
to the moisture in stack gases, resulting from the hydrogen m fuel, but agam
distrIbuted into unaVOIdable and avoidable components_
Data
Fuel0" an,lysJS C, B8()l%, H,1067; S, 072; N, 020,0, 03V'
Stack g"-'l _lysIS (dry): CO" 149% by vol; 02,25, CO, 0.0, N 2,826
Temperature, air supply (effectively dry). l10°F
Temperature, 011 supply: 127°F.
Temperature, feedwater' 210°F.
Temperature, stack gaf-les. 800°F
8 .. The dned combustion ploducts from an OIl-fired furno.ce analyzed as foHows:
C02, 131%, 02, 35%, CO, 0.20/0, remamuer mtrogen. The fuel 011 analYSIS may
be taken as 11.3% hydrogen Bnd 887% carbon by mass. Its specific heat may
be tuken as 04:1 Btullb. lts (lngher) hea.lmg value 28 18,600 Btu/lb at 70°F.
The ad went to the burners at 160°F, and Illr was supplIed a.t 1 atm pre~ure, at
OO'F, and a relatIve humIdIty of 40%. (a) Verify the rehabihty of the analysIS
of the combustion products (b) Fmd the number of cubiC feet ()f air supplIed
per pound of fuel, and the percentage of the theolctlCai fuel. (c) Fmd the
volume of the combmtlon products at 7QO°F, theIr dew-pomt temperature, and
the mass of water condensed on coolmg the combusbon pi oducts to gO°F and
1 atm (d) What quantIty of energy was dehvered as hent to the bOller, per
pound 01 fuel?
9 Determme the equihbnal compositIon at 1 atm pressure and 2800"F of a
mIxtUre of carbon dIOxide, Bteam, hydr,ogeu, and carbon monoxide If the ratIO by
atoms IS C.H 0=12 29
10. A hydrocarbon fuel WIth a comppsltion eqUIValent to (CH2)~ IS burned
using 90% of the theoretIcal fuel reqUIrement Determme the eqUIlIbria} com-
position of the combustion products at 25JO~F
PART IV . ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
13 . POWER-GENERATION CYCLES
Condensing Fluids
13·1. Foreword. The Imtlal matenal of Part IV relates to essen-

tIal but general features of:
(a) Power-generatIOn cycles and mstallations employing condensing
flUIds.
(b) Those employing non-condensing fluids, such as the gaseous'
products of combustion.
(c) FlUId cycles employed for mducting heat from lower-tempera-
ture regions and dehvermg it agam as heat to a higher-temperature
region.
Preceding material will have provided the required tools as regards
both fundamental thermodynamIC concepts and relations, and a requi-
site famllianty With facilities for organizing to practical advantage
the data on the thermodynamic properties of engineering fluids. It
is well to recall imtially that (a) the major controllable energy
resources provided by nature are found in the materials known as
the fuels, (b) that, followmg man's early "discovery" of fire, he be-
came aware of an ability to release and to control the release of that
energy, and produce products of combustion at elevated temperatures,
and (c) that Ultimately he acquired an ability to t,ransform '" part the
disordered molecular energy attributable to the hot products of com-
bustion into the organized form known as mechanical work, or there-
after to electric energy. The last steps inibated, in the latter part
of the eighteenth century, our present mdustrial era.
In Part II of this material emphasis is placed on the predominant
role played by the (absolute) temperature and temperature range in
influencing the degree of completeness WIth which such transformations
might even ideally be accomplished This emphasis was suitable, as
the eXIStence and nature of this mfluence would not be self-evident.
A more evident conSIderation mech.mcally, but thermodynamically
a· secondary one, is that for the accomplishment of mechanical effects
a working fluid while at superior temperature levels wtll necessarily be
Si!llUltaneously at superior pressure levels, in order that physical forces
may be furnished and made operallve for power generatIOn
312
ART. 13-2 RANKINE CYCLE 313
Because of an earlier inability, to employ elevated temperature in the
equipment that was then available, or perhaps because of less concern
for efficiency and of inadequate appreciation of the influence of tem-
perature on effiCIency, an initiaf and subsequently continued .practice
became that of transferring the energy from the hot combustion
products, as heat, to a secondary working fluid which receives it at
lower temperature levels. Due to its general availabilIty and suit-
ablhty, water was adopted and has contmued as this working medium.
The energy reception opcrates primanly to heat the liquid and to
change It from hquid to vapor phase at a superior temperature. The
processes are those of the steam power plant. A considcrable tempera-
ture dIfference between that of the combustion products and that of
the liquid and vapor imposes a corresponding handicap on the attain-
able efficiency, but tbls handICap is appreciably alleviated by the
circumstances that (a) the water vapor may readily be expanded in
an engine down to virtually atmospheric tcmperatures, and (b) by
reason of its reversion to the liquid phase on departure of the mechan-
ically unavallable residue of its energy, as heat, the work required for
restoring the flmd in the hquid state to the required superior pressure
is relatively tnvlal. '
The present chapter relates, therefore,. to power-generation cycles
in which the working substance is a fluid that is condensible at atmos-
pheric temperatures or temperatures moderately excecding atmos-
pheric, and which receives energy at a somewhat elevated temperature
from hot combustion products. As water and its vapor has been used
almost exclusively in such cycles, references and illustrative examples
will for the most part pertain to steam installations But it is not
to be inferred that other condensing flmds are not, or may not be,
employed when special circumstances make this advantageous.
13-2. Rankine Cycle. The elementary cycle which was for many
years regarded as the prototype of steam power plant installations
is known as the Rankine cycle. Figure 7-4 of Art. 7-5 showed
sketchily, and Fig 13-1 indicates more specifically, the nature and
arrangement of the general equipment and, to T-, and h-s coordinates,
the processes oceurrmg in passage of the working fluid through the
various devices, each of whICh is of such character as to perfonn
advantageously a particular function. The processes represented cor-
respond to conventional specifications as follows, both ideal and nctual.
Process a'" b. The process is the compOSIte one of (I) the intake
of feedwater by a feed pump from .. reservoir or feed tank in which the
fluid pressure is conventIonally taken as that at which condensation
has occurred in a preceding condenser, and the temperature is the
corresponding saturation temperature; (2) an ideally isentropic com·
314 CONDENSING-FLUID CYCLES CHAP. 13
pression of the feedwaler by the pump to lhe boiler pressure; and
(3) its delIvery at that pressure.
The relevant energy transItion is the work input (,w,) required in
an nmount per pound uf water equal to (hb -hG.), for isentropIc com-
pression if changes In geopotentJal and kmetic energlCs are negligible
Feed pump
• I I I II
/qRJo.
Feed
tank
t
h
T.
oR
/ be ,q,
"qa
[q,l_
. - To; ; - -
O'1l , J kll' B_
.-
Fig 13-1, Ra.nkine cycle.
As the compression of the water affects its temperature rather negli-

gIbly, on the T-s dIagram pomts a and b are effectively coincident.
The actual intake temperature may readIly be less than the satura-
tIon temperature, the compression wIll in"Vanably be accompanied by
some entropy increase (i e , the pump efficiency is less than 100 per
cent) 1 and the deJjvery pressure wOllJd normally have to exceed Bome~
what the boiler pressure, for overcoming frictIOnal effects en route
through piping and valves between pump and boIler As the pump
work is normally a relatively mmor item, irreversIbilIty effects en route
through the p\lmp are III general neglected In the following
ART. 13-2 RANKINE CYCLE 315
Process b _, c. The process is that of heating the feedwater from
its imtial status as a compressed hqUld at state b, ideally isobancally
and whIle en route through a feedwater heater, to a temperature that
is conventIonally taken as the saturation temperature corresponding
to the boiler pressure. The heater may be vIrtually an mtegral part of
the boiler, ih which event the heater is known mstead as an economizer,
or it may be a detached piece of equipment. In either instance heat-
ing aotually to saturation temperature will rarely be obtained. Appre-
CIable pressure drop may well 'occur en route through the heater or
economizer.
The relevant energy transition is the required heat mput (,q,) in
an amount per pound equal to h, - h, (if changes in geopotential and
kinetIc cnergIeS are negligible). Alternatively, it equals l' T ds if
frictional effects are negligible, and would correspondmgly be repre-
sented on the T-s dIagram by area wej. Of this total the quantities
represented by areas bcg and ,bg] are, respectively, the ideally avaIl-
able and the mechanically unaVaIlable components if the power plant
is operatmg with relection of the unavaIlruble energy reSIdue (in con-
denser) at T,.I' The heat WIll pass dIrectly from the hot combustIOn
products to the water III the economIzer, but otherwise its provision may
be rather indirect, perhaps through the agency of steam which has been
generated In the bOller but is delIvered to and condensed in the heater.
Process c _, d. The process is that of vaporizing the water in the
boiler at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure
maintained thereIn, and is conventIOnally taken as one III which the
steam IS delIvered dry ond saturated. The relevant energy tranSItIOn
is the heat mput (,q,) from the hot combustion products, in an amount
per pound equal to (h. - h,). Alternatively It equals T,.,(s. - s,)
if frictIOnal effects are negligIble, and so is represented to T-s coordI-
nates by area jcdk. Of this total, quantilles represented by areas gcdh
and jghk are, respectively, the ideally available and meehamcally un-
avaIlable components.
Process d _, e. The process IS that of superheating the steam leav-
ing the bOIler, in the superheater. It is conventIOnally taken as iso-
bane, but appreciable pressure drop may occur due to frictional effects
en route through the superheater The relevant energy· transition is
that received as heat (,q.) from the hot combustion products, in an
amount per pound equal to (h, - h.). Alternatively, It equals J: T ds
If frictional effects are negligIble, and would correspondmgly be repre-
sented to T-s coordinates by area kdel, of which total the areas hdef
and khfl sImilarly represent the ideally available and mechanically
unavailable components.
Process e ---> /. This process is the expansion of the steam in the
engine for the, purpose, finally, of transforming to work the aggregate
of the mechanically avallable components of the energies previously
received by the lIUld. The engme may be of the reciprocating-pIston
type (or equivalent), but currently lS usually of turbine type. The
expansion is conventionally regarded as adiabatic and isentropic, and
proceeding to the pressure at which the steam is subsequently con-
densed in the condenser. It may frequently be effectively adIabatic
but will mvariably be chamclenzed by entropy mcrease, as represented
by a "condition lme" such as line e-f' in the figure.
The relevant energy transition is the work output (,wti. If the
process IS effectively admbatic, and the geopotential and kinetlc ener-
glCS at entry and eXIt differ neghgibly, its amount per pound equals
(h, - h,) ideally or (h, - h,,) if fluid inction caused entropy increase.
The work output of the engine is not dJreetly representable to T-.
coordinates
Process / ---> a. The process is that of condensmg the exhaust steam
leaving the engine, and thereby of discarding as heat the mechanically
unavaiJable residue (qR, or ,q,) of the energy that has previously been
received by the flUld. It is conventlOnally taken to occur isobarically
m'the condenser, WIthout subcooling of the departing liquid, and the
condensate then returns to the feed tank and pump for recirculation
through the fluid cycle. Some subeooling of the liquid will normally
occur before leaving even a well-designed condenser. In situations
where retention of the condensate is not essential, the exhaust steam
may pass instead to the atmosphere and there condense, as has fre-
quently been done in installations such as that of the steam locomotive.
The temperature and corresponding (saturation)' pressure at which
the condensation occurs depends (1) on the temperature of the atmos-
phere or of surface waters to which the unavaIlable reSIdue of energy
is discarded as heat, and (2) on the temperature dIfference necessary to
effect the heat transfer.
The amount of energy discarded as heat, per pound of steam, equals
h, - h, (or h,. - h,), and is represented to T-s coordinates by area
ia/l (or area iaf'l'). Note that entropy increase en route through the
engine serves to increase the amount of unaVailable energy that must
be discarded in the condenser. The increase m the amount h,. - h"
and att"butable to the entropy growth is represented to T-s coordi-
nates by area Iff'I'
The net amqunt of work deliverable per pound of water or steam,
ART. 13-3 RANKINE CYCLE PERFORMANCE 317
by the complele cycle and installation, equals (h, - hI) or (h. - hr)
less (h, - h,) if the processes in pump and engine are eJfectiyely adlO-
batic and if in these the difference m terminal geopotenbal and kinetic
energIes are negligible. It is to be recalled that, althougb fluid friction
and turbulence in any of the processes WIll have altered the terminal
states of the fluid, the energy significances of relevant enthalpy differ-
ences are not invalidated.
As the net work equals also the total amount of heat supplied via
heater, boller, and superheater less that residue departing as heat via
the condenser, the net work output Ideally obtainable is represented
to T-s coordinates by area abede/. If the sole mechanical non-
idealism is that attributable to fluid friction and entropy increase en
route through the engine, the actual work output is less than the ideal
in the amount of the resulting increment of unavailable energy, or
would ,be represented by area abede' less area lff'!'.
13-3. Performance Characteristics Bnd Indices, Rankine Cycle.
In conformity with primary thermodynamic considerations, the only
ways in which one may increase the, ideally available component of
the energy received by the workmg fluid, or decrease the inherently
unavailable residue, are:
(a) By reduction of the temperature level at which the unavailable
component departs from the fluid.
(b) By raising of the (mean) temperature at which the fluid has
accepted the energy coming from its source
As the earth's atmosphere or its surface waters constItute the "sink"
to which the unavailable energy may continuously be delivered as
heat, the local temperatures of these establish a minimum to which
temperature T", of the cycle may approach. The influence of this
temperature on the overall performance of the cycle is relatively qUIte
large, but WIth good design and operation it may be made to approach
the local minimum within perhaps 15 to 25°F. Its excess over the
minimum is affecled in the main by the amount and effectiveness of
the heat-transfer surfaces provided In the condenser and the rate of
supply of the coolmg water An madequate supply acts to increase
its mean temperature.
With relation to the energy received as heat by the working fluid,
significant considerations as eVIdenced to advantage by lbe representa-
tions on the T-s diagram are:
(c) The energy received during the feed-heating portion of the fluid
cycle has the least relative avaIlabihty, due in one sense to the lower
mean temperature during its reception or in an alternative sense to the
greater thermal irreversibility associated with the letting-down of the
energy through a maximum range of temperature III lts passage to the
hqUld. '
(d) The energy received durmg vapomatlOn (hi,) is inherently of
improved availability, due to a mamlamed elevated temperature of the
ilUld during the energy receptJOn. It is bettered by increase of that
temperature, but wlth 3 penalty in the way of an active and perhaps
troublesome lDerease of the correspondmg (saturation) pressure at
which the higher-temperature portions of the cycle has to operate.
Note that the energy received dunng vaporization becomes a progres-
sively smaller proporbon of the aggregate received during feed-heatmg
plus vaporization, approachmg zero as the cnlleal temperature and
pressure are approached.
(e) The energy received during superheating has the greatest rela-
tive availabihty, but its relative amount is generally a moderate pro-
portion of the total unless very considerable superheat 18 provided,
and m that event troublesomely hIgh temperatures may well be
encountered.
The following examples illustrate detalls of the computations both
for ideahzed cycles and for more reahsuc condltions.
Example 13~1. Determine the follow18g Items for a steam power installatIOn
operatmg on the RankIne cycle With the steam generated at 800 psia and leaving
the .superheater at that pressure but at 900°F, and WIth 80°F in the condenser.
Regard fnctJOnal effects or kmetlc energies 88 negligible throughout. (a) Work -
reqUIred by feedwater pump, Btu per pound; (b) heat reqUired per pound for
feed water beatmg, and ita .available component (actual and proportIOna.te),
(c) heat required for vaporIzing, and its available component; (d) heat reqUIred
for superheating, and its available component; (e) total energy supplIed as heat,
and Its available component; (f) work output of engme, Btu per pound, and the
quality of the engine exhaust; (g) net work output of cycle; (h) heat rejected In
condenser; (t) thermal effiCIency of cycle (Item g/Item e); (J) heat reqUIred per
net horsepower-hour output; (k) steam reqUIred per net horsepower-hour output.
SOlution. Prelimmary data: at 800 psis; hI = 509.7, hIli = 688.9, hfl = 11£86
lSI = 0 7108, /JIll = 07045, and s(J = 1.4153.
At 800 p.is snd 900'F· h ~ 1455.4 and 8 ~ 16407.
At BOoF (540 0 R): PlJlt = 1.032" Hg or 05069 psis, hI = 480, hf = 1096.6,
sl = 0.0932, and 80 = 20360.
g, Available wlJ,
Btu/lb Component Btu/lb
(BOO -0.5) X 144 XO.016
(a) Pump work~(clo.ely) 778 ~ +25
(b) .For wn~r warming, q ~ 509.7 - (480 + 2 5) ~ 459.2

Available component =[(Darrieus function, Art. 7-10)
1259
. 459.2 - 540(0.7108 - 0 0932) ~ { 27.4%
ART. 13-3 RANKINE CYCLE PERFORMANCE 319
q b w/J
(c) For vaporizmg, q 6889
308.7
Available component = 688 9 - 540 X 0 7045 = ( 44.8%
(d) For superheating, q = 1455.4 - 1198 6 2568
Available component =
)1352
2568 - 540 (1.6407 - 1.4153) =
1526%
(e) Heat.upphed (total) = 1455.4 - (480 + 2.5) = 1404.9
Available component =
)569.8
1404.9 - 5JO(16417 - 00932) =
\ 40.5%
(j) Engine work. Byequa.tIOn B-<i, after expamnou
to p = 05069 ps," at 8 = 16407, h = 1096.6 -
(2.0360 - 1.(407) X 540 = 888.1,
w = S33.1 - 1455.4 -572.3
Quahty= (S33 2-48 0)/(10966-480) =0 790
~g) Net work = -572.3 + 2.5 -5698
(h) Heat rejecud, condenser, ==: 48.0 - 883,1 = -8351
(,) Thermal efficiency = 5698/1404.9 = 0.4055 (4055%)
(j) Heat required per hp-br = 2544/04055 = 6280 Btu
(k) Steam required per hp-br = 2544/5698 = 4'.47 Ib
Example 13·2 mdicates the influence of varIOUS irreverSlblhties for
a cycle which otherwise is the same as that of Example 13-1.
Examplo 13-2. Redetermine the Items of the precedmg example, except the
avrulable-energy components, if the same bOller and condf'nser pressures are
mamtamed but actual performances depart from the meal In the features that
(1) feed-pump effiCIency = 65%, (2) pressure drop In passage from pump to
bOiler .... 50 pSI; (3) pressure drop in passage from bOiler to engine =-.50 pSI,
(4) adlabatio efficiency of engine (w•• tu..!WU •• I) = 80%.
Solut,on. Supplementary data: at 900°F and 750 psi" h - 14572 and 8-
1.6487.
q, W,
B'?/Ib Btu/l b
(850 -05) X 144 X0016
(a) Pwnp work = (closely) .:::::::.-'=..:.::..:..:::...:.::....:.= +40
778 X 0.05
(b) Forfeedheating,q = 509.7 - (480 40) + 457.7
(c) For vapomang, q 688.9
(d) For superheating, q "" 1457.2 - 11986 258 a
(e) Heat supplIed, total 1405.2
(j) Engine work, for expansIOn to p = 0.5069 psia at 8 = 1 6487,
h ~ 887.5 and W'd", = 887.2 - 1457.2 = -569.7 Btu/lb.
At80%efficiency,w"" -5697 X080 -455.8
At p =- 0.5061J and h - 14572 - 455.8 = 1001.4, qualIty
= (1001.4 - 480)/(10966 - 48 0) = 0.909 (90 9%).
(g) Net work, cycle -451.8
320 CONDENSING-FLUID CYCLES CIIAP. 13
(h) Heat rejected = 48.0 - 10014 = -953.4
(.) Thermo.! efficiency = 451.8/1405.2 = 0.3213 (32.13%).
(J) Heat required per hp-hr = 2544/0.3213 = 7920 Btu.
(k) Steam reqUIred per hp-hr = 2544/4518 = 5.411b
As the latter thermo.! efficiency is (32 13/4055 =) 79.2% of thai [or the ideal
conwtIons, the influence oC non-ideals other tha.u the 80% englne efficiency is evi-
dently appreciable but moderate.
Items i, j, and k of Examples 13-1 and 13-2 are the indICcs which
are conventionally employed for expressmg the performance of a steam
power cycle or installation. The two ratcs per horsepower-hour are
normally abbreviated to the terms steam rate and heat rate. The
thermal efficiency and steam rate are used also in connection with the
engine alone. Although the stcam rate IS frequently of practieal
concern, It is in general less informative for comparative purposes than
the thermal efficiency or heat rate.
In connection with the above examples a noteworthy observatiod is
the proportion of the total work output that is obtamed durmg the
expansion from atmospheric to condenser pressures, and the consIder-
ablc influence of variation of the temperature in the latter. Evidence
relating to the ideal expansIOn of Example 13-1, at 8 = 1.6407 and an
initIal enthalpy of 1455.4 Btu/lb, is sufficiently informative. The
accompanymg table of the results of computations paralleling those
of the example indicates that approximately one-third of the total
work is attrIbutable to the expansIOn tbrough the terminal range
of pressure of about 14 psi, or that an increment of output III excess
of 1.4 Btu/lb (1100 it-lb) is Ideally procurable per degree decrease III
the condenser temperature.
,Terminal Enthalpy, Enthalpy

Fraction of Total
Pressure, psis at 8 = 1.6407 Decrease
14.7 (212°F) 1072.5
158.8 158.8
0.949 (100°F) 913.7 158.8 1455.4 _ 913.7 = 541.7 = 0293
189.4 1894
0.507 (80°F) 883.1 1894 1455.4 - 883 1 = 883.1 = 0.331
2208 2208
0.256 (60°F) 851.7 220.8 1455.4 _ 851.7 = 603.7 = 0366
Selections of the operating steam pressure and the temperature to

which the steam shall be superheated are affected by considerations
such as the cost, weight or availability of structural material capable
of maintaining requisite strength when at elevated temperatures.
ART 13-3 RANKINE CYCLE PERFORMANCE 321
However, with the turbine type of engine the selections may not be
made haphazardly but are instead influenced jointly by further con-
sideratlOns, and will represent." compromise aImed at optimum use of
the materials. The nature of such supplementary influences become
evident on scrutInY of the T-s or h-s dIagram, and include:
1. The basIc necessity for pressure mcrease to enable increase of
the mean temperature at which the steam receives its energy.
2. An additional necessity for increased superheat with increase in
pressure, to escape excessive wetness of the steam after expansion to
the lower pressure zone of the turbine, with consequent excessive blad-
ing erosion and mefficiency.
3 An opposite advantage in 11 minimum permissible steam quahty
at the turbine exbaust, in order to obtain maximum work output per
pound without employmg excessive superheat temperatures.
4. The influence of the attainruble turbIlle efficiency (adiabatic) on
the correspondmgly required operating pressure.
Experience indIcates the inadvIsability of • droplet concentration
at exhaust that, nominally, exceeds about 10 per cent but probably is
considerably less due to the deferrmg of condensation characterIzing
supersaturation. Example 13-3 illustrates the mutual influence of
this and others of the above considerations on the required state of
the steam as supplled to the turbme.
Example 13~3. Estimate the required pressure and temperature of the steam
supplied to a turbine if the e:r:haust pre.ssure js 1 5" Hg, and lis adlabaHc e£fieiency
is 850/0, in order that 8 work output of 600 Btu/lb may be secured but the
quality of the Jeavjng steam shall not be less than 90% (based on eJfpaIL'uon
without supersaturatlon and no moisture removal during expallSlon). For general
interest determine also the required supply .state if the expansion were mstead
ISentropic; a.lso the Rankme cycle thermal efficiency and heat rate for both
circumstances.
/
Solution. Genet's.l data: a.tp = 1.5 ' Hg and x = 0.00, h = 9975, a = 1.815, and
T ~ 9J.7'F or 5513'R, also h, ~ 59.7.
The desired work output reqUires an enthalpy of the steam supply of (997 5 +
500 =) 1497.5 Btu/lb. At 85% adiabl1tic efficiency the corresponding increment of
unavwlable energy and of entropy accompanying the expansion through the turbine
are, respectively, (5()0/0.85 - 500 =) 88 2 Btujlb and (88 2/551.3 ~) 0.160
Btu(tlb, 'R). The entropy of the ,\earn ,upply ,hall thus be (1.815 - 0 160 ~)
1.655. These values o( h and $. as requIred at the supply state, serve to fix the
pressure and temperatwe at that sfateat 925pSlB and 983"F (closely); tDpun::l:J) = 4.8.
For isentropic expansion the va.lues of hand 8 at the supply stute would be.
respectively. 14975 and 1815. so reqUIring ideally 8 pressure of 210 psis. and 941°F
(closely).
500-48
For the actual expansion (rom 925 psia: thermal effiCiency = 14D7.5 _ (5{l7 + 4.8)
~ 0 346, and heat r.te ~ 2544/0.346 - 7340 Btu/hp-hr

5[)() - 06
For isentro}:lic expansion from 210 PSIR:: thermal efficiency
Hn7" - (59.7 + 0.6)
- 0 3475, and hent rate = 2544/0.3475 = 7320 Btu/hp-hr.
Note that the 85 per cent turbme effiCIency may thus In a sense be
regarded as, prllnanlYJ incurring the penalty of, a required operating
pressure of 925 psia, instead of 210 pSJa, but without compensating
betterment III the thermal efficlency or heat rate.
The results of Ilke determinatlOns of the slmultaneously reqUlred
supply pressure and temperature, and the correspondingly attainable
Rankme-cycle heat rate and steam rate, all as based on a 15" Hg
pressure and 90 per cent quality at turbine exhaust, are llldicated lD
1200
1000
l,-~"'~ ~. tutbl~e ml~t, \ I I ,='.,%
perfor~ance !haraclerls!lc~.
- '24,000
2~OOO
"
20
0
- -/ -- -- -J---
,
!-
Ral\klne cycle, at % = 0 90 and I-- 16,000 _g.
~.
\\ V I condenser pressure = IS' Hg abs

12000 m
• !!I
]"
Y) r"-- LLBtU/hp·rr, la~% Hea} rate, ~u/hLhr, JS% 8,000 ': •

If
200 ,_ ~' _rT-- 1--- ~~~e~b.b~~ ~~ -- -- 4.000
~
4
0
o
Ib{hJl-h;, l~
200 400
•
600
I I I I
800 1000 1200 1400
o o
Steam pressure, pSla
Fig. 13-2.
Fig. 13-2. The arrangement of the graph is such that entry at a

speclfied pressure, and passage to the relevant curves, serves to indi-
cate the associated values of the other 1tems. Results are given both
for an 85 per cent adiabatic efficiency of the turbme and, for general
interest, a 100 per cent efficiency.
The temperature curves indicate the active increase and difficultly
hlgh values of the temperature for enablmg the specified minimum
exhaust quallty on increase of the supply pressure.
A sIgnificant observatlon IS also, for the Rankine cycle, the quite
moderate rate of betterment of the heat rate wlth the actual engine at
steam supply pressures e~ceeding some 800-1000 psia. Accompanymg
temperature requirements are some 950-1000°F. AlthOugh special
operating and economic conslderations may Justify departures from
supply condltlOns in this general range, they are not unrepresentative
of steam power plant pracllce if wIthout resuperheatmg (Art 13-4)
It is worthy of note in th,s connection that practIcal difficulties
and costs associated with eqmpment capable of operation under such
simultaneous temperature and pressure conditions may justify the
employment of working fluids other than water. Several installations
ART .. 13-4 REHEATING CYCLE 323
are m fact in successful operation in the United States in which mer-
cury and water are used ID a cascade character of arrangement. That
IS, the mercury is vaporIzed at fairly elevated temperatures but quite
moderate (saturation) pressure m a furnace and boiler by the hot
combustions products. After exp~nsion through a mercury turbine
to a low pressure and medium temperature, the vapor passes to a con-
denser WhICh serves also as a steam boiler. The steam WhICh is so
generated, by the energy leaving the condensing mercury, circulates
through a conventlOnal steam turblDe and a condenser (at atmospheric
temperature) before returning to the "condenser-boiler" It appears
that the worklllg fluids employed in the "temperature-engine" cycles
that WIll be developed for mechamcal power generatIon from the con-
trolled release of energy from the nuclear fuels, may well include some
other than water. Comparable two-step arrangements are also in
operation m which steam is generated m a low-pressure boiler but
by energy transfer as heat from the hot exhaust gases of internal-
combustIOn engines.
13-4. Reheating Cycle. To take advantage of the greater relatlve
availability of the energy received by the steam durmg superheatmg,
and also for enablmg low mOIsture content at the turbine exhaust
Wlthout the necessity for dIfficultly high steam temperatures, the steam
supply to the turbme may be generated in a boiler with primary super-
heater at rather high pressure but moderate (superheat) temperature,
Rnd then returned through a secondary superheater (or even a third)
for reheating after passage through the higher-pressure elements of
the turbine. It then proceeds through the lower-pressure element.
This modificatlOn of the Rankme cycle is known as the reheating cycle
Figure 13-3 indicates diagrammatically the equipment arrangement
and also the associated processes (for both Isentropic and irreversible
expansions)
The dIrect thermodynamic benefit of resuperheating is in itself
rather mmor, as the energy received by the workmg fluid at the higher
(mean) temperature of that phase of the cycle forms a moderate pro-
portion of the total. However, by scrutiny of the T-s dlagram of
Fig. 13-3, it will appoar that considerable indtrect benefit is securable
from the abihty to employ a much higher but practicable boiler
pressure and corresponding vaporizatlOn temperature while not ex-
ceeding permissible top temperatures, but stIll to aVOld an otherwise
excessIve moisture content at the low-pressure end of the expansion.
Boiler pressures of 1500 psi and higher are currently representative.
Example 13-4. Determme the Buccessive etates of the steam in a reheat-.
eycJe m.st&ilation ill whIch the steam is supplied at 1200 pSJa and 760"F but
reheated to 8OO"F after expansion to 300 p:na through the hIgh-pressure turbine;
also the load dIstnbution 88 between the hIgh-pressure and lower-pressure
turbInes, and the composite steam and heat rates for the installatIon, the a.dla-
batic effiClencIes of both turbmes bemg taken as 0.85 and the exhaust pressure
bemg Ii" Hg ab.
Flg. 13-3. Reheat cycle.
Solutwn. At 1200 psia and 760°F (see FIg. 13-3 for notatIon), hd,l "'" 1353.2 and
8d,l == 15198. At 8 == 1.519g and p'= 300 psis, h == 1211.2 and thus hll,l =
1353.2 - 0.85 (13532 - 1211.2) = 1353.2 - 1207 = 12325 Btu/lb and T•. I =
460'F. Work (high-pressure turbine) = 120.7 Btu/lb.
At 300 psi. and goo'F, hd•• = 1420.6 and 8d.' - 1.7184. A~, = 1.7184 and
p = 15" Hg, z = 0 8488 and h = 944.1, and thus h•• , = 14206 - 0.85(1420.6 -
9441) = 14206 - 405 0 = 1015.6 Btu/lb and X,,2 = 0,017. Heat for reheating
142Q.6 - 1232.5 = 188.1 Btu/lb, work of low-pressure turbine = 405 0 Btu/lb.
Toml work, both turblDe" = 1207 + 405 0 = 525.7 Btu/lb of whIch 23 0% lS
furnished by the high-presslU'e turbine. Pump work, ideal, = 3 5, and net work
output = 525.7 - 3.5 = 522.2 BtuJlb Heat required before resuperheatlDg =
13&32 - (59.7 + 3 5) = 12900, and totsl amount required = 1290.0 + 188.1 =
1478.1 Btu/lb.
Steam rate = 2544/5222 - 4 87 lb/hp-hr, heat rate = 4.87 X 1478 1 = 7200
Btu/hp-hr and thermal efficiency ~ 522 2/1478 1 = 0353.
ART. 13-5 REGENERATIVE FEED-HEATING CYCLE 325
It may be of mterest to note that, for providing the same exhaust quality a.nd work
per pound WIth the same turbme efficiencies in 8. &nl.ple funkme CY~le, & Bte&m
supply at about 950 psia but 1055~ "",auld be required, and a heat ~ate of about
7180 Btu/hp-hr would be ..cured (V8 1200 p~" 760°F, and 7200 Btu/hp-hr).
13-5. Regeneralive Feed-Heating Cycle. Recalling from Art.
13-3 and Example 13-1 the inferior avaIlability but considerable pro-
portion of the energy accepted by the working fluid in the feed-heating
portion of a Rankme cycle when employmg higher steam pressures,
It would appear that opportunity for betterment in heat rate and
efficiency might be found In means th.t escape or .t least reduce these
disadvantages. Recall further that a valId aspect of the cause of
such inferior availabilIty is the major thermal Irreversibility associated
Fig. 13-4.
with letting down of the heat supplied by the hot combustion products
to the feedwater, at its lower (mean) temperatures. Thus It may
reasonably be antICIpated that lhe desired betterment might be reahzed
if in any manner such irreversibility were escaped or minimized
A unique manner of accompltshing this might be by providmg the
energy for progressive warming of the feedwater by a progressIve
transfer as heat from the steam which is expandmg through the tUTb,ne,
in a counterflow arrangement. A hypothetical arrangement of this
character and associated idealIzed processes are indICated in Fig. 13-4.
At any poin~ during the heat transfer the local temperature of tbe
steam might Ideally equal (although in actuahty would moderately
exceed) the local temperature of the water by which the energy is
bemg received. The arrangement would be that of a thermodynam-
ically ideal regenerat,ve feed-heatwg cycle. Although the indICated
character and arrangement of eqUipment are impracticable, the cycle
as depicted is an idealized prototype of practical adaptations which
are known by the same name. It is seen from the figure that the
ideal arrangement and processes provide:
(a) A thermally reversi'ble manner of furmshmg as heat to the feed-
water Just the amount of energy required for Its warming
(b) An energy acceptance by the flUId from the combustIon products
III the amount only of its enthalpy of vaporIZatIOn and entirely at its
vapOrIZatIOn temperature.
(c) The realIzation thereby of a "warped" cycle (i e, to T-s coordI-
nates) which is, however, the effective equivalent of the Carnot cycle
(Arts 6-4 and 7-5) and is in principle capable of attainmg the optimum
efficiency which characterIZes that cycle.
Example 13-5 verifies these general considerations.
Example 13-5. For purposes of comparison determme the steam and heat
rates, and the associated thermal efficiency of mstallatIons operatmg (a) on an
Ideal Rankine cycle and (b) on the Idealized regenerative feed-heatIng cycle, If
the steam supply m each instance IS dry and saturated at 800 psm and expansion
JB to 1.5" Hg. aba Also compare the latter WIth the Carnat-cycle efficiency for,
the same temperature range.
Solulwn. At p ~ 800 psi. .nd x ~ 10, T ~ [450 6 + 518 2 ~) 977.8'R,
h ~ 11986, hfa - 688.9 Btu/lb, and 8 ~ 14153 nt./(lb, 'n)
(a) On isentropIC expansion at 8 = 14153 to 15" Hg' T = 5513°R, x =
06881, and h ~ 7767. Pump work [ideal) ~ 24 Btu/lb, work output (net) ~
(!l986 - 776.7) - 2.4 ~ 421 9 - 2.4 ~ 419.5Btu/lb; llndhclltmput ~ 1198 6 -
[59 7 + 2 4) ~ 1136.5 Btu/lb.
Thus, for ideal Rankine cycle steam rote = 2544/4195 = 6065, heat rate =
~.065 X 1136 5 ~ 6890 Btu/hp-hr, and thermal efficlency ~ 419.5/1136 5 ~ 0369.
(b) After ideal expanSIOn of the steam in the tUl bme (1 e., WIthout mechawcal
IrreverSIbIlity), but havmg concurrently furnished energy reverslbly as heat (qJ to
the feedwater in an amount and With accompanymg entropy decrease equal, respec-
tIvely, to the enthalpy lind entropy In£'rease of the feedwaLer during its warmmg to
977 SOR, heat transferred dunng expansion (We) = (59.7 + 24) - 509.7 = -447.6,
s, '= 14153 - (07108 - 0 1147) = 14153 - 05961 = 0.8102, x~ = 0.3771, and
h. ~ .446.4. Thus work output (turbIDe) = [hd - h.) + diI. ~ (1198.6 - 446.4) -
4476 = 3046, net work = 304.6 - 24 = 302.2, and hent,input = c(h/(J)d = 688 9
Btu/lb
Correspondmgly, fat ideal regenerab.ve feed.hcating cycle: steam rate =
2544/302.2 ~ 809 lb/hp-hr, beat rate ~ 809 X 688.9 ~ 5570 Btu/bp-hr, and
thermal efficiency ~ 3022/688 9 ~ 0439.
For a Carnot cycle operatJ.ng between 977.8Q and 551.3°R, therma] efficlency =
(T, - T,)/T , ~ 10 - 551.3/977.8 ~ 0436. The sman d,screpancy between
these efficlencies is only arIthmetical in arigm.
Comparative results are summarIzed !l.8 follows'
Steam Rate q Hent Rate Efficiency

Simple Rnnkine cycle, ideal 6.065 11365 6,S{)0 0.369
Regenerative cycle, ideal 809 688.9 5,570 0.439
Note the higher steam rate but much better heat rate and efficiency of the latter cycle .
. Several observatIOns of general but slgmficant nature are opportune
in the above connections. Perhaps a first is that one readily perceIves
the unfavorable infiuence of mechanical friction (or resistance) when
endeavormg ta effect motIOn between mavmg parts af any mechamsm,
and its assaciated cannotatian af mechanical meversibility (Art. 4-2)
Without dIfficulty one accepts hke concepts relating to fluid friction
and turbulence when the flow af a fluid is ta be maintained. The
parallel thermodynamtc consequences of a resistance to the transItIOn
of energy as heat and the associated concept of thermal irreversibIlity
(Art. 7-7) are less readIly appreciated. Howcvcr, theu appreciatIOn
1S of e,'en gre.ter importllnce in all circumstances where tbe project
is that of transformmg to work a maximum available portion of energy
which is supphed originally to the devICe as heat, or where heat
translers are involved in Its operatIon. The consequences of ideally
avoiding such meverslbihty are indicated rather spectacularly by the
above ideahzed regenerative feed-heating cycle. They serve also to
point the general thermodynamic tlmoral'J that:
(a) The presence in a plant of any process whatsoever in which
energy ts transferred as heat from a flwd at higher temperature to a
regton at lower temperature must invariably tend to reduce the thermal
efficiency of the plant as a whole.
(b) The magnitude of thts efficiency reduction ts increasingly greater
as the temperature d'fference is large.
(c) The loss is mmimized as means are provided whereby the hot
fluid shall first be Gaused to deltver the ava,lable portion of ,ts energy
as work by effietent expansion In an engine, w,th concurrent tempera-
ture drop to such a temperature that the heat tran."tion may take place
with a temperature dlfferentud whteh ts as small as 18 practicable or
as economic con8iderat~·o1lS warrant.
The arrangement indICated in Fig. 13-4 for regenerative leedwater
heating is thermodynamIcally optimum, but is impracticable struc-
turally Also, the energy departure as heat during the expansion
would aggravate seriously the amount of water carned ,nth the steam
as it passes through the turbine. A more practICable approach to this
Ideal IS provided ,by dlvertmg or "extracting" portions af the stream,
at several pressure levels in the turbme, and using this bled steam
far progressive hcatmg of the feed water in a succession of heat ex-
changers. Numerous arrangements af this general character arc
employed in practice, differing appreciably in detaIl and complexity,
but the simpler one indicated in Fig. 13-5 and employing three heat
exchangers is adequateJy representative for present purposes. A
superheater is also mdicated. The reheating of Art. 13-4 may also
be mtroduced, but is not shown. WIth the currently hIgher boiler
BOiler and d
superheater
qR
Fig 13-5. Regenera.tive feed.hea.ting cycle.
pressures extraction may be made at some four or more pressure

levels, so selected that the associated (saturation) temperatures at
the extractIOn pressures are about uniformly distributed as between
those at boiler and condenser pressures.
The progressive change of thermodynamic states of those portions
of the steam entering the turbine, .nd which contmue through it,
may be represented by the condition-liM, such as bnes d-1-2-3-e or
d_l'~2'_3/_e', the numbered points denoting also the deparlmg states
of those portions which are extracted After condensation of the Jatter
in the heat exchangers their states are nominally (and in fact rea-
sonably closely) those of saturated liqUId at the extraction-points
pressures. WIth the indlCated location of condenser-condensate and
boiler-feed pumps, the state of the feedwater leavmg a heat exchanger
is nominally (and in fact reasonably closely) that of the liquid at the
saturatIOn temperature corresponding to the extractIOn-pomt pressure
but compressed to the boiler pressure.
Relations may readily be written expressmg for an arrangement such
as that of Fig. 13-5 the energy and mass distributions in the turbme,
heaters, etc. There is some advanwge m writing these in terms of rates,
with symbol m denotJng mass rate, III pounds mass per hour.
For I.he turbme
Power output=m,(h,-h,)+ (m,-m,)(h 1 -h2 )+
(m,-ml -m.)(h2-h,)+ (1h,-ml-m2-m3)(h,-h.) (13-1)
where power output = horsepower output X 2544, Btu/hr.
For first extraction-heater
m, (hI - hr.,) = m,(h, - h•. o) (13-2)
where in the J.!lustrated arrangement m, = m" and where h. and h•.•
are the enthalpies of compressed liquid at boder pressure but the satura-
tion tempera.tures corresponding, respectively, to the extraction pres-
sures for first and for second heaters.
For second extraction-heater
m.(h. - hI .• ) + m, (h l •1 - hI .• ) = m.(h •.• - h•. 3) (13-3)
For th,rd extraction-heater
rfi,(h, - hI.,) + (m, + m.)(h r .3 - hJ.3) = m,(h•. , - h.) (13-4)
For system enclosed by broken lines in Fig 13-5
rh,h, + (m, + mZ)h,.2 + (m. - ml - m2 - m,)h l +
pumping power = .It,h•. , (13-5)
The pumping power is expressible closely as
(m, - m, - m. - m,)(pt~k - PI)VI + m,(p. - Pt~k)V"Dk
J1IcllbdBJlSAte PllQJ,p J 'f/feed pump
or Wlth generally adeqnate precision as
m.(p. - PI)"I
J 7JJeed 'pumD
Observe that, regarding the ratios m,/m" ril2/m" and ril,/ril. as
unknowns, equations 13-2, 13-3, and 13-5 and the above specifications
concerning relevant enthalples provIde the required facilities for the
determinatIOn of these ratIOs Example 13-6 Illustrates, and also
IndICates associated procedures for determinmg the actual flow rates,
heat rates and ,efficIency of the installatIOn.
Useful and eVIdent further energy relotions ore.
For bmler and superhealer
Q = TIl, (hd - h,) (13-6)
For condenser
QR = (m, - ml - m2 - ma)(h. - hi) (13-7)
For enitre cyde
Net power = Power output (turbine) - m,(p, - P/)VI/J~ (13-8)
Example 13·6. Steam IS supplIed at 800 pSla and 960°F to a turbme whIch
IS exha.u::;tJ..ng to the condenser at 15" fig abs, and from whIch ::LI:<l.1ll Hi extracted
for regeneratIve feed water heatmg at 300, SO, and 12 pSIS. For these condItions
deterIlllne the followmg Items' (a) Relatlve amounts of steam dIverted to each
heater, pounds per pound gomg to the turbme, If the condensate and the feed-
water leaving each IS (Ideally) at the saturatIOn temperature correspondmg to
the heater pressure and the condensate leavmg the condenser IS also saturated
(b) Work output by turbine (WI) per pound of steam supplIed and the amounts
of Bteam gOIng to turbIne, to each heater, and to condenser, pounds per horse-
power..haur output of turbme. (c) Heat rate for cycle, Btu per net horsepower-
hour output, and thenllal effiCiency (excIudmg mfluence of bOIler efficiency)
(d)' Enthalpy, temperat,ure, and correspondmg satUratIOn pressure of feedwater
leaving feed tank.
Determine these both for an Ideally IsentropIC expilllSloll throughout turbme
and compression lD pumps, and If for each sectIon of turbme the adiabatiC
effiCiency IS 085 and the pump effiCiency IS 070 Also compare the steam rate of
the turbIne and heat ra.te of the cycle With those of a correspondIng Rankine
cycle
Soluhon. Relevant properties, RI!I uutamed from steam-property umgrams and
t:l.bles, are as follows' At p = 800 pSlO. and T = ~WO°F. h~ = 1480 Btu/lb and
" - LG64,
For tSentroptc expanSl-on at 8 = 1.664' o.t PI = 300, h} = 1356 and TI = 700°Fi
at P2 == 80, h2 = 1218 and T2 = 376°F, fit pa = 12, h~ = 1074 and X3 = 0.925,
and at p. = 1 S", h. = 014 and X6 = 0820
For expans~on8 alO 85 effiC'tenCle8: at PI = 300, hi = 1489 - 0 85(1489 - 1356) =
1376,8, - 1.682, and 1\ - 714'F; at p, - 80, h, = 1376 - 0 85(1376 - 1233) -
1255,,, - 1.706, and T, = 44S'F; at P. - 12, h, - 1255 - 9,85(1255 - 1102) -
1125,83 :::: 1741, and Xa = 0978; at p~ = 1.5", h~ = 1125 - 0.85(1125 - 956) =
98],8e = 1786, and Xe = 0.885.
For Ltquid State8

S~atlOn c 1 2 3 e
p 800 300 80 12 1 5"
T, OF 417 417 312 202 91.7
hi, Btu/lb 394 282 170 59.7
he'" 3943 hb,2 = 283 2 h". _ 171.7
Am. 13-5 REGENERATIVE FEED-HEATING CYCLE 331
Pump work Ibetwoen 15/1 and 800 PSlll. = 24 Btu/lb, Ideally, and 3.4 Btu/lb at
70% pump e f f i c i e n c y . ' .
For Isentropic Expansions and Pumping

By equatIOn 13-2: mllm, - (3D4.3 - 283 2)/(1356 - 394) = 0 1155 lbjlb
m, __ (283.2-171.7)-01155(394-282)
By equation 13-3: = 0.10531bjlb
m. 1218 - 282
Subtotal = 0 2208
By eqWltlOn 13-5. m,
m, = (171.7 -59.7 - 1074
24) -0.2208(282-59 7)
_ 59.7 = 005971bjlb
Total = 0 2805
w, = (1489 - 1356) + 0.8845(1356 - 1218) + 0 7792(1218 -
1074) +
07195(1074 - 914)
= 133 + 122.1 + 1122 + 115 1 = 482.4 Btujlb of steam generated
Weyole = 4824 - 2.4 = 480.0 Btujlb
Stearn rate (turbine) = 2544/482.4 = 5274Ib/bp-hr
Stearn rate (cycle) = 2544/480.0 = 580 Ib/bp-hr
Heaten!' ml = 0 1155 X 5.274 = 0 909 Ib/hp-br, '"' = 0 553, '"3 = 0.315,
m. = 3.7D
Heat supplIed = 1489 - 3943 = 1094 7 Btu/lb
Heat rate (turbIne) = 5.274 X IOD4.7 = 5774 Dtu/hp-hr
Heat rate (cycle) = 5.30 X 1094.7 = 5802 Iltu/bp-br
Thermal effiCIency (turbine) = 2544/5774 = 0.441
Thermal effiCIency (cycle) = 2544/5802 = 0440
Feed tank. h. = I(ml + '"' + ,"3)hl.3 + m.hl .•l/m,
= 02805 X 170 +
0 7195 X 59 7 = 00.5 Btu/lb
To = 122.4°F, pa = 3.711 lIg
At Specified Turlnne and Pump Effu:ienciu
By parallel computatIOns but employing the modified values of hI, h2, ha, hill and
the pump work, and the correspondmgly modIfied amounts of steam to be extracted.
Steam Rates, Ib/hp-hr
mt/mc m2/me ma/me w" Tur- 1st 2nd 3rd Con-
Btujlb bine Heater Heater Heater denser
01143 01003 00604 1257 598 0684 0600 0361 4.335
Steam Rate, Heat Rate J Thermal
Ib/bp-br Btu/bp-hr Efficiency
Regenerative cycle 6.02 6500 0387
Ran kine cycle .,.04 7190 0.354
For convemence in comparisons the fo[]owmg table collecw the
heat rates found in examples 13-5 and 13-6. Although a gam of
about 1300 Btu/hp-hr is ideally procurable by the regeneratIve cycle,
this is reduced by about one-half for Its practical adaptation in the
form of the extraction cycle, even with the use of superheat. However,
addItional practICal benefits whICh are secured by use of the extraction
cycle include a reduced flow of steam, of very great specific volume,
through the low-pressure end of the turbine, a lesser reqUIrement for
circulating water for condensing purposes, and a greater flow of steam
of low specific volume to the high-pressure end of the turbme.' Design
dIfficultIes in both areas are thereby reduced
Example 13-5 Example 13-6

Heat Rate, Heat Rate,
Btu/hp-hr Btu/hp-hr
Ideal Rankme cycle 6890 Rllnkme cycle, 100%
Idea] regeneratIve cycle 5570 adiabatic efficIency 6340
Difference 1320 Extraction cycle, 100%
adiabatic efficlency 5802
Difference 538
Rankine cycle, 85%
adiabatic efliciency 7190
Extraction cycle, 85%
adiabatic effiCiency 6590
Difference 600
13·6. "First-Law" Energy nalance. An essential tool in prelimi-

nary analyses when designing a proposed heat-power installation, or
.. There IS some convenience In indicating grnphlCally, to the per-umt-mass
,coordinates of the thermodynamic ulagrams, the proportIOns of the steam entering
the turbine (m~), which at any extraction point continues through it, or which to and
includmg tim pomt have been extracted and condensed In the heateI"B (2;m z ). A
procedure for domg so is to locate on the relevant lsobar pomts having the enthalpy
per" pound of an Imagmed remixture of the aggregate extracted but condensed
portion with the portlOn wruch continues through the turbme. Pomts X I, X 2, and X 3
on the h-s diagram of FIg. 13-5 are so located. The energy and IIULB8 relatIOns for
such, a remlXing would be:
where hI = enthalpy of hqwd at the extraction-point pressure, h = enthalpy of

steam as extracted, and h~ = enthalpy nlter the presumed remixing. Thus
2:m.
11. = h - - (h -h,) (13-9)
m,
and (13-9a)
These relations tbus establIsh, on the isoba.r which corresponds to a gIVen extraction
positIOn, a point X wluch mdlcates the relative mMS of vapor that has been extracted
to a.nd includmg tha.t posit.IOn.
For the pomt as Similarly located on the condenser-pressure isobar, it may be
shown that the quantity (h:: - hj) serves to express also the amount of heat to be
t'eiected \U the 'cou.de.ns~J: ~\' l)Ollud ()[ s-ream ()!lgmail:y aUflphed. to the turbtne.
ART. 13-6 "FIRST-LAW" ENERGY BALANCE 333
when appraIsing the operatIng performance of an exisling one, is fur-
nished by accountIngs and representations both of the masses of the
fluid .going to parbcular devices and of the energies thereby conveyed
to and from them. Accounts and graphical representatIons serVIng to
exhibit such are descrJbed as energy b_alances or previously as "heat
balances." Also, for dIstingUIshing them from those in which atten-
tion is extended to IrreverSIble features lllducing progressIve degrada-
tion of the avaIlable components of the energy, they are descrIbed
more specifically as first-law balances. Those of the second type are
described in the folloWlllg article.
Example 13-7 illustrates relevant computations involved in the
proviSIOn of an energy account for a simple but reasonab1y repre-
sentatIve installation of whIch the Rankine IS the general prototype.
Appr'lCiable but realIstIc departures from ideal performances are intro-
duced. Kinetic and geopotentml energy changes are again regarded
as neglIgible, and only effectively steady flow is consIdered.
Example 13.7. The major equIpment and theLr duties, the piping connectIODB
and the operatmg conditIOns as regards pressures and temperatures m an
elementary steam power plant are indicated In Fig. 13-6. Feedwater heatmg 13
provided by a sl1lg1e heater in which exhaust steam from various steam-d.Ilven
auxlharies (such as feedwater and condenser CIrculating-water pumps, etc) IS
condensed. For ret8J.rung fresh water m the system a p05Slble surplus of such
steam, in excess of that which can be condensed In the heater, goes to the mam-
engme condenser.
A "reducing valve" throttles the steam to the aUXIlIaries to 214 PSI3., and their
exhaust is maintaIned. at 35 psia by a "back-pressure" va.lve In their condenser
connection.
The adlabatic efficiency of the main engine IS about 0 85, and the average steam
rate of the aux.tLanes IS about 45 lb/hp-hr. For this mstallation compute the
followmg iteIll.B; also mdicate pertment results on the figure and thereby provide one
form of energy-balance dtagram: (a) Steam tonmm turbme (m,. lb/hr) and enthalpy
leaving turbine, (b) steam to aUXiliaries (ma, Ib/hr), the enthalpy ICllvmg them and
their mean adiabatic effiCiency; (c) total steam generated, lb/hr; (d) aUXIliary
exhaust steam utilized for feed-water heatmg (mh, Ib/hr), (e) surplus auxiliary
exhaust going to main condenser, IbJhr (jJ temperature of water leaving fced tank;
I
(11) energy discard to Clrculatmg W[Lter III condenser, Btu/hr , (h) fuel oil required
per hour and per hp·hr output of Jllllin turbme, and the heat rate and thermal
elJiclencyof the plant, based on a furn.'1Ce and bOller effit.'lency of 80% a.nd 8 fuel-oil
heating value of 19,500 Btu/lb.
Solulton For dry saturated steam at 720 psm., h = 1200 7 and 8 = 1.4266 j after
throttling to 214 psia, h = 1200 7 and 8 = 1.5416 At 700 psis. and OOQ°F, k = 1459.0
and 8 = 1.6573. For water at T = 74°F and p = 1.0" Hg, h = 42.0 a.nd8 = 0820;
at T = 254 eF and p = 35 psi!)., h = 222.5 and If = 0.373; at T = 240°F and
p = 750 psin, h = 210 and, = 0352
(a) At It = 1.6573 and p = LOU Hg a.bs, h = 891 7 Btu/lb. Thus, a.fter expan-
sion at 85% aelIaballe efficiency, h = 1459 - 085(1459 - 891 7) = 14590 - 482 2
= 9768 Btuj]b and, = 1.8168, WIth 567.3 Btuj]b ideally and 482.2 Blu/lb actually
becoming aVailable as work output in turbUlB Thus, steam required by main
turbine = (20,000 X 2544)/4B22 = 105,500 [b/br, or 5.275 lb/hp-hr.
(b) Steam required, 8uXlltaries, = 000 X 45 = 27,000 Ib/hr. Enthalpy of
exhaust, at p ~ 35 psi., = 1200.7 - (2544/45) = 1200 7 - 56.5 = 1144.2 .nd
s = 1.6550. At 'P = 35 pSIS. and 8 = 1.5416, h = 10622 and Ideal work output =
1200.7 - 1062.2 = 138.1 Btu/lb, so that aidabatic efficumcy of auxIliaries =
56.5/138 1 = 0.4.1.
(c) Total steam generated = lOMOO + 27,000 = 132,500Ib/hr
Cd) By writing an energy equation for the ~ystern enclosed by the broken lines on
the figure, accounting also aD Jdeally reQuu'cd work mput to feedwB.ter pump of
2.1 Btu/lb but a pumpmg efficiency of 0 65.
m. X llH2 + (m, + m. - til.) X 420 + (m, + m.)(2.1/0 65) = (m,+ m.) X 210
or m. = 132,500 (2]0 - 42 - 32)/ (IH4.2 - 420) = 10,810 Ib/h,
(e) Surplus, to condenser, 27,000 - 19,810 = 7100 Ib/hr
(f) h,,,. ,~. = [19,810 X 222 5 + (105,500 + 7,190) X 42J/132,500
~
690 Btu/lb, T ~
!OIoF
(g) • X llH.2) _
Energy rejected in condenser ~ (105,500 X 976.8) + (7100
(112,600 X 42)
~ 106 5 )( 10' Btu/hr
(h) mo,1 ~ [27,000(1200 7 - 210J + 105,500(14S9 - 210)1/(19,500 X 0.80) ~
1585)( !O'/15,6oo = 10,160 lb/hr or, at 7.0 lb/gal, 1335 gal/hr, fuel r.te ~
10, 160/20,000 = 050S-lb/bp-hr; heat rate ~ 0,508 X 19,500 = 9905 Iltu(hp-hr;
and thermal efficiency = 2544/9905 = 0,257.
720 PSIB,;I;== 10
Reducing valve Turbine

700 pSI3, goo'F
2 4 pSi' 105.500 Ib/~r, h= 1459.0
27,000 Ib/he h = 1200 7 B k
3C ~ pressure
Aux.lanes, 600 /lp valve
Furnace, bOiler, 1190 Ib/hr •
and superheater!
80% eff
19.810 Ib/hr
r--
I Heater
750 pSla, 240'F
I ~"
'"vvv
132,500 Ibthe h = 210 a
I
I
[ T=254"r
[ h=222.5
L
I _____________ ..J
h= 690
Fig. 13-6.
The items recording, along the various lines of Fig 13-6, both the
mass rates and the relative enthalples of the fluid passing through
ART. 13-6 "FIRST-LAW" ENERGY BALANCE 335
them provide a graplncal summarization of the maES dIstrIbution
throughout the installation and· mdlrect information concerning the
energy dIstribution. For more direct exhIbItIon of the energy distrrbu-
396
(20.0%)
Shan
-
Stack gases
J;
~.£
-~
~
iE~
0
::: 0
x ~
=~
.8.l!
ar~
~ ~
-
Main steam 1540
- Turbme
509
~(257%)
-
La..
"
<0 ~
~
"",
~
(777%)
~ ~~
278
(140%)
t
Feedwater-
Feed 473 (229)

tank
Fig. 13-7 Energy dlStnbution diagram.
tIOn a dIagram such as that of Fig 13-7 is advantageous. On it actual

ratcs of energy passage to and from the various pieccs of equipment
are reported, in mIllions of Btu pcr hour and (m parentheses) as per-
centages of the energy input in the fueL These are also repre..c;ented
visually by the relative breadth of the energy streams.
The indICated energy rates are the products of the mass rate times
the enthalpy relative to a reference state of water at 32°F. One
relative to the enthalpy of water at the local temperature o( the atmos-
phere or the circulating-water supply might be more mformative, but
the above IS convenient and conventional
For comparative mterest there are mdICated in Fig 13-8 the mass
and energy dlstributions fOI an alternahve installatIOn having the
same net work output, steam supply conditions, mam turbine per-
formance, and condenser pressure as those of Fig. 13-6 (Example 13-7),
but with vanous leatures which are somewhat more representative of
current practICe and contnbute appreciably to a better heat and fuel
rate. These features include:
(a) Motor-drIven auxiliarIes reqUIring moderately less power and
served by turbogenerator, with condemer and superheated steam.
336 CONDENSING-FLUID CYCLES CIlAP. 13
700 psll 9(X)"', h "1459 G IlO,7fD Ib/~r

12460) Ib/hr
2m psla, h .. \32~ S
ZO 350 Ib/hr
BOlle, ell, a3 0%
fuel,Ol1 20 pSlJ, h '" 1150 a
19.iOO Btu/lb.
a600 Ib/hl 9940 Ill/hi
----_---- ...,
h = 12 D
.,-,,~w=n I
7SO P!l1 T =361°F, 11= J.i2 5 I
T=mor,
h= 104 I
:-j-:=--=..f-;-""-,,'--~--'
T=377"F,1 T=22J"F, - - - fee~lIn~
iI"'3SO~ I h",,1912 I
;:==L=_::_==_=-=-=-=-=-:=;-==-==-=J==~'it:_ "'0...... 14 (O~%)
'"
(Z55%1 11 (43%) ~ 19(11%)
Fig 13-8.
(b) Slig~tly more efficient furnace and bOIler

(c) Feedwater heatmg by steam extracted from main turbine at
two points (and without surplus).
Major consequences of these modifications are indicated lD the
accompanying table of comparative energy dIstributions.
Figs. 13-6, 13-7 Fig. 13-8

Energy distributIOn, Btu(bp-hr and %
To turbIne work 2544; 257% 2544; 30.3%
Departmg in ,tack gases 1980; 20.0% 1426; 17.0%
Heat to circulating water (condensers) 5325; 53.7% 4360; 52.0%
fO auxIliary work (um_claimed) 56; 0.6% 50; 0.6%
FurnIshed by fuel, or heat rate, Btu(bp-hr 9905; 100.0% 8380; 100.0%
Returned to boIler, In feed water 1390; 14.0% 2130; 25.4%
Fuel rale, Ib 011 per hp-hr 0.508 0.430
ART. 13-7 AVAILABILITY ACCOUNTING 337
13·7. Availability Accounting. The mass and energy accounting
of the last article provides a major tool for equipment proportionmg
In power-plant design, or for performance analyses of an e~Isting plant
A still more Important conSIderation may be, however, an adequate
rccognitlOn of the effects of irreversIbibhes, either mechanical or
thermal and m any of the varied energy transitions occurrmg in a plant,
in degrading an mitially available energy. An excellent devlce for
this purpose is an availability account made by evaluating the Darrieus
(availability) function b or (h - TRs) of Art. 7-10, for the fluids of
the varIOUS energy streams. Such an account hoa also been described
as a "second law energy account." Example 13-8 illustrates such an
account.
Example 13-8. Distribute the major energy streams depicted In Fig. 13-7.
for the InStalla.tion deSCrIbed In Example 13-7 and Fig 13-6, into the components
tha.~ would ideally be available mecha.nlcally If the receiver temperature were
32 F (492°R). Also dUlCUSS briefly the e¥ldence that is so provided.
G
Solu.!ion. (a) WIth respect to the availabIlity of the origlDsl energy supply, after
release by the combustIOn of the fuel, it may reasonably be regarded as that of the
combustIOn products, at atmospheric pressure: (1) If complete combustion were
obtamable with air supplied only In stOlchi'ornetric amount, here taken as about 15lb
Df aIr or 16 Ib of products per pound of a.n 011 fuel having 0. lower heatIng value of
18,300 Btu/lb, Md a higher value of sbout 19,500 Btujlb, and (2) prior to any
transfer of tbeIr energy to tbe wa.ter and steam.
For convenience, but Wlt.hIDlDor approxunauon, tlJe Ideal products temperature (T)
and the relative entbalpies and entropIes at T a.nd at 32°F are taken as <:orrespondmg
to values of hand 4> 8.B given m Table 7 of the gas tables. On that basis and presum-
ing 8. formuln mass of 29 0 lb/mole of products, h7' = h3'f'F +
(18,300/Hl) X 29 0 =
3,454 + 33,169 = 36,620 Btu/mole. By extrapolatIon to thIs value In the table,
T - 4370'R and <I> - 6346. Correspondingly bT - b""R - [(36,620 - 3(54) -
492(63 46 - 4568)1/29.0 - 844 Btu/lb of products, or 13.500 Btu/lb of fuel and
692% of the higher heating value of the fuel At the fuel supply rate of 10,140
lb/hr, the correspondmg ideally available component of the energy supply HI
137 X 10 6 Btu/hr, of whIch 50.9 X 10 6 (Dr 37.2%) actua.lly becomes available o.a
work output from the turbine.
The specified furnace-and-boiIer effiCiency of 80%, 88 based on the higher heating
value, 18 due in part to an aIr supply exceedmg the stoichiometric, although mainly to
a still-.elevated temperature of the combustion products leaving the boiler. Presum-
mg an all excess of about 20%, or cOrnbU!l.tlOll products in the associated amount of
19 0 lbjlb of fuel, values of the enthalpy, T and 4J for the products prior to any heat
transfer w the water become, respectively (Table 7),
( 3454 + 18,300 X 29 0 =
)
31,350 Btu, 38OO'R and 62.09 Btu/ (mole, OR)
19.0
The corresponding Ideally aVaIlable component of the energy of the hot products, at
8800 VB 4370 0 R, tllus becomes 1382 Btu/lb of products and 18,000 Btu/lb of fuel, or
66.5% of Its lugher heatmg value.
After transfer of (0.80 X 19,500 X 29/19 -) 23,800 Btu/mole to the water, value,
of the enthalpy, temperature, and t/J of the departing combustion productB are,
respectively, 7550 Btu/mole, 5!l2°F, and 5121 Btu/(mole, OR). Neglecting for
present purposes the mmor availabihty of the enthalpy of condensation of vapor in
the combustion products, releasable only at temperatures below the dew pomt, the
available component of the energy of the departing products becomes 18 Btu/Ib of
products and 917 Btuflb of fuel, or 4.7% of ita higher heatmg value
(b) In the 105,500 Ib/m of superhea.ted steam going to the mam turblDe the
available energy is (1459 - 492 X 1 657 -) 643.6 Btu/lb or 67.9 X 10' Btu/hr, or
343% of the energy suppLIed in the fuel. The degradation of a large proportion
of the previously available energy results pnma.nly from the lettmg down of energy
from tb.e higher temperature levels of the combustion products to the lesser tempera-
ture of the water and steam in the bOller. In the exhaust steam leavmg the turbme
at 79°F, instead of 32°F, the Ideally avaIlable resIdue of energy is (975 8 - 492 X
1817 =) 829 Btu/Ib, or 4.4% of the energy supplIed in the fuel. Recall that the
twbine made actually aVallable a.s work only 4822 Btuflb of sleam supphed to It,
instead of the 643.6 Btujlb Ideally available in the stea.rn a.nd due jomtly to Its 85%
adiabatic efficiency and to the inablhty to expand the steam to 32°F
(c) In the 27,000 Ib of (dry) steam generated per hour for the auxIlIaries the
available energy is (12007 - 492 X 1427 =) 499 Btujlb and 135 X 10 6 Btu/hr, or
7.0% of the energy supplied in the fuel It may readIly be shown that tlns IS re-
duced to 442 BtujIb, or 6 2%, by the throttlmg en route to the au.'<:Ihanes Of thIS
only 56 5 Btu/lb were converted to work by the aUXIlIarIes, because of their 10..1
efficiency and the 35 paia amIliary exhaust pressure
(d) In the 19,810 Ib of auxIbary exhaust gomg to the feedwater hea.ter at:35 pSla,
(1144 - 492 X 1.655 =) :330 Btu/lb were Ideally stdl ttval1able as work, or 27% of
the energy suppbed in the fuel
The avaIlable components of the energies in the remammg energy streams in the
installation are quite mmor, except that ahout 46 Btu/lb are av:ulable In the 132,500
Ib of warm llnd higher-pressure {eedwater going to the bOiler.
Figure 13-9 is a redraft of FIg 13-7, agam indICating for the major
energy streams the percentage distribubon of the energy released by
the combustion of the fuel but also dividing each stream mto Its ideally
available and minimum una vall able components if .492'R is regarded
as the attainable receiver temperature The first is dlstmguished by
hatching Employment of the temperature of available surface waters
as the receiver temperature would be more realistic, but use of the lee
point is more convenient and serves present purposes.
Observe that, although the aggregate available percentage going to
the furnace and boiler of (692 + 3.1 -) 72.3 per cent, including that
returned In the feed water, It becomes only (343 + 7.0 -) 41 3 per cent
when considering the steam as supplied for the mam and auxiliary
engines, or 343 per cent for the main engine alone. This large reduc-
tion In avaJlability is attributable in part to the prOVISIOn of mr for
combustion in excess of the stoichiometric requirements and to depar-
ture of the combustion products at a temperature exceeding the refer-
ence temperatll1"e. But it is due in considerably greater degree to the
energy degradatIOn associated with the irreversible energy passage as
heat from the hot products to the medIan-temperature water which
serves as the working fluid of the power cycle. The modern engine is
capable of actual transformation to work of a major proportion of the
257%_
Feed
tank
Fig 13-9. Availa.bility distribulJon diagram.
available component of the energy in its steam supply. Chapter 14

mdICates that in the internal-combustion power plant the use of the
combusbon products themselves as the working fluid escapes the
above energy degradation due to heat transfer to a second fluid, but
that other CIrcumstances operate to necessitate the retention of con-
sIderable available energy in the gases departing from the engine.
13-8. Problems, 1. Presummg the same steam-supply state as in the Ran-
lone cycle analyses of Examplli!s 13-1 and 13-2, determme the effects of condenB-
mg temperatures of (a) 120°F and (b) 160"F lDstead of the 80°F of those
examples. Do 80 by recomputmg the Items of those examples, and exhIbIt all
<wadable evidence graphIcally by a curve of heat rate VB condensmg temperature
(as abscissa), also WIth supplementary abscJ.SSa. scale of the absolute pressure m
the condenser.
2. Piesuming the same steam supply and condensmg temperatures Ri in the
Rankme cycle analyses of Examples 13-1 and 13-2, determme the effects of bOIler
pressures of (a) 600 pSla and (b) 400 PSIS Instead of the 800 pSla of these examples
Do so by recomputIng all items of those examples, and exhIbIt the accumulated
eVldence by 4 curve of heat rate "'"8 bOIler pressure
3. For 8 steam-power InstallatIOn having the same steam supply state and
exhaust pressure as m the Rankjne cycle analyses of Examples 13-1 and 13-2,
determme a1l relevant Items if the steam JS reheated to 900"F after expanSIOn
10 the turbjne to 250 p~lla.
4. For a regeneratilfe feed-heating Installation such as that of FIg. 13-5, except
for only two extractIOn hearers and operating condlt.JODS otherwIse as below,
determme Items parallelIng those of Example 13-6.
OperatmCl Conduiom
Pump dehvery pressure, 800 psis
Boller pressure, 750 psia
Steam to turbme, 725 psia and OOQ°F
Condenser pressure, 1" Hg aha
Extraction from turbme at 150 and 15 psia
AdIabatIc efficiency, each section of turbme, 080
5. Venfy all Items of the first law energy RCCOunt for the mstallatlOD repre-
sented In FIg. 13..8
6. ProvIde an aVRllablhty account parallelmg that of Example 13-8 but relatmg
to the installation represented In Fig 13-8
14 . POWER-GENERATION CYCLES
Non-Condensing Fluids
14-1. Foreword. The analyses of the preceding chapter related to
power Installations in whICh the energy released hy the combustIOn of
a fuel IS rmmedIately transferred as heat from the hot but lower-
pressure combustion products to a second (condensible) fluid which IS
at elevated pressure and so may serve as the workmg medIUm in a
power-generatIOn cycle. The followmg material relates to a second
character of power mstallation in which the combustIOn products are
caused to be not only at elevated tempcrature but also at such elevated
pressures that they may themselves serve also as the working fluid.
Thcy so become capable of direct utilIzation in transforming a portion
of their energy to work.
General considerations which become SIgnificant in subsequent
analyses of this type of Installation ;'ncludc the following:
(a) A thermally irreversIble heat transfer characterizing the con-
densible flUId cycles, from combustion products to working fluid, is
thereby escaped.
(b) The oxygen required for the combustion of the fuel is normally
provided by the mtake of air from the atmosphere, and the combustIOn
products are subsequently discarded thercto. Thus not only the com-
bustion products but also the air and the fuel are to be regarded as
working media.
(c) Temperature levels are in general such that (except for the fuel)
the fluids are in the gas phase throughout.
The equipment employed may be of either the reciprocatmg-piston
or turbine types. In those employmg the reciprocating .engine that
deVICe becomes normally a single mechanism of such nature that It
is capable of accomphshmg virtually all the reqUIsite processes, WIth
the combustion occurring while the air and fuel are confined WIthin
the engine cylmder. They are correspondingly described as internal-
combustion engines, Including in that general category those in which
combustion is initiated by some secondary agency, such as an electric
spark, and those in which the fuel is introduced into air whICh has
been compressed to Euch a temperature that Ignition is spontaneous.
These are distinguished by the terms spark-i{Jmtwn and compression-
igmtion engines. Since their commercial development in the latter
part of the nineteenth century, and by reason jointly of their relative
341
342 NON-CONDENSING FLUID CYCLES CHAP. 14
compactness and effiCIency, they progressIvely acqUIred a position of
vIrtual monopoly in 'the field of power generation in portable and
smaller or medium-size mstallations ashore, afloat, and aloft.
Various more recent developments have made practicable and in
some situatIOns qUIte advantageous the use of the turbine type of
engine. But, in contrast to the multiple functions performed by the
reciprocating engllle, the turbine is capable of providlllg only for the
expanSIOn of the combustion products, and so becomes only one com-
ponent of an assemblage of devwes descflbed as a gus-turbine power
plant.
As the processes carried out in power Installations employing a non-
condensing fluid were orlgmally thought of as if performed III a cychc
sequence wIth a single fluid, and also because the reCIprocating engine
does in fact engage in a succession of operations which mechanically
are repetitive and m that sense are cyclIc in nature, It became cus-
tomary to use the term cyete somewhat loosely in relatIOn to internal-
combustion installations. The usage has persisted and need not cause
confusion, but, in recognitIOn of an actually non-cyclic nature of the
processes, their composIte IS conventionally distingUIshed as compris-
ing an open cycle. Modifications permittlllg a nearer approach to
truly cyclic occurrences are, however, in use, and are described as
semi-closed cycles All are regarded as practical adaptatIOns of con-
ceivable closed cycles.
The primary processes involved In both the internal-combustIOn
engine and the gas-turbine installation include, successlVely:
/(d) Entry and compression of air and fuel, III suitable proportIOns
~ through the agency of work mput.
(e) Combustion, with attendant chemical energy release and rise in
t~ temperature of the previously compressed material
( (f) ExpanSIOn of the hot compressed combustio~ products, in such
a manner as to transform a considerable portion of the available com-
~nent of thClr energy into work output.
(g) Departure of the combustion products, known also as the ex-
h. ust gases.
Initial attention is given to the processes occurring in the open-cycle
turbine installation.
14-2. Elementary Open.Cycle Gas-Turbine Power Plant. In the
open-cycle gas-turbine installation atmospheric air and the fuel are
introduced separately by a wmpressor and a pump (except as a gase-
ous fuel would require a second compressor). It will develop that, be-
cause of the relatively large specific volume of the entering air, the work
required for its' introduction (ideally, fv dp) becomes a considerable
,
ART. 14-2 ELEMENTARY GAS-TURBINE CYCLE 343
proportIOn of that delivered by the engine. There IS correspondingly
a distinct premium on efficient compression. The development of the
gas-turbine power plant lD fact became practicable only upon the
development also of compact and efficient compressors.
Combustion occurs in a separate chamber, frequently referred to as
the combustor; on introductIon of the fuel into the stream of com-
pressed au. IgmtlOn is imtiated separately but is thereafter self-
maintained. The amount of fuel introduced and consequent amount
of energy released, per unit mass of 'If, IS in general limited ·by the
permissIble tcmperature of the combustion products, with the last
depending in turn on the temperature at whICh the structural matenal
exposed to their temperature may be maint.med. Matenals which
retam suitable structural characteristics at higher temperatures so
become highly desirable.
The power generatIOn, which IS prOVIded by the expansion through
the turbme, eVIdently depends for relative magnitude on the pressure,
temperature and consequent enthalpy decrease that is concurrently
obtainable. However, as in the open cycle an expansion to a pressure
less than atmospheric would only necessitate an equal or greater
work return for recompression sufficlCnt to effect delivery of the
exhaust gases to the atmosphere, that pressure becomes the control
fixing the temperature and enthalpy decrease obtainable by the ex-
panSIOn.
The above items of equipment and the associated course of the
materials through them are indicated in FIg. 14-1, together with rep-
resentations of the related proccsses to p-v and T-h-s coordinates
SIgnificant considerations pertalllmg to the T-h-s diagram lDclude the
following:
Process a-b. In the compact rotary compressors that normally are
employed the passage of the air is sufficiently rapid that the com-
pression is effectively adiabatic. It IS ideally reverSible but actually
characterized by entropy increase due to fnchonal effects and turbu-
lence. The sohd and broken hnes of the T-h-s diagram represent,
respecllvely, the ideal and actual processes, and extend from a point a
corresponding to the atmospheric mtake temperature and pressure
to the isobar correspondmg to the pressure at whICh it is proposed
that delivery to the combustor shall occur.
The energy relation for the compressIOn of the air is thus
.w, = J (h, - h.l + (U,2 - u.")/64.35 ft-Ih/lbm of air
where the actual work input is that reqUIred for isentropic compres-
sion dIvided by the adiabatic efficiency of the compression. The
isentropIC enthalpy change is expressible by the famibar relation
Cp T.[(p.!p.)R1J;. - 1], or is otherwise determinable by the use of air

tables.
For a liquid fuel the work input required for its ,injection is rela-
tIvely trrvial A parallel relation would, however, determine the work
input reqUlred for a gaseous fuel.
Process O--c. ThIs process, of progressive reaction between the air
and fuel as these proceed through the combustor, IS ldeaUy isobaric,
..
:: ----
Wcomp
Ph~
• d
Fig. 14--1. Elementary gas-turbine cycle.
but fluid friction in passage through lt and connecting pipmg may

occaSlOn appreciable and possibly serious pressure drop en route.
Normally heat losses through the insulation covering the combustor
are Il\inor and the process is effectively adiabatic. Combustion occurs
in a flame tube to which a stoichiometric mixture is supplIed but which
is jacketed by the excess air, with subsequent intlmate mixing of the
aggregate.
Energy accounting for the combustion is provided by a suitable
adapt.bon of equabon 3-14 Distinguishing the air, fuel, and com-
bustion products by subscripts a, f, and p, and noting that the mass of
the products is the sum of those of the aIr and 'fuel, the' relation is
m. (h. _
m, hO). + (h. _ hO), + (-tJ.h'), = (1 + m.) (h, - hO).
mf
(14-1)
where the terms in (h - h 0) are the corrective ones accountmg for
differences between the states of the materials at the combustor ~nd
the reference states at the fuel calorimeter, and (-l!.hO), denotes the
lower calorific value per pound of fuel. Th,s relation may be trans-
lated to some advantage into the following one in terms of temperature:
(1 +tn,m·)Cp(T._TO)p= m·cp(T._
m,
TO). + (h. - hO)f+ (-tJ.hO),
(14-1a)
ART, 14-2 ELEMENTARY GAS-TUllBINE CYCLE 345
where the specific heats are the suitable mean values for the material
and relevant temperature range.
The representation of process b --> c to the T-h-s coordinates of
Fig. 14-1 is inexact in principle but adequate for present purposes.
That is, point c is located simply at a selected temperature, possibly
presenbed as permIssible or resulting from combustIOn at a prescribed
air-fuel ratio, but on a (broken) extension of the aIr-isobar througll
point b, or on one of lower pressure if pressure drop between com-
pressor and turbine is to be indicated, Thus point c is in effect located
~'ithout specific concern as to the changes in mass, composition, or
entropy accompanying combustion, except as perhaps suggested by the
broken line.
However It is advantageous to ascribe to a point c, even as so located,
a relative enthalpy corresponding to the state and composition of the
products, and further to provide a supplementary enthalpy scale whICh
suitably associates their temperature and enthalpy Such a scale is
indIcated in the figure
Process c-d. The rapid expansion through the turbine is effectively
adiabatic, and ideally isentropIC but actually accompanied by entropy
increase The pressure ratio P,/P. is ideally the same ns that across
the compressor (Po/P.) , but may be reduced appreciably by frictional
effects both in passage to the turbine and in the exhaust connectIOn to
the atmosphere.
The energy relation expressing the work output parallels that for the
aIr through the compressor, as does also the relation expressing the
ideal enthalpy decrease en route. SpeCIfic heats are now suitable mean
values for the products and the relevant temperature range. The use
of gas tables is again advantagcous if any are avadable which suffi-
ciently represent the actual products. The actual work output is the
ideal times the adiabatIC efficiency of the turbine.
Process d-a. In the elementary open cycle the combustion products
at state d merely pass to the atmosphere, promptly mixing with it and
cooling to its temperature, while air is concurrently being mducted by
the compressor.
The following example Illustrates numerical apphcations of the
above. Procedures both by formula and utJlizing available gas tables
are indicated.
Example 14.1. An elementary open-cycle gas turbine JOstaIllltion operates
With 8.tmospheri~ air intake at 70°F and 14.7 psia, a pressure ratio of 6/1 and
negbgible preBSUre drop between compressor and turbme, neglJglble kinetic
energIeS in connecting lines, a permissible temperature of 1500"F for the products
entermg the turbme, and adiabatic efficiencies of 085 for both compressor and
turbine. The fuel haa about the compOSItion eqUivalent to C7B 181 a higher
calorific value 01 19,160 and lower value of 17,640 Btullb (from and at 77°F)
when supplied m hqUId phase, and enters the combustor at 90°F. For such
operatIng condItIOns determine the followmg Items. (a) Pressure and tempera-
ture of the aIr leaving the compressor, and the work reqUired per pound of air
compressed. (b) Fuel reqmced to obtam the specIfied products temp~rLlture.
pounds per pound of alT, and Its ratio to the atOlchlOmetnc amount (c) Tem-
perature of products leavmg turbme, and work output of turbIne per pound both
of products and of aIr (d) Net work output per pound of air and per pound
of fuel, its proportIOn to the turbme output, the thermal efficiency of the Instal-
lation based on both lower and higher heating values of the fuel, and the fuel
and aIr rates (pounds per horsepower-hour).
SolutWn (n) Pressure Pb( = Pc) = 6 X 147 = 882 psi:!.
c
For isentropIc compression, at both cp and p estimated as 0 243 for the IlIr over the
probable temperature runge Involved,
(h. - h.), ~ 0243(460 + 70)[(6.0)' "85" 2~ - I)
~ 84.8 Btu/lb
(hb - ha)BC!tuai = 84.8/085 = 91),8 Btu/lb, and = oWb
T. ~ Ta + 99.8/0.243 ~ 70 + 411 ~ 481·F
To venfy by Table 1 of the gas tables, ha = 1266 and (P,)a F 1.298; after
IsentropIC compresslOn through a 6/1 pressure ratIO, pr = 6 X 1.298 = 7.788 and
h ~ 211 5. Thus h'.,,'u.1 ~ 126.6 + (211.5 - 1266)/0 85 ~ 1266 + 99 9 = 2265,
Tb = 481°F and aWb = 999 Btujlb of air.
(b) By equation 14-1a, but neglej(tmg a trivial correction for fuel entry state, and
employmg estimated values as mdicated below for the mean speCific heats of the air
and pr9ducts,
( 1+ m,rna) X 0265(1500 -77) = m.m, X 0 243(481 - 77) + 17,640

m.
or - ~ 620 lb/Ib
m,
Byequatlon 12-2 the air ideally required Cor combustion of C,H 16 is 15,15 Ib/lb
and thus, for Iumtmg the products temperature to 1500°F, only (15.15/620 =) 24%
of the stoichiometric fuel was supplied. Table 9 of the gas tables indICates an equiva-
lent fonnula mass of about 28.9 for the consequent combustion products, and refer-
enee to the molnr specific heat curves of FIg 9-3 vahdates the above estimates of
their mean speCific heats.
To veney by use of the gas tables, Table -! provides properties per mole for com-
bustion products of effectively the above nature. By use of these faCIlItieS,
m.
m,
(c) For isentropic expanSIon of such products, at cp = 798/289 (FIg 9-3) = 0276
and R/Jc p = 0 249 (Flg 9-4) for the probable temperature range involved'
(h, - hd). = 0.276(460 + 1500)(1 - (1/6)" 2<')
= 194.8 Btu/lb of products
(he - hd)aetua.l = 1!J48 X 0,85 = 165 6 Btu/lbJ and = - cWd
and :I'd = 1500 - 165 5/0 276 = 1500 - 000 ~ 9OO'F
To verily by Table 4, at 1500°F h~ .: 14,580 Btu/mole and Pr = 176.7; for
IsentroplC expanSIOn through a 6/1 pressure ratio, pr = 176.7/6 = 29.45. and
h = 8943. ThUB
"" = 14,580 - (14,580 - 8943) X 0.85
= 14,580 - 4790 = 9700 Btu/mole
and Td = 900°F
Also -,Wd = 4790/289 = 1658 Btu/lb of products

or = 165.8(624 + 1)/62.4 = 168.5 Btu/lb of aIr supplied
(d) Net work output = 168 5 - 99.9 = 68.6 Iltujlb of air
or = 686 X 62.4 = 4285 Btujlb of fuel
".
Net Olltput . 68 6
(orworkrauo) =- - = 0.407
Turbme war k 168.5
Thermal efficiency = 4285/17,540 = 0.243 on lower heatlllg value
= 4285/19,160 = 0224 on higher heatmg value
Fuel rate = 2544(4285 = 0.594Ib(hp-hr
Air r.te = 0594 X 62.4 = 37.11i>/hp-hr
Supplementing the customary thermal '~flicicncy and fuel rate as per-
formance indices, those described above as the a.r rate and the work
ratin provIde addItional information concerning, respectively, the mass
and associated volumetrIC capacity required of the compressor and
related eqUIpment for furnishmg a specified net power output from
a gas-turbine installation, and concernmg the excess power capacity
to be prm'ided by the t""bme for procuring a gil'en net output From
the evidence of Example 14-1 It appears that a turbine capacity may
be required whIch is about 250 per cent of the obtainable net power
output, about 60 per cent of the turbme output being required for
operation of the compressor. It may become advantagcous in practICe
to provide a separate turbine for the latter servICe.
A formulation whICh conforms to the above analyses and expresses
in general manner the efficiency of the elementary open-cycle'installa-
tion becomes
(1 + m!lm.)(h, -·hd). X ~'u,bm' - (h. - h.)./~"'m.

(14-2)
~o""ll = (m,/m.) (-AhO),
The relation make eVIdent a cumulatIvely unfavorable effect of reduced
compressor and turbllle efficiencies. The curves of Fig 14-2 Sum-
mame the results of overall efficiency computations paralleling those
of Example 14-1, but so extended as to indicate the mutual influences
of variations of the pressure ratio, the compressor and turbine efficien-
CIes, IlIld the products temperature (at turbine entry). F,gure 14-3
348 NON-CONDENSING FLUID CYCLES CllAP. 14
indIcates the influences of the same items on the air rate and work
ratio. Slgnificant indications are as follows:
050
\ZOO;J -::-
.,..,..~~ !1SOo"
"'.;;
~;
// 1800'F
/ ...-:::: 1500°F
/ ~ 12(}(),,,
# .....__
I. V - - - 100% adiabatic effICiency
OlD
85% adiabatiC effiCIency
oI " 2 4 6 B 10 12 14
Pressure ratio
FIg. 14-2. EfficiencYI elementary ga,s..turbine cycle.
Pressure ratio
Fig. 14-3. Performance mdices l elementary gas-turbme cyc1e.
(al If individual machllle efficiencIes approaching 100 per cent were

attainable the cycle efficlOncy would be neghgibly influenced by the
temperature of' the products going to the turbine, b~t progressively
bettered by increase of the pressure robo The work ratIo and air
rate would be sensIbly bettered by higher values of the temp~rature.
(b) The cumulative influences of lower compressor and turbine~
effiCIencies operate, however, to necessitate higher products tempera-
tures for the procurement even of moderate cycle efficiency. They
further introduce optimum pressure ratios above whIch not only the
cycle efficiency but also the work ratio and air rate may deteriorate
rapidly.
A consideration which may become of particular interest is an appre-
ciable betterment of performance with decrease in the air-supply tem-
perature (Ta). For the conditions of Example 14-1, except for a
temperature To of 0 0 instead of 70°F) the overall efficiency is increased
from 0.243 to 025 (based on the lower calorific value) and the work
ratio from 0 405 to 0 485, and the fuel and air rates are reduced, respec-
tively, to 0 576 and 27.9Ib/hp-hr.
The succession of processes forming the above elementary open cycle
may be regarded as the practical adaptatIOn of an idealIzed closed one
known as the Brayton cycle. In this the adiabatic compression and
expansion are presumed 10 be experienced by a single gas while caused
to CIrculate through a closed system, and also to be isentropic Fur-
ther, the isobarIC energy reception and departure phases of the cycle
are presumably effecled by heat transfer, as from some hotter source
and to some cooler receiver If the specific heat of the fluid were
further taken to vary negbgibly, the general relation of equation 14-2
might be wntlen in the special form
cpT,ll - (p,/p,)RIi<pj _ cpT,l1 _ (p./p,)RIJ"j
'I1BrByton oycle =
c,(T, - T.)
(14-2a)
That IS, for these idealized condItions, the cycle efficiency would depend
solely on the pressure ratio employed. The upper curves of Fig. 14-2,
.t 100 per cent compressor snd turbine efficiencies, give like evidence.
The relative simplicity, compactness, and lightness of the elementary
open-cycle gas turbine Installation adapt It exceptionally to situations
where space and weight saving compensates for the rather low efficiency
or higher fuel rate. Higher-speed types of military aircraft are typical.
A noteworthy modIfication of this type of installation introduces a
nozzle between the exhaust end of the turbine and the atJnosphere, so
imposing such an increase in exhaust pressure and reduction of the
prffisure ratio across the turbine that its power (lutpllt is sufficient
only to drive the compressor The accelerative expansion that is so
made possible, through the nozzle and to the atmosphere, provides a
350 NON-CONDENSING FLUID CYCLES. CHAP. 14
propulsive thrust whJCh otherwIse would need be furmshed by a pro-
peller (see also Art. 17-9).
14-3. Regeneralive Air Preheating. In installations where there
is less demand for mimmum weIght and space, and a greater premmm
on efficiency, varIOUS departures from the elementary open-cycle
arrangement become advantageous The most ObVlOUS procedure for
efficiency betterment would be one m whIch the energy to be furmshed
by the fuel IS reduced by heat transfer from the hot gases leaVIng the
turbine. This IS accomplished by the proviSIOn of a heat exchanger
through which the hot exhaust gases pass en route to the atmosphere
The compressed air, passmg III opposIte dtrection, is thereby pre-
heated en route to the combustor. An mstallatlOn WIth such prOVISlOns
Heat
exchanger
1
T
FIg. 14-4. Regenerative air heatIng, gas-turbine cycle.
IS known as one With regenerative air preheatIng. Figure 14-4 repre-

sents diagrammatically a simple arrangement of this character, and
also indIcates to T-h-s coordinates the assocIated state changes.
An evidently relevant conSIderation is that the maxImum tempera-
ture to wlllch the air mIght conceIvably be heated would be that of
the products leavmg the turbme. However, att.mment of this tem-
perature would 'in prmciple require unrealistIC conditions such as an
infimte time allowance, surfaces Imposing zero thermal resistance to
heat transfer or an infilllte amount of surface ExtenSIve surfaces tend
to aggravate the frJCtlOnal resIstance to flow both of the air and of the
products through the exchanger, WIth attendant pressure drops en
route and lessened pressure ratIO across the turbine. A compromIse
IS thus necessary, A quantItative measure of the compromIse is ex-
pressed in terms of the ratIO between the actual air-temperature rise
obtained and 11 limitmg value which is the difference between the
entering temperature of the air and that of the products The ratio
is descrIbed as the effectiveness of the exchanger; i e.,
. Tb' - Tb
, EffectIveness (E) = ..:.::.--=" (14-3)
T, - T,
ART. 14-3 REGENERATIVE AIR PREHEATING 351
where the temperature identificatIOns are those of the figure." Ex-
chungers having an effectIveness bcceedmg 05 to 07 may l1ecome
Impractwable
Example 14-2 illustrates comparatIve effects of the proviSIOn- of
regeneratIve alf preheating.
Example 14-2. Determme the same 'Items 2.8 called fOL III Example 14-1 and
for condlbons which are also the same except that a heat exchanger of about
650/0 effectiveness provides regenerative aIr preheatIng. For SlmplIClty pre-
sume a oeghglble pressure drop in passage of the air or of the products through
the exchanger
Solutwn. (a) Items relatmg to the compression are unchanged l so that hb = 226 5
Btu/lb, Tb = 481°F, and aU'b = gg 9 Btu/lb
(b) As the temperature of the products leavmg the turbme WIll wntmuc to be
effectIvely 900°F, the temperature (Tb') to WhlCh the atr IS heated before enterIng
the combustor ~ 481 + 0 65 (900 - 481) ~ 753°F, and
gas tables).
h'
~ 2945 Btu/lb (by
Less fuel wIll be requIred for provIdIng the specIfied 1500°F temperature of the
products from the {'ombustor, but in the absence of specIfic mformatlOn on the
products composItion a procedure by succeSSIve approxImation IS III prmcIple reqwred
for computmg the actual alf/fuel ratIO Adoptmg from FIg. 0-3 a value of about
(7.60/289 =) 0 263 as a reasonable estunate of cp'for the products,
The fuel so reqmred IS (15 15/835 =) 0 18 of the stmchIOmetrIC, and on reference

again to Fig 9-3 the above values of the specrfic hel1ts for the severm materials and
tempera.ture ranges are BeeD to be m fact 3rceptabJe.
(c) Adopting from Fig. 11-3 and 11-4 a value of c1' of about 0 275 and of RjJcp of
about 0 251) for the combustion products and theIr probable temperature range
dUfmg expansion through the turbme,
(h, - h,), ~ 0275(460 + 1500)[1 - (1(6)° 250) ~ 194 5 Btu/lbt

(h t - hd)actuu.l = 1945 X 085 = 11352 iltu/lb of products
or ~ 165 2 X (845/83 5) ~ 1672 Btu/lb of alf
T, ~ 1500 - 1652(0 275 ~ 900°F
* The effectiveness IS determmed by the area (A) of the heat-transfer surface

provided, the mass rates of flow and speCIfic heats of the fluids, and an mclex known
as the heat-transfer coeffir:;tent (U) For n counterflow exchanger m whICh the flow
rates and spenfic heats of the flUIds ddier negligibly, the efiectiveness may be ex-
pressed by the relation E = 11 (1 + mel A U), where the coeffiCient IS conventionally
evaluated III the composIte umt of (Btu/hr)/(sq ft, OF) Unfortunately the heat
transfer from a. gas to and through a. separating metal wall and to a second gas IS
charactenzed by exceptionally low coeffiCients, frequently on the order of 10-20
Btu/(hr, sq ft, OF) or less
t The result of frIctIonal effects and pressure losses en route through the heat
exchanger IS readIly accountable by correspondmg modIfication of the pressure
range reqUlred from the compressor or remammg for the turbme
(d) Net work = 1672 - 99.9 = 67.3 Btu/lb of aIr
or - 673 X 835 = 5620 Btu/lb of fuel (v, 4285, Ex 14-1)
Thermal efficiency = 5620/17,640 = 0313 on LHV (v, 0.2(3)
or = 5620/19,160 <= 0293 on HHV (v.s.O.224)
Fuel rate = 2544/5620 = 0.453 Ib/hp-hr (VB. 0594)
Percentage decrcn.se
by regeneratIon = 100[0.594 - 0 453)/0.594 = 237%
Work ratio = 67.3/167.2 = 0.403 (VB 407)
Air rate = 0.453 X 83.5 = 37.81b/bp-hr (v,. 37.1)
Tempera.ture of products 83 5 X 0251
leaving exchanger = 900 - (753 - 481) 84.5 X 0.261 = 642°F
Comparisons of these results with those of Example 14-1 indicate a

typically minor effect on the work ratio or mr rate, but an efficiency
increase due to regenerative all preheating such as to bring the
060
__ - ---- llJOOoF' -- _
050
,:;_- - 1500°F
~;
....
///
// 'Uoo;f
,., 040
I.'~ Te = lBOO0F
-
u
o
/~ J..--
~
'0
'"
Gi 0.30 lSOo°F
r--_
7i
E
~
~ 02 o
tt:
tV ~
II - - - 100% adiabatic effiCiency
- 85% adia1batlc EffiCle~cy
010
At exchfnger eftf,venes+ 065
o 12
1 2 4 6 B 10 14
Pressure ratIO
Fig. 14-5. Thermal efficiency, regeneratIVe Rlr·hea.ting cycle.
modified cycle into a much more favorable competitive status in rela-

tion to the modern steam power plant or internal combustion engme.
However, the benefits are actively reduced and may wholly disappear
at hig~er pressure ratios, due to an approach of the compressor dis-
. charge temperature to that of the turbine exhaust, and a resulting
inabihty to effect the required heat transfer. Figure 14-5 parallels
Fig. 14-2 in 'indicating the manner of variation of the thermal efficiency
ART. 14-4 AIR INTERCOOLING AND REHEATING 353
with change m other controlling variable, but now WIth the provision
of an exchanger having an effectiveness of 0.65. The presence of an
optimum pressure ratio is again)ndicated.
14-4. Air Intercooling and Reheating. When regenerative air
preheating is employed an appreciable further betterment in thermal
efficiency or .fuel rate, work ratio, and air rate is in prmciple obtain-
able by eIther or both (a) compression of the air in two stages (or
possIbly more) but recooling it lSobartcally to about its initial tem-
perature m passage between the stages, and (b) expanding the products
in two turbine sts.ges, but reheatmg them isobarically to about their
Heat
Water
Fig. 14-6. Air intercoohng, regenerallve heating, a.nd reheating.
initial temperature by passage through a secondary combustor located

between the two stages.
Figure 14·6 represents diagrammatically an armngement employing
both procedures When appraising their benefits a convenient con-
sideration is that (Art 9-14), If the compressor or turbine mterstage
pressure (p') is caused to be such)bat p'!P •. d = Pb.,!p' = viPb.,!P•. d,
the total compressor work becomes about a minimum and the turbine
work a maximum, and effectively twice tbose corresponding to the com-
pression or cxpan~ion in either mdivldual stage
Example 14-3 illustrates computation made on tltis basis for the con-
ditions of Example 14-2, except for the provision of intercooling and
reheating.
Example 14.3. EstImate the mfiuenee of rur intercoolmg and products re-
heatJDg for condItIons otherwise ~ m Example 14~2. Presume negligIble pressure
drops~ a. coolmg-water BUpply such as to perIDJt recoolmg to 'looP. a.Dd a products
reheatIng to 1500°F.
SolullQn. On the ahove basis the pressure ratio for each stage becomes
V67f - 2.45/1. In the following the .peeme heats are taken to dUler .lightly
from those last employed, for conformity With modlficatlOns in the relevant
temperature TaD.ges and the fuel/air ratios.
(a) For each stage of compressor,
w = 0241(460 + 70)[(2.45)' """ 241 - 1110.85 = 37.0,/0, 85 = 43 6 Btu/lb
Wtotal = 2 X 43.6 = 87.2 Btu/Ib of atr (vs. 99 9 preViously)
T, = 70, + 43.6/0.2011 - 70, + 180 = 25G oF
(b) AnticipatIng that the temperature decrease ill both portions of the turbine
will be approximtlteiy one-half of that previously found, thus glVIDg an exhaust
temperature of about 1500 - 165.2/(2 x 0.275) = 1200 c F, the temperature of the
aIr leavmg a heat exchanger of 55% effectiveness becomes 250 + 065 (1200-
250) = 865°F (va 753°F prevIOusly). Thll! for the first combustor,
m.) = 17,640 - 0259(1500 -77) = l00lb/lb

em, 1 0,.259 (1500 - 77) - 0249 (865 - 77)
correspondmg to a fuel mput of 15% of the stOlcblOmetne
(c) For each stage of the turbine,
w = 0.278(4GO + 1500)[1 - (1/2.45)' 00 .. " "'I X 0, 85 = 10,7.5 X 0, 85
= 91.4 Btu/lb of products
and To = 1500 - 91.4/0.278 = 117GOF (VB esumate of 1200°)
To determme the fuel required for reheating, from 1170 0 to 1500°F, the 101
pounds of products entermg the second combustor, denotmg by X the muss of
such addrtlOnal fuel,
17,64QX + 101 X 0, 257(1170, - 77) = (101 + Xl X 0 263(150,0, - 77)
and X = 0, 54 Ib of fuel per 100 lb of air, or 0, 0,0,54 lb/lh
• (d) Total fuel Bupphed = 0, 010,0 + 0.00,54 = 0, GI54lb/lb of air

Total turbine work - (1 GIGO, + I 0,154) X 91.4
= 185 Btu/lb of air (v•. 167.2 previously)
Net work = 185 - 87.2 = 97.8 Btu/lb of air
6r = 97.8/0, 0, 154 = 6,350 Btu/lb of fuel
Thermal effiCiency = 6350/17,640 = 0360, based on LHV
and. = 6350/19,IGO = 0, 332 based on HHV
Fuel rate = 2544/6350 = 0.400 Ib/hp-hr
Percentage' decrease by combined
'. intercooling and reheating = 100(0,.453 - 0,.(00)/0.453 = 11.7%
Work r.tlO = 97.8/185 = 0 53(v•. 0,040,3)
Air rate = 0, 400/0, 0,154 - 26.0Ib/hp-hr (VB 37.8)
Tempera.ture of products leavmg 100 X 0.250
heat exchanger = 1170, - (865 - 250) 101.54 X 0, 253 = 570°F
The above indicate appreciable bettennents not only in thermal
efficiency or fuel rate but also of air rate and work ratio. These are
attributable both to the decreased work requirement for the compressor
and to the increased work output from the turbine and also, somewhat
anomalously, to a higher turbme-exhausl temperature but a conse-
quent ability, to heat the air to a sensibly higher temperature. The
ART. 14-5 SEMI-CLOSED AND CLOSED CYCLES 355
efficiency improvement lS due, however, for the most part to the
products reheating and in less degree to the air intercoolj~g. It is to
be emphasized that the economical benefits of these become qUlte
doubtful unless accompanied by regenerative air preheating.
14-5. Semi·Closed and Closed Cycles. Whatever equipment
arrangements may be employed in an open-cycle gas-turbllle lllstalla-
tion, the physical size of the ~ompressor and all other components must
still correspond to an air intake at atmospheric pressure and the asso-
elated moderate densIty The air rates of the prceedlllg problems,
ranging from some 25 to 40 lb/hp-hr, corrcspond to requirements of
some 5 6 to 9.0 eu ft/hp-min if the air is inducted from the atmosphere
at sea level In sltuatlOns where this feature becomes undesirable,
T
t
.-
Fig. l4-7. Semi-closed gas-turbme cycle.
or other considerations justlfy, semi-closed arrangements may be

employed to advantage.
In these the gaseous worklllg flmd IS in part retmned WIthin the
system, or in a closed cycle IS wholly retained, so permitting the mam-
tenance of a pressure of several atmospheres in the !ower-pressure
portion and permlttmg reduced sizes throughout. Numerous semi-
closed arrangements have been proposed. The one represented in
Fig. 14-7 serves to indicate several features whICh are in general
characteristtc, including some that follow.
(a) Atmospheric air is contllluously mtroduced into the system
through the agency of a secondary or auxiliary compressor (C 2 ), but
only in the amount required stoichiometrically for combustion of con-
currently entering fuel. The matenal circulating through the system
thus becomes, uit.imately, products such as result from combustion with
air in about the stoichiometric proportion.
(b) Combustion products in corresponding amount concurrently
depart from the system via a secondary turbine (T2 ) which drIves
the secondary compressor. In the figure this materIal is represented
as extracted from the main turbine (T,) at a pomt c such that its
further expanSIOn through the auxiliary turbine furnIshes work equal
to that requIred by the auxIliary compressor. At the same lIme it
removes from the system a mass of products equal to the entering mass
01 alf plus fuel.
(c) The high temperature resultmg from the combustion of the
entermg fuel and aIr, in about stoichiometric proportion, lS reduced to
a permissible temperature by mixing at the combustor with the stream
of products leaving the regenerative heat exchanger and forming the
prImary working fluid of the system. The relative sizes of the pri-
mary compressor and turbIne estabhsh the relatIve rates of circulation
of the primary and secondary materials, the pressure levels in the
prImary CirCUIt and (together with the relative amount of fuel sup-
plied) the temperature leaving the combustor
(d) A disadvantage of the semi-closed cycle is the necessity for
possibly cumbersome heat-transfer equipment for effecting the dIS-
card, from the primary energy stream, of its unavaIlable energy
residue (QR).
The T-h-s diagram of the figure indIcates only the character of the
processes experIenced by the primary and secondary materials, the
latter by broken lines, and gives no indIcation of their relative mass-
rates of circulation. Analyses of the composIte installatIOn proceed
by extensions of the methods employed above, but are regarded as
of specialized nature and beyond the mtended scope of this material
The equipment of the fully closed cycle may be quite analogous In
that of the open cycles of FIg. 14-4 or 14-6, but will necessarily include
the further features of:
(e) The s.ubstitution of a heat exchanger for the combustor, the
working fuel (normally air) receiving its energy by heat transfer
from hot but segregated combustion products.
(f) The return of the working fluid en route from the turbine through
the regenerative heat exchanger to the compressor, via a water-cooled
heat exchanger such as was llldicated in FIg. 14-7 and as required for
removal of the mechanically unavailable energy residue (Qn).
(g) The provision of a supplementary reservoir and source of com-
pressed air, for permittlllg ready variation of the general pressure and
denSIty level of the operating fluid.
Such density variation, with attendant variation of the mass rate of
air circulation, provides an advantageous method of accommodating
load variation.. An advantage of the closed cycle is the use of llDCOD-
ART 14-G ENERGY AVAILABILITY ACCOUNTING 357
taminated air (or other gas) a~ the working fluid A disadvantage
lies in the necessIty for several heat exchanges between energy carriers
in the gas phase, for which sItuatIon the heat-transfer coefficient is
exceptionally low.
14-6. Energy and Availahility Accounting. FaCIlities exhIbiting
directly the mass and energy account throughout a gas-turbine installa-
tion may be provided III ways generally paralleling those already
mdICatcd in Art. 13-G. When undertakmg a hke distrIbution into
available and unavaIlable energy components for gas-turbine installa-
tions the Darneus functIOn (b, or h - THO, of Art. 7-10) retains its
utIlity. Example 14-4 illustrates such accounting for the open· cycle
but regenerative air-preheating arrangement.
Example 14·4. PrOVide 8. lIlllS'3 and energy account for the several fluid
streams en route through the gas-.turbme installa.tion of Example 14-2 If the inst.a.l-
latlOD 15 delIvenng a net output of 4000 bp, and also all accounting of the Ideally
avallable components of these streams. For both. purposes presume a. reference
state a.t 70"F and 1 atm.
So!uttQn (a) For the ComPe8SI7f At the previously determ.J..Ded aIr rate of
378 Ib/hp-hr, ma = 151,200 IbJhr (or 33,700 cu ft/min) and, for the air stream
entenng at 70° F and 1 ntm, relative values of both the enthalpy and the availabLlIty
are zero.
In the steam leaving at 481"F and 6 atm the relative energy = 151,200 X 99.9 =
15 11 X 10 6 Btu/hr (== 5940 hp), and is also the power supplied for operation of the
compressor, In whlCh form all was inherently available. However, in the departing
steam the avaLlable component == 999 - 530[ep In (Tb/Ta) (or fJ~ - fJa) - 0 0685
In (6/1)) = 99.9 - 83 = 91.3 Btu(lb, or 138 X 10' Btu/hr. The dec",,",e, in
avaLlability in the amount of 83 Btu/lb, 1B attributable to the inefficiency of the
compressor.
(b) For Air Side of }leat Euhanger. The entering mass, energy, and available
component, aDd also the leavmg lll8BB, a.re the .same as those leaving the compressor.
For the stream leaving at 753°F and 5 atm, relative energy = 294.6 - 126.6 =
1680 Btujlb, or 25.4 X 10 8 Btu/hr. Of tins the avaIlable component = 168.0 -
530[(~.' - ~.) - O.0685ln 6) = 1242 Btu/lb, or 190 X 10' Btu/hr.
The energy mcrease of (254 - 15 1 ==) 103 X LOs Btu/hr IS contnbuted by the
coolmg olthe combustIOn products leaving the turbine. Of tills amount the avaIlable
component IB (19.0 - 13.8) X 10 5 or 5 2 X 10 6 Btu/hr
°
(c) For Cam1n.£8tvr. At the prevIOusly determmed fuel rate of 453Ib/hp-hr, and a
(lower) ca.lorific value of 17,640 Btu/lb, the rate of fuel entry and assocIated energy
supply are 1810 Ib and 32 X 10 5 Btu/hr. The aggregate rates of entry of mass and
of energy 60 become (151,200 + 1810 =) 153,010 lb Bnd (25.4 + 320 =) 57.4 X
10' Btu/hr.
The ideally available component of the cherrucal energy releo,scd by the fuel may
ID prinCIple be computed by analyses proceedmg from the third law of thermody-
namics (Art. 7-9), However, for present purposes it WIll be suffiCient to express the
available component conveyed from the combustor by the departing combustIOn
productB, in the above amount of 153,010 Ib/hr a.t 1500"F and 6 atm. EstimatlIlg
BwtabJe mean specific heats from FIg. 9-3 and 9-4,
Available component = -27.60

9
[755 1960 -
8 (1500 - 70) - 530 - I n -
28.9 530
0 0685 In 6
]
= 376 - 117 = 259 Btu/lb 01 produc)'

or (259 X 153,010 =) 39 6 X 10' Btu/",.
(d) For TUTlnne The entermg mll8S, energy, and avaIlable component, and also
the leaVIng mass. are the same as those leaVing the combustor. For the stream
leaving the turbille at 900 C F and i atm,
734
Energy = 289 (000 - 70) ~ 21l Btu/lb of products, or 32 2 X 10' Bt"/hr
and Avmll1ble component = 211 - 530 ( :::l8.9 In 530

7.35 1360)
= 83 8 Btu/lb, or 12 8 X 10' Btu/iu"
The energy decrease en route through the turbine, in the amount (If (57.5 - 32.2 = )
253 X 10 8 Btu/hr, or 9940 hPJ represents the gr055 "Work output from the turbme for
Heat
I atm, 64~f. ...rc!!anger
A 1\ " 1 atm, 900"f. 211 Stu/lb, 153,010 rb/hr
1425 Btu/lb, I"' I, 753'F Combustor
153,010 Ib/hrr:::-:::~·'~·C,'·0'\.~I~"~m, ~:'~~t~fi*~~~
168 Stu/lb, r-",_~ 6elm, 1500'F,
, ,01'F -1-' 375 Btu/lb,
99~mpt;;lb, ' 151,200 Ib/hr ----.I 153,010 Ib/~r
151,200 Ib/hr Fuel, LHV= 17,640
Btu(lb, 1810 Ib/hr
[~C~:J===============9~====~59~~~h~P======~~ ~hPn
1 111m, 70"f,
..____ _ u
00 Btu/lb,
151.200 Iblhr
Fig. 14-8, Energy dtatnbution diagram, gas-turbine cycle
enabling the net output of 4000 bp, Note that, of the 57.5 X 10 6 Btu/ill entering
the turbine, 128 X 10 6 Btu/hr (or a.bout 22%) continue ldeally to be mechanically
aVaIlable in the departmg products, due to thelf stlll-elevated temperature of 900°F.
(e) For Prooud8 Sule of Heat Exchanger. The en termg mass, energy, and avaIlable
component! and the leaVIng mass, are the same as those leaving the turbme. For the
stream leaving at 64:2°P and 1 atm,
720
Energy = - (042 - 70) = 1425 Bt"flb or products, or 21 8 X 10' Btu/",
28.9
7.15 1102)
and AVailable component - 142.5 - 530 ( 28 gin 530
- 46.5 Btu/lb, or 7.12 X 10' Btu/iu"

The decrease of (128 - 7.12 =) 5 68 X 10 6 Btufhr In the available component of
the energy stream provIded by the products in paBBage through the he.:l.t exchanger
serVed to incre8..'3e the aVallnble component of the alT s!ream (part b, above) by
52 X 10 6 Btufhr. The inequality IS due to the thermal irreverslbility of the heat
trallSfer.
ART. 14-7 COMPRESSION-IGNITION CYCLE 359
In Fig. 14-8 the state, relatIve enthalpy, and moss r.te of flow of
the working flUids In passage between the indivIdual items of the
Installation are indIca led on a conventlOnal character of dmgram
In Fig 14-9 the magmtudes of the individual energy stream are indi-
cated by the breadth of the stream, and their avaIlable components
are distinguished by hatching
. Products, out
FIg 14-9 AvailabIlity dIstribution dUl.gram, gas-turbine cycle.
14-7. Compression-Ignition Type, Internal·Combustion Engine.

The two types 01 mternal-combustlOn engines to WhICh reference has
been made (Art. 14-1) customarily take the form of cylmders with
reciprocating pistons, wIth inflow or Dutflow via and controlled by
sUlt.ble valves or ports. The processes of the compressIOn-igmtion
type, conventIOnally referred to also .s the "DJese!" type, more nearly
approach those of the open-cycle gas turbme Installation of Art. 14-2
.nd for that reason are given Imtial attention.
In FIg. 14-10 are provided convenhonuhzed representations of:
1. The arrangement of cylinder, piston, and valves in the character
01 engine in whwh lour strokes 01 the pIston are required lor effecting
the desired succession of processes, or a "four~cycle" engine.
2. The progressive variation of the volume WIthin the cylinder and
the simultaneous variation of the pressure of the contained working
fiUld, or the so-called "mdicator card" for the engme
.360 NON-CONDENSING FLUID CYCLES CllAP. 14
3. The progressive variation of the pressure and specific volume of
the working fluIds durmg the engine "cycle," or the familiar p-v
dIagram.
4. A hypothetic(ll T-h-e-s diagram for the working fluids.
For generality the operating conditions have been represented as
ones in which the provision of a supercharger has caused the pressure
of the inflowmg aIr (P1.2) to exceed the pressure (perhaps atmospheric)
of the departing combustion products (PO.7)'
The nature of the processes represented by the various lines of the
p-v and T-s diagrams, and the related energy accounts, are as follows:
lAne 1-2. In the indicator card of Fig 14-10, Ime 1-2 is a record
SImply of the pressure during the entry of aIr to the cylinder, behllld
1
p
I
h.t
B_
Fig. 14-10.
the retreating piston, while the pIston moves from an initial position
where wlthm the cylinder there is a mmimum or clearance volume to
that terminal position in its travel at which the volume is the maxi-
mum. Frictional effects impeding flow through the intake valve may
cause this pressure to be moderately less than that in the intake pipe,
or, as noted above, a blower (i e., "supercharger") may be provided
whereby the pressure and density withlll the cylmder are caused
instead to exceed atmospheric.
In the p-v and T-s diagrams lme 1-2 indicates the change in the
thermodynamic state of the air dUTmg eDtry. The increase in tem-
perature and specific volume is due both to probable heat transfer from
the warmer cylmqer walls and piston face, and to mixmg with. resi-
due (m7) of hot combustion products remaining in the clearance space
from a precedmg cycle. The composition of the material withm the
cylinder thus changes progressively: from that of this residue to a
subsequent mixture of ,this with the inducted air. However, -as in
this type of engme the products normally re?ult from combustion With
50 or more Ib of air per pound of fuel, the final mixture may with
minor approximation be regarded as effectively air.
The energy relation for this semi-flow character of process becomes:
where lTV, = -PI.2(V2 - V,).

Line 2-3. In all the figures 'this lille represents the non-Jlow com-
pression of the air-residue mixture, after closure 01 the intake valve
and by work input through the agency of the returning piston. In the
absence 01 flow, turbulence or Incbonal effects are sufficiently mmor
that the compression may be taken as mechanically reversible in
Dature, thus permitting evaluation of ~he work input, via the plston
face, by the area under the compresSIOn Ime or as _.£3 P dV.

The compreSSIOn may ideally be regarded as occurrmg adiabatically
and thus also isentroplCally. However, It will in actuality be accom-
panied ·by appreciable heat transfer between the air and the cyhnder
walls and piston face. For such mechanically reversible but non-
adiabatic compression the energy transfer as heat is validly repre-
sented by the area under the T -8 hne, or as.[' T ds. The energy
relation pertainmg to this non-flow compression becomes·
(m. + m7)e2 + 2Qa + 2W,/J = (m. + m7)e3

The volume ratio V 21V a (or V,/V3) is known as the cqmpression
ratio of the engine, and isIII distmctlOn to pressure ratio P./P2. In
the compression-ignition engine the ratio needs to be sufficient that
temperature Ta is such that spontaneous ignitlOn of the fuel may occur
on its subsequent (forced) injection into the compressed air mass.
Compression ratios In the order of 14/1 h.ve been common, with a
correspondmg pressure ratio of about 35/1 and temperature Ta ap-
proaching lOOO°F, but are frequently exceeded.
Line 3-4. During this phase of the engine cycle, constItuting a first
portion of the "power stroke" of the piston, the fuel is steadily injected
mto and dispersed (Virtually as a mist) throughout the hot air mass.
The rate of InJection should not exceed that at which combustion may
proceed, and the amount to be inJected corresponds to the quantity of
energy which may advantageously be released per cycle by the com-
bustion. Various considerations operate to hmit the fuel to a maxi-
mum in the order of i of the amount for which oxygen is present and
available
In the cycle as origmally proposed by DIesel the combustIOn was
regarded as proceeding adiabatically and also at a rate such that, in
the space behmd the retreatmg piston, T ITa - VIV a or thus that the
pressure in the cyhnder would be effectively constant. In the actual
engmc the combustion is accompanied by very active heat transfer
from the flame to the cyhnder walls and pIston face, reqUIring effective
cDohng provisions for these. It is also possible and advantageous
that fuel in)ectlOn and the accompanying combustion be so accelerated
that the temperature increases more rapidly than does the volume,
with consequent pressure rise during much of the m)eclIon phase. The
temperatures attamed may well be sufficiently hIgh that chemical
eqUIlibrium effects (Arts 12-7, 12-9) prevent completion of com-
bustIOn until the temperature decreases suffiCIently m the followmg
expansion phase of the cycle.
The energy account for the process becomcs
(m. + m7)(ea - eO) + mf[(h - hO) + (-.:I.hO)]f + aQ. + alY.I.!
= (m. + m7 + ml)[(e. - eO) + (-.:I.eO).]
where (-.:I.eO). denotes any resIdual calOrIfic value due to incom-

pleteness of combustIOn at state 4 (Fig. 14-10).
EffeclIve reversibihty mechanically again permits evaluation of
work at the piston face as - [ p dV. Representations of the process
. a
to p-v and. T-s coordmates are necessarily only' indIcative as the
material WIthin' the cylinder IS changing progressively m mass and
composition.
Line 4-5. In all the figures the line represents the non-flow expan-
sion of thc mIxture after cessation of the fuel injectIOn, with assoCIated
work output. Although frequently regarded, ideally, as adiabatic
and isentropic, the expansion WIll in fact be accompanied by further
heat transfer to the surrounding walls and by continued energy release
as the combustIOn proceeds to completion.
Useful expansion may continue only to the end of the piston stroke
and thus to the same volume as that of the matenal m the cylinder at
the end of the intake stroke (Le., V. ~ Vol. Thus pressure P. con-
Bid~rably excee~s the exhaust (or atmosphenc) pressure, due to a still-
elevated temperature of the gases ThIs IS in contrast to the ability
to expand to atmosphenc pressure !fi the gas-turbine or Brayton cycle.
The energy account for the process becomes:
(m. + m, + m/)[(e, - e') + (-"'e').] + ,Qs + ,W./J

= (m, + m, + m/)('s - e')
where ,JV' = -I' p dV.
Lines 5-6-7-8. Several successive and related but dIstinct processes

are represented by this designation. In the actual engine these include:
(a) A semi-flow process (Art. 13-14) characterized by an abrupt
pressure drop (Po - p,) to the exhaust pressure during and due to the
escape of a portion of the combustion products, through the exhaust
valve (or port), upon Its opening at or about the end of the power
stroke of the piston.
(b) ElectIon from the cylinder, ,ahead of the returning piston, of
all remaming gases except the portion (m,) retained in the clearance
space.
(c) An ultimate mixing (actual or virtual) of the escaping and the
ejected gases in the exhaust passage, with arrival at a mean tem-
perature T 8'
The escape is sufficiently abrupt as to be effectively adiababc, and
also effectively isentropic in so far as concerns the state change of
the products whICh at any mstant still remain within the cylinder
Thus T/p('-')/k = T.!p.Ck-l)/k. The mass (m) remaining in the
cylmder at any instant during thIS phase thus is:
pV, V, P.c>-j)J>
m = - =- plil = ms(p/ps)1I> (14-4)
RT R T.
The energy relation for the escape phase is: mses = moeo + f.s hdm,
But the term fh dm is expressible also as Cp f Tdmor ;:~~ f T d(p"'),
and by strategic utilization of the above considerations may be reduced
. reIatlOn
h ItematIve
to tea ' 1e
5
v
h dm= - Ve ( )
C - ps - po = moe.
R
(po)
1-- .
~
Thus (14-5)
For the ejection phase (6-7), if during it the pressure is effectively
constant and that of the atmosphere into which the exhaust gases pass,
at its termination the mass remaming in the clearance (m,) equals

P, Vr/RT , . A further and permissible approximation is that during
this phase the gas temperature dIffers sufficiently moderately from
Lhat of the cyhndcr walls that the process is effectively adiabatic.
Accepting these apprOXImatIOns,
m7 = PO.7 V, = V 7Ps ('fJ_0)1/'

RT, RTs \];s
and = psVs V , (po)'" = m5(pc)", (14-6)

RT5 V. P5 T, P5
where T, is the (volumctric) compression ratio as V./V, = V 2 /Va.

Values of Ta and P5 will evidently have depended on the compression
ratio employed, the amount and rate of energy release by the combustion
of the fuel, the amount Bnd nature of the heat transfers between the gas
and walls, etc. Recall that in these relations m, - m, = mol, m(uol. +
The energy account for the phase becomes:
(ms - m,)[eC.7 + PO,7(VC - V , )/J] = (me - m,)ho,7,*
Either by consideration of the engine as a composite, or by collecting
the above energy rclatlOns for the individual processes, the energy
~lation for the cycle becomes:
+ ,Q5+
moh."
] -PI,2(V2 - VI) - f: p dV -1,s P dV - P6,I(V, - Vo)]!J
+ mllh + (-llkO)]1 = (m. + ml)hs (14-8)

where, Q. represents a net cnergy departure as heat in amount suffi-
cient for the requISIte COOllllg of the engine cyhiIder and pistDn, and
• For the subsequent mixing of the escaping and the elected gases J individually
conveying energies in the amounts 1 5

h dm and (m6 - ffl1 )h,,7 the energy account
becomes [5 h dm + (me - m7 )h5.7 "" (1n6 - m7 )h~. By the use of above rela.tions
and expressing hu as
e.+-
RT,
-p,
(p,)(.l:-l) {k
J
the energy account may be transformed to the relatIOn:
(14-7)
where the bracketed term in p-V is also the cyclic inl£gralf pdV and
represents the net energy output·as work delIvered through the agency
of the pressure forces operating on the face of the reClprocatmg piston.
With reference to the mdlVldual work terms,
(a) Item -Pl.' (V2 - V,) represents an energy outgo as work
(via the piston face and rod), whICh has, however, been prOVIded in
part by the work input supplIed for dnvmg the supercharger.
(b) Item - l' p dV is positIve in sense and so represents a work
!Dput, being furnished in the operating engine by energy stored in a
rotating flywheel.
(c) Item - I' p dV is negative in sense and represents the work
output durIng the "power stroke" of the engine cycle.
(d) Item -Po.' (V, - Vol IS positive m sense and is a further work
input item to be furnished by the flywheel
The - f p dV, as a measure of the indicated work output per en-
glOe cycle, prOVIdes the basis for establishmg an "mdlcated tbermal
efficiency" (7Jtb,indiC) which is expressed as
Net indicated work output per cycle
11th I mine =
Energy released per cycle by fuel
- fPdV/J
(14-9)
ml[h + (- t.hO) 11
OI, from equatIOn 14-8,
= 1 _ Q,", + [(m. + ml)hs - m.h•. d (14-9a)
ml[h + (-t.h')ll
where (-",h·) , is customarily interpreted as the lower calorific value
of the fuel, and the magmtude of the (molecular) enthalpy of the
liquid fuel (hi) is normally relatively neglIgIble
The mdicaled work output per cycle is also frequently expressed as
the product of an indicated mean effective pressure (l mep) times the
volume "dISplaced" per power stroke of the piston; that is,
-f p dV(ft-lb/cycle)
Imep =~--~~~~~~~ (14-10)
(V, - T'3)(CU ft/stroke)
where V 2 - 1'3 represents also the (net) piston area (A) times the
length (L) of the PIston stroke The Imep IS in effect that equivalent
pressure which, If actmg on the piston face dunng only the power
stroke of a cycle, would provide a work deltvery equal to the net work
output per cycle.
The associated concept of an indicated horsepower (Ihp) is regularly
employed, having the significance
-f p dV X Cycles performed per minute

Ihp = ------:3c::--c:=-=0,------
3,OO
Jmep (1'2 - V3) .
= 33,000 X Cyclesperformedpermmute (14-11)
Or, as the number of cycles performed equals also the number of

power strokes,
_ I mep X Displacement Power strokes per Revolutions

Ih p - - - X. I· X
33,000 per stroke engme revo utlOn per minute
(14-11a)
where the dIsplacement equals stroke length times (net) p,ston area.
Nole that for the "4-cycle," smgle-acting arrangement and processes
of Fig. 14-7 there is only one power stroke and/or cycle per two (2)
revolutions of the engine crank shaft.
Arrangements are also qUlte practIcable in WhICh an engme cycle
may be completed III only two piston strokes, or one revolutIOn. Th,s
is accomphshed by provisions whereby, after the escapc of a portIOn
of the combustion products after process 3-4-5 ill FIg. 14-10, the
remainder is largely ejected and replaced by air through the agency
of an air blast furnished by a scavenger blower, durmg the imtJaI por-
tion of the return stroke of the p,ston and before the begmning of com-
pression. Such an arrangement is known as that of a "2-cycle" engine.
In compression-ignition engines magmtudes of the Imep do not
normally exceed about 100 psi, which corresponds to a value of about
02 hp per (Cli ft X rpm) for 4-cycle engmes, but nearly twice that for
2-cycle arrangements. Problems involved m sUltable control of the
amount and rate of fuel injection operate to restrict the rotatIve speed,
which exceeds 1000--1500 rpm only in special CHcumstances and fre-
quently being much lower. Mechanical friction between movmg parts
of the engine mechanism divert an appreCIable portIOn of the indICated
AnT, 14-8 "AIR-8TANDARD," DIESEL CYCLE 367
work, so reducing the work output vIa the engine shalt. The ratio
between the shalt and indICated works is known as the '1'echanicaZ
effic,"ncy of the engine, and may be in the order of 0.80, The per-
ffilssibly higher compression and pressure ratios that may be employed,
however, allow It to obtain indicated thermal effiCIencies of O.~ 45
or more III well-designed engines when operating at favorable load
conditions.
14-8. "Ai .... Standard" Analysis, Diesel CyeIe. It is justifiable to
have considered III the preceding article the specIfic nature of the
various processes occurring in the actual compreSSIOn ignition engme,
as a facIlIty for recognizlllg the variables influencing its performance
characteristics. Unfortunately, however, actual utihzatioll of such
facIlitIes involves various complex and uncertain considerations, such
as the varying temperature difference and consequent rate of heat
transfer actually occurrmg between the working fluid and the cylinder
walls and piston face, the actual rates of injection and combustion of
the fuel, the changing composition of the working fluid within the
cyhnder and theIr departures from conformity to ideal-gas character-
istics at the hIgher pressures encountered, and accompanying equi-
lJbrium effects at hIgher temperatures,
Painstaking analyses and useful graphIC.1 f'Cllltics have been pub-
lished which enable the accountlllg of composition changes and disso-
ciation effects durlllg combustion,' Their requisite supplementation
by attentIOn to concurrent rates and consequences of heat transfers and
to departures from Ideal-gas characterishcs Illtroduce troublesome
problems
In lieu of the more realistic but troublesome accounting, evidence
of at least generally indIcatIVe nature has conventIOnally becn obtained
by an analYSIS carried out as though the processes of the engine cycle
, were as suggested by the appearance of the indicator (p- V) diagram
of Fig, 14-10, but formalized and Ideahzed in several respects and
SImplified in presuming no supercharging. or Pl.2 - P6,7' Specifically,
referring to the P- V dIagram appearing III Fig. 14-11, the lines of that
diagram are regarded as If experIenced by a single mass of gas (air)
while confined within the cylinder back of the recIprocating pIston and
caused to go th;ough the following state changes:
1-2, Isobaric warming at PI,: 4-5, isentropic expanSIOn
2-3, Isentropic compressIOn 5--2, Isometric cooling at Vfi ,2
34, isobaric warming a~ P3,4 2-1, ISobaric recoolmg at P2,l
If< Thermodynamic Charts lOT Comb1l8tion Processes, Hottel, Wllhams, and
S.tterfield; John WIley'" Sons, 1949
368 NON-CONPENSING FLUID CYCLES CllAr. 14
This cycle is known as the air-,tandard Diese! cycle; the presumed
pressure constancy lD phase 3-4 was postulated in the original Diesel-
engine concept Note that an analysis carried out on the above
premises ,will parallel somewhat that employed in Art. 14-2 for analysIs
of an idealized Brayton cycle, and that the idealized,Diesel cycle may
'~
Arr~5tandard dresel
cycle performance
(atk=140)
06
3 V
~,
if
.!->-I"---t-----i 10 ~
i!
Compression (abo. re
FIg. 14-11.
be 'regarded as in effect the Brayton, cycle e'l'cept as modified by

incomplete expansion of the hot gas (to p, instead of P2)'
The energy relations for the cycle become, per pound Qf air and
neglecting specific heat variation,
,q, = c,(T2 - Til = Cp (Pl.2/R)(v, - v1) = -,ql

sq, = c,(T. - Tz)
W"". = 3q4 -
T sq, '" Cp (
T4 - Tal - c.(T. - •T2 )
wO . . 1 T. - T,
Cycle efficiency (~) = -3Q4.
J = 1 - -k T
4 -
T
3
= ] _ ~ V6.2(P5 - p,l
k P4.3(V,-V,)
ART. 14-8 "AIR-STANDARD," DIESEL CYCLE 369
= 1_ ! Ps/p, - p,jp,
k v,/vs - V,/V2
= 1 _ ~ _c:(v.!!'/~V:c'5)~._--,,(V~3/c:V.::c2),-'
k v,/vs - V./V2
or = 1 _ ~ (1/T.)' - (l/T.)', (14-12)

k l/T. - liT,
where T, is agam the ratio of compreS'lOn (V2/V3) and T. is a ratio of
expansion, rJS!V4.
An associateu raho of perhaps more direct mterest IS that express-
ing the proportion of the power stroke (3 --> 5) during whICh heat input
IS maintained (i e., energy release by fuel injection and combus-
tion),ortheratio(v, - v.)/(v 2 -v.), - (l/T,-l/r,)/(l-1/r,).
This is denoted as the injection Tatio, T" the upper curves of Fig. 14-11
relate it to the compression ratio (r,) and the correspondmgly obtain-
able aIr-standard Diesel cycle thermal efficiency. Computations are
at a nominal value of 1.4 for k in equatIOn 14-12. Broken lines indi-
cating expansion ratio r, also appear. An evident feature is the pro-
gressive mcrease of the effiCIency with increase of the compression raho
and of the expansion ratlO; i.e., with decrease of the injection ratio
(T,) The latter mfluence is clearly attributable to a direct mcrease
of T 4 and a cumulative increase of T. on mcrease of rio An interest-
ing observation is that as r, approaches zero the efficiency of the cycle
approaches that of the Brayton cycle (equatIOn 14-2a). However,
such a value of T, would represent the futile SItuatIOn of a work output
approaching zero.
The lower curves of the figure associate the compression and injec-
tion ratios and the values of a dimensionless ratio 1mep/p'.2, whIch
serves as an Indirect but convenient mdex of the power obtainable at
a given piston displacement per unit time and a statcd intake and
exhaust pressure' A significance indICated by the upper family of
curves is the necessity for both :1 hIgh compressIOn ratio and a low
injection ratio for obtaining optimum values of effiCIency. The termini
of the injection-ratIO lines correspond to a heat receipt of 1000 Btu/lb
of air, which corresponds fairly closely to the combustion of oil in
stoichiometric amount
•A I W '1Jc p (n - Ts) kR T 2r/(l/rlJ - lire) h ,.

B mep - - - = = 7j - - , t e rsl.o1o
V2-V3 V2-V3 k-l v2(1-1/Tc)
lmep k
- - - .--r,(rc).i;
PI,! Ie - 1
370 NON-CONDENSING FLUID CYCLES CHAP 14
The necessIty for provIdmg through compreSSIOn a t.emperature Ta
suffiCIent to cause spontaneous and prompt combustIOn of the (liquid)
fuel after the start of mjectlOn, and the considerable betterment in
efficiency obtainable with the Diesel cycle at hIgher compreSSIOn ratIOs,
are compatIble reqUIrements whIch combme to ,make the compreSSIOn-
igmtion engme one of generally excellent efficiency capabIlItIes Al-
though attamed efficiencies are considerably less than those indIcated
by the above air-standard curves, the curves ore realIstic in indICatmg
trends, and efficiencIes (based on Ihp) of 40 per ccnt or better are
readIly attamable
Problems m the design of fuel-mjectlOn equipment providmg suit-
able control of the tlmmg and rate of fuel mjection, or of its amount
and its effective mixing wIth the compressed air, operate, however, tu
p 4 p 4 T
5 6
2
v 8
FJg 14-12. Spark-lgmhon cycle representations.
require that the engine be in general one of relatIvely moderate rotatIve

speed_ Also the neceSSIty for lower injectIOn mhos, III order that
efficiency capabilitIes may actually be reahzed, acts to restrict the
values of the lmep whICh may advantageously be obtained These
considerations tend Jomtly to merease the requIsIte engme size and
weight for securing a speCIfied power output, so that the type of engme
is better adapted to situations m whIch the premIUm on weIght and
space saving is less than that on fuel economy.
14-9. Spark-Ignition Type, Internal-Combustion Engines_ The
second maJor type of reciprocatmg-piston internal-combustion engme
1S that employed extensively in aircraft and the automobIle, or other
moderately powered automotive equipment. It differs primarIly from
the compression-ignitIOn engine in that It uses fuels which vapOrIZe
readIly at atmospheric temperatures and form air-vapor mIxtures
which may be igmted at moderate temperatures by such means as an
ART. 14-9 SPAill(-IGNITION CYCLE 371
electrIc spark. The successIon/of occurrences -constituting the engme
cycle, again as pertams to a. 4-stroke cycle arrangeme~t, becomes
effecllvely as mdlCated m Flg 14-12 and descnbed below
A first and major dlfference results from the usual practice that,
m contrast to an mltlal inducllon merely of alr and the subsequent
mJectlOn of fuel into the engme cyhnder (m substolChiometric propor-
tIons) , a prevIously prepared air-fuel mixture of about stoichIOmetric
proportlOn is instead mducted during the first plston stroke of the
engine cycle Preparation of thls mlxture lS accomplished by a
carburetor, WhICh IS an es~entIal accessory but 1ll a sense not a part
of the engme. The air and fuel flow separately into thls device, in
WhICh, however, theIr mtimnte mIxing and a partIal vaporIzation of
the fuel are effected whIle they are en route through the carburetor.'
Approximately stOlchlOmetrlC proporhomng lS necessary in order that
the mIxture may subsequently be igmted readlly. An associated
mability to control the engine output by mdependent vanation of the
amount of fuel mtroduced neccssltates a control mstcad by vanation
of the amount of mlxture inducted per cycle. This lS m turn controlled
by vanallon of lts denSlty, through ,educbon of pressure by passage
through a throttle located m the mtake system between the carburetor
and the engine, or oppositely with pressure mcrease through precom-
pression by a supercharger.
Inflow of the fuel into the alT stream lS effected III the main by
causmg a local pressure depression in that stream at the throat of a
converglDg-dlvergmg channel through whlCh the air is reqUlred to
pass (see also Art 16-7) en route through the carburetor. The energy
account for the adlabatlC and quasl-lsobanc mlXlng of the fuel and
air in the carburetor, with concurrent saturatIOn by the evaporatIOn
of the more volallle components of the hquid fuel, lS m princlple
equivalent to that as expressed m equatlDn 10-9 and illustrated III
Example 10-6 However the actual utJhzation of thls Slmpler relation
lS scarcely realisbc, because of the vanety of components comprismg
gasolme fuels and thelf different (saturation) p-T relations and enthal-
pies of vaporizatlOn. As the subsequent throtthng en route to the
engine cylinder is effecllvely adiabatic but qUlte meverSlble mechan-
ically, the enthalpy of the air-vapor·droplet mlxture entering the
engme may be regarded as the same as that leavmg the carburetor
unless further vaporizatlDn by heating is provided
• Although customary this technic IS not essential That IS, fuel m suitable
amount might lD,:>tead be mJected dIrectly mto the engllle cylInder dunng the
mtake or followmg pISton stroke Howe"'er, the SImplICIty and effectIVeness of
the carburetor lD prep reparation of the alr~fuel IDJXture qUite Jushfies Its usual
employment
Distinctive features of the processes represented by the vanous lmes
forming the graphs of Fig. 14-12 are as follows:
Line 1-2. The occurrence which is so mdicated parallels that simi-
larly represented In FIg. 14-10, except in that (a) the influence of
load control by throttling IS indIcated by a pressure during mixture
mtake less than that during the exhaust stroke, and (b) Inflow of this
mixture cannot begin until the combustion products remaining In the
clearance volume have expanded to this pressure. Load control in
such manner and with such consequences is alternatIvely describable
as that by voLumetric-efficiency control.
The energy relation for this process becomes
(m.+ mr)hm ,1 + m,e, + IQ2 - PI,ZWZ - VI)!J = (m. + mr + m')'2

or (m. + m,)h 1 + m,h, + lQ2 =
m• (m. + m/ + m,)h2
The enthalpy hm" is that of the air-vapor-droplet mixture furnished by
the carburetor. Heat transfer LS from tbe warmer surrounding surfaces
to the mixture.
Lwe 2-3. ThIS non-flow compression is again effectively reversible
mechamcally and accompanied by further beat transfer from the
cylinder and pIston surfaces to the enclosed mlJdurc, and also by
further evaporatIOn of fuel droplets still cxLSting in the mixture In
contrast to the compression-igmtiDD engme, compression ratios in the
order only of 6-g or a pressure ratio of possibly 10 may be employed,
in order that the temperature of the mixture will not have risen
sufficiently to cause preignition or to encourage a too rapid flame travel
and, resultant detonatwn after IDltiation of combustIOn, by electric
spark.
The epergy relation becomes
(m. + m,+ m')'2 + 2Q3 _1' pdV!J = (m. ;m, + m,)"

Line 3-4. In the spark-ignitIOn engine the combustion of the pre-
pared and compressed fuel-air mixture occurs so rapidly that, due to a
minimum piston velocity at or about the end of its travel, the combus-
tion approaches one of constant volume However the "higher-octane"
fuels are currently employed for the purpose of reducing the reaction
speed, so reducing the extremes of temperature and pressure that would
otherwise result from too-exploSIVe combustion.
The energy account for the process becomes
(m. ~ m, + m7)(es - eO) + m/(-6e'), + 3Q. _14

p dY!J
= (m. + m, + m,)I(e4 - eO) + (-6,°).]

ART 14-9 SPARK-IGNITION CYCLE 373
where (-<locO), denotes a calorific value still attributable to the mix-
ture at state 4 (F1g. 14-12). It is appreClable in magnitude because
of chemical equilibrium at the elevated temperatures and the near-
stOlchlOmetnc proportion of the· mitial mixture (Arts. 12-7, 12-8).
During this and much of the next phase of the engine cycle acbve heat
transfer by radiation occurs between the incandescent combustion
. products and the surrounding cooler surfaces.
Line 4-5. The expanSIOll of the combustion products is again efIec·
tively reversible mechanically but accompanied by active energy
departure as heat, and also by continued chemlCal reactwn until the
temperature becomes perhaps about 1600°F. The energy account
becomes
(m. + m, + m,)l(e, - eO) + (-<locO),] + .Q, _I' p dV/J
= (m. + m, + m,)(e5 - eO)

Observe that the volumetric expansion ratio nommally equals and
actually closely approaches the compression ratio (r,).
Lines 5-6-7. This successwn of proc~sses includes (5-6) the escape
of part of the combustion products on opening of the exhaust valve
and (6-7) the ejection by the piston of the most of the remainder.
Sufficient attention to Ilke processes was given in Art. 14-7 when we
considered the compresswn-ignition engine.
Line 7-8. This Ime of the p- V diagram represents an effectively
reversible expansion of the mass (m7) retained in the clearance volume,
to the pressure at which the fresh supply of air-fuel mixture is inducted
by the engme Although probably accompanied by some heat transfer
between this reSIdual gas and the cylinder, the expansion may ap-
proach the adiabatic, as represented in the T-s diagram of Fig. 14-12.
If lsentropic, the expansion provides work in amount J' p dV -
[m7RT7/(k-l)] 11-(Ps/P7)(·-ll/']; also Vs (=V,) =V7 (p';PS)"k
and Ts - T7 (PS/P7) ('-l l /', where the latter is that determining the
mternal energy (es) of the residual prior to mixing with incoming
air-fuel mixture.
Because of the effective reversibility (mechamcally) of the non-flow
occurrences in the engine cylinder, the - f P dV for the engine cycle
measures the indicated work output. But observe that an excess of
pressure during the exhaust stroke over that during the intake stroke
causes the area enclosed by the loop 12n78 to have a wark-input
significance. That is, the net work output for the cycle (- f P dV) -
374 NON-CONDENSING FLUID CYCLES CIlAP. 14
- (area n3456 - area 12n78) The energy reprcsented by the nega-
tive loop has been described as the "pumpmg work" per cycle.
The indicated thermal efficiency, lmep, and lhp are again expressible
by the relations of equations 14-9, 10, and 11 or 11a.
14-10. "Air-Standard" Analysis, Otto nnd Dual·Combustion
Cycles. As was noted in Art. 14-8, analyses and graphical facihtles
are available whereby one may account for tho influences of composi-
tion changes and equilibrium effects. But the problems become very
complex when we attempt to account further for quite rcahstlC effects
06
J~1 V
.,......::
(".
,....,.,--~mePllP2
24
04 I6 ~
02 / B
If
3 5 7 9 II 13 15
Fig. 14-13 "Air-standard" Otto cycle.
such as accompanying heat-transfer rates or pressure effects on ther-

modynamic properties of gases. For these and other reasons it has
frequently been regarded as sufficient to indicate certain of the per-
formance characteristics of a spark-IgnitIon engine by analysis of a
formalized succession of processes known as that of the air-standard
Otto cycle. The p-V diagram of this cycle appears in FIg 14-13,
differing primarily from that of FIg 14-12 m that the exhaust and
intake pressures are conventionally taken to be the same. As with
the air-standard DIesel cycle, the several processes are regarded as
experienced by a single mass of gas while retamed withm the cylmder
The lines of the p- V diagram are correspondingly to be mterpreted as
representing
1-2, isoba.nc warmmg at IP2 2-3, Isentropic compreBSIOn
. 3--4, isometric warming at V8 4-5, IsentropIC expanSIon
5-2, isometric coolmg at Vii 2-1, IsobarIC cooling at 2Pl
The gas IS convel)tJonally taken as alr, and speCIfic-heat variation IS
ART. 14-10 "AIR,sTANDARD," OTTO CYCLE 375
disregarded. On these conventionalized premises, per pound of air
and as processes 1-2 and 2-1 nullify,
q", = c.(T. - T,) and goo, = c,(T. - To)
gout T5 - T2
Thus, thermal efficiency (~) =1- -_ = 1 - :::''--'''::;
q" T. - T,
= I _ :_T-,-,o(.:_T",-o/,.=T.!_._-_1:.<)
T,(T./T, - 1)
But T,/To = (VO/V,)'-' and = T./T 5 , so tbat To/T. = T./Ta,
To
therefore ~ = 1 - - = 1 - (V,/V2)""
T,
= 1- (l/r,)'-1 (14-13)
where r, again denotes the (volumetriC) ratIO of compression, and in

tlus instance also an equal ratio of expansion
Results of the solution of tb,s ef!icie~cy relation are indicated in
Fig. 14-13. Tbey are, mterestingly, the same as those secured by
equation 14-2a for a correspondlllgly conventionalized Brayton cycle,
as (p/PO)R/J" = (p/PO),k- III ' = (vO/V)'-I, and also become the same
as those shown III Fig 14-11 for the air-standard Diesel cycle 'I the
injectwn ratio (r.) were zero. The parameter imep/IP2 IS also shown in
Fig 14-13 for the condition of energy reception ,q.
of 1000 Btu/lb
and T2 = 70'F For the air-standard cycle this parameter may be
w J ,q4[1 - (l/r,)>-1]
expressed as ( )
P2 V2 - v, RT2(1 - 1/r,)
Observe from the foregoing that, at the same compresSIOn ratio in
both, the air-standard Otto effiCiency would exceed that for any oper-
ative Diesel cycle (u., at rl > 00). But the hmited compression
ratio permissible when an explOSive air-fuel mixture is inducted enable
the comprcsslOn-igllltlOn engine to exhibit the better efficiency even
when operating at a practicable injection ratIO.
An associated observatIOn is that the compresslon-igoition engine
effiCiency may in principle be bettered, and the Otto-cycle efficiency
corresponding to a gIven compression ratIO may be approached, if on
completIOn of the compression of the inducted air the rate of fuel inj ec-
tion and energy release IS so accelerated that not only the temperature
but also the pressure of the burning mixture may mcrease. A conven-
tionalized air-standard cycle departing from the Diesel cycle III this
respect is represented III Fig. 14-14, and has been referred to as a
dual-combuslwn cycle The "dual" aspect lies m an inihal rate of
fuel inJection and energy release such that the pressure rises abruptly
while the pIston is at or near the end of Its stroke, ·but subsequently at
a rate such that for a lumted period the preS8ttle ~ mamlamed constant
on the retreating piston. FIgure 14-14 indicates the close degree to
which the efficiency of such a composite cycle approaches that of the
Otto when, for example, an energy release correspondmg to stolChio-
3'4
o8rr
o6 r ~J.-
v
-- --
#' ~d"a\
~ 0,4
_I .::/
/'
02
4 6 8 10 12 14 16
"
Fig. 14-14 Dual-combustion cycle.
metric aIr-fuel proportions IS dlstnbuted equally between the constant-

volume and constant-pressure phases. A1thougli difficultly high pres-
sures may result when one endeavors to approximate in practice
a cycle of thIS nature, It is stIll rather representatIve of condihons
provided for III current compression-lgmtlOn engines of moderate
cylinder BIZe.
14-11. Throuled OUo Cycle. The necessary inductIOn of a fuel-
air mixture of about stOIchiometric proportIOns m the spark-ignitlOn
engme requires that power control be by variatIOn of the pressure and
consequent denSIty and mass of the mixture inducted per cycle or per
unit tIme. For power reduction with an engine of gIven pIston dis-
placement th,s is accomplished by (irreversible) throttlIng of the mIX-
ture whIle en route to the cylinder. Oppositely, some power Increase
m4y be gained by moderate precompression of the mixture; i.e., by
supercbarging
ART. 14-11 THROTTLED OTTO CYCLE 377
Operation with throtthng during intake is represented to.p-v coordl-
. nates in FIg. 14-15. Here line 6-7 would represent for an operating
engine an exhaust against effectIVely atmospheric pressure, ,but with
subsequent expansIOn (lme 7-8) of the gases remaming in the clear-
ance space to the lesser pressure at which the fresh charge will be
Contour fines are

ones of ~/p6
:!; 06
~
u
c
~
,g 05
"' 04~~4~-------------1~~F-~,~~~-120
p J..------,,-lO I
__ + __ + __ LI __ 15
J..--___'"", 0 8 I
I I r:r
r I' --
t:;.::;;.:..<-O,6 - _ - - 10 ~
I I I E
I 04 1 .....
1---_-_--1.7-:
__ T - _1._ - 5
I I
\--_...-02 I
I
L __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~~~~--+_~--~O
5 6 7 8 9
Compression ratio (re)
Fig. 14-15. Throttled Otto cycle
mducted. For an 81r-standard analysis the lines of the figure will,

however, be regarded as non-flow processes. Are. 78127 corresponds
to the negative "pumping loop" of Fig 14-12.
AnalysIs is made more readIly by noting that (equation 14-13) the
area 23452 may be expressed as Jag, [1 - (l/r,)'-I], and that the
net work for the complete cycle is the latter less the work represented
by area 67826. The last may be expressed as
Work equivalent (area 67826)
= RT2\ (:, -1) - (k ~ l)J::- (::rJI

The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle with throttling therefore
becomes
w
~ .. = -- (14-14)
J sq.
(
= 1 -;:;
1)'-1 - R7',
J 3q.
{(P6)
P2 - 1 -
k
(k - l)r, P2 -
[PO (P6)"'J)
P'
378 NON-CONDENSING FLUID CYCLES CHAP 14
A dimensionless index assocmtmg the variables which affect the lmep
with throttled intake is again provided by the ratio [meplp6 If the
[mep IS written as (~'hJ,q')!(V2 - V7), for the throttled Otto cycle,
this index becomes
Imep J ,q. P2
- - = - - - n.. (14-15)
P6 RT2 P6
The mflucnce of the throttling (as measured by the ratio P2/P.) on
these performance indIces is indIcated in Fig 14-15 for the eond,tion,
of sq, ~ 1000 Iltu/lb and T2 ~ 530 o R. Note m equatIOn 14-15 the
favorable influence on the Imep resulting from decrea~e in inlet tem-
perature T 2.
Throttling operation of an actual engme may be regarded alterna-
tively as one affecting ItS volumetric efficiency (Art. 15-5), or perhaps.
more aptly termed its induction effiCiency, defined as
. effi clency
I n ductlOll . = ::::-:",I\",I:.:a;:ss::....::o",f:.:llliX=t:.:u",r.:.e.:.in",d.:.:u:_:c",te;-:d"--,;pe:;r,...c,-,y,-c-;Ie"",,,-,-
PISton dIsplacement per stroke (V. - V 7 ) X
density of mixture as OrIginally supplIed
Here the denominator represents the mass of mIxture which might

ideally be inducted if entry were to occur throughout the intake stroke
and without reduction m mixture denSIty, due to pressure decrease
or temperature increase. The mass actually mducted becomes the
dIfference between the total WIthin the cylinder at the end of the intake
stroke and that of the reSIdual products whICh remain in the clearance
volume but subsequently mix with the !Dcoming fuel-air mIXture. The
first is an aggregate the temperature or mass of whIch depends on
various factors such as
(a) The'mass and temperature of the residual after its expansion
to state 8 (Fig. 14-15).
(b) The proportion of the mtake stroke during which, after expan-
sion of the residual, the pressure is sufficlently reduced that inflow of
the air-fuel mixture may actually take place
(c) The proportIOn of the latter mixture WhICh is still in fuel-droplet
state and so capable of coolmg effects on evaporation
(d) Accompanymg warming by heat transfer from the cylInder walls
to the mixture.
The index continues to be informatIve even at open-throttle opera-
tion, only approaching unity at this optimum condItion due to ines-
capable resistances to flow through engine valves or ports and the
carburetor and to various of the above effects.
AIlT 14-12 PROBLEMS 379
14.12. Problems. 1. Venfy some, representative points on the effiCIency
curve of Fig. H·2 for the Brayton cycle, and pomts on the curves of Figs 14-2
and 14-3, correspondmg to a. pressUre raho of 80 and temperatures iT. of 1500
and 1800"F jf the adiabatIc efficiency of both compressor nnd turbme is 0.85
Investigate also the effects of decrease of T Go
2. Genera.te an efficiency curve for the g~-turbme cycle, with regenerative
air-preheating, such as those of Fig. 14-3 and for 85% adiabatic efficiency of com-
pressor and of turbine, but a regenera.tOr effectiveness of 0.75.
3. Compute, items as called for in Exa.mp]e 14-3, but DOW With temperatures
T e•1 and T c,2 of 1800"F.
4. Verify representative points on the curves of Figs. 14-11, 14--13 and 14-15
15 . HEAT -PUMP AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES
15·1. Foreword. The heat.pump cycle was introduced in Chapter
4 as the practical example of a reversed heat engine. It acts to ab-
stract heat energy from a reglOn of lower temperature and to deliver
heat to a region of higher temperature. For actuating It an external
supply of energy is required, usually III the form of shaft work but
possibly as heat energy from a region at still higher temperature level.
The objectIve of the heat en ine IS to btam as work a maximum
por lOn of the energy which is supplied from a hIgh-temperature
source, but unfortunately thIS must be accompamed by the rejection.
IliIiilUnavailable residue of energy to that unIversal energy receiver,
the atmosphere. The heat engine thus operates from a temperature
whIch exceeds atmospheric downward to atmospheric.
In distinctIOn, a heat pump inducts heat from II region of lesser
temperature and delIvers heat to a regIon of higher temperature. Con-
sequently it finds major utility for refrigerating service, dlscardmg
to the atmosphere heat received from" space which is to be main-
tained at less-than-atmospherIc tempemture. However the pump is
also used for warming service, dellvermg heat to a space which is to
be maintamed at moderately greater-than-atmospherIc temperature
and inducting it from atmospheric environs, this IS the popular inter-
pretation of the term "heat-pump."
15·2. The Ideal Refrigeration Cycle. The reversed Carnot cycle,
operating as a refrigeration cycle, was introduced III Art. 4-5 Also, a
SUItable index of performance for any refflgeratlOn machine was there
descflbed as the ratio between the amount of heat energy removed
(i.e., the refngeratmg effect) and the work reqUIrement This ratio
is called the coefficient of performance; that IS,
. Heat removed
CoeffiCIent of performance = (4-2)
Work required
For an ideal heat-pump cycle III which the temperatures of heat-energy

reception and of departure are constant, thIS became also (Art 6-4)
TR
CoeffiCIent of performance = :::,-"-'=:::- (6-6)
(ideal) 7 - TR
aBO
ART. 15-2 THE IDEAL REFRIGERATION CYCLE 381
where T and TR a,e the constant values of the upper and lower tem-
peratures.
The C,unot principle as applied to heat pumps msy be stated in the
form of three propositIOns whICh parallel those of Art. 5-2, dealing
primarily with heat engines. These are:
Propo"tion 1. No hent pump delivering heat from a region at a
lower temperature to one at a higher temperature can have a
greater coefficient of performance than that of a reversible heat
pump operating between those temperatures.
RegIon at upper temperature. T
Q= 125
Region at lower temperature, TJ!
Fig. 15-1.
To vahdate by refcrrmg to the line of reasoning used in Art. 5-2 with

reference to heat engines, let machme Y of Fig. 15-1 be a reversible
heat pump having a coefficient of performance of (say) 75/50 - 1.5.
Let X be another heat pump which IS alleged to haye a greater coeffi-
cient of performance, say 100/50 ~ 2. Now reverse machine Y so
that it acts as a heat engine and couple it to machine X which acts as
a heat pump. The 50 units of work output of Y is just sufficient
to drive the heat pump X, and thus the combmed unit would be
self-acting However, the combmed machine continuously delivers
(150 - 125 -) 25 units of energy from the low to the high tempera-
ture region, with no external motivation. This is contrary to the
second law oj thermodynamics (see ClausIUS' statement, Art. 7-8).
Therefore the maximum coefficient of performance of a heat pump is
that of the reversible Carnot device Y, which has been shown to be
TR/(T - TR)
Proposition II. The coefficient of performance of all reversible
382 HEAT-PUMP, REFRIGERATION CYCLES CHAP. 15
heat pumps working between the same temperature levels IS the
same, irrespectIve of the cycles or of the working fluids used in
the machines.
Propositwn III. The coefficient of performance of a reversible
heat pump depends only on the temperature of the lower and
hIgher temperature regions.
Proof of these propositIons is wholly parallel to that used for Propo-
sitIOn I or in Art. 5-2.
The ideal refrigeration cycle may be pictured as utilizing any sort
of workmg fluid. But it IS convement to consider the operation with
T,
OR
TR --- - b
~ ~
~ ~
~ Refngeratlng
effect ~
I~
~ //
~
]2
O'R s
Fig. 15-2.
a condensmg vapor, such as water or ammonia. Referring to the T-s

dIagram of Fig. 15-2, and starting at state" with saturated hquid at
the upper temperature (and pressure) of the cycle, let the liquid be
expanded adiabatically and reversibly to state b. As it expands the
temperature drops, part of the liquid vaponzes, and some work output
is obtamed. Between states band c addItional liquid is caused to
vapOrIze at the constant lower temperature and pressure of the cycle
by the absorption of heat energy from the cold region. Here the
refrigeration is accomplished. After the partial vaporization Ie some
suitable state c, work energy is supphed and the vapor and hquid mIx-
ture is compressed isentropically to a state d which in the flgure is the
saturated vapor state at the upper temperature and pressure. The
vapor is now,condensed at that temperature and pressure to the ong-
ART. 15-3 REFRIGERATING CAPACITY 383
inal state at a, condensation bemg effected by heat-energy rej ection m
an amount equal to that absorbed from the lower temperature region
plus the net work to the cycle. The net work is that reqmred for the
compresslOn less that regamed by the expanSlOn of stage a-b. Graph-
ICally, area b-c-2-1 of FIg 15-2 represents the refngeration effect,
area d-a-1-2 the heat energy reJected, and arca a-b-c-d the net work
to the ideal T8VeT$w!8 cycle.
Example 15.1. A Co.rnot refrIgeratIOn cycle IS considered as Ji operating
with wa.ter and water vapor, and between temperatures of 50°F and lOO°F.
What pressures are reqUired, and what IS the coeffiCIent of performance? What
refrIgeratIOn would be accomplished per pound of steam condensed?
Soluttan. From the saturated steam. table the pressures are 0.178 and 0.95 psia,
respectIvely The coefficient of performance would equal (50 + 460){(1oo - 50),
or 102. The hea.t rejected per pound of steam condensed at the upper tempera-
ture (lOO°F) would be h r" the enthalpy of vaporrzatlOD, or l03i 2 Btu/Ibm
From the defimtlOn of coeffiment of performance and the necessary energy rela-
tions oi the cycle,
Heat removed 1037.2 - 'York per Ibm
10.2 = Work Work per Ibm
Solvmg, the net work required per pound of steam condensed equals 92 2 Btu/Ibm
Therefore the refrigeratlOn accomplished per pound of steam equals q - w =oJ
1037.2 - 922 = 945.0 Btu.
15-3. Refrigerating Capacity. For expressmg the rate of avail-

able energy delivery from an engine or power plant, the horsepower
or the kilowatt is the convenbonal unit of capaCIty. The analogolls
unit which is llsed for expressing the rate of heat energy mtake from
the cold regIOn of a refrigeratmg machme, or its refrigerating capacIty,
is the standard commercial ton of refrigeration, frequently referred to
simply as the "ton." Th,s umt is arbitranly defined as a rate of
removal of heat energy from the cold region equal to 200 Btu per mm,
or (24 X 60 X 200 =) 288,000 Btu/24 hr. It originated from the fact
that the enthalpy of fusion of ICe is approximately 144 Btu/Ibm, or
(144 X 2000 ~) 288,000 Btu/ton of ice The quantity 288,000 Btu
of heat energy is also known as a standard ton. The unit "ton"
thus is used loosely in denotmg both an energy rate and an energy
quantity.
The power reqmrement in horsepower or in kilowatts per standard
commercial ton of refrigeration is frequently used as a further index
of the performance of a given unit. It. relation to the coefficient of
performance is obtained by noting that the work requirement per
unit heat energy absorbed is the reciprocal of the coefficient of per-
formance (C.P.). Thus, as 1 hp ~ 42.42 Btu/min or 1 kw - 5693
Btu/min,
200/C.P. 4713
Horsepower per ton = 42.42 = C.P
200/C.P. 3514
or kilowatts per ton = 5693 = C.P.
Example 15.2. A fluid mIXture is to be rnamtamed at a temperature of

40"F, requiring the contmuoU8 removal of heat energy at. tbe rate of 1300
Btu/mIn. What IS the minimum horsepower requirement, Lf coolIng water at
80°F lB avrulable 1
Solution. Ideal coefficient of performance = (40 + 460) /(80 - 40) = 125, and
also represents the maximum obtamable. Horsepower per irton" thus becomes
4 713/12 5 = 0377 as a mmimum value. The tOWI of refrIgeratIOn reqUlred are
1300/200 = 6.5, whence mlnlmUm horsepower 18 65 X 0.377, or 245 hp
154. Compression Refrigeration Cycles wilh Condensing

Fluids. The processes of the reverscd Carnot cycle, with its isother-
mal heat intake and delivery processes, are most readily approached
in practICe by the use of a working flUld, known as the rBlngerant,
which may be evaporated at the lower temperature level and condensed
at the upper. That IS, the triple point and critICal temperatures of
the refrIgerant need be, respectively, less than and greater than the
lower and upper temper.atures that need to be mamtained. Character·
istics of several of the fluids currently employed are indIcated III
Art. 15-5
ASIde from the inescapable departures from the ideal which result
from mechamcal and thermal irreversibihties, the cycle of processes
employed in actual refrigeratIOn installatIOns using a condensible
fluid departs in principle from those of the Carnot cycle only m that
nb effort is made to obtain the work "recovery:' that Ideally is procur·
able by an isentropIc expansIOn of the condensed liquid; that is, the
work output correspondmg to the expansion represented by line a·b
of Fig 15·2. The provision of an engine capable of obtaining it is
rather Impracticable. Instead the temperature and corresponding
saturation pressure of the liquid at state a is reduced to those at whIch
the heat-energy receptIOn is to occur by an effectively isenthalpic
passage through an expansion valvB, or perhaps a flow· controlling
capIllary tube.
Figure 15·3 provides a diagrammatic representation of the equip·
ment correspondingly constituting a simple refrigeration installation
in which a condensible working fluid IS employed, and indicates also
to T·" h-, and log p·h coordinates the succession of processes the fluid
would ide~lly expenence. In the figures, point a represents the fluid
ART. 15-4 ELEMENTARY CONDENSING-FLUID CYCLE 385
as it leaves the condenser, and ,for mtroductory purposes may be taken
as saturated hqmd at about atmospheric temperature and at the cor-
responding s.turatlOn pressure for the particular refrigerant being
employed. Between a and b the fluid is throttled at constant enthalpy
en route to the evaporator. The temperature at state b is determined
by the temperature it IS desired to mamtam in thc refrIgerated space,
and the pressure is m turn the saturatIOn pressure corresponding to
temperature T. for the particular refrigerant. In the evaporator there
is an absorptIOn of heat energy by the fluid, causmg It to vaporize
ExpanSion
valve
h
TI
a,L:::~:~<{
/ \ ___ -~c
8 ,
F,g. 15-3.
The quantity of energy received by each pound of refrigerant and thus

the degree of completeness of it.s vaporizatIOn WIll depend on Items
such as the rapldity of it" circulation, or the temperature difference
between the evapor.tor and its environs. In the figure the fluid IS
shown as leavmg the evaporator as a saturated vapor (point c), but
it may in lact leave as a wet-vapor mIxture or perhaps even moderately
superheated. It IS to be emphasized that the temperature of the fluid
in the evaporator must be below that of the (cold) region from which
heat is to be transferred.
From the evaporator the refrigerant passes to the compressor, which
has a two-lold function One is that of withdrawmg the fluid lrom
the evaporator at a rate sufficient to mamtaIn the necessary low
pressure and temperature The other is that of compressing and
delivering the fluid to the condenser at a temperature wbich is ade-
386 HEAT-PUMP, REFRIGERATION CYCLES CnAP 15
quately above that of the region to which heat is to be transferred
This mcrease In temperature accompames the increase in pressure
during the compressIOn. The figures indICate a compression (slep c-d)
that is both rev~rsible and ndJababc, or Isentropic, and in thIs respect
represents an ideahzed state change. The compressed vapor (point d)
then enters the condenser, in which II IS first desuperheatcd and then
condensed The departing energy passes as heat eIther dIrectly to the
atmosphere, or in most commere181 installations to coohng water which
may be expected to be at or about atmospheric temperature. After
condensallOn the fluid may enter" ltquul recewer prior to repeatmg
the cycle (pomt a).
Any actual refngeratmg cycle must dIffer from that outlined above
m that there Wlll be some pressure drop and heat gam or loss accom-
panying the flow of refngerant through the connectmg pipes, and
the compresslOn WIll scarcely be IsentroplC In a reciprocating com-
pressor the phenomena of millal evaporation, of subsequent reconden-
sation, of pressure drop through the valves, etc., will cause a net
increase of the entropy of the fluid and increased work input even
though there is DO net heat inflow to the compressor. In a centrifugal
or aX131-fiow compressor a progreSSIve increase In entropy en route is
to be expected. Also, the actual cycle dIffers rather baSICally from the
Ideal Carnot cycle III the irreversible expansIOn a-b, and the super-
heating to higher-than-required temperature at pomt d. The first of
these irreversibllitJes could in prmciple be elimmated by use of an
expansion engine, and the second by use of wet compression, obtained
by permitting only incomplete vaporization in the evaporator In
eith~r case the practical gam has been too small to justify the IDcreased
operatmg difficultIes.
A relatlyely SImple means of improving the performance of many
relngeratlOn proceSSl'S, but one that is frequently overlooked, is that
of providing adequate heat transfer surfaces in the evaporator and in
the condenser, and in prOVIding an adequate amount of cooling air
or water for the condenser. The effect is to hold the temperature range
through which the refrigerant must pass to a practical mlmmum.
The energy rclatlOns for the several phases 01 the simple com·
pression cycle, per pound 01 condensmg fluid circulated, and neglectmg
kmetie and potential energy Items, are as follows:
ExpanSIOn val ve h. = h, (15-1)
Evaporator (heat in) ,g, = (h,-h,) = (h,-ha) (15-2)
Compressor (li adiabatic) ,w. = J(h.-h,) (15-3)
Condenser (heat out) -.ga = (h.-ha) (15-4)
ART. 15-4 ELEMENTARY CONDENSING-FLUID CYCLE 387
and, for the complete cycle, I
Net work (u'",) J(hd-h,) = J(dq.-"q,) (15-5)

(h,-h.)
Coefficient of performance = (15-6)
Example 15.3. An lee-making installation of 25-ton capacIty operates WIth

a.mmonia. as a refngerant Brme leaves the cooler (evB.:porator) at HOF, and to
obtam thIS temperature the necessary vapor temperature In the evaporator IS
D~F. CooJjng water IS Sllpphed at 70°F and Jeaves at SO°F, enabling the ammonJa
to condense at 86°F Presummg dry satumted vapor at compressor mlet and
isentropIc compression, ascertam the required pressures In tb~ evaporator and
condenser, the temperature after compreSSIOn, and the coefficIent of performance
Compute also the horsepower requIrement and the caoimg water reqUlrement
per IIton" of refrIgeratIOn C(lmparc the computed coefficient of performance
With that of the Ideal Carnot cycle if thJ.s cycle is operating between the vapor
temperatures m the evaporator and condenser, and also wlth the Ideal value
betwecm the lowest bnne temperature and the coolmg-water supply temperature.
Solulum. From tables of properties of anunonia:
Evaporator pressure = Saturation pressure at 5°F = 34 3 psis.
Condenser pressure = Saturation pressure at 86° = 16D.2 psis.
For satumted vapor at 5°F, hfJ = he = 6133' Btu/Ibm, and Sq = 8 0 = 13253
Btu/(lbm, 'R).
After compression at a constant elltropy of 1.3253 Btu/ (Ibm, OR) from 343 pSla
to 160.2 PSHL (from charts; see FIg. 15-5), td = 210°F, and hd = 7130 Btu/lbm.
For saturated liquid at 86c F, hi = ha = hb = 138.9 Btu/Ibm Thus
6133 - 1389
Coefficient of performance = 7130 _ 613.3 = 4.72
200 X 60/2545 4713
Horsepower per ton = = -- = 0 DO
472 4.72
hp - 25 X 0.99 - 24.8
Heat rejected per Ib 7130 - 138!) 5741
"..-;-'-;:----''--,,- - - - - - 1 21
RefrigeratIon per lb 6133 - 138.9 474.4 .
Heat cmcarded per ton = 200 X 1.21 = 242 Btu/rom
Cooling water required - 242/ (80 - 70) - 242 Ib/ton, mIn
- 605lb/nun
Ideal coefficent W to 86'F) - (460 + 5)/(86 - 5) - 5 74
Ideal coefficIent (14' to 70'F) - (450 + 14)/(70 - 14) - 8.77
The lrreverSlblhty assOCiated Wlth the heat trllnsfer.s to the evaporator and
from the condenser thus causes the coefiiclent to decrease from 877 to 574.
Trreverslbi!ltles due to the throttlmg and to the hIgher flUId temperature dUring
the desuperheatmg cause a further decrease from 574 to the above-computed
value of 4 72.
4
V /'
,
3
/'
,
,
/'
, oV
2
~ -
~/'
V I
15
V ,
I
-40 -30 -20 -10 o 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140
1
T. of
220
1\ 19'"
200 ,
,
)1.S
180 I . 700
160
I
-~4 3
SatlJrated _
D , 32 I II ~PE!'~
600
~140
ii5
I
.'" .
'""" 120
~
-g•
I
I
-" I
.~
-_
~~
.0
500
i:l:100 ~
0 _;_
"
"= 80 ~
u 265
~-
~
60 t--- ~,C'O
I - -8
~
.;
~
+-~
:t Sl
/
I
CCI,F
VI--"
1S ...-:; 11-
.....-
] Saturated
IrqUid
=r 200
40
I V "'" 100
20
o 0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
T, OF
Fig 154. Properties or reIngerants

ART. 15-5 CHARACTERISTICS OF REFRIGERANTS 389
The reqUIred rat. of circulatlOn,of the refrigerunt is:
Circulation rate, refrigerant = h.~h' Ibm/ton, min
For the conditions of the ahove example the rate became

(200/474.4 -) 042 Ib/ton, min or (25 X 0.42 -) 105 Ib/min. The
product of this mass rate times the speCIfic volume of the refrigerant
leaving the evaporator (v,) determines further the reqUisIte vol-
umetric capacity of the compressor for producmg the desired tonnage
of refngeration. For ammonia at 5'F, V, - 8.15 cu ft/lb, and thus the
required intake capacity of the compressor IS (0.421 X 8 15 -) 3.4
elm/ton, or 85 cfm lor 25 tons.
15~5. Comparative Characteristics of Refrigel'an18. As the tem-
peratures involved in refrigeration service are characteristically from
about atmospheric downward, the use of water and Its vapor as the
working fluid becomes bothersome because of its low vapor pressure
and density even at atmospheflc temperatures, and is eVldently Imprac-
ticable if the desired lower temperature approaches or IS less than 32°F.
A considerable variety of fluids have 'consequently been developed
and employed for such service. Aside from conSlderatlOns such as
Iheir toxicity and fiammablhty or chemical stabihty, all of which
may influence a chOICe) Items which become of engineering concern
include:
(a) The pressure levels necessarily main tamed when specific con-
denser and evaporator temperatures are imposed by operatlllg condi-
tions.
(b) The reqmsite mass rate of circulation of the refrigerant for
provldmg a specified refrigerating capacity, and the correspondingly
necessary volumetnc capacity of the compressor for effecting this mass
rate of Clrculabon.
Characteristics of consequent interest are shown m Flg. 15-4 for
various refrigerants The upper graph exhibits their satumllon pres-
sures over a relevant temperoture range. The broken lines at 5°
and 86 'F reflect thelt conventional employment as "standard" evapo-
rator and condenser temperatures III the ice-manUfacturing industry
Values of v, at 5'F are also indicated along that hne. The lower
graph provldes values of h, and h, for a hke temperature range."
Figures 15-5 and 8-5 provlde, to p-h coordinates, more compre-
henslve thermodynamJC data on, respectively, ammonia and carbon
dioxlde Table 15 1 compares tYPIcal performance characteristics .
6
• In conforlllity WIth refrIgeration practIce, enthalpy values are relative to

those of saturated liquid at -40 F, or °c.
G
390 HEAT-PUMP, REFRIGERATION CYCLES CIIAP. 15
- 640 660 680 700 120 740 760
,
250
-- - _L
, 2SO
200 200 , , z"- i J.200
150 ISO
).1"; \.,A X\ \
\ t"IJ
ISO
/-J./- \~\\
3 \ \
\ '"&
100
- l(lO •8\)
• 100
80 80 ~~{?
- - ~i:I \ ;.§l.q~ \ '6
80
60 60
SO -- SO n
0
A ,q.~r \ .... ,B
60
50
,., "I.. , Pi v~lO
4D 4D
1\ I
r-I-!/ -- - 30
e > I
114 .,;..:: 30
<3 I '" HI612" 760
20
-- - 20 ~ ;7
..y
20
740
15 17
5
29
15720
.-,~ I
1f3Sbt
10 10 L I 700
• I-l~
8 8 7 8 680
I
6
5~
o 40 80
6
I
120 160 580 600 620 640
...-; "" 6
660
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
Fig. 15-5 Properties of ammonia (Nil,).
T,ble 15-1 Companson of RefrIgerants

CoefficIent Condenser Evaporator
of hp elm Pressure, Pressure,
Refrigerant Performance ton ton psis psia
For temperature levels 5°F and 86°F*
(C.rnot cycle) 5.74 o 82
Ammomh. 4 85 o 973 3 36 169 2 34 3
Carbon dlOXld~ 2 56 1 84 o 94 1039 334
CCI,F, 4 72 o 997 5.83 107 9 26 5
l\[ethyl chlonde 4.67 1.007 6 45 95.5 20 9
Sulfur dioxIde 4 74 o 995 9 05 65 5 118
For temperature leyels 40°F and 86°F
(C.rnot cycle) 11 9 o 397
Ammonia 9 9 0.477 1.84 169 2 733
Carbon dioxide 38 1 24 o 53 1039 567
Water 9.32 o SOil 478 0.595 o 122
Data. for the 5°_86~ operatIOn are as reported by the Amencan Society of
>II
Refrigerating Engineers, and assume 9 F (5~C) subcooling of lIqUld and super-
G
heating of vapor.
An lmportant practical item in the choice of a refrigerant is the

physical size of plant necessary to provide for a spcClfied relnger.tion
ART. 15-5 CHARACTERISTICS OF REFRIGERANTS 391
capacity. A rough index of the >¥ze requirement is the volume rate
of entry 01 the vapor to the compressor necessary to provIde· the
required refngeratlOn. Values of thIs rate, in cubIc feet per mmute
per ton of refrigeration, appear in the tahle and may be seen to exhibi£
Wide vaTlation. Example 15-4 Illustrates th~ influence of temperature
levels on the volume rate.
EXQmple 15.4. Compute the refngernting effect per CUbIC foot of saturated
vapor inducted by the compressor for the condlhons of Example 15-3, and also
recompute on the assumption that hellt transfer IS so Impeded that an addItional
10°F drop 18 reqUired in both evaporator and condenser
Solul:um. Saturated vapor volume at 5°F = 8 15 ell ft/lbm.
RefrJgecB.t1on effect (he - ka) = 6133 - 1389 = 474...1. Btu/Ibm
Effect per eu It mducted ~ 474 4/8 15 ~ 582 Btu
Correspondmg values for _5 D F and 96°F, at ha = h~ = 150 5 BtuJlbm and
he = 610 I Btu(lbm become
Saturated vapor volume (v,,) = 10 23 ell ftjlbm
RefrIgerating effect per cu ft induded = (610,1 - 1505)/10 23 = 44,8 Btu
That is, impeding of the heat transfcr would alone reduce the refrigerating capacity
for .!l eompressor of gwen BI7e to (448/58 2 =) 77% of Its capacIty othe1'WlSe
ThIs reduction LS further aggravated by an mfluence on the volumdnc or tnductwn
ejJiciency of the compressor'" '
• For a. compressor alone the capa,rlty is mformatlvcly expressed in terms of the

mass of fluid induded and delivered per umt time, Also, It has frequently been
expressed as the product of thi.9 ITIrus rate times the specific volume of the fluid when
at the pressure and temperature ID the region
from which It is being mducted, or thus as a vol-
umetric ra.te.
It IS IrnpractlCl:thlc to construct a reClprocatmg- ~
pIston type of ('am pressor so that, after rom- I
pression, all the fluid wIll have been forred out b
of the cylmder when the pi.'lton has reached the
v,
end of jts compresslOn-and-delivery stroke. Some
Volume
Inescapably remaInS in a necessary clearance
space, of volume V e, Fig. 15-6 The result IS Fig 15-6,
th.'lt mflow of sdffitlOn.'11 nuid to the cyhnder
from the supply regton cannot begm untIl, in the space "bernnd" the retreatmg pIS·
ton, thlS entrapped re'3ldue of compressed flUId shall have expanded to or below
the supply~reglOn pressure. Intlolv mo.y thus occur only during that remalnmg
portion of the intake stroke In which the piston sweeps through a volume repre-
sented In the figure as lP-~ - V(I' But Va may be expressed M Ve(Pc/Pa)l/n, where
n denotes an exponent relatmg the ternunal states of the entrapped fluid, Corre-
!lpondrngly,
Vb - V(I = V6 - Vc(pclPa)IJn = (Vr, - l'c) - Vel(Pc/Pa)l/n - 11
The quantIty Vb - "}"'o evidently represents the volume swept through or "dls-
placed" by tho piston m an entire stroke, and lS thus a definite rha.racteristlc of a
gIVen compressor. Also, It mIght reasonably be regarded as the volume of fluid
392 IIEAT-PUl\lP, REFRIGERATION CYCLES CHAP. 15
15·6. Modifications of Elementary Condensing.F1uid Cycle.
Numerous modifications of the elementary cycle of Fig. 15-3 nre
employed for the purpose of reducmg the power requirements under
Condenser
I I
I
86g F
169 '9
qout
2nd comp
1st expo \lalve
-Woo
83 3
/t 46°F 17 "
• 'I 2 II
•
~
I't II 5°F
II
II
34 5 II
t'
,I
4
I II
1st camp
6
10
,
" ,I ,,,
Refrigerant. NHa
IiII
"
_":. 2nd receiver o~~~

q," Relative enthalpy
Evaporafor
Fig. 15-7
Imposed condenser and evaporator pressure condltlOns, and for other

purposes. In general their effectiveness results (a) from a reduction
in the unfavorable influence of the lffevefSlble throttling through the
expanSIOn value, and (b) from a lesser mean temperature of energy
which might tdeaUy be inducted per mtake stroke The ratIo (Vb - Vo)/(Vb - Vo:)
is consequently employed as 8 convement performance index known 8B the apparent
volumetnc effinency of a positlve-displ8,("ement reciprocatlIlg-pist.on type of compre.ssor
Expressmg this raho m terms of a clearance Talw (C.R ), defined 88 Vc/(Vb - Vel,
Apparent volumetnc efficiency = (Vb - Vo.)((Vb - Vel
- 1 - C R [(Po/Poll"~ - II
This relation shows directly the unfavorable influences both of an excessive c1earance
ratio and of a high pressure m.bo
An analogous ratio between the ma.ss of jluul actuaUy tnducted and delwered per
tntake 8troke and a mass correspondmg to the product of the piston dH!placement per
stroke times the denSity of the fluid at the pcesaure and temperature in the region
from which It IS bemg Inducted, described as the tndudwn effir::ttnty of the compressor,
Will normally be appreciably ieSll than the above apparent volumetric effiCIency.
See also Art 14-11. Reasons mclude Ca) an c'\':ccss of pressure Fe and deficit of Po
relative respectively to the pressure In the regIOn to which the compressor IS dehver-
ing and that In the regIOn from which the flUId III bemg Inducted, both due to pressure
losses in passage through mtnke and delIvery valvesi (b) temperature Increase and
consequent density reuuctlOn of the entering fluid by reason of heat transfer from
warmer cylinder walls, (c) leakage of the fluid about the perimeter of the piston, etc.
ART. 15-G CONDENSING-FLUID CYCLES 393
rejection. One of such possible modificabons is mdicated in the
arrangement diagram of FIg. 15-7, wIth accompanying p-h ~hart.
Major features of the arrangement are the passage of the refrIgerant
through two stages of compression and through two successlve·expan-
SIOn valves, wIth the provIsion between these of a reCeIver from whICh
only liquid departs en route to the second valve but to which the vapor
returns (for desuperheating) 'en route between the two compressor
stages. This receIver IS frequcntly descrIbed as a flash Intercooler.
The second liquid receIver serves only to reheve the evaporator of the
useless flow to and through It of refrigerant that IS already vaporized.
It docs not modify thermodynamIc performances. The betterment III
performance r~uILlllg from the general arrangement, and possibly
justifying Its additional complexity and cost, IS shown by Example
15-5. In this the same evaporator and condenser temperature levels
as in Example 15-3 are again employed, but an interstage pressure of
83 pSJa IS adopted. The property data on the p-h chart are those for
ammoma at the relevant condItions.
Example 15-5. For the arrangement In FIg 15-7 determIne the followmg
Items, per tOD of refrigeration: (1) requued mass rate of flow of refrigerant to
the evaporator, and the mass rate and volume rate to the first..stage compressor,
(2) power reqUired lor lSentropic compreSSlOD m the first-stage compressor.
(3) mass rRte of flow from condenser. and volume rate to second-stage com-
pressor. (4) power reqUIred for IsentropIc compresslOD m second-atage compressor.
and total power, (5) coefficient of performance, and percentage unprovement over
that for the elementary arrangement.
Soluh... (1) m, ~ 200/(6133 - 48 3) ~ 0354 Ib/(ton, min); "'.7 (to com-
pressor) ~ 200/(613.3 - 93.8) ~ 0385, and V ~ 0385 X 815 - 3.14 elm/ton.
(2) Power, firEt stage ~ 0385(064.1 - 613 3) ~ 196 Dlu/(ton, mm) or 0462
bp/ton
(3) By 'Writing the energy equation for the mtermediatc-prcssure receIver, or
m, .• (6244 - 138.9) - m..,(664.1 - 938), m, ~ (0385 X 570.3)/4855 ~ 0452
Ib/(ton, min) and V. ~ 0.452 X 3 53 ~ 1.60 elm/ton
(4) P, ~ 0.452(666.0 - 624 4) ~ 18.80 Btu/(ton, min) or 0443 bp/ton; total
power ~ 0462 + 0.443 ~ 0.005 hp/ton
(5) Coeffic-ient of performance = 200/(19.0 + 18.8) = 5.20, which exceeds the
value of 4 72 of the elementary cycle by 10.1%.
The lower work reqwrement (19.6 + 18.8, or 38 4, vs. 42 2) results in a. sense from
the nearer approach of the cycle to the "rectangulanty,JJ to T-s coordinates, whIch
charactenzes the Carnot cycle Change In the interstage pressure that IS adopted
does not influence greatly the performance, and may be so selected as to impose
about equalloada on the two stages of compressIOn. Practical advantages of the
more complex system accrue (a) from the abltity to use a compressor of less volu-
metnc capacity and associated size in the higher-pressure range, (b) from the smaller
tempemtme Tange Imposed on each stage and a. correspondmgly Teriuf'ed thermal
irreversibIlity in the passage of the fiwd through either, and (c) from an ability to
reduce the work input required by the higher-pressure stage through concurrent
hea.t removal.
Imlustnal and domestIc reqUIrements frequently involve the con-
current proviswn of refrigeratwn at several temperature levels, rang-
mg perhaps from moderately reduced temperatures such as are SUIt-
able for air condltionmg or fruit preservation to ones such as are
required for ice making or II quick freezing." Such multiple serVlce
may in princlple be furnished by the elementary arrangement, but
Evapcralor 5
(a)
t
p
wit\! reduccd performance cocffiment, if sufliclCnt thermal resistance

and associated temperature dlfference are imposed between the less-
cold space and the cold refrigerant. However, the reduction m per-
formance may well justify the complexity and greater cost of an
arrangement whlCh serves mOre sUltably the less-cold space.
A vanety of such arrangements are pOSSIble and in use A sImpler
and a more complex but more efficient one, both for two levels of refng-
eration temperature, are mdlCated In Fig 15-8 Examples 15-6 and
15-7 lliustrate their comparative performances whcn the installations
operate through the temperature ronge of Example 15-3 but also serve
a cooling load at the inteI1lllediate temperature of 46'F of Example
15-5. The more complex arrangement is seen to paralJel that of
Flg 15-7 except for the supplying to the intermedlate-pressure liquid
receIver of an amount of refngerant sufficient for serving both refrig-
eration lo.ds.
ART. 15-6 CONDENSING-FLUID CYCLES 395
Example 15-6. In an mstalJutlOD having such a clIculatmg-water supply
tha.t a (saturatLOn) temperatur!3 'of 86°F may be mamtalned m'the condenser,
It IS necessary to serve a load of 25 tons requmug 0. temperature of 5°F III the
evaporator and also an equal load requinng a temperature of 46°F. The re-
Irlgerant 15 agrun ammonm. The flUld leavIng the evaporators WIll 'be presumed
to be dry and saturated, and the compreSSlops to be IsentropIC, so permlttmg use
of values of relevant thermodynamic properties as provided m FIg 15-7. Deter-
mlDe all pertment performance InformatlOD If the arrangement IS that of
Fig. 15-8a.
Solutwn. For the 25-ton and 5()F lond, as previously found: m3 = (25 X 200)/
(6133 - 138.9) ~ 10.5 Ibm/min, V, = 105 X 8.15 ~ 85.9 cfm, and power ~
105(7135 - 613.3) ~ 1055 Btu/min or 24.9 hp.
For the 25-ton and 46°r load. m, ~ 25 X 200/(624 3 - 138.9) - 10.3 Ih/mm,
V. ~ 103 X 3.56 ~ 36.7 elm, and P ~ 10.3(6G6.5 - 624.3) - 435 DIu/min or
10 25 hp
Total power ~ 24.9 + 10 25 ~ 3515 hp
Q(condenser) ~ 10.3(7135 - 138.9) +
105(666.5 - 138.9) ~ 11,480 Btu/min
The influence of the tempera.ture on the power requirements is well exemplIfied
by the above fin<irngs, 249 and 1025 hp being required for providing the Bame
tonnage of refrIgeration at, respectIvely, the 50 and 46"F temperatures in the evap-
orators. Note that, for the same loading but Ii the installation is served by
evaporators m both of wluch the temperature is 5 D F, the power reqUJrement becomes
(2 X 24.9 ~) 4D 8 hp (vs. 35.15).
Example 15·7. Fora.n arrangement 8S illdlCstedin Fig 15-8b and the sante Joad
conwtions as lD the preceding example, determine all pertinent performance infor-
IIULtion. The analysis will aga.m reqUIre a.n energy accounting at the flash inter-
cooler to deternune the ra.te of refrigerant passage (mIO) to the Iugher-pressure
compressor.
Solution. (1) For the 5° load: m, ~ 25 X 200/(613 3 - 93 8) ~ 0.G2Ib/mlD, with
a volume rate at the sta.te entermg the low-pressure compressor of (9.62 X 8 15 =)
785 efm. Also, ideal power reqUIrement ~ (m,Ah)/42,42 ~ 962(664.1 - 613.3)/
42.42 ~ 11 5 bp.
For the 46° load' m, ~ 25 X 200/ (624.4 - 03 8) ~ 942 Ih/mm.
(2) By writing the energy equation for the flash mtercooler, notmg that mu =
+
ma and thus m6 rna = m2,
138 9m2 + 664.1ml1 = 938m3 + 03 8mES + 624 4ms(orlk2 - m6)
where m6 = 9.42, m3 = 962, and ms = m2 - 9.42.
Thus m2 ""
942(624,4 - 93.8) +
n.62(664.1 - 93.8)
=
21
.61
Ib/' (
mID = mID
)
624.4 - 1389
and m, ~ 2161 - 9.42 ~ 12.19 Ih/mm
As m2 is also the total mass rate of flow to the hIgh-pressure compressor, the asso-
ciated volume rate 18 (21.61 X 3 53 =) 72 5 dID and the Ideal power requIrement is
216 X (6660 - 624.4)/42.42 - 212 hp.
(3) Total power = 115 + 212 = 327 hp, which compares "ith 35.15 hp for the
SImpler arrangement of FIg. 15-& and Example 15-6 sod WIth the 49.8 hp if the two
loads are Dot segregated.
396 IIEAT-PUl\IP, REFRIGERATION CYCLES CHAP. 15
15-7. The Steam-Jet Systcm. For refngeration at temperature
levels somewhat above 32'F, as for air condItioning or water-coohng
service, water IS in many respects an ideal refrigerant. Its chief Inn-
Itation is the large volume of vapor whICh must be handled at the lower
temperature (see Table 15-1). Ilut the steam ejedor may serve as a
compressor for such large volumes, and so may form the basis for a
prachcal refrigeratIOn system. Figure 15-9 Illustrates with a sche-
matic representation, and may be compared with a conventIonal system
as shown III FIg. 15-3
Over-Ilow
'I
,I Make-up t E,ector
Actuating
steam
Water In
Vapor
Chilled water
out
Fig. 15-9.
Water to be cooled is sprayed into the evaporation chamber. Here

it flashes partly to vapor, with both vapor and lIquid cooled to the
saturatIOn temperature corresponding to the pressure in the chamber.
By the action of a steam-jet ejector the low-pressure vapor is removed
(see. Art. 16-14) and dehvered at saturation pressure corresponding
to the condenser temperature AddltiOI'Ial vacuUm pumps (perhaps
steam ejectors) are required to evacuate the system imtIally, and to
remove aIr and- other non-condensing gases which may enter through
leakage or as dIssolved material.
The advantage of the steam-jet refrigerJltiQII.~ystem lies in its sim-
plicity;-tne avoidance of special refrigerants, and lack of movmg parts
(except liqmd pumps). Disadvantages result from the relativ_ely lo.w
thermodynamic elliclency1lf"the ejector as a compressor, in comparison
wj.th thot of conventional engme-compressor maCbllles. The choice is
between one of sImplicity of equipment and operation on the one hand,
and economy of performance on the other, and depends on circum-
stance, ,uch as the cost of steam and the availabIlity of the rather
large amount, of cooling water required for the condenser 01 the
steam-jet system.
ART. 15-8 NON-CONDENSING FLUID CYCLES 397
Example 15-8. Performance testa on a ste:l.m eJector inrucate that each
pound of actuatmg steam, saturated at 100 pata, will compress 045 lb of saturated
water vapor at. 40 0 , delivering to 0. pressure of 070 psill (correspondmg to saturn-
hon temperature of 90°F). ESLlmate, for a slcrtm-jet refngeratlOn system USIng
the above e1ector, the amount of steam and of coolmg water reqUITed per ton
of refrJgeratJon Assume thnt make-up water lB condensate at 90°F, that 10%
additIOnal actuatmg sleam 18 required for the vacuum pumps, and that a lQ°F
nse In the temperature of cooling water IS permlssJble. Neglect power reqUire-
ments for hqUld pumps.
Solution Net refrIgeration per pound of water evnpomted = (h, at 40") -
(h, at 90·F) - 10793 - 581- 1021.2 Btu/lbm, correspondmg to 200/(1021.2).
or 0 1961bm/(lon, min), or 11 i51bm evaporatedJ(ton, br) Actuatmg sleaID re-
qlllrement per ton of refngeratlOD == (1175)/(045) plus 10%, or 287 lbm/hr
Energy transferred to coolmg wllter, per ton of refngeratlOn == (from actuatlDg
steam) 287 (11872 - 58 1) Btu! ond from vapor evaporated, 11.75 X 10212 Btu,
or a total of 44,400 Btu/hr, rcqumng 4140 Ibm coohng watcr/(ton, hr), or flow
at the rate of 89 gal/(ton, mm) of refngeratlOn
At~_~?
h
a T ___
Qout d
Refr!S_
'Work space ,--- (
Compressor
Work transfer Input
b' I
I b I
c I I
I I
I I
1 2
Entropy 8
FIg 15-10.
15-8. Compression Refrigeration, Non-Condensing Fluids. In

some CIrcumstances gases such as aIr or helium have been preferred as
refrigerants The apparatus then reqUIred is m prmciple the eqmva-
lent of that for the condenslIlg fluid cycle, but WIth the imporlant
exception that, for brmging the gas from a higher to the lower temper-
ature level, energy must have been removed from the gas as work in
passage to lower pressure le,'els Such a l'efngeratIOn cycle is shown
schematically in Fig 15-10. The corresponding changes in state un-
dergone by the gas are shown to T-h-s coordinates in the accompanymg
diagram. Point a represent. the gas at its hIgher' pressure level
and at a temperature at or slIghtly above atmospheric The gas is
expanded III the engine, to the state represented by point b, or ideally
by poml b', which is at a temperature below that of the refrigerated
space, but may still be above atmospheric pressure The gas absorbs
energy as heat in passmg to state point c. It is then compressed,
Ideally isentropicaJly, to the higher pressure level and arrives there
at an elevated temperature. The work necessary for driving the com-
pressor comes partly from an external source and partly from the
expansion engine. After compression, the gas passes through a cooler
(heat exchanger) to Its orlgmal state, point a
Energy relations for varIOUS parts of the cycle, written for the ideal
gas of gIVen speCific heat, are:
•
For the expansion engine (15-7)
Refngerating eITeet (15-8)
For the compressor ,w, = Jep(T, - T,) (15-9)
For the cooler .,q. = ep(T. - T ,) (15-10)

For the complete cycle Wllo< = Jep(T, - T,) - JCp(T. - 1',)
(15-11')
T, - T,
CoeffiCIent of performance = (15-12)
(T, - 1',) - (1'. - T,)
If the expansion and compression may be regarded as isentropIC, then

for the ideal gas, (equation 9-13) 1'./1'. = (p'/p,),.-I"" and equals
also 1'" (1'" The relatIOn expressing the coefficient of performance may
• then be written a~
Coefficient of performance Tbl T,
= -'-"-,-- (15-12a)
(IsentropIC) T. - 1'"
ThiS coeffiCient is necessarily less than that of the Carnot cycle (equa-
tI0116·6), as the temperature depreSSIOn between b' and e, and elevation
between d' and a, gIve rise to losses associated WIth the irreversible
heat trarisfer That is, the cycle as described removes less heat (area
l-b'-c-2) and reqUires more work (area a-b'-c-d') than the correspond-
ing Carnot cycle But note that the coefficient of performance obtam-
able III the non-condensing fluid cycle may be made to approach th.t
of the Carnot cycle as temperature T,. approaches T, (or as T,· ap-
proaches T,), as obtamed perhaps by cnculating a larger quantity of
material for a given refrigeration effect.
The dcnse-alf refngeration system, once widely used in marme
InstallatIOns but SInce abandoned, utIlIzed the non-condensing flUId
cycle The cycle offers promise III certain air-condlhomng applica-
. tlOns, ;uch as pressunzecl alfcraft cabins. Here state pomt b of the
diagrams may represent cool Ulr as 1t enters a cabm, and ,tate pomt c
the alr as It leaves.
ART. 15-9 LOW-TEMPERATURE REFRIGERATION 399
15·9. Low-Temperature .Refrigeration. Vcry low temperatures
are important m several fields, as, for example, in the preparation 01
pure oxygen, in the pUflficatlOn of hellUm, and in the liquefaction and
storage of natural gas. The extreme temperature ranges invulved,
and the absence of any single refriger_ant for which the critical tem-
perature exceeds atmosphe'ric and the tnple-pomt temperature is less
than the specified low temperature, wlll require the use of a cascade
01 several cycles employing a hke number 01 fluids. Here the evap-
orator of one fluid cycle is made to abstract heat energy Irom the
condensing flUId serving as a rclngerant lor strll lower temperatures.
The lowest temperature that can be reached by such a cascade arrange-
To recycle
Heat
Fig. 15--11. Linde process.
ment is the tnple POlOt of nitrogen (approximately -387'F), for

there is no fluid known wlth a lower triple-point temperature that
also has a entical temperature higher than this But, down to this
Iimlting temperature, cascade arrangements are very practicable and
are actually employed in many commerclal installatlOns.
Early efforts to produce very low temperatures made use of the
throttlmg of a non-ideal gas The slight coohog observed (1 e., the
Joule-Thomson effect; see Art. 11-11) was made to ex~rt a cumulative
influence, and very low temperatures could be attained An example is
the Linde process for the productlOn 01 hquid alr, indlCated schemati-
cally in Fig 15-11, and shown to enthalpy-temperature coordmates
m the accompanylllg dlagram. The hlgh-pressure gas is first cooled,
to state 1, perhaps by coolmg water but preferably by rcfrigeratlOn
to the lowest temperature conveniently avarlable, and then enters the
heat exchanger, where lt is further chilled. The chllled gas (2) is
throttled into the hquid receiver (3), where it partlally hquefies. The
liquid (at state 4) lS separated, and the remaining gas passes to the
heat exchanger at state 5 and leaves at state 6.
Writing the overall energy equatlon, lf x lS the fr.ctlOn of gas that
400 HEAT-PUl\[P, REFRIGERATION CYCLES CHAP. 15
is hquefied, q represents any heat leakage, and h. is the enthalpy of
the liqUId:
hI +q = xh. + (1 - x)h. (15-13)
For the limiting case of zero heat leakage the fraction of incoming gas
which is hquefied is given qUIte sImply as
(h o - hI)
x= (15-14)
(h o - h.)
Note that temperature To must he less than hut may approach tem-
perature T I , but that enthalpy ho must always exceed h, If liqUId is
to be obtained.
Although the Linde process is relatively wasteful of work energy,
it does offer a practical and simple means of reaching low tempera-
tures. Table 15-2 provides Illustrative material for air, which, prop- -
erly speakmg, should be consIdered as a multicomponent solution, bu t
which for these purposes may ,be satisfactonly treated as a simple
fluid, boiling at -317'F. The fraction liquefiable is computed on the
assumptIOn of zero heat leakage and of zero temperature dIfference at
the warm end of the heat exchanger The computed values of x
illustrate the importance of a low imtIaI temperature (T d.
Table 15-2 Fraction of Air Liquefiable (Lmde Process)

Pressure, Temperature, Fraction
Ph psia T1 , OF
hi ho h. Liquefi.ble
1000 40 112 8 120 5 53 0 o 101
2000 40 107 0 119 5 53 0 0.186
1000 -40 90 a 100 3 530 0.218
2000 -40 82 0 100 3 530 0.385
The Linde lIquefaction process will function for any gas providing
a cooling effect is observed on a throtthng expansion. The tempera-
ture change, or J oule-Thomson effect, is deSCrIbed in some detail in
Art. 11-11. For the ideal gas the coefficient IS zero, but for most gases
at ordinary pressures is positive in sign, signifying that a pressure drop
IS accompanied by a temperature drop, But for each gas there is an
upper inversion temperature below which the coefficient is pOSItIve but
above which 1t is negatIve. A negative valve signifies a temperature
increase with drop In pressure, and under these conditions the Linde
process becomes inoperative. ThIS upper InVerSIOn temperature IS on
the order of some five lImes the crIhcal temperature, and so is ordI-
narIly above atmospherIc temperature, except for hydrogen and hehum
The production of solid carbon diOXIde ("Dry Ice") IS a process
ART. 15-9 LOW-TEMPERATURE REFRIGERATION 401
similar to the production of liquid aIr in that lower-than,ordinary
temperatures are Involved, and In that the fluid is agam made to serve
as ita own refrigerant. Carbon diDxlde lS, however, somewhat unusual
in that its triple point is at greater than atmospheric pressure; hence
solid material may be obtained by throttling the lIquid from satura-
tion pressure down to atmospheric pressure Figure 15-12 illustrates,
to the p-h coordinates of Fig. 8-5, a three-stage compression wIth inter-
coolers, condensatIOn, and the throttling of the hquid to a solid-vapor
mixture at atmospheric pressure.
VarIations for the simple process depicted in Fig 15-12 include the
use of the heat exchanger, as in the Lmde process for the manufacture
Critical
pressure
Tnple-
pomt pressure
Atmospheric
pressure - - - - - - - ------- Gas
Solid
Enthalpy
Fig. 15-12
of lIqUId air, and also the use of conventional refrigeration to reduce

the mitial temperature of the hquid before throttling. Improved per-
formance results also, for either the Dry-Ice process or the liqUId-air
process, If the throtthng is conducted III stages (Art. 15-6).
For Dry-Ice manufacture the intermed13te stages must be at tem-
peratures and pressures above the triple pOInt in order to obtam n
fluid for further throttling. It is also preferable for the solid to be
produced by an expansion occumng only to trIple-pomt pressure, as
the 1V0rk of compreSSIOn required to recycle the gas is thereby reduced
Such a process calls for an arrangement for removal of the solid from
a pressurized chamber, and also the use of an auxIlIary compressor for
introducing make-up carbon dioxide. The arrangement selected for
a partICular installatIOn reqUIres compromise between conflicting de-
mands, with economic considerations dictating the balance between
reduced operating expense, but increased overhead, that accompames
the more elaborate arrangements
The use of an expansion engme in the production of very low tem-
402 HEAT-PUMP, REFRIGERATION CYCLES CIIAP. 15
peratures gives performance superior to that obtainable with a simple
throttlIng expansion. However, difficulties with lubncation, clear-
ances, etc., are great at very low temperatures. A partial utilization
of an expansion engine lS made in the so-called Claude process for the
production of hquid air. Here a balance IS m~mtamc~ between engine
expansion, with its improved performance, and throttle expansion for
preventing IIquefication withm th'e engme cylinder. More recently
turbme expansion engInes have been developed In which the dIfficulties
associated with IIqueficatlOn within the machme are less troublesome.
The use of more effective turbIne expanders has permitted the develop-
ment of relatIvely effectIve low-pre"ure, compact machines for the
commercial production of liqUId aIr and for its separatIOn into its
components.
15-10. Refrigeration Through the Supplyiug of Energy as Hent.
In the compression refrigeration systems the energy required for trans.
ferrmg the refrigerant from the lower pressure (and temperature) to
the upper pressure (and temperature) regIOns is supplied as work to
the compressor or as kmetic energy in the jet of an ejector This
energy may be regarded as the avaIlable porhon of a quantity of heat
energy QI WhICh had been supplIed to an engine cycle from some
source at a temperature T, higher than the upper temperature oC
the refngeratlOn cycle. The Ideally available porLlOn TV may be
oWri tten as:
TV = Q, TI - T
T,
'where T IS the temperature of rejection (the atmosphere). Also, a
heat pump absorbmg heat energy Q2 at cold temperature T 2 , and
rejectIng to the same atmospherIc temperature T! requires work
TV = Q T - T2 (ldealk)
2 '1'2 J
If the engine work is dIrected wholly to driVIng the heat pump, then
Q2 Heat from cold region T2 (TI - T)
(ideally) (15-15)
QI = Heat from hot source = 1\ (T - T,)
where T" T" and T are the temperature of the source, the cold region,
and the atmosphere, respectively The ratio Q,/Q, may be regarded
as an index of the performance of a refrigeratmg cycle In which the
energy supply ts as heat rather than as work. The ideal value of the
mdcx, as defined by equation 15-15, is qUIte analogous to the Ideal
coefficient of performance of equation 6-6 in th.t it serves as a limiting
ART. 15-11 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEl\IS 403
value wIth which the magnItude actually obtaIned in a device may be
compared. J'
The steam-jet refrigeratIon system of a preceding artIcle might

also be regarded as a means of effectmg refrigeration by- a di"rect
supply of heat energy. Another and more effective means 18 UITOUgh
the use of the absorption system as descnbed in Art. 15-11.
Example 15·9. Find the value of the mdex Q2!Ql for the steam-Jet refngera-
tlon system of Example 15-8, anu also the Ideal value for operation between the
same temperature levels. Presume atmosphenc temperature of 75"F
Solutwn.
Heat from cold region 200 X 60 ~ 0.364
Hea.t from hot source 28.7\II87.2 - 43.03)
500 (328 - 75)
Ideal value == - ~ 4 60
788 (75 - 40)
A Generator
l,qUId pump
FIg. 15-13.
15-11. Absorption Refrigeration Systems. A schematIC dIagram

of a SImplified absorption refngeration system IS shown in Fig. 15·13
The eqUIpment to the left of the lme A-A is identical m arrangement
and purposes \Vlth that of the compression-refrIgeration system of Fig
15-3. However, the succession of processes by which the refrigerant
leaving the evaporator, at state c, is restored tc a condItion d suitable
for return to the condenser, at greater temperature, enthalpy, and
pressure, dIffers wholly from those of the simple vapor-compressIOn
process.
The descnptl\'e designation of the system dem'es from the fact that
the removal of vaporIZed refngerant from the evaporator is ·by an
absorption process, usmg a supplementary liquid solvent. This liquid
is circulated continuously by means of a pump through a subSId-
iary system consistmg in general of the absorber, a generator, a heat
exchanger, and a pressure-reductng valve. The hqmd serves as the
medium by whICh the (dissolved) refngerant IS conveyed from the
lower- to the higher-pressure secllons of the general system. The
concentration, of refrigerant in the liquid evidently incrcases en route
through the absorber, but is caused to decrease in the same degree in
passage through the generator. As absorbing ability mereases with
decrease in temperature, and, as furthermore the absorptIOn process
is exothermic and ,,"auld tend to cause temperature increase, the liquid
in the absorber must be continuously cooled, as by cooling water.
Heat supply and an elevated temperature is oppositely required for
drivmg the refrigerant vapor out of solutIOn III the generator.
The pressure III the absorber is effecllvely the saturation pressure
reqUlred in the evaporator for maintaIning the dcsired refrigeration
temperature, and the pressure in the generator is effectively the greater
saturation pressure required in the condenser of the primary system
Hence a. pump is necessary for delivermg the concentrated solutIOn
from the absorber to the generator. Note that the "weak" solution
leaves the generator at an elevated temperature but preferably returns
to the .bsorber at lower temperature. Also the "strong" solutIon
leavmg the absorber must ultImately have been heated. The Indi-
cated arrangement of the heat exchanger contrIbutes to these purposes.
The refflgerant most commonly used in the absorption system is
ammoma, and the supplementary liqllld is thcn an ammonia-water
solution In this case the ammonia vapor obtainable by simple b01l-
mg of the Bolullon to the generator is contaminated 'by an o.ppreciable
quantity of water vapor, and an accessory itcm known as a rectifier
is requlfed. Here the ammoma lS continuously concentrated (i e.,
water removed) by a series of redistiliatlOns. ConsideratlOns whleh
est.bhsh the phYSICal requirements of the process are shown by thc
curves of Elg 15-14 These mdlCate the relat,,:e concentratIOn of
ammonia and 01 water which at eqUlhbrial condltwns and a gIven
temperature and pressure w1l1 e,,,st m the hqmd solvent amI in con-
tiguous solvent-vapor. The (total) pressure and temperature at the
termini or junctions of any pair of curves forming a uloap" are merely
the values for saturation conditions for mther component If existIng
alone. A weak solution leaVIng the generator is represented by a point
such as n, typically some 30 per cent ammoma, and IS seen to be in
equihbrium with a vapor containing some 7 5 per cent water. It is the
fUllctlOn of lhe reclifier to reduce this waler content to perhaps 0 1 per
ceot, such as at state d in Fig. 15-14, so providing effectively pure
ammonia for the rest of the cycle.
An interestin~ applicatIOn of the absorptIOn system to small-capaClty
AnT.I5-12 HEAT PUMP AS A WARMING MACIIINE 405
units provides for the presence of an inert gas in the evaporator and
absorber. This gas IS provided in sufficient quantity that, although the
partial pressure of the refrigerant. (ammoma) IS low, the total evapo-
rator pressure IS only slIghtly less than the condenser and generator
pressures. This permIts the design of a system in which the liquid is
cycled by thermal actlOn and by gravIty, 80 ehmmating the need for a
liquid pump or any moving machinery.
75 100 NHa
50
Molar concentratIOn, %
FIg. 16-14.
While ammonia and aqueous ammoma are the refrigerant and sol-
vent most frequently used for absorption-system refrigeratIOn, others
are also used, including water as the refrigerant (Art. 15-5), with the
solvent a solution such as lithium bromide and water. A parallel
scheme having advantages jn some circumstances IS one in whIch the
refrigerant leaving the evaporator IS adsorbed onto the surface of a
microporous adsorbent such as, for cxample, siltca get, and is then
driven off at higher temperature and pressure by heating By vari-
ous ingenious arrangements the process may be made effectively
contmuous.
15.12. Ileal Pump as a Warming Machine. About the middle of
the nineteenth century Kelvin proposed the use of the heat pump for
spacc-heatlllg purposes, ie, as a "warming machine." A heat pump
operatmg upward from an atmospheric temperature of, say, 32'F
would exhibit (ideally) a coefficient of performance of 492/(75 - 32),
or 11.4, if discharging to 75°F. Thus 1 unit of electric eDergy could
ideally delIver (11.4 + 1 -) 12.4 units of heat energy to a room. Th,s
IS opposed to the slUgle unit it might delIver If dISSIpated irreversIbly,
as in 8 resistor.
There are many practical objections to this sImple yet intriguing
idea. These include operational complexIties and noise, as well as
the followmg.
1. Far less than the ideal coefficient of performance can be obtained
in a practical heat-pump cycle adapted to space-heatmg purposes
w,.
I
Winter, evaporator (qln)
Summer, condenser (qout)
Four-way
ConditIOned valve
r~-5~s~p,~c~eC:hMni~Wnw~'~n~te~r~~?h-Summer
Wmter, condenser (qout)
Summer, evaporator (qm)
r*.L._...,:'\ Summer
~~L-----------~X:~------------~~
u:panslon
valve
FIg 15·15
Recall, for example, that ordmary steam or hot-water radiators oper-

ate at temperatures considerably in excess of room temperature.
2. The heatmg capacIty of the heat-pump cycle decreases sharply as
atmospheilc temperature decreases (see Art. 15-5), whe~eas the heating
demand mcreases. This objectiDll has been partly met by the use of
deep-well water at substantially constant temperature as a heat source,
rather than the atmosphere itself.
3 The capital investment required IS so great that overhead costs
may more than compensate for any savmg in operating costs
Since about 1930, however, mterest in the warming machme for space
heatmg has been revived, because of the pOSSIbIlity of employing the
same equipment for coolmg in summer For these dual purposes the
outsIde heat exchanger is made to serve as an evaporator durmg the
wmter or heatmg season, and as a condenser during the summer, wlth
the inside heat exchanger correspondingly serving as condenser or
as evaporator.
Various arrangeljlents have been proposed whereby the heat pump
ART, 15-12 HEAT PUMP AS A WARMING MACHINE 407
may be made to provIde this dual wmter-summer servIce. One of
these is shown schematICally in FIg I'5-15 Here the ablhty to reverse
the functions of the mside and outside heat exchangers is provIded by a
four-way valve which may direct the flow 01 working flmd Irom ,lhe
compressor to either heat exchanger. Separate liquid receivers and
pipmg for by-passing them are provlded lor each exchanger, and permit
either liquid departure or vapor entry. Flow dIrectIOns in both sItua-
tions are indicated in the figure, The p-h diagram of Fig. 15-16 indI-
cates the shift ill pressure (and temperature) levels as between the two
operating comhtlOns.
~Temperalure
L -_ _ _- - - - f \ of conditioned
\ space
\
h
Flg, 15-16.
A further appheation of the heat-pump principle to heating purposes

is the vapor-compreselOn stIll, as dmgrammed In Fig. 15-17. Entering
feed, usually sea water or perhaps a sugar solution, first serves for
cooling the concentrated solution and the dIstillate leaving the still.
A portIOn of the feed 18 vapoIlzcd m the still by heat transferred from
the leaVIng vapor, after It has been increased In pressure and tempera-
ture by passage through a compressor. In practice, auxlhary (electric)
heating is reqUIred for startmg A portlOn of the condensate is usually
returned to the compressor intake in order that saturated vapor, with
its more favorable heat-transfer characteristics, may be obtained from
the comprcssor. Incidental advantages are an improved volumetric
efficiency and a "wet-compresslOn" characteristIc (see Art. 8-13),
Several general thermodynamIc aspects of the use of energy of any
character for heatmg purposes are of interest, and are based on the
generalization that (he more nearly reversibly the process is conducted
the more favorable is the performance that may be obtamed, In this
respect the heat pump is m principle the thermodynamically optJmum
arrangement for utilIzatIOn of work (or electric) energy for heating.
The arrangements that are aV3llabie for heating purposes include in
general:
1. The heat-pump arrangement, as descnbed above.
2. Heating more or less dIrectly by energy released through the com-
bustion of a fuel.
3 UtllIzIng the mechanically unavailable energy reSIdue of a heat-
engIne cycle.
Vapor
I
,/ -....
) Compressor
work 10
='-
~~
-
-:----
_:. -,-;f;.Q:!:._
. . .----=--_/
.
I
I
t,
I
I
I
_j
t t Heat exchanger
+, I I
Feed I ~ l •
Distillat
Concentrated
solution
Fig. 15-17. Vapor-cornpression stili. _
4. Use of electric energy and resistance grids.

Conventional space-heatmg eqUipment uses coal- or oil-burning fur-
naces and transports the released energy to desired spaces by warm
air, water, or steam. Effectively all the released energy may be
utilized for heatmg purposes, but none of its mechanically svailable
component IS procured. ThIS represents a thermodynamic loss.
The thIrd alternative above IS exemplIfied in many industrial estab-
lishments III which both power and moderate-temperature heat energy
are required. The primary energy of combustIOn is released at tem-
peratures much in excess of that required for heating servIce or process
use. That lImited and valuable component which Ideally is mechan-
ICally available by reason of the elevated temperature is more or less
fully procured by means of a heat engine (0 g, a steam-power plant)
operating between the elevated temperature and that required for
process or space-heating usc. The reoidue of energy is then utilized
for heatlllg service. The dual use of steam, first for work generatIon
and then for heating, Illtroduces cost-accounting problems which must
take into account the quantity of energy used, Its loss in avmlabihty,
and the energy demand. From a thermodynamIc "lewpoint the
value assocIated with a gIven energy quantIty is dircdly proportIOnal
to the change III the Darneus availabilIty function (ilk - TRils, see
Art 7-10).
The last alternative above, of employing energy for warming pur-
poses by irreversible conversIOn of electric energy to hcat energy, is
thermodynamICally quite reprehensible, although on occasion other-
wise justIfiable The eJectnc energy so utJlized might very well have
represented a mmor and expensl\'e fraction of an origm,1 heat-energy
supply.
EXlilDple 15-10. Compare the performance of the following heatmg srrange-

menb3: (a) Steam a~ lOOO°F and 1000 pSlIl. js used In a power cycle expandmg
only to 20 psm Power generated IS 2000 kw, The exhaust steam at 20 psla is
then used for process heatmg, wllh condensate leaVing at saturation temperature
(b) The high-pressure steam IS lli>ed m [\. pO\ver cycle, wIth condenser at gO°F.
Process steam lB obtamed by tbrottJmg addltJOnlli hlgh-pressure steam to 20 pSIB
For simphclty, assume IsentropIC OpeT.ltlOn of the power cycles
Solution (a) From IOOO~Fand 1000 pSIS, to 20 psia (.a.h), = 403 4 Btu/Ibm To
provide 2000 kw thu. require. (2000 X 3412)/(403.4), or 16,900 Ibm of .team/hr
Heating effect ~ 16,900 X (oh) ~ 16,900(1101.7 - 196 2) ~ 17,000,000 Btu/hr
Decrease m availabihty, m(..1h - TRlls), a(]optmg a reference temperature of
gO"F, becomes
In power cyde, 16,900(4034) = 6,820,000 Btu
In heating, 16,9001 (1101.7 - 196 2) - 550 (1.6525 -° 3350)1 ~ 4,750,000 Btu
(b) From lOOO°F and 1000 pSlU to 90°F, (Ah)1 = 600 2 Btu/Ibm To prOVIde
2000 kw wDuld reqUlTe (2000 X 3412)/(600.2) ~ 11,350 Ibm/hr.
For procpss steam t.h = 1505.1 - 1962 = 1308.9 Btu/Ibm.
To prOVide for 17,000,000 Btu/hr therefore reqUires (17,000,000)/(13089) =
"13,000 Ibm/hr
Total steam reqmrement IS 11,350 + 13,000, or 24,350 lbm/hr, or considerably
more than the 16)900 lbm/hr reqUired for .a.rr:mgement a.
Decrcn.se in avrulability In power cycle = 11,350 X 6002 = 6,820,000 Btu,
whIch IS identical With tho.t of the power eyde In arrangE'ment a; in heating =
13,000[(15051 - 1962) - 550(1.0525 - ° 3356)1 ~ 7,000,000 Btu.
The greater loss m avaIlability III arrangement b (7,600,000 va 4,750,000) IS to be
associated wlth irreverSlble throtthng,and W1th the greater overall steam reQujrement.
15·13. Problems. 1. Compute the CarDot cycle coefficient of performance
(a) for a.n upper temperature of 80'1F and lower temperatures {rom -lOoF to
40·F. and (b) for a. lower temperature of 20"F and upper temperatures of 50°F
to lOO"F. Do these for even 10° temperature intervals; show by curves the
influence of the temperatures on the coeffiCIent of performance; and diBcuss the
practIcal sIgnIficance of the results.
2 Compute the horsepower ideally requITed per ton of refrIgeratmg effect for
the condItions of problem 1 at the extremes of temperature for each part.
3. A compressIOn refngeration cycle operates wIth water as a refrigerant, with
evaporator at 45°F and condenser outlet temperature of 85°F Show the staw
changes undergone by the refrigerant to skeleton T--8, h-s, and log p·h coordInates,
If reverSIble o.dlabatlc compressIOn IS assumed. Compute also the coefficient of
performance, and compare WIth tha~ of the ideal Carnot cycle. Per ton of
refrIgeratIOn, what horsepower 19 reqUIred, and what IS the volume rate of entry
of vapor to, the compressor? What IS the cooling-water reqUIrement if 15°F
temperature nse 15 permitted?
4 (a) A compreSSIOn reffJgeraLlOn cycle uses ammODla as a refrigenmt and
operates between temperatures of 14°F and 80°F. Presume dry saturated vapor
at compressor inlet, a compressor With 92% effiCIency (IsentropIC haBIS) , and
saturated hqUId Jeavrng the c~ndenser. Compute the horsepower reqUIrement
a.nd the heat to be removed In the condenser, per ton of refTlgeration, and also
the volume rate of flow of vapor to the compressor. (b) How are the above
Itf'ms modIfied 1f an evaporator temperature of 4°F and condenser temperature
o[ goOF become necessary? Whfl,t 1'8 the relative capacity for thIS latter sitUB.tlOn 1
5 Compare the operatJng pressures required, the mass rate_ of How of re-
frigerant per ton of reirigeratlOn, and the volume rate of flow at compressor
entry for :J. compression re[rigero.tlon cyde operating between 14°F and gooF and
usmg as refrigerants (a) ammODla, (b) carbon dioxide, (c) sulfur dIOXide.
6 The followmg data were secured from a carbon diOXide refrigeratmg
machIne:
Condemer Prel'sure, 900 pSla (tilt = 82°F); vapor temperatllre entenng,
182°F (h ~ 133 Btu/lbm), lIqUId temperature leaVIng, 65°F (h ~ 20)
Clrculatmg wntcr temperature entering, 58°F; leavmg, 68°F; rate of supply,
32lbm/mm
Evaporator: Pressure, 303 pSI8 (t .. t = -05°F), vapor temperature leaving,
ZO°F,(h ~ lOB Btullbrn)
Brine; temperature entenng, 24°F; temperature leaving, 175°F, rate of brme
circulatIOn, 58 Ibm/nun; speCIfic heat of brIDe, 066
Compute from these data the capaCI ty in tom at whIch tl\C plant was operat-
ing; estimate from both the condenser and the evaporator data the rnn&"! rate of
circulation of the carbon dlOxlde; estimate the power required to drive the
compressor assuming that 300/0 of the shaft-work input departed as heat mto
jacketing cooling water; and estimate the coeffiCient or performance and the
horsepower per ton of refrigeratIOn
7. A refrIgeratIOn cycle operates With wnter :IS a reingerant, and utJilzes a
steam let and actuatmg steam that IS sn,turnted at 150 pSIa. The c.·aporatlOn
chamber IS to operate at 45°F, and condenser temperature IS 85°F Tests llldlCate
that 1 lb of actuatmg steam is required to compress -t Ib of vapor under these
condlUons and also to prOVIde for auxlhnry va.cuum. - (a) Compute per ton of
refrigeration the steam requlfement, and also the coolmgwwater I eqlllrement If a
100F temperature rIse occurs (b) Compute the ratio of heat removed from the
cold region to the hec.t reqlllrement from the hot source, and compare wlth
the ideal value
8. The following data apply to an ammoma·absorptlOn system'
Steo.m coil. pressure, 65 pSl.a; qua.hty. 100%; dram temperature, 84°F; steam
condensed per hour, 1000 Ib
AmmoDla condenser. pressure, 165 psill.
AmmOlll3. evaporator: pressure, 35 psia; refrigeratmg effect, 150,000 Btu per
hour.
Compute the reirlgeratiDg effect obtained per urut (Btu) of heat supplied by
the steam !lnd compare wIth that lfieally obtamable wIth the eXIStmg steam,
condenser, and evaporator temperatures
16 . FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS
16-1. Foreword. The engmeer is regularly concerned wlth ther-
modynamlC aspects of the flow of gases or vapors, the density of which
varies materially wlth pressure; i.e., compressl ble fluids. The flow
may occur through confining channels, perhaps wlth the primary
purpose of acceleratmg or decelerating the stream, or it m.y be .bout
some object submerged m the stream and with the mtent of exerting
forces on that object.
For comprehenSlve analysis of such phenomena attentlOn IS neces-
sanly given to prmciples not only of thermodynamlCs but also of
killetlcs and flUId dynamics. But in many sltuations the thermo-
dynamic .spects may be sufficient, or will serve to provide a reqUlsite
background when considering the more complex situatlOns. The fol-
lowing matenal relates for the most part to thermodynamic considera-
!Jons, and to situatlOns which may be broadly classified into:
(a) Those m which the objective is speClfically a converSIOn of
energy that lS assoclllted Wlth hIgher entrance pressure and/or tem-
perature into the organized kmetic energy of a higher-velocity jet. A
. channel WIth this major objective is known as a nozzle, and forms an
important part of many deVICes, such as the turbinc or the iet engme
(b) Those in whICh the objecllve is thc reverse, or the converSlOn
of the existing kllletie energy of a hlgh-velocity stream into the energy
associated with higher eXIt pressure and temperature. A channel wlth
thIS ob]ccllve IS known as a difJuser. Examples include the air intake
ofa Jet engine flymg at hIgh speed) or the after-part of a ventUrI blbe.
(c) Those "i whICh the channells Slmply an extcnded duct of uni-
form cross-sectlOnal area, such as a p'pe, in whJCh any state change of
the flmd en route is the result pnmanly of fnctional reslstancc to the
flow, perhaps wlth accompanymg heat transfer.
16-2. Kinetic Aspects of a Fluid Stream. In connection with an
existing stream of expanSIble fluid, lt is demable to eoncmyc of an
initial condition m whIch the fluid IS located in a larger reservoir, from
whIch the stream subsequently lssues. Although the molecules of the
contamed flUId are in Bcllve translatory mollOn, such motIOns are
wholly haphazard in d,rectlOn and effect. no concerted mass movement
. Consequently , the fluid IS saId to be stagnate. Also, from this kmehe-
molecular viewpoint, as temperature is an mdex of the intensity of
haphazard 11l0lecular actiVIty, it becomes reasonable further to desCIlbe
412
ART. 16-2 KINETIC ASPECTS OF A STREAM 413
the temperature of a fluid when m such an initial stagnate state as a
stagnation temperature. The pressure produced by the iinpacts 01 the
molecules on the confinmg walls of the reservmr is sImilarly descnbed
as a stagnation pressure, thIs pressure also bemg the same -in all
directions.
The process of the formation of a fluid stream issuing from the
reservoir may conveniently be regarded as one III which those molecules
that chance to have simultaneously a component of motIOn m a gIven
dIrectIOn are permItted to proceed together lD that direction, and to
acqmre a progressively mcreasing degree of unidirectional organization
III their translatory motIOn as flow proceeds But active components
of motion III all other dlrectlons stl]! exist. What is termed the velOCIty
of the stream is in effect a measure only of the (mean) unidirectional
component of the composite molecular motions. By virtue of the
mechanical effects that may be produced by an organized molecular
barrage, the stream 18 rcgarded as possessing mechamcal kllletic energy.
WIth relation, however, to the remaimng disorganized molecular
activity, and in conformity with the aspect of temperature as an index
of such achvlty, the term local temperature IS conventionally employed
to dlstmguish this less-than-stagnation temperature. In SImilar recog-
nition of the fewer molecular impacts occumng on a confining surface
Ihat parallels the stream, and of a correspondingly lesser pressure force
on such a surface, that pressure is dlStlllguished by the term local
pressure. When the pressure or temperature attributed to a stream is
referred to In subsequent analyses, such local values are Imphed unless
otherWIse speCIfied Such will also be meant when reference lS made
not only to the temperature and pressure but also to the corresponding
enthalpy, etc., .t any section in a flUId stream
A SIgnificant consideration lD this connectIon IS that, although such
mIcroscopIC aspects of flow are informative, the analyses that generally
characterize thermodynamIc studies are based on gross or macrOSCOpIC
aspects These frequently enable conclusions that otherwise would
be virtually unattainable.
Instrumental measurements of the local pressure may readily be
made through an aperture m a surface that parallels a stream. How-
ever, measurements of local temperature are difficult, because of the
stream disorganization occasioned by the introductIOn of a thermom-
eter. A stationary thermometer introduced in 3 stream indicates a
temperature which is m fact more nearly a stagnation temperature.
Several kinematic aspects of flow phenomena become of concern
when, as is quite regularJy the situ.bon, the velocity is not unifonn
thr~ughout a cross section of • finite flUId stream For more thor-
414 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS CHAP. 16
oughgoing analyses of most flow phenomena, such as those of fluid
mechanics, full recogmtlOn of the dIstribution of velocity across any
section of a stream is essential. Such distributions are III reality
involved even III connection 'Vlth the convergIng or diverging flow in
a nozzle, and are emphatically of concern when flow is about a (sub-
merged) object, such as an airfOIl or the blades of a turbme rotor.
However, many of the objectives of engineering thermodynamics may
be accomplIshed adequately, and in situations that might otherwise
become unmanageably complex, without direct attentIOn to velOCIty
dlstnbutions. That IS, for an entIre stream, a mean velocity defined
in tems of the contmuity equation, or il- mvlA, is regarded as
acceptable. The admItted approxImation of such a procedure may
be compensated for by the use of empirical coefficients whose magni-
tudes nre determined by suitably organized tests.
16-3. General 111ermodynamic Considerations. The thermo-.
dynamIC facIlities that are of major importance in the study of com-
pressible-fluid flow include:
(a) The continuity equation for steady unidirectional flow (equa-
tion 3-2), or m = uAlv = constant
(b) The sf.eady-flow energy relation of equation 3-4.
(c) The general entropy relation of equation 7-4.
In differential form the continuity equation becomes
d(lnu) + d(lnA) = d(lnv) or (dulu) + (dA/A) = dv/v
(3-2)
where the mass-rate-of-flow term (m) disappears as rh is constant in
steady flow.
For a majority of flow conditions the time interval required for the
passAge of a parcel of fluid is so brief that any accompanymg passage of
energy as heat is neglIgible, and the associated process IS thus effectively
adiabatic Changes in geopotenti.l are also negligible, and present
concern IS WIth processes in which the shaft-work term is irrelevant.
The steady-ftow energy equation as so particularized becomes:
uI'/64 35 + Jh l = u'/64 35 + Jh
or, in dIfferential form
d(~)(or
64.35
UdU)
32.17
= -Jdh (3-4)
By putting equation 3-2 in the form

dA
. du
= :! (dvlv _
u du/u
1) = :!u (u2 udu
dvlv _ 1)
ART 16-3 THERMODYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS 415
and introducing for the term u du its equivalent -32.17J dh,
dA A ( u' dvjv )
du = - :;; '32.17J dh +1
This relatIOn shows the manner of variation of the enthalpy anel
speClfic volume of a compressible fluid accompanymg area and velocity
variatlOn for any adiabatic flow, whether revers,b[e or not.
The expression for entropy change in terms of changes of other
properties serves to lDtroduce the requirements for reverStble flow;
that is, for mechanwally reversible flow, •
ds = dh/T - vdpjJT = 0 (Ma)
and thus J(ah). = (vap),
Introducmg this expression for the 't8entropic change of enthalpy m the

above relation for dA/du,
(M)
au •
= _ ~[~(av/iJP)
u 32.17 v2 ,
+ IJ
,
or as
iJv
-am = -ap
= ;[3::7(:;). -IJ
Significant evidence that is so offered IS that, as both A and u are
mherently real and posillve III sense, a thermodynamic requirement
for reversible adJabatlC flow is that the stream area and velocity must
varY Jointly in such a manner that iJAjiJu is negatIve, zero, or positive
as the bracketed term is, respectIvely, of the same sign; i e.,
aA) - <
(-au , must be +0 as u2 => 32.17(iJp/ap). (16-1)
Recognize that a negatIve value of aA/au SIgnifies convergence in a

strea.m in WhICh the velocity is mcreasmg, as in a nozzle, but divergence
in one in whICh the velOCIty is decreasmg, as m a cWIuser. A positive
value of aAjau has apposite significances. It thus appears that perhaps
a convergent channel, perhaps a divergent one, or perhaps the twa in
series will thermodynamIcally be required to permIt ISentropic lIow of It
compressIble fluid, depending an the velocity of the stream at a given
point and an a criterion (ap/Op), ThIS last is actually a property of the
fluid at its local state
For a low-pressure (quaBl-ideal) gas the parameter (apjiJp). may be
expressed alternatively and to advantage by recalling that, for such a
fluid and by equations 9-10 and 9-11, c.(aT(T). = (R/J)(iJp(p).
416 FLOW OF COl\[PRESSIBLE FLUIDS CHAP. 16
and c.(aT/T). = - (R/J) (O"/v). = (R/J)(ap/p).. Thus (iJp/iJp). =
(cp/c,,)(p/p) = kRT. That is, for Isentropic flow of an ideal gas
(-oA)
au ,
-
must be 0 as u
+
2
<
=
>
32.17 kRT (lG-lal
For a vapor or non-Ideal gas for which only tabular or graphical data
on the propertIes are a;'ailable the value of the item (iJp/iJp). at any
state may be found approxImately by determmmg the ratio of fimte
increments of p and p on Isentropic changes of state of moderate range
thr~ugh the pomt In question' For superheated steam at s = 1 5095
and p = 450 pSlo It develops that (ap/ap). = 93,0001t-Ibf/lbm. Thus
a stream of steam at this state should ideally converge If accelerating
and flowing at a velOCIty less than (V32.17 X 93,000 - ) 1730 fps, hut
diverge if the velocity is greater.
16-4. The Sonic Velocily, and the Mach Number. The above
parameter V32.17(ap/ap)., or Its eqUIvalent V32.17kRT for an ideal
gas, thus serves umquely for distinguishing reglmes,ln accelerating or
decelerating flow in which a stream needs in some instances to converge,
but in others to diverge, in order that even ideally the flow may be
isentropIC. An important supplementary attrIbute of thIS parameter IS
that it also expresses the relattve ve!onty w,lh whtch a weak pressure wave
, * A convewent graplucal techmc for determinmg (apIa,). at a specified state is
lllustrl1.ted in Fig 16-1, 1D which are plotted to 8.D abSCIssa of p (a) values of p
at 8 EiuccessJon of sta.tes of E.team, both superheated and wet, at a constant
600
500
Supemeal~ - -? !2'--
(aplap), W 'X ,
400
(dp(~.oJ. , ~./'1 , .'~
~300
20
o ':
J7 ""~~et V i-P _pJ ,,
, 5 _"
x
'/ ,, "
100
o
y
o 02 04 06 08 10 12
4 e""
P. Ibm/'" ft
FIg. 10.1
entropy of 1.5095, and (b) correBpondmg IltePWl!le hues that represcnL values of
(t::.p/tlp). for successive 100 pSI mcrementa of p. It may be shown that a mean
curve drawn through these steps gives the local value of (op/op), at any gLven
value of p (or p).
To iJIustrate, for steam at B 15095 and p = 0.890 eu ft{1b, p - 450 psia (also
It:I
T - 500°F). "I'd (apia,). - 9.3 )I. 10' It-Ib/lb

AItT. 16-5 THE IDEAL NOZZLE 417
advances through a flu.d medIUm, If the associated compression and
rarefactIOn of the fluid IS effectively Isentropic.
As the ear and audItory nerves respond to the stimulus of such pres-
sure waves, this velocity IS conventionally identlfied as the sonic or
a""ustic veioC'tty (i e., the speed of sound), and given the individual
symbol a; that is,
a = V32.17(apjap).
or = V32.17kRT for an ideal gas (16-2)
Its values for aIr and for numerous pure gases at various temperatures
are available in various tables, such as the gas tables of Art. 9-8. For
air at moderate pressures it· becomes 49 o...;;r,oJi fps For ideal-gas
mixtures, sonic velocity may be computed by noting that kRT =
RoTj.M(1 - RoIJC.), where Ro is the molar gas constant, and jjI and
C. are the eqUIvalent formula mass and IDolar specific heat of the mixture.
Thus equatIOn 16-1 or 16-1a may be regarded as stating alternatively
that, if the expansion or compression of a flUId during steady flow is also
to be isentropic,
(aA)
-
au •
- as u ='" a
must be'O
+ >
(16-3)
That IS, the local sonic velocity for a moving fluid serves also as a
criterion determming the required manner of variation of the channel
area il isentropic conditIons are even ideally to be attained.
As a result of such conSIderatIOns the velOCIty of a fluid stream IS
frequently expressed in terms of its ratio to the sonic velocity for the
fluid at the existing state, or ufa, This (dlffiensionless) ratio becomes
of WIde utIlIty and is conventionally known as the Mach number, and
assigned the symbol M. A further eqUIvalent statement of equation
16-3 is thus that 'ISentropIc expa7Ulion or compression durmg flow
requires that
(-aA)
au •
- <
sball be 0 as},f = Unity (1.0)
+ >
(l6-3a)
Note in this connection (1) that lor a negligibly compressIble (liquid)

fluid dp -> 0, dp/dp and a -> 00 and thus u/a or M -> 0, even at flnite
velocities; and (2) that with a compressible fluid a parallel situatIOn
would be one III WhICh u is quite low or approaches zero and M is thus
much less than unity, even at finite magnitudes of a. In either situa-
tIOn aA/au IS invarIably negative
16-5. TIle Ideal Nozzle. The nozzle IS recalled to be a device that
provides for accelerative flow, as in the production of a hIgh-velocity
jet The consideratIOns of Arts. 16·3 and 16-4 have indicated that
isentroplC accelerative flow at subsomc velOCItIes will require a channel
whICh merely converges, although pOSSIbly with a parallel·sided exit
end as shown in the first sketch of Fig. 16-2. But in acceleratIve flow
InvolVIng subsonic and subsequent supersonic velocities a successively
convergent and dIvergent channel is required. This is Illustrated m
the second sketch of the figure, and is exemplIfied by the so· called
De Laval nozzle.
/Throat
~-
~-
Converging Convergent-
nozzle dIvergent nozzle
FIg 1&.2.
When determming the suitable proportions and dimensions of a

nozzle the vanables that are oj prImary concern include:
(0) The entering state of the fluid, and also the entering velocity.
(b) The pressure difference, as a drlvmg agency.
(c) The progressive changes in the local thermodynamic properties)
and the associated changes in velocity and Mach number.
{d) The rate of flUId flow to be provided Jor or antIcIpated.
(e) The transverse areas to be provided and their distribution.
The enterIng state and anticipated pressure range are frequently
known, and determInatIOns of the attamable velOCIty, the requisite
stream areas, and the flow rate become prImary objectIves The fol-
lOWIng relatIOns for these detcrmmatIOns are lIttle more than smtable
comblliatlOns oj the energy and contlllUlty equations. Iden\JJymg by
subSCrIpt 0 any item relatIng to stagnation, by the energy equation,
ho = h + u 2/G!.35J or u 2/64 35 = J(ho - h)
but (U'd",,)2/6435 = J(h o - h).
It may be convenient to have the last relatIon rearranged to express
the (ideal) departure velOCIty directly; that is,
(a) In terms of the enthalpy at stagnation,
U", ... = ;/64.35J(ho - h). = 223 8;/(h o - h). (16-4a)

(b) Or, in terms oj the local enthalpy h, of an entering stream,
~1 -
(hi - h).
U'daJ = 223.8 «(U ),2
1.(,1
ART. 16-5 THE IDEAL NOZZLE 419
and, by introducmg the continuity equation,
uj,.. = 223 Sv(h l - h). Jr~-_-(A-/-A-ll-)-'(-V!-/-V)-" (16-4b)
Note a desirable simplIcity III equatIOn 16·4a, but also an ability to

account indirectly for the mlluence of an appreciable entermg velOCIty
by the last term of eqiIation 16-4b ThIs term is frequently deScrIbed
as a
Correction factor for entering velocIty = ' ____:1:.__ __

"\j 1 - (A/AI)2(vI/V),2
(16-5)
It may be regarded as a corrective factor in the sense that it would
permit the use of tbe simpler relation of equation 16-4a but with sub-
stitutIon of the entrance rather than the stagnation enthalpy
The mass rate of fluid flow and the stream area reqUIred for accom-
modating It are conventIOnally assOCIated in the ratIO m/ A. This is
commonly represented by the symbol G, descrIbed both as the flow
den"ly and the mass veloc,ly (the latte~jn contrast to the linear velOCIty
u) and expressed III umts such as Ibm/ (sec, sq ft). By the continUIty
equatton and the above relations, at any section in the stream,
G = m/A = (u/v)
V(h o - h).
and G""" = (ulu), = 223.8 --'--"---'"
v,
(16-00)
Or = 2238 V(h l - h). I 1

u, "\j 1 - (A/ A .)'(vI/v).'
(16-6b)
Example 16-1 illustrates characteristic features of • nozzle which is
so proportioned that, by conforming WIth foregoing consideratIOns, it
may Ideally provide for isentropic flow. To minimIze dIStractions by
details the example relates to the flow of air, and for the reqUlred com-
putation utihzes the facihtIes of the gas tables.
Example 16-1. Dry an at 100 pSl8 and 1500 0 R (l040.3°F) enters 8 nozzle
through a lme of 005 sq ft area (3 Q3..m. diameter) and expands durmg passage
through the nozzle to a delivery-regIon pressure of 5 psia Determme and tabu-
late aU pertinent items deecnbing the progressively changmg state of the air
and the proportions of the nozzle In order that It may Ideally provIde for
isentropic expansion and flow of the a.u at the rate of 2 Ib/sec.
Solutum At the entry state hi ,.. 369.17 Btu/lb, pr,l = 5586, and Vr,l = 9948;
also 'I ~ (53 34 X 1500)/(100 X 144), or ~ (55.86 X 9 948)/100 ~ 5.56 cu ft/lb,
and thus Ul ~ (2 X 556)/0.05 - 222 Ip. and
222 222
AJ 1 ... = - - "" 0,119
(32.17 X 1.35 X 53.34 X 1500)'" 1865
Corresponding itelI18 for stagnation become. ho = 369.17 + (222/223.8)l =
37015, To = 1503.7'R, and Po = 100 X (56.39/5586) = 10091>'10.
After isentropic 43xpanslOn to 5 pBIll.: Pr,2 = 55.86 X (5/100), or = 5539 X
(5/1009) = 2793, T, = 659 S'R, h, - 15779 and v, -
(2793 X 87.46)/5 = 48.8
en It/lb.
Alao
u, = 223 8'11'370.15 - 157.79 = 32001pa,

M _ 3260
, - (32.17 X 1398 X 53.34 X 659 5)'"
3260 3200 2
M, -1z57 ~ 259, G, = 488 = 66.7Ih/(.,"" .qH), and A, ~ 66.7 = O.030.qlt.
The following table BummariZes the above results and others BB obtained by like,
computations for expansion to a number of intermediate pressures.
a, or G.
P. T.
'R
h.
Btu/lb
'.
eu ft/lb
u.
rpo V3217kRT M Ib/lSe(J A.
P'" ft/~ IIq It
",II
(l00 9) (1503 7) (37015) (662) (0 0) (1867) (0 0) (0 0) ~
100 1500 0 36917 .58 222 1865 0118 400 00500

6.'
. o 0121
80 101.153 34i}.90 107, 1814 0595 164 7
60 1311.9 3213 02 S 10 15"" 1751 0_ 11)l) 7 o 0102
1275 6 310 M 8.75 1720 1720 I 000 197 2 00101
·60 1241i 1 304 00 " 27 1820 1711 I 00' 106 0 00102
40 1177 0 285 43 1090 2000 1663 1 238 189 0 00100
2.
I. 7
1035 6
894 0
24[185
2U, 77
15 35
22 •
2455
2790
'B58
66' I 557
, 91
160 0
124 0
00125
o Olin
6 659 5 157 79 <S8 3260 1257 259 66 7 o 0300
The results of the above example are exhibited in Fig. 16-3 by curves
of the local velocity u, temperature T, sonic velocity a, Mach number
M, flow density G, and stream area A, all drawn to a common abscissa
of the (decreasing) local pressure p. The conditions forecast by the
analyses leadmg to equation 16-3 or 16-3a are realized, in that the
accelerating stream requires an initially decreasmg but subsequently
increasing area. The trans,tion OCcurs at a local pressure that is some
54 per cent of the initial.
Significant further aspects of this pressure are that it is associated
simultaneously with (a) the arrival at a minimum area in the stream,
(b) a consequent maximum flow density, (e) the sonic velOCIty, and
(dl a local Mach number of umty. Dy reason of these mUltiple con-
siderations the values are given special designations, being known as
the (isentropic) criticaL values correspondmg to the stagnatIOn state
and conventionally dlstinguished by the asterisk (e.g., p', G', T', etc.).
For purposes .of brief definition the critical pressure may be described
as that minimum pressure to which expansion may proceed isentrop-
uoaZLy in a converging stream. Alternatively, any critical value is
the local value attainable on isentropic acceleratlOn or deceleration to
umty Mach number. These conSlderations, altllOugh lllustrated above
in an example involving an ldeal gas, apply equally well to any fluid.
3 3
V Ii
2
A
G /
/'
/
-........ t--.../ Vy
1 2
\ /'
v r,; a
1 /
1/V
/'......
k
~ <
T
II -----
I
V .-/ K
-........ "I
P\
o100
V I
j 0
o
Major observations relating to the proportionmg of an ideal nozzle,

as anticipatcd in the analyses of Art 16-3 and verified in Example 16-1,
may be summarized and interpreted as follows:
(a) Velocity in convergzng stream. At imtial subsonic velocities the
acceleratmg stream requires progressIve decrease in area, or conver-
gence, as the pressure decreases; but th" requirement ceases on attain-
ing the sonic velocity and critical pressure.
(b) Velocity tn diverging stream. For continuation of the isen-
tropIC acceleration at supersonic veloCitles, and expansion to pressure,
l~ss than the critical, convergence shall have dlScontmucd at the section
at which the critical pressure, somc velocity and 'a maximum flow
denSlty have been attained. and thereafter the stream shall diverge.
(c) Axial distributton of areas. The interdependence 01 the required
stream area and the local values 01 the fluid properties signifies that
any alteration in the &Kial distrJbutian of are.s along the channel
operates m principle only to effect a corresponding alteration of the
axial dlstribution of local pressures. A suitable area distributIOn is
required, however, to minimize flUid Inctional and turbulence effects
and enable the desired close approach to mechanical reversibihty, but
422 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS CIIAP. 16
such consideratIOns Involve the mechanics of flow as well as the
thermodynamics.
A generally suitable cbaracter of area dIstribution ill a cOllvergent-
divergent nozzle is illustrated III Ftg. 16-4. A nozzle that is simply
convergent, and. so provides only for lsentroplC expansion to a pressure
•I
Fig. HM.
greater than (or equal to) the CritIcal, may suitably terminate in a
short parallel sectIOn. The axis of either type may well be curved,
for producmg also a progressive change III stream directIOn To such
extent as one may hypothetically although unrealistically ascribe to
TITo
10 095 09 08 0.7 06 0.5 0
10
~II,O 12
~
-"( o.8
~ 06
/",-
/ Y:
0
I
'5 f>-.
I
"'0\
b" ~
I
I
p·jPo
o
10 08 06 O. 02 o
plPo
FIg. 16-5.
the stream at a selected transverse plane a single pressure Or velocity

magnItude, the ax"l distrlbulton of tbese will be somewhat as mdicated
by the curves below the nozzle representation.
A very convement manner of graphical association of the relative
pressures, areas, etc., but without concern as to their axial dIstribution,
is that of Fig. 16.-5. The primary coordinate scales are the dimension-
less ratIOs plpo and GIG' (or ~,' I A), but with supplementary abscissa
scale of TITo. The data estabhshing the curvc, and also the M-scale
laid dOlvn along the curve, are those of Example 16-1 Recall that
the curve is solely for lsentroplC expanSIon. Recognize also that, for
representing such flow through a particular nozzle, the curve termI-
nates at the point which corresponds to the relative area at its exit.
For a convergent-divergent channel the pomt hes to the rIght of the
crItical, but at or to the left of It for a channel which merely converg"s
Further summarIZations and mterpretations are as follows
(d) Drscharge from a convergent-divergent nozzle The isentropIC
Bow rate through such a channel is determIned solely by the mInimum
or throat area and the stagn.atlOn state of the entering fluid, and not
on the dischargc-region pressure This determines only the sUItable
exit area IlJId tho correspondmg ideal eXIt veloCIty.
(e) D,-,charge from convergent nozzle at p > p'. Isentropic flow
through a convergent nozzle IS wholly at subsonic veloCIties, with sonic
velocIty the maXlffium obtaInable CorrespondIngly, a convergent or
convergent-parallel channel can provide for isentropic expanSIOn only
to d,-,charge-regwn pressures exceed~ng, or 'n the limit equal to, the
c:ntical pressure.
Thus for the convergent nozzle and with an imposed dIscharge-regIon
pressure such that plpo exceeds the crItIcal ratIo p'lpo, (1) the
attamable exit velocity IS less than critIcal (u < u'), (2) a less-than-
maxImum mass rate of flow is obtained (G < G'), and (3) the attain-
able velocity and mass rate of flow together depend on both the stag-
natIOn state and the discharge-regIOn pressure For the limIting situa-
tlOD where p - p*) nozzle CXlt area A and critica.l stream area A· are
identICal, and the flow density G IS the maximum (G') of wluch a
converging channel is capable.
(f) Di<;charge from convergent nozzle at p < p'. WIth an imposed
dIscharge-regIOn pressure such that plpo is less than the CrItical ratio
p'lpo, the convergent channel contmues to be capable only of accelera-
tion to the somc velocity and expansIOn to the crIbcal pressure at the
eXIt section, and a correspondmg maxImum flow denSIty. In the
absence of a suitably divergent downstream channel further expansion
to the dIscharge-region pressure is quite Irreversible m character, with
associated entropy growth and active regaIn of (local) enthalpy by a
reverSIOn of kmebc energy to dIsordered molecular motIOn Variations
III downstream pressure, as long as p < p*, have no effect on flow rate,
which now is a function solely of stagnation and critical values. The
non-response of flow rate to variations m downstream pressure is an
example of 3. "chokmg" situatIOn
EVidence offered by Example 16-1 indicates that the critical
pressure-ratio (p'/Po) is on the order of 0.55. Figures 16-3 and 16-5
indicate further th.t at or sbout thlS pressure r.tio the flow density
or stream area change qmte gradually. As a result it is frequently
taken as a convement and tolerable approximation ill routine nozzle
design that A • and/or G' may be computed as if p' / Po were invari-
ably about 0.55. Also, for a supersomc nozzle, it is frequently taken
as sufficient to determine only the throat and eXit areas that are
required for providing a given mass rate of flow and eXit velocity
Example 16-2 Illustrates for the flow of steam.
Example 16-2. For a steam supply at 415 psi!!. and 600 c F and a neghglble
entermg velocity, determIne the throat and exit areas ideally reqUired for flow
of the steam at the rate of 20 lb/sec and the discharge-reglOD pressure ideally
requIred for furmshmg a Jet of (a) 1500 ips velocIty, (b) 2530 ips ve1oclty. What
will be the maxImum flow rate of whIch the first nozzle lS capable, and t4e
maximum dehvery-reglOD pressure with which it is obtainable?
Solution. At 415 pSIS and 6oo"F, h _ 13057 Dtullb and 8 - 15845.
(a) An exit velocity of 1500 fps represen.ts a. kmetlc energy of (1500 2/6<1.35) """')
449 Btu/lb, '0 requmng that h, - 13057- 449_ 12608 Btu/lb. The .team
tables/ h-s diagram, or Ellenwood-Mackey charts show that at s = 1 5845 and
h, - 12608, p, - 270 p,m, v, _
I 98 ell ft/lb and T, _ 500"F.
As 270 pSIR exceeds 55% of 415 pSla, a convergent nozzle is suffiCient. To
proyide for flow at the speCIfied mtc, A2 _ (2 X 1 08) /1500 - 000261 sq it. or
0380 sq in.
Accepting the above approximation, at 'P. of about 0 55 X 415 or 228 psia and the
stated entropy, h· = 1244 7 Btu/lbandv· = 2.26. A convergentnoz:.:le of the above
ld'd 11 (223.8v'1305.7 - 1244.7 X 0.00264 )
t~9at area wou I ea y pass 2 26 = 2.04 lb/soc
If the discharge-region pressure is 228 psis or less
. 253Q'
(b) For 2530 fpaJet velocIty, (ho - h,), ~ 6435J ~ 128 I Btuflb. At8~ 1.5845
and h, = (1305.7 - 128.1 =) 1177.6, 'P2 = 105 psia, XT"" 0 987, nnd V2 = 4178,
unless the 'vapor becomes supersaturated.
A convergent-divergent nozde mIl be requued, 8.B 105 pSla is less than the abuve
(apprOXImate) cntIcal pressure. UtIlIZIng the above crItical data, for flow at 20
Ib/sec the throat area Ideally required "-'111 be (mv*/u· = A· =) 0 00250 sq It, or
0373 sq in. To proVIde for isentropIc expansIOn at this flow rate to 105 PSI:l., the
eXIt area Ideally required IS (20 X 4 178/2530 =) 0 0033 sq It or 0 475 sq m.
16-6. Flow Relations, Ideal Gases. The purposes of Example

16-1 were conveniently served by use of a few basic relations and the
facilities of the air table. But, when a gas or gas mixture is involved
for which a table is not .vallable, it IS essential to have other relatlOns
. whlCh develop from the general ones but are more directly adaptable
to flow Situations and devised to enable use of pnmary data on the
formula ma~s or gas constant and the speClfic heat. In the following,
ART. 16-6 FLOW RELATIONS, IDEAL GASES 425
two types of such relatIOns are developed. These are (A) ones in
terms primarIly of temperature and pressure, and (Bl more recent
and flexible ones which ublize the Mach number.
A Formulattons tn terms of temperatures and pressures. The modi-
ficatIOns of the general relations evolve primarily from the property
relations for Isentropic processes wIth an Ideal gas;* or
(JJ (:YIJ<'
= or (:0),"-1)/' (9-13)
Rk
(h o - h), = c,(To - T), or J(ii _ 1) (To - T),
= cpTo 1 - [ (p)"m,]
po (9-Ga)
and (~). = (:OY-RIJI.) or

(~t (9-15)
or = (~o y""IRl-l or (~otr-I) (9-14)
Observe in connectIOn with these and the primary relations the subse-
quently important considerations that
(a) For any adiabatic flow, whether isentropic or not, the stagnation
enthalpy (h o ) is constant, and If the fluid is an ideal gas the stagnation
temperature (To) is also constant.
(6) For reversi6le-adiabatlC or ;"entroptc flow the stagnation pres-
sure (Po) IS further constant.
Introducmg these Ideal-gas relations in equations 16-4.a and lIi-4.b
the local (ideal) velocity becomes:
(a) In terms of the stagnation temperature and pressure,
U,d"" = 223.8#0 ~cp 1 - [ (p)a-ll!']

Po or as cp = J(kRk
_ I)
= 802"jRTo or pouo ~k _ii 1 [ 1 - (ppo )('-')/1] (16-7a)
(b) Also, m terms of the local temperature and pressure at entrance,
"'del -
_? ;;p; 1- [
2.3.8'. T'\lc p 1
_ (J?.)('
PI
-I)/'J '\111 _ (AjAI)2(pjp.)'Jt
1
• Recall the faclhtles of FIgS 9-3 and 9-4 for determmmg the linear and
logarithmic mean values of c" and of k or (k - 1) Ik for a given temperature
range
426 FLOW OF COl\lPRESSIBLE FLUIDS CHAP. 16
or
- .
ftr, ~-k- [ 1 -
. r=-
- 8 02v
I k_ 1
(p)"-1)il]
-
PI
~ 1
1- (A!A , )'(p!P,)2i'l
(16-7b)
The term involvmg the area ratio IS eVIdently the correction factor
of equation 16-5 but now for the ideal gas and in terms of the pressures
By mtroducing the above ideal-gas relations similarly III equatIOns
16-6a ~nd 16-6b the local (ideal) flow density may be expressed.
(a) In terms of the stagnation temperature and pressure, as
cp [l - (p!PO),k-Il/lJ
GId ... = 223 8 flo (RTo!po) (po!p )lJI
= 8 02 (po/ v'lfJ';" } I_J_ [(E...)2/l _ (E...)"+I)/I] (16-8a)

or~"k-1 Po Po
(b) Also, m terms of local temperature and pressure C!t entry, as
G" .... =802 (PI/../iiK,

.r--<
}~- -k - [(p)2/1
- -
(p)'k+I)I']
- X
or VPI!VI k - 1 PI PI
"1 -
/ 1
I
(A/A )2(P!Pl)2,k
These are the major relations in Isentropic-flow computations for an
. (16-Sb)
ideal g8.8, but frequently it is not necessary to dIstinguish between k

and T<. Various values of the above functions of the pressure ratio are
compiled in the gas tables'
The CrItical values of the pressure and temperature ratios relatIve
to stagnatio!' (i.e, pO/Po and TO/To), and of the-assocIated velocity
• Obtaining reqUIsite precIsion in mrect employment of any of equations 16--7 and
1&-8 lB bothersome when p/Po approa.ches uDity. But, II the pressure utio is put
in the form I - (Po - p)/po, or 1 - tJ.p/Po. and relevant powers nre expressed as
converging senes, the lteII1B of the following table become !1cceptable equivalents of
the indiCAted functions If bop/po < 0,1.
Functions
(pIp,)'" _k [1 _(E.)'k-l)1']
k - 1 po
_h [(E.)'" - (10)'>+1) "J
k - 1 po PO
EqUivalents if ~pI Po < 0.1

1 ~p ~p
-+- 1 (~p)'( k + 1 ~p) tJ.p _ ~(6P)'
1 - --
k Po po. 2k -p, 1+---3k po Po k po
and flow denslty become items of mdlvldual concern. To express
them, recall that the local velocity after isentropic expansion from
stagnation to cntical is also the local sonic velocity for the gas; ie,
u - u' - a'. Thus, again distingUlshmg critical items by the asterisk,
(U*)2[ - (a*)2] = 64 35J (ho - hO) = 6435JC p (To - TO)
and also = 32.17k*RT*
k*RT'
Thus To- T * = - -
2Jcp
To k* R
and -=1+-- (16-9)
T' ·2 Jo p
Or, in the many instances where k and Cp may suitnbly be assigned
representative constant values, the temperature ratio may be written as
To k - 1 1'* 2
-=1+-- or -=-- (16-9a)
T* 2 To k+1
p* = (1'*),/('_"
Also, (16-10)
po 1'0
or = (_2_),'I'-I) (16-10a)
k+ 1
By introducing these relations in equations 16-7a and 16-8a,
u*(or a*) = 8.02V Je p 1'o(1 - 1'*/To) (16-11)
or = 8.02 'RI'o _k_ (16-11a)

'\j k+l
for a representatlve k. Further, as
ao = V3217kR1'o, u*/ao = V2/(k + 1) (16-110)
Also,
G *-
.'" -
po ~-k- ( - -
802--
vRT, k - l k+l
2 )'/(1-1) (I -k+l
-2)
-
--802 1po/vRT,,}
--
or Vpo/vo
J+
-k -(-2-)2/(>--1)
k 1 k+ I
(16-12)
Table 16-1 quotes numerical values for certain of the above func-
tIOns of k, at selected values of k and WIth assocl.ted values of the
molar specific heat Cpo Recall that values of k of 1.67 and 1.4 are
representative for, respectlvely, the monatomic gases and the diatomic
0
0 "'"'0 '",_
~
~
8
«
,... '"0 '"
.,;
OS ~ M
..'" ....
t_ oo
-'"
'0 00
S 0<)
0
OJ "'
ci
'"
"'
oi .,; OJ
~ 0
;;
~
0
OJ
~
'"
~
~
- "'
a>
0
~
0
.."
$
.:;
....
00 00
0
'"oi '"~ '"0
;;;
S ~
...."
..
~
'0
- . '" ...."'
0>
'" '""l
"-
~ 00
"'00 0'" 0"'

0 <0 M
"
:>
"1 0<)
'"'
co
oj<
~ 0
0
~
~
0>
~ .:;
M M
"' '"'"'" .:;'""''" '"

00
"!
M
,...,...
....
.; -
'"'
'"
.:;
-
:b
"
:;;;
~
....
'",..;
1;;
... '".,.
~
....
0
....
<0
...
00
.:;
,...
oo
.
,... 0
ot
...'"
'"'"
'"
0;
"" '-'•
~;;.--.._
~
+~ I;: ;+_
+1 ""It.->-~~
,...
~ ~
~
~
">
"·S ~,C"I + '-../ N
0-
I'l -....
01 '--' ""
N
0
00
gases when at moderate temperatures; and that increase in temperature
or in molecular complexity is accompamed by decrease in k. Values
at a nommally mfinite specific heat, or Ie - 1.00, are provided m part
for aidIng in interpolatIOn.
Relahons such as the above were for many years the only ones avail-
able for computatIOns relating to (be flow of gases through the nozzle
or lIke devices. They continue to provIde practicable methods in sit-
uations in which a large temperature range necessitates the accountmg
of variatIOn of the specific heats and thus of k, or with complex and
possibly varying gas mixtures. But, more recently it has been recog-
nized that numerous advantages attach to alternative types of relations
In whIch vanous useful and dImensionless parameters are expressed
primarIly in terms of thc Mach number, which is itself dimensionless.
As the two variables u and T are in effect combined in the single van-
able JIf, mathematical correlatIOns become practicable for which the
preceding relations are poorly adapted.
B. Formulations in terms of the Mach number. The followmg pro-
vides the background and manner of evolutIOn of the more useful of
the flow relations expressed in terms of the Mach number. They
develop again from the steady-flow energy equation, as wfltten for
adiabatIC flow of an ideal gas and m terms of representative values
of c, or k; that is,
u'
JCpTo - 6435 + JCpT and
kR u' kR
or - - To - --+ - - T and
/, - 1 64 35 k - 1
For a stream of gas at stated local temperature and veloc,ty there
is a unique correspondmg value of its stagnation temperature or
enthalpy, and thus (by equation 16-9a) of Its cflllcal temperature
Furthermore, both necessarily remam constant during adiahatic flow
of the stream If unaccompanIed by work effects but whether isentropic
or not, as u 2 /6435 + Jh - Jh o. Parallel conclusions may not be
drawn as regards the stagnation and cfltlCal pressures of the stream,
as any entropy increase due to meversibllities mfluences the pressure-
temperature relation.
For evolutIOn of the desired relations note that, as 0' - 32.17kRT,
the last relations may be put m the forms
ao 2
- - -2 +
k-1
u2
-
k-l
a2
or M' ( U'a' ) -
-
2 (a02 )
k_ 1 ~- 1
(16-13)
Also, as u' and a' are identities, and (equation 16-11b) ao' =
(a')'(k + 1)/2,
u' a' k + 1 (a*)'
"2+k-1=k-I-2-
Of,l'f t he ratlO
. u(*.
a IS reprcscnte d 1.11 *J an d thus -M* = -
as ' u((
a* =--;'
a
M u a a
(.Ill')' = (~)'
a'
=!:.±...! 2 (~)2
__
k - 1 k - 1 a*
= k+-1 _ _ 2_(M')2 (16-14)
k-l k-l if[
By relatively simple rearrangements of these and preceding rela-

tIOns, one may develop the more convement ones that are collected in
Table 16-2.
Table 16-2
M' = _2_(To _ 1) (16-15)

k-I T
To 2 + (k - l)M'
(16-16)
T= 2
u
(= M')
(k + I)M' (16-17)
a' 2 + (k - I)M'
+1
;. [= (;;.)' =(~')'J 2 + (k -
k
I)Af'
(16-18)
U
ao
(= M; =!' ao~ =M"\)Fo
a
fT) = M J + (/-
2 I)M'
(16-19)
~ = [2 + (k 2- I)M'J"'k-li (16-20)
P [ k +1 J.I:/(k-1)
(16-21)
po = 2 + (k - I)M'
~ = [ k + 1 J11(k-l)
(16-22)
V 2+(k-l)M'
A G' = ]_[2 + I)M']'>+')f"k--l)
( = ~.':.)
(k - (16-23)
A' or G M k +1
U "
Solullons of these and allied relatIOns for a full range of values of ]If
and several values .of k have been made by various analysts Some
made under the auspIces of the .U.s. Office of Naval Research have
been made generally avadable in tabular form in the gas 'tables of
Keenan and Kaye. At the time of wntlllg, parallel tabular facilities
have been provided by the N A C.A and by Emmons, and graphical
oncs in the Dailey-Wood "Computation Curves for Compre"ible
.Fluid Problems."
An alternatIve graphical facilIty which has extensive utility in these
and further connections has been densed by Kiefer and Kmney, and
is illustrated in skeleton form ID FIg. 16-6. A working form of more
comprehensive character IS provided in Fig 16-7. For present pur-
poses attentIOn is best limIted to the outer eun'e of these figures, which
o 05 15 20
09T/T, 08 07 0605 0
10 05 o
pip,
to this extent may be regarded simply as servmg to correlate graph-

ICally thosc of the above functIOns which become of major concern in
isentropic flow processes, to the coordinates of G/G' (or A"/A) and
piPo but with scales of T/To, uiao, and M provided along the upper
margin to supplemcnt the pressure-ratIO scale, and a scale of M
along the Isentropic line. To thIS extent Figs. 16-5 and 16-6 or 16-7
are effectively equivalent. Example 16-3 illustrates the use of these
and the tabular facilitIes for solutIOn of isentropic-flow problems.
Example 16.3. Dry aIr is being supplIed through a. channel of 001 sq ft
area at a local pressure and temperature of 100 pSla and 240"F, and IS to flow
thence at the rate of 1 0 Ib/sec through a nozzle of size and proportions suitable
for lSentropic expansion to a delivery region at (1) 81 psia, (2) the Critical
pressure, and (3) 137 psm. By use of both Table 30 of the gas tables and of
the graphical faclhhes of Fig 16-7 (the flow chart) determine and compare the
foUowiD.g items: (a) StagnatIOn pressure and temperature corresponding to the
specified supply condItIOns and flow rate, and correspondmg value of G*;
(b) stream andleT nozz1e exIt ELrea reqUlrea ior expanSIOn to 81 PSIa, and the
aCQUired local temperatwe, mass veloCIty, and hnear velocity. (c) the same
items for expansion to the critiCAl pressure; (d) the same ltems for expansion to
13.7 pSlS.
So!u!>on. At 100 psIa and 240'F (700'R), OJ ~ (53.34 X 700)/(100 X 144)
= 2.5g3 ell ftjlb, and Ul = (1.0 X 2.5~3)/O 01 = 2503 ips Also at al =
V3217 X 1.40 X 5334 X 700 ~ 4002/V700 ~ 1297 Ips (or by Table 2), M j ~
259.3/1295 ~ 0200, and a, = 10(001 = 100 Ib/ (see, sq It).
(a) Entering table or chB.{t with M, = 0200. pdpo ~ 0.9725 and Po = 1028,
Tj(To = 0.9921 and To = 705 6'I\ (24G'F), also ao = (by Table lG-l) 6711 X
V5334 X 705.6 = 1302 fps; a,/a' = A'/A, = 10/2.964 = 0 337,anda' = 296 4,
or (byequat,on 16-12 and Table 16-1) = (3.883 X 102.8 X 144)/V53.34 X 705.6;
A' = 0.337 X 0.01 ~ 0 00337 sq ft
(b) At P2 = 81 pSJa, P2/PO = 0788. Entermg table or chart with this value of
p,/po' A'/A, = a,/a' ~ 0836 (or 1/1.l96) and A, = 0003373/0836 ~ 0004035
sq ft, or a, = 0836 X 296.4 - 247 9Ib/(,ee, sq It); U, = 05935; T,/To ~ 09342
and T, = G59 2'I\ (199'F); ",(ao = 0573 and u, ~ 0573 X 1302 = 745 fps,
or = U"" = 05~35 X (\71lV5334 X 659.2
(c) At the cntica.l state.AI = 1.0. EnterIng table or chart with thiS va.lue of ~'f.
p'/p> = 05283 and p' ~ 54.35 psi., T'/To = 08333 and T' = 588'R (128'F),
u'"lao = 0 9128 and u· = 0 9128 X 1302 = 1188 fps, from pa.rt a, A'" = 0 003373
sq rt and G* = 2!)64 lbl (sec, sq it).
(d) At p, = 137 psi" p'/Po = 0.1332. Enrering table or chart with th,s value
o[ p,{po. A'(A,=a,/G' =0606 (or 1/1650) and A, = 0003373/000G =
000556.q ft, or a, = 060G X 2964 = 179.6Ib/(sec, .qlt), M, = 1973; T,/To ~
0.5622 and T, = 396 7'R (-G3'F), u,(ao ~ 1.480 and u, = l.480 X 1302 = 1927
[ps, or 1.973 X (4902\1'3967).
Observe in this example that part b Illustrates a sItuation in which
only a convergent nozzle is suitable and a sub some (local) velocity is
generate<!, the discharge-region pressure being m excess of the critical
The required exit area for accommodating the specified flow rate IS a
fUDctlOn of the discharge-region pressure (and independent of the
critICal). Part C Illustrates the limiting sItuation for whICh a con-
verging channel IS suitable, the eXit velocity being the local sonic
velOCIty. Part d Illustrates a SItuation in which only a convergent-
dIVergent nozzle of definite exit-to-minimum arca ratIO is suitable and
a supersonic (loca.l) velOCIty is generated. The reqUlred rmmmum
(or throat) area depends solely on the required mass rate of flow and
the stagnation state corresponding to the supply or entry condition, but
the required exit area depends further on the discharge-region pressure
Through various preceding analyses interesting compamons may
be mMe between the mean molecular velOCity corresponding to the
stagnation temperature of an ideal gas and several particular velocity
magnitudes:
ART. 16-7 FLOW METERS 433
Mean molecular velocity at To = v'32.17RTo X v'3

Sonic velocity at To (=ao) = v'32 17RTo X Vk
Velocity after isentropic
acceleration to crillcal (= a*) = v'32 17RTo X ··./2Ti!(f' + 1)
Velocity after isentropic
expansion to zero pressure = v'32.17RTo X v'2kN. - 1)
Velocity after isentroplC acceleration

to any temperature T = ao
~ 2 ( T)
'-.- - 1 - -T .
K - 1 0
16-7. Flow Nozzle, Venturi Meter, and (Subsonic) ImpactTube.

In the above the maJor conCern has been with the use 01 a nozzle as
a generator 01 a hlgh-veloclty stream or jet. However, a convergent
nozzle is also used frequently for the purpose of metering the rate of
flow of a flUId, with only incidental interest attachmg to the velocities
attained When so used it is referred to as a flow nozzle, and is neces-
sarily eqUIpped wlth faClht!eS lor determinmg the temperature of the
entering fluid and (directly or indirectly) the values of PI and P2,
Fig. 16-8.
Such a flow nozzle is frequently provIded further with a following
dlverging channel whose funetwns are the confining of the stream and
the furlllshing of facilities favorable lor the reverse process of isen-
tropic deceleration and pressure recovery, in contrast to the further
expanSlOn and acceleration characterizing the divergent portion of the
supcrsomc nozzle. This combination IS conventIonally known as a
venturi tube or meter, the dlvergent downstream section being the
diffuser of the tube. The geometrical resemblance between the venturi
tube and the supersonic nozzle is only superficial, as in the two the
functions of the diver£ing section differ wholly.
The vent"" meter is illustrated schematlCally in Fig. 16-9, and
records of the local pressure and state changes accompanying flow of
the fluid are represented by Imes 1-2-3 m the accompanymg graphs
If, as is usual In the venturi tube, the exit area equals the entrance
area, the state changes in nozzle and dIffuser portions are ideally Iden-
tICal except reversed. The more reahstic sItuatIOn of progressive
entropy growth en route is represented by the broken lines of the
graphs.
PrImary data that usually are obtained with the flow nozzle or the
venturi tube are the local pressure at entrance and at throat, a tem-
pernture at entrance, and the areas at those sections. To compute the
ideal rate of flow from such data, relatIOns such as equatIon 16-6b or
h p
,
1.3
2'"
FIg. 11}.9. VentUri tube
16-8b are avaIlable. To faCIlitate the use of these relations, values

of the factor correcting for entrance velOCIty have been provided in
FIg 16-10, by curves to the' coordinates of PO/PI and AdAI'
In heu of the use of the relatIOns involving the approach-velocity
correction factor, an ability to use relations in terms of the stagnation
pressure (Po) would be quite deSIrable (i e., equahons 16-7a and 16-8a)
because of the convenience of the available tabular and graphical facil-
ities. To enable the utillzation of those facllltles supplementary
curves are prOVIded in Fig. 16-10 givmg the value. ul pdpo that corre-
spond to given values of P2/Pl and AdAl' so permitting the determI-
nation of the assocIated ratio pdpo.' Curves glvmg the SImultaneous
values of JII 2 are further prOVIded for faCIlitating entry to tables or
chart .
• The tontours for plipo are in effect graphica.l SQ\utions of the relatlon
Pl [1 -
;;; ~
(A,/A,)'(p';P,)'"
1 - (A,/A,)'(p,jPI)(Hl)/k
J""-O
obtamed by. equating equations 16-8a and 16-8b.
Example 16-4 illustrates/several methods of procedure in determm-
mg the flow rate through a flow nozzle or ventUrI tube with data usually
available.
Exllmple 16-4. In the passage of dry air through a flow nozzle of 6-in. by
3-m dIameters tIle observed upstream pressure IS 65 pSlQ and there IS a pressure
j
dIfference of 10" Hg (= 491 pSI) between the entrance and eXIt sections. Re-
gUIdmg the temperature of 80°F, as indicated by a thermometer m the entermg
stream, as effectIvely Its stagnatIon temperature, determIne items as called for
below. (a) Determme by use of Figs. 16-10 and 16-7, and equation 16-12, the
Fig 16-10. lrubal-velocity correctIOn
Idea.l mass rate of flow through the nozzle, and the eXit velocity; also by Fig 16-10
the correctIOn factor for entrance velocity (b) Determme 'the same items by
direct use of cquatwD 16-7b and 16-Sb) except that local temperature Tl 8.8 found
III part a muy be used. (c) Dctermme such relevant 11ems as may be provided
through Table 30 of the gas tables.
Soluiion p,jPI = (65 0 - 4.91)/65.0 = 0.9244, A,/AI = (3/6)' = 025;
A, = «/4)(3/12)' = 00191 sq ft.
(a) I3y entry In Fig. 16-10 WIth P2/PI = 0.9244andA,/A I = 0.25; PI/PO = 0.995
and Po = 653 ps.. , p,;p, = (p'/P!l(PI/p,) = 0920; M2 = 0345 and imlial-
velOCIty correction = 1030.
EnterIng Fig 16-7 With el~her M2 = 0.345 or P2/PO = 0 D20, T21To = 09765
and Tz = 527°Il, G2(G· = 0 555, and V,2/aO = 0340. As (equation lfi.(12)
G' = 3883 X (65 3 X 144)/V5335 X 540 = 2152 lb/(sec, sq It), G2 = 0555
X 215 2 = 110 5 Ib/Csec, sq tt), and m = 1105 X 0 0491 = 587 Ib/sec. Also,
u, = 0340, a, = 0340 X 49 02~I54iiJ= 3871pB, or = M,a, = 0345 X 4902 X
v5z7 Also, at Pl/p, = 0.995, TIlT, = 0.9985 and T, = 539 2'R.
(b) Ily equations 16-Sb and 16·7b,
6.5 X 144
G,=802 X ~ (09244'/1 , - 09244' 4/1 ') X
V53.35 X 539.2 0.4
~1 - (0 25)'~O.9244)'/l 4
= 116.3 X 1 03 = 119.8 lb/ (sec, sq It)
Alao u, = 802\15335 X 5392 X h.4 (1 _ 09244 0 ," 4) X 103 = 387 Ips

"'IJ 0.4
(c) UtIlizmg the value of }.[2 of 0.345 as obtamed by FIg. 16-10 for entry III
Table 30 of the gOB tables, GIG' = 1/1.800 = 0555 aDd T,(To = 09765, from
which one may proceed as In pa.rt a.
A second characler of metering mstrument is tYPIfied by the impact
tube, which In prmciple consists merely of a small-bore open-ended
~
-- -----
-""
- .<!:~====""''''
"c: --\;:
---_ 1
Po
FIg. 16-11. Impact tube
tube (WIth rounded edges) that is so placed in a stream of flUId that

the open end faces bquarely mto the stream. Figure 16-11 illustrates
The other end of the tube is closed by a manometer or other pressure-
measuring device, so that there WIll be no flow through the tube By
analyses involving the kmematics of flUId flow it WIll appear that 3
"thread" (or stream tube) of fiUld Wh1Ch is approaching at subsomc
velOCIties along the axis of the impact tube necessarily decelerates and
on arrivmg at the tube mouth WIll momentarily have become stagnate.
This action is the reverse of the isentropic acceleratIOn and decrease
from stagnation to local pressure associated WIth initIal generatIOn of
th~ stream, so that the indIcated pressure is in fact the "Po" correspond-
mg to the velocity or Mach number and local pressure of the stream
at the locatIon at whICh the tube is placed
In the de,:ices known as the Pitot
, and Prandtl tubes the facilities of
the Impact tube are supplemented by ones for concurrent measure-
ment of_ the local pressure (p) of the stream in whICh they are located.
The Pitot tube (FIg 16-12) cons"ts of an inner Impact tube and a
concentric outer tube, III the wall of which are small apertures so
located that through them the local pressure may be transmItted and
measured WIth reasonable preCIsion The Prandtl tube provides for
a pair of such supplementary tubes and apertures, mdependently con-
nected to two pressure-measUrIng Illstruments and servmg not only to
u/ao 0;..1;.:6:::9_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _----i

TIT, 0994
1/,,-
/-- - ...............
I / "-
I ( \
Pltot tube 1/
1/ \
p
It- A{"0170 - - _
--- \
0980
Po
FIg. 16-12. Pltot tube.
measure the local pressure WIth considerable preCISIOn but also to

determine if the impact tube is correctly oriented III the direction of
the stream.
The following example Illustrates the use of the flow chart or the
gas tables for direct computations of local velOCIty and/or Mach
number of a stream, if subsonic, from representatIve impact-tube
data, in lieu of the use otherWIse of equation 16-70. Procedures for
the determination of supersomc stream velOCItIeS are indICated in
Art 16-13.
Example 16·5. In a stream of au at 70°F (530 0 R) Pltot-tube data mdicate
values of P = 147 pSla, and of 831 In of water (= 0300 psi) for Po - P What
is the local Mach number and veloclty of the stream?
SolullOn. At pip, ~ 14.7/(14.7 + 0 3) - 0.98; T/T, ~ 0994, and M - 0 170
by chart or table, and also (by chart) u/ao == 0 169. Interpreting the indicated
tempern,ture as the stagnatIOn temtlemtnre, T = 0994- X 5.30 = 527°R and u =
0.170 X 4902v527 - 191 Ips, or - 0169 X 49.0V530.
The impact or Pitot tubes determine only the velocity of that particu-
lar thread of fluid III a finite stream which is approaching along the tube
axis, and the velOCIty may well be expected to vary transversely.
438 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS CHAP 16
Determination of the mass rate or volume rate of flow In an entire
stream, and of a correspondmg "mean" velocity (u = m/pA), thus
requires the taking of pressure data at a number of strategically located
positions about a stream and an integration technic. For data taken
across a diameter of a circular duct the above mean velocity is, graphi-
cally, the mean ordinate of a plot of local velocities vs the square of
=1:
the radial distance r from the center of the duct to the correspondmg
d(r
2
)1
tube location [as u =1
-R
R
"UT dT! ("R')
2
U
R'
Iwhere R is the
radius of the duct]_

16-8. Performance Indices for Nozzle and Flow ]\lei_f. In the
foregoing, attention has been directed primarIly to idcalized conditions
in the flow of a stream of compressIble fluid When the surfaces confin-
mg and directing such streams are smooth and are properly propor-
tioned and contoured, and c~nditions are otherwise suitable, the Ideal
may m fact be approached quite closely To account however for such
departures as may actually be encountered, although doing so without
direct concern as to specific characters or causes of the departure,
a convenient engineering practice is to account for their conse-
quences through various dImensionless performance mdlCes known as
coeffictents.
These normally take the form of a ratio 'between (1) the actual mag-
mtude of some item the procurement of which is a major objective
of the deVICe and (2) the magnitude that would ,deally be attainable
when hke operating condItions are Imposed on the deVIce The actual
magmtude is that as determined by special laboratory tests of suitable
character on the deVIce III question, or on prototyplls of it Character-
istIC ones of these indices, their general definitions, and notations of
the types and objectives of the deVIces to which they pertain are as
follows:
(a) For deVIces such as nozzles, and when their objective is regarded
simply as that of proVIding a higher-veloCIty jet, the inde< used is
known as the coefficient of veloctty. It is defined as
·
Coeffi Clent 0fvelDClty,
· U2."""..
Cve! = - -- (10-24)
U2,ldea1
The magnitude of the denominator will be determined by the isentropic

relations such as equation 16-4a or 16-4b, or by special adaptations
such as equations 16-7a and 16-7b (or tabular or graphICal alternatives
ART. 16-8 PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENTS 439
of these). Data substItuted are those relating to actual supply con-
dItions and the eXIsting dIscharge-regIOn pressure.
Except m mstanees where shogk phenomena occur (Art. 16·10) or,
oppositely, when velocIties are very low, this eoefficicnt may approach
unity (1.00) wlthm 1 or 2 per cent By ratIOnalIzatIOns that are of
Iluid-mcchalllc rather than (hermodynnmic character It may be shown
that n graphlCal record of the varIation of the coeffiCIent, when deter-
mined by test of a nozzle of gIven form and proportions and plotted
to an abSCIssa of the parameter dG/)" may also be regarded as gen-
erally representatIve for the flow through nozzles that are of different
size but geometrically simIlar to the test nozzle,"
(b) When It is the intent that the kmetic energy of the hlgher-
velocity Jet generated by a nozzle shall be utIlized for producmg work,
as by turbine blading, the index used IS known as the nozzle efficiency.
It is defined as
(U2 ,lLCtual) 2
EffiCIency of nozzle, ~no. = (U2,ldeaJ )2
(U2 2 - Uj2)lLCtUIll
or possibly = (16-25)
(U22 - Ul 2 )ldool
In general the efficiency of a nozzle becomes effectively the square of
Its coefficient of veloclty.
(c) For devices the purpose of which is that of metering or con-
trolling flow, such as the ventun tube and flow nozzle or orifice, the
Index used IS the coefficzent of d"charge, defined as
Coefficient of discharge, Cdlach = ma.clulloJm1deal
or = G~tudG.d ..1 (16-26)

Onginal determmatlOn of the numerator Inust be by suitably conducted
experiment. The denominator IS in prinCIple as determmed by a
suitable one of foregomg mass-rate relatIOns In its selectIOn it is
necessary to gIve due attenbon to whether the measured lower pressure
is greater or less than the entical corresponding to (he existIng up-
stream state. The following notes uncertaintles which may be encoun-
tered concernmg compatibility between the area or areas involved in
the flow-relation and the measured pressures
The channel areas at entrance and throat sections of the venturi
meter are readily measurable, and sUItable provisions are made
• This parameter IS known as a Revnolds index. The item d denotes Borne
representatIve SIze dImensIon of a nozzle. such as Its eXit dIameter, G is the mB.S9
velOCity at the same localtoD, and ~ is the absolute viscOSity of the fluid.
whereby the local pressures at those sections may be found with con-
fidence. Example 16-4 Illustrates The SItuation is suml.r when
the flow nozzle is employed and dehvery is to n region in whIch the
pressure is readily measurable (such as the atmosphere), or when the
prOVlSlOU of sUItable pressure taps to the exit end of the nozzle IS
practicable.
ComplIcations may, however, be encountered when the flow nozzle
is used as a meter If the provision of such preCIsely located pressure
Fig. 16-13.
taps is impracticable. These uncertamties originate in difficuilles

associated with the making of reqUIsite measurements of the local
pressure at positions at WhICh representative areas are readily meas-
urable.
A typical situation in the use of a flow nozzle is one in which the
nozzle is secured in position in a pipe by means of a paIr of flanges,
as Illustrated III FIg. 16·13. In this case it becomes troublesome to
transmit to the exterior the local pressure actually eXIstIng at the
throat. Various alternatives bave been employed, a frequent and
acceptable procedure bcmg to measure lDstead the pressures at the
upstream. and downstream fa,es of the flanges, through so· called
ART. 10-8 PERFORMANCE COEFFICIENTS 441
flange or "corner" taps and as illustrated m Fig. 16-13. It is recog-
nized that pressures as so measured may not be regarded as rcpre-
senlatlve clther of the local pressure m the stream approaching the
noz7.1c Dr of that at the nozzle throat. Therefore an "ideal" but essen-
tially fict,tious flow ratc and/or dlsc!Iarge coefficient is obtained If one
is computed upon the basis of pressures as so measured, but the areas
of pipe and nozzle throat are concurrently employed III the flow rela-
tIons. However, it develops that, although fictitious, a discharge
coefficient as so computed and attnbuted to a given nozzle may be
_-
FIg. 16-14.
used WIth propriety for other pipes and nozzles if of the same propor-
tions and identically arrangcd, and if operating under condItions such
that the Reynolds mdex is the same as that of a prototype nozzle when
cahbrated.
In heu of the flow nozzle a simpler device that is frequently used ill
practICe consists merely of a circular apcrture or onfice m a thin plate,
as Illustrated in FIg 16-14 In the flow through such an OrIfice the
stream will rarely have completed Its convergence at the plane of the
plate and also, even If it were readily measurable, a local pressure
determined at that plane would be of uncertain significance. How-
ever a frequent and acceptable procedure In the use of such an orifice
for flow-metermg purposes is again to measure the local pressures at
the flanges which secure the onfice plate, or pOSSIbly at other arbi-
tranly selected locatIOns Using pressures as measurcd at such loca-
tions, but the actual pipe and onfice areas, nominal values of tbe Ideal
flow rate may be computed A corresponding coefficient of discharge
may be quoted (equation lG-26). The non-accordant pressures and
stream areas render such a coeffiCIent of dIscharge strictly facbtious,
as evidcnced by test values in the order of 06. However these test
values may be used with reasonable confidence for other pipes and
orifices if of the same proportions and identically arranged, and if
442 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS CIIAP. 16
operating under conditions such that the Reynolds index is the same
as that under which a prototype is operatmg when calIbrated.
16-9. SUI,),lemcntary Iscntrope., Flow Chart. In Fig 16-6 there
is indicated, and in the complete chart (F'g. 16-7) is shown and
,dcntIfied by legends in terms of Po.'/Po." a family of curves that
are referred to as supplementary isentropes. These serve to aSSOClate
the subsequent values of p, 0, and AI (also of T, u, etc.) ,f an initially
isentropic flow has been followed by any irreversible occurrence. The
,denlIfymg legends express the ratIO of the stagnation pressure after
such irrevers,b,lIty (Po,,) to the initIal stagnatIOn pressure (Po.,)
In this connection obsen'e, however, that, as the steady-flow energy
equation for adiabatic flow WIth a gas [To ~ (u'/64 35)/Jc, + Tj's
valid whether the flow is or is not reversible and isentropic, the stagna-
tIOn temperature (To) before, during, or after any adiabatic flow
remains constant.
The positioning and orientation of these curves, and also of the hnes
of "constant" lIIach number which appear 10 the figure and chart, are
necessarily such as to conform with reqUIrements mherent to the baSIC
relations of equahons 16-12, 16-20, and 16-23 More specifically, by
equatIOn 16-12, if To is constant,
G*z PO.2
(a)
0', = po.,
where G*1 and 0*2 are the maximum flow densitIes (1 e, if sonic
velOCIty IS attained) at stream states existing, respectively, before and
after- the IrreverSIble occurrences.
By equatIOn 16-23, for equal values of M, 0010. 2 - 0,10\, or
G*2 G2 G,/G',
-=-=-- (b)
0*, 0, 0,/0',
By combming these relations,
0,/0', _ po.'
(c)
OJ/O', po"
By equation 16-20, for equal values of AI, PO,2/P2 ~ PO,l/P" or
PO,'
- =- P'= -
p,/Po.'
-- (d)
PO,l P' p,jpo.,
By combimng equatIons (c) and (d),
G2 /O', p,/po., G,/G', G,/O',
- - - - - - or - - - - - (e)
,0,/0*, p,/po" Pz/po" P';po.,
ART. 16-10 FLOW REGIMES, SUPERSONIC NOZZLE 443
also po., = GdG'" and = P,lpO.I (f)

PO.I GI/G', pI/pO. I
The present SIgnificance of equation e hes in its evidence that, as
G/0', and plpo., are the coordmates of ~he flow chart, pomts delin-
eating stream states havmg equal values of AI necessarily fall m a
straIght line radiatmg from the coordinates origin to the suitable
termmus on the primary isentrope. The evidence provided by equa-
tIon f is that, along any such hnes of constant M, pomts establIsh-
ing the curve for a gIven value of Po.,lpo., shall be so located that
(O,IG'I)/(G,/O'.), andlor (P2/Po,1)/(p'/Po,d have the same
magnitude as that of the stagnation-pressures raiw. Values of
OdG', and Pl/PO,l may for convemence be taken as those corre-
spondmg to the termim of the Jlf-lines at the primary isentrope, so
permItting dIrect passage to further scales at top of the dIagram.
In further relatIOn to the secondary isentropes, and as the entropy
increase accompanymg assocIated Irreversibilities is expressible as
82 - 8, = - (R/Je.) In (Po.'/Po,.), • scale is provided, along the
Ime for which M =1 0, which serves t~ relate graphically the (dImen-
sionless) item J il81R with the stagnatIOn-pressures ratios.
16-10, Shockwise Irreversibilities, Supersonic Nozzle, Fore-
going material mdicates the neces.,nty for compabble A,IA' and
pdp' ratios in the convergent-divergent nozzle even for ideal attoin-
ment of isentropIC flow. However, the pressure actuaUy imposed in
the region to which such a nozzle may be dischargmg is not within
Its control, and may well be quite incompatible with the "built-in"
A,IA' rat,o Irreversible phenomena will result which are of various
possible natures but are classifiable to advantage into several distinct
regimes. Having recognized in Art. 16-9 the capability of the flow
chart also for representmg irreversible flow sItuations, it is practICable
to proceed to consideratIOn of such.
Referrmg to Fig 16-15, the lines which there exhIbit possible ways
of change of the local pre;sure as flow proceeds through a convergent-
divergent channel will aid in dlstingUlshmg between the conditions
characterizing the several flow regimes
(a) Ventun regime. ThIS designation relates to conditions already
descnbed (Art. 16-7) in which the dIScharge-regIOn pressure IS such
that an mitially accelerative but subsequently decelerotive flow may
Ideally occur isentropic ally in the progreSSIve passage through the
channel. The limIting sitUatIOn of thlS type is that in whICh the dis-
charge-region pressure, a8 represented at point b, 18 sufficIently less
than stagnation that tIle velocity at tIle throat becomes SODIC and the
channel IS operating at maximum capacity A greater pressure, such
as is represented at point a, corresponds to a subsonic throat veloclty.
(b) Normal-shock regtme. WIth discharge-region pressures moder-
ately less than that (p,) which marks the a~tainment of the some
Fi~. 16-15.
velocIty at the throat, but considerably greater than that (PI) corre-
spondmg to progressive isentropic acceleratIon throughout the channel,
the phenomenon known as normal shock may be anticipated within
the divergent channel. It takes the
form of an abrupt "jump" in the local
pressure across a plane normal to the
direction of flo.w, and an assoCIated
shockwise deceleration, as indicated be-
tween points x and y in FIg. 16-15 and as
pictured In Fig. 16-16. This has fol-
lowed a limited accelerative expansion to
Fig 16·16.
a superSOnIC veloClty In an upstream por-
tion of the divergent channel, but is followed by a decelerative com-
pression at subsonic velOCIties in· the remainder of that channel, to
a discharge-regIOn pressure such as IS represented by pomt C In FIg.
16-15 Specific faCIlIties for assoelatmg these pressures, relative
channel areas, etc., are described in Art. 16-11, and the analysis
through which such faCIlIties are provided appears m Ar~ 16-20. For
present purposes it IS sufficient to note that when pressure p, is only
slightly less than p, the normal shock occurs at a locabon near the
ART. 16-11 NORMAL SHOCK 445
throat, and P. IS only slightly less than p'. But the shock plane will
move In the direction of flow as the dIscharge-region pressure decreases,
until (m principle) it reaches the eXIt end of the divergIng channel.
This hmitIng pressure is denoted as P. in Fig. 16-15, but is a variable
quantIty that depends on the nozzle proportions.
Fig. 1(;,17. Diagonal shock.
(e) Oblique-shock regime. When the imposed discharge-region

pressure is between the above limiting pressure P. and the pressure PI
which corresponds to isentropIc acceleratIOn throughout the channel,
somewhat similar shock phenomena occur in the stream leaving the
channel but in planes that are oblique to thc
direction of flow. Pressure p, illustrates,
and the phenomenon is pictured in Fig.
16-17. When conditions are such as to oc-
casion this phenomenon a nozzle is said to
be "overexpanded," in the sense that the
existing ratio of eXIt-la-throat areas exceeds
that corresponding ideally to the existing Fig. 1(;,18. Underexp.nding
nozzle.
pressure ratIo p,/p' (or P./Po).
(d) Isentropic nozzle reglme. This regime is merely the single
sItuatIOn III which the area and pressure ratios are in conformity with
those required for wholly isentropIc and accelerative flow.
(e) External-expansion regime. When the imposed discharge-
region pressure is less than pressure PI, .s illustrated by pressure p,
In FIg. 15-15, further expansion occurs beyond the exit section of the
nozzle. A nozzle operating under these condItions is s~id to be "under-
expanded." The ultimate expanSIOn is characterized by further irre-
verslbllities, although of generally less damaging character These
will not be considered In further detaIl, but the flow may be pictured
somewhat as in Fig. 16-18.
16-11- Normal, or One-Dimensionnl, Shock. The phenomenon
which is so designated, and was referred to in the preceding article
in connection wIth the nozzle and as characterizing a second flow
regime, takes the form of an irreversible and quite abrupt decrease
In relative velocity, but increase in local pressure and entropy, which
is encountered whenever (a) there is relative motion at supersonic
speeds as between a compressible fluid and any device through which
or about which the fluid passes, and (b) circumstances do not readIly
accommodate accompanymg changes III stream area which conform
to requirements for isentropic flow as exprcsscg in Art. 16-3 by the
relation immediately preceding equatIOn 16-1.
Fig 16-19
That is, to avoid such, circumstances need to permit that at

any section In the stream d(ln A)/d(ln u) ~ u 2 /32.l7(ap/ap). - 1,
or ~ M' - 1. It developed In Art. 16·5 that, WIth speCIfic reference
to the convergent-dIvergent nozzle, an equivalent requirement is a
umque compatibility between the eXIt/throat area and pressure rahos,
th'e first as "built-in" and the second as imposed.
Analyses provided in Art. 16-20 establish direct relations between
the relative local pressures and Mach numbers of the stream at the
upstream and downstream faces of the shock plane. Denoting Items
at these respective faces by subscnpts x and y, those relations are
p,/PO,I = 2kMl - (k - 1) and M; = 2 + (k - I)M.'
P./PO,l k +1 2kMl - (/' - 1)
These also enable direct graphical representation of normal-shock
consequences to the coordinates of the flow chart (Fig 16-7) through
the provision of a curve formlllg the left side of a "normal-shock loop"
. which appears to the right in Fig. 16-20 and in the complete chart
The primary Isentrope in the portion in which M > 1 0 forms the right
side of the loop. The gas tables provide rather similar faCIlities.
ART. 16-11 NORMAL SHOCK 447
When Ill.ustratlllg the utJliz"tion 01 the chare for shochvise flow III
a convergent-divergent nozzle, It is mformatIve also to represent suc~
ceSSJve occurrences to the famIliar h-s coordinates This is done m
FIg. 16-19 In each figure sIgnIficant thermodynamic and stream
states are Identified by symbols as follows.
0,11 Irutialstagnntion state x, Upstream face, shock plane
1, State at nozzle entry y, Downstream face, shock plane
*, State at Al = 1.0 2, State at nozzle eXIt
0,2, Stagnatjon state correspondmg to that at nozzle exit
The data whIch appear in Fig 16-20 relate to Example 16-6
0500590735 uta, 142
FIg. 16-20.
Example 16.6. A stream of dry air havmg irutmlly a stagnatIOn pressure and
temperature of 102.8 pSIa and 7056°R (2460°F), as m Example 16-3, is III
passage through a convergent-divergent channel In whIch Ai = 010 sq ft, A* =
000337 sq ft, and A2 (at ont) = 000556 sq ft, These are as found previously
to be sUltable for IsentropIc flow at the rate of 10 lb/sec to a dIscharge-region at
137 pSla. However, the dlscharge-reglOn pressure which IS actually imposed IS
68 8 P8Ja, By use of the flow chart of FJg 16-7, but also venfYlDg results as far
as IS practlce.ble by the use of the gas tables, make the following determinations
descnblng the performance to be anticipated under the Imposed operating condl-
bOD. (a) Determme the stagnatIOn pressure of the departing stream and also
it.s local tempera.ture, Macll number and velocity, (b) compare these With values
Ideally securable by ISentropIC expansion to the imposed dIScharge-region pressure,
and determme the character and eXit area of the channel which IS sUltable for
operation under that conditIon when dehvenng at the speelfied flow rate,
(c) determine the relatIve location in the divergent sectlOn at which the Dorron}
shock is to be antlClpated, and 8l.ICD otber Jtems as rlescrJbe cOndJtiollB .at both
faces of the shock plane.
SoluttOn. (a) At the specified exit pressure P'l/PO.l = 68.8(102.8 = 0670, and
A'(A, - 000331(000555 - 0600 By enterIng Flg. 16-1 with these parameters
It appears thllt at the channel exit M 2 = 0.511 and PO.2/PO.l = 0.80 By passage
along this supplementary lSentrope to the scale of entropy change, J(82 - 8t)/R =
0.220 a.nd thus an entropy Increase has resulted from the incompa.tlble conwtlOns in
the amount of (5335 X 0 220)/778 ~ O.OI51Iltu/Ob, OR).
By transfer at M2 = 0511 to the primary isentrope: p2lpo,z = 0837 £LDd
PO,2 .,. 822 psis (oJ' &1.tematively = 0.80 X PO,1 = 822); T2/To = 0 gSO nnd
T, ~ 6706°R (211'F); ula, ~ 0497 and u, ~ 497 X 1302 (by Example 1&-3) ~
647 fp.
(b) For lSentropic expansion to 688 pSIS (or P2/Pf), 1 = 0.069), either by reference
to the primary isentrope of the chart at thiS vulue of pressure ratIO or by hke entry
to the suitable table of one-duncDBlOnallScntroplO-ftow functions, A";A2 = 0.955 and
A2 = 000353. Thus a convergent channel of this exIt area would provide for uen-
tropic fiow at the specified rate. T2/To = o892 and T2 = 629°R (169°F); u21ao =
0735 and u, - 958 Ips.
The incompab.bility of the channel proportions and the imposed dIscharge-region
pressure thus cause the attainment of an exit velocity (fA7 VB. 958 fps) that 19 only
675% of that Ideally attwnable or an exit kinetic energy that is only 45 2% of that
ideally securable. These represent respectively the attained coeffiCIent of veloC"lty
and nozzle efficiency.
(c) Either by locatIon of that point on the nOrIIlJ:l.I-flhock loop at whIch po.21po.l =
080 and passage thence at constant A·I Az,v to that boundary of the loop formed by
the prime.ry ISentropc, or (m part) by like entry to the BU1teble table of normal-ehock
functioD.!! of the gas tables (m the column of Po,,,,/Po,z): Mil = 0 610 and ,Mz = 1 828:
Plllpo,l "'" 0.622 and PJ., = 64 0 psis: PzlpO.l'" 0.167andpz = 17.1psia; TzlTo =
0599 and T:t; = 4227°R (-37°F): 1l. z/ao = 1.42 and U z = 1850 fps. Also,
A'/A." ~ 0.680 and A •. , ~ 00033710 680 ~ 0.004062 .q ft.
Also, niter transfer at}.f1l = 0.61 to the primary Iscntrope' Til/To = 0.931 and
1', ~ G56.7'R (197'F), so thAt T,/T. ~ 656.7/422.7 - 1.55, ",lao ~ 0.588 and
u, - 766 Ips.
Summarizing and interpreting the evidence provided by the above
example and figures:
(a) The flow typIfies conditions in wInch an Imposed discharge-
region pressure IS moderately less than that correspondmg to the maxI-
mum flow rate attainable through a convergent-dIvergent channel of
given throat and exit areas (and area ratIO) If operatmg as a ventUrI
tube, but considerably exceeds that whIch would enable isentropIc
flow throughout the channel and its operatIOn as a supersonic nozzle.
(b) The sequence of occurrences en route IS an effectively isentropic
expansIOn to a moderately supersonic velocity, a shockwise decelera-
tion to a subsonic velocity and occurring between throat and exit
sections, and an effectIvely isentropic but subsonic dcccleration and
compression by dd"fuser action to the imposed dIscharge-region pressure
In the remainder of the divergent channel.
Llmitmg locations of the shock plane in the divergent section of the
channel, and the pressure increase across this plane range from one
effectively at the throat if P./P. -> 1.0, to Its occurrence effectively at
the ",ot sectio~ and with maximum magmtude of p,/P. if p, -> P2'
ART. 16-12 OBLIQUE, OR TWO-DIMENSIONAL, SHOCK 449
16·12. Oblique, or Two-Dimensionnl, Shock. It is mdlCated in
Art. 16-10 that, WIth an impaicd dIscharge-region pressure less than
that Just described, but In excebS of that WhICh corresponds to Isen-
tropic expansion throughout a convergent-dIvergent channel of gIven
A·!A2 ralIo, an effectIvely isentropic expansion WIll nevertheless occur
In the dIvergent channel and to the latter pressure at its exit section.
However, in a depart.ng stream which has filled the channel there will
occur a stepwise deceleratIOn and a lIke compression to the Imposed
dIScharge-regIOn pressure, In a succession of dIagonally onented shock
planes.
AttentIOn to the oblique shock wIll be lImited to the following general
conSIderatIOns In Fig. 16-21, a two· dImensIOnal shock is there mdl-
,ated as orrented at an angle a' WIth the dIrection of a flow whIch is
I
.
~'? I
/
I
I
/
/
at supersonIc velocity U3}' Dut the components U,ll,n. and 'U3},p which are,
respectively, normal and parallel to the shock plane now become of
mdlvidual concern. In passage of the inCIdent stream through the
oblIque-shock plane the parallel component is unaffected, or u.,' - u.,'
However, the normal component (UiZ',n), if supersonIC, is affected in the
same manner as in the case of normal shock. That is, the shockwise
changes of U." to u",., and correspondmg changes of P. to p" may be
determllled by the same techmcs as with normal shock. Note that in
passage through the oblique-shock plane the stream IS thus deflected,
by an angle ",' known as the wedge angle or de[iectwn angle. The first
designatIOn reflects the actIon of a wedge of mcluded angle 2",' in caus-
ing planes of ohhque shock when introduced In a superSOnIC flow field
Analogous cones Df three-dImensional shock occur If an obstructing
object is conical, or if the eXIt section of a nozzle is circular.
A direct function.l relation may be evolved assDClating w', M., and
450 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS OHAP. 16
n'. NumerIcal solutions of tins relation indICate, and experImental
eVIdence verifies, that in some circumstances two sets of conJugate
values of n' and M. will conform to a given value of w', also wIth
correspondmg values of 111. which may exceed or may be less than 1.0
That is, oblIque shocks may occur m which the result is only a reduc-
tIOn from a greater to a less but still superSOnIC velocity, these being
known as weak oblIqne shocks. Or the result may be a stTong oblIque
shock, in the sense that the transItion IS from a supersonic til a sub-
~/~~ "', strong /
"I'
Fig. 16-22.
banIC velocity, as with the normal shock. Figure 16-22 Illustrates the
two sItuations. .
16-13. Compression by Diffuser, Ram Effect. The pressure
regain accomplished by the deceleration of an entIrely confined stream
in the dIvergent downstream section of the ventUrI tube is Illustrative
of diffuser action at subsonic velOCIties. Analogous results are secured
with an unconfined stream if it approaches a SUItably dIvergent channel
that IS housed WIthin some vehICle, with a portIOn of the approachIng
stream entering and being decelerated withm the channel.
Sketch a of Fig. 16-23 illustrates. Effectively parallel analyses are
valId for the situatIOn of an aIr stream approaching the vehIcle In
whIch the diffu~er is housed or of advance of the vehicle mto still-alf
ART. 16-13 COMPRESSION BY DIFFUSER 451
environs. A typical inst,llatlOn 18 the dIffuser m the nose of an air-
craft, where the so-called ram effect aids in furmshmg the required air
to its power plant.
As phenomena of dIfferent character occur if the velocity difference
as between the channel and the general environs is subsomc or super-
sonic, the two conditions are conSidered separately.
A. Subsonic conditions. Pnmary variables which influence the
through-flow obtained'with a dIffuser of gIven throat and delivery-
sectlOn areas (At and A 2 , FIg. 16-23) include:
1. The relative velocity as between the diffuser or vehicle and an
approachmg air stream, advantageously expressed in terms of the
Mach number.
-~
--~
----
~
-
-- - ---
--_-
--~
(a) (b)
Fig. 16-23 Divergent dIffuser. (a) SlInpie, (li) with convergent entry sectIon.
2. Conditions which may alfect the relative local pressure that exists
at section 2.
This pressure may be modified by any influence such as the speed of
a "fan" to WhICh the stream passes on leaving the dlffuser, or by any
restrictIOn impedmg the departure of the stream. VariatIon of this
pressure will be seen in the following to modIfy greatly the proportion
of the approachmg stream whlch escapes about the extenor of the
vehicle or which instead enters the dIffuser, via the throat.
In contrast to an abIlity to antICipate the through-flo.w solely by
fluid-mechanic analyses when the fluid is negligibly compresSIble, ther-
modynamIc analysIS becomes necessary with • compressible flmd A
divergent channel and stream is thermodynamically sufficient to effect
decelerative compression from an mitIally subsonic velocity, but a
convergent entry sectlOn may be provided without thermodynamIC
unsuitabilIty. This is illustrated in sketch b of Fig. 16-23.
WIth reasonable propriety the requisite thermodynamic analyses
may proceed on the premise that sUbsomc entry to the dlffuser may be
accomplished effectIvely isentropIC.lly, wIth consequent abibty to cor-
relate the progressive changes in the area, velocity, and local pressure
of th's! portlOn of the unconfined stream which ultimately enters the
0961 0.614 0528 096 0614

0655
P/PO,l P/PO,l
},f1-055,!i t =l(h,AdAz (-ANA2) ... 04.0

'Pl/'PO.1 - 0 814, PI!Pa,1 = 0.528 PI/Pol =1)814,AI/AI'" "'" 1/080 -125
pJ/'{1J "" 0.628;0.814 _ 0 649 M, = 0 170, A2lA 1'" == 1/029 "" 3.47
AI!AI(=JhIAl"') =1/080 =125 AlIA2 "" 1,25/347 == 03110
Ms <= 0 240, 'P2/Pe.J ... D_{l61 P2/PI .. 0.98/0 811 =- 1.20
WPl 0 D61/O 814 .. 1 18
>= AI/AI" 0.40(0360 .. I.U
AI/A! = 040/080 "" 050 _,h"'/ AI 0= 029(0 -iO == 072
uVUl = 0 238/0 534 .. 0 446 MI -0475,p:/PO.l _0855
T2/Tl ... 0 gSlI/O 943 .. 1 05 'PI/Pi .. 0 aSS/O.S14 "" 1 05
Pl/O.8l4 _ r:::=- UZ/'ill .. 0464/0 5J4 0= 0 87
01 .. Gt.'" .. 3.88 . ~ .. 4.63Pl/V RTI T'dTI .. 0 95T /0.Q.i3 .. 1 014.
v En/aWl
GI "" 0 7Z0(4 63P1/~ - 3 33PI/VBTl
CASE I-d. CASE 1·1.I.
r,~~-:(1xr
4 __ - ---... A,
ulao 0244 0534 - -".. --
T11'0 0.988 0 943 f
094
::: 081)
'-,:
040
0940814065 0.366
P/PO,l plPo,1
MI =010,M, .. 10,AI/A2(=AI./A2) _040
JIl/PG J. pl/pa,l. pI/Pt. nnd .thl AI PI/PO,1 .. 0721, 'P1/pO,1 _ 0 528
(-AlIA1*) are lIB m C~ I-a 'PI! PI• 0 528/0721 "" 0 732
M2 .. 0245.r~,uPO.l .. 0980 AI/AI ( .. AI! AI·) _ I/O 914 "" 1 094
A/PI" 0 94{)/O.814 <= 1 16 M2 and 'P'J/'Po I are aa m Ca.se I-a.
M'II" 079. At'll -1.30 P:l/PI .. 0001(0,121 = 133
112/1'1 .. 0.2410;0,534 .. 0-457 AI/A:_040/09a -0438
TUTI .. 0 9aB/O 943 .. 1 05 U;!UI ... 0238;0668 0=0 356
• Ot 19 as In Case I-a. 12fTI _ 0 ggrJ/(J IHl = 1 085
Ot=3 38(PI/O 721)/V BTI/O 91L .... 5 14pl/~
CASE 1__ CASE [-d
FIg 16-24 Diffuser action, M 1 < 1,0.

ART. 16-13 COMPRESSION BY DIFFUSER 453
dIffuser." WIth relation to the dIvergent channel formmg the diffuser
and to the flow therem, the consequences of variation 9f the imposed
delIvery-regIon pressure (Po), and the Ilml(Jng sltuabons that also arc
encountered, may be antICIpated by consIderations which somewhat
paraJJel those of the precedmg analyses Methods and results are
illustrated m FIg 16-24 for four typical situations. General charac-
tenstics of the stream entering and withm a diffuser of given area
proportions (At! A 2 ) are represented both pIctorIally and to the coor-
dinates of the flow chart.
In each case the area of that portIOn of the approaching stream
which ultImately enters the dIffuser is denoted as A, Data fixed by
specification appear dIrectly below the figures; results are readIly
obtamed by use of the flow chart, and the procedures are mdicated
In accompanymg tabulation. In cases a, b, and c the same magnitude
of M, is presumed and the effects of variations of Po/Po are surveyed.
Case I -d indICates the effect of change of JlI, On the maximum
attainable through-flow. Presumed condItions are specifically as
follows:
Case I-a. .i\I, - 055, the "bu/lt-in" magnItude of A,/A2 - 040,
and that value of p,/p, or of Po/Po., exists which just corresponds to
procurement of a maxImum attamable through-flow (i.e., .III, - 1.0).
Case I-b. .III, - 055, but the existence of a greater delivery-regIOn
pressure (Po) or Po/Po., causes less through-flow
Case I-c !II, - 055, but the magmtude of Po/Po., is less than
that of case I-a. In thIS situatIOn there IS no increase in through-flow
and normal shock may be antIcipated III the dIffuser, as m regIme b
of Art. 16-10.
Case I-d. AI, - 0.70, but condItIons otherwise are as in ease I-a.
Major features indIcated in FIg 16-24 results include such Items as:
Case I-a Convergence of the stream to the diffuser throat, and a
pressure increment such that Po is 18 per cent greater than p, when
M I - 0.55 and all condItions are ideal. Note the abIlity to antICIpate
Gt when p, and T, are known.
Case I-b. Divergence of the stream to the dIffuser throat if .20
per cent pressure increment IS demanded, WIth aSf:lociated reductIon
• Note that the thermodynamiC concept of IsentropIC flow and the fluid-
mechamc concept of irrotabonal flow are efIectnrely synonymous A relevant
further consideratIon is that, although area-pressure and area-velocity relation-
ships pertalwng to the stream entering the diffuser may be anticipated by
thermodynamJc consIderations, the axial configuratIOn. of the stream must be
estabhshed by further mechaniC corunderatlODs
The transverse areaB that are berewJth related to local pressures are ia
prmclple areas delIneated by isobanc surfaces In the stream_
of the through-flO'W m the amount of (463 - 335)!4.63, or 27.5 per
cent of the maximum.
Ca./le I-c. Failure t{) induce any increase in through-flow by a lower
value of P2/PI, or "choking" of the dIffuser, and a value of PO.2/PO,IJ
of 0.98 (VB 10m case I-a) by reason of the normal shock
Case I-d. Increase of the optimum pressure lllcrement from 18 per
cent to 33 per cent, and of the through-flow by (519 - 463)/4.63 or
21 per cent on increase of M, from 0.55 to 0.70.
Note in connection 1V1th case I-b thai the lirnitmg situation of this
character would be the prevention of any through-flow, with a pressure
ratio P2/P, equaling Po.,/p" Of (1/0814 -) 1.23. Also recognize
that this is the situatlOn III the impact or Plio! tube of Art 16-7.
B Supersonic approach. W,th a supersonic 'approach veloClty the
provision of a convergent-divergent channel of exactly SUItable propor-
tions and contours might ideally enable an isentropic deceleration and
compression of the flUId. However, this might result only if a cor-
respondingly suitable pressure dlstributlOn could have been estab-
lished independently An actual inabihty to a\tam such idealized
condltions wlll usually cause a (normal) shockwise deceleratIOn in the
approaching stream, before entry to the diffuser, and subsonic decelera-
tion in the diffuser.
The sketches and flow charts of Fig. 16-25 indlcate two simpler
situations of this character, but various others may exist. x and I
are here effectively synonymous, in theIr designation of an approach-
ing supersonic stream and the upstream face of a normal-shock plane
m that stream t and 2 ~gain denote, respectively, the stream at
diffuser throat and a t departure.
The situation depicted m case II-a parallels that of case I-a to the
extent that, followmg the normal shock m a stream approaching at
M 1 - I 5, there is subsequent maximum through-flow and lSentropic
but subsonic deceleratIOn and compression to a discharge-region pres-
sure which is compatible with the area proportions of the dlf'fuser.
Note the procurement of a compression effect such that P2/P, - 327,
m contrast to 1.18 at 1\[, ~ 0.55 (Fig 16-24).
The situation in case II-b parallels that of case I-b in indicating
the smaller through-flow and other effects of an mereased discharge-
region pressure. A limiting situation of this character is that of the
impact or Pitot tube when used for determinmg the Mach Dumber or
velocity of a supersonic stream, with zero through-flow but transmis-
sion of the stagnatlon pressure Po .• (or Po.,) to SUItable pressure gauge.
In the Pitot-tube arrangement of Fig 16-26 (or 16-12) apertures in the
•
concentric tube provlde also for measurement of P.. The passage
•
ART. 16-13 COllI PRESSION BY DIFFUSER 455
u/a o 0170 1245

TIT, 0994 069
MI,,,, = 1.&1, M, ... 1 0, AllAr (=A'II·/.A:)" 0 40 Ml - 1 00, P2/PO'1I 098. Air At .. 04.0
Pl.:!PIl,1 ... 0272. Mil .. 070, P,,/PQ,L ... 067 p.,/Po,I. Mil' P,'(PiI,I, Pilip". VII/PO'I/'
'Pilip,. =057/0272 .. 246 P1l.,!PO.l, and Av·(AIi are as III
p"/po,,, .. 0.72, PO'Il/PII.l ... 093 CaseII-a
A","IA, .. 1/0.914 "" 1 095 M~ = o170,P'J/Pa.l =091.A 1NA.2 -0289
.. 0 MS/l 245 .. 0 55
~II'/u.s pz/PI = 0 91/0 272 .. 3 34
PI/Po,r ,. 0528, Pl/pO,1 .. 0 491 Av'AI -029/0914 ... 0316
H2 "" 0 239, p,,/PO,'/i ... 0911, WpO,1 ... 0894 AI/A" = 040/0316 = 126
P'J/Pl,:!' ... 0 894/0 272 ... 3 28 A,/'/A,"" 0914/1.26 .. 072
U{)/1JI = 0238/),245 - 0,191 M, .. 0478, PI/'{J(J." = 085.5
T2/Tl .. 098\1/069 ... 143 ~Ul = 0 170/1 245 ... 0 136
Gt (--GI/It) ... 3 88PQ.,,/-v'iT; TIlT, = o.9!M:/O 69 = 144
PI (0 93/0 272) GI .. 072(llOpl/~)
-3.88 ~~
vRTi/OB9 ... 794Pl/v'RT,
.. 11 OP1/VR'T;
CASE II'a CASE II-b.
Fig 16-25 Diffuser action, MI > 10.
ul"o 125
- I.x D~~----0~9~11--------~O~6~9--~
072 (= p)' I Po_y)
FIg. 16-26. Pltot tube In superaolllc stream

through normal shock in the supersonic stream approaching the Impact
tube and the deceleration to stagnation aft of the shock are indicated
in the chart by lines x-y and y-2 Entry to the chart IS on the primary
ISentrope WIth the measured pressure ratio p,/Po .., whereby M, is
determined. After transfer at this value of llf, to the shock loop and
thence across it, .AI. is found Example 16-7 illustrates the use of this
pl'ocedure.
Example 16-7. A Pltot tube III a superSOnIC stream of air mdtcate.!! a pressure
ratio pl/lpo,,, of 0 72. A thermometer mdicares !l. (stagnatIOn) temperature 01 about
600~R (140°F). What are the corresponcllng values of MI. Ul, and Tl?
Solutwn Entermg Fig. 16-7 or the gas tables at p/po := 0 72 Jly:= 070 and
T,,/To = O!Jlt or Til == 0911 X 600 = 546°R Transferring at ..11" == 070 to the
shock loop and across it, or by entermg the gas table Qf normal-shock iunctlOns at
M, ~ 0.70, M, ~ 150, T,JT, ~ 069, and T, ~ 069 X 600 ~ 414°R (-46°F) and
uJa, ~ 125. Thus u( ~ UI.,) ~ 125 X 490 X v'OOO ~ 1500 Ips, or 888 knots
(1002 mph)
Indices eva]uatmg dIffuser performance are known as the pressure

coefficient and the elfiNency, and defined as·
Observed pressure rIse (Po., - p,)
P reSSUTe caeffiCJent = :----:.~-----'~"'--'~ (16-27)
IsentropIc pressure rIse (PO.I - PI)
. CompressIon energy (h, - hi),
Effi Clency ==
Kmetic energy of stream u,'/64.35J
or J for a.n ideaI gas,
C.T'[(PO.I!pI)"-I)/k - 1]
=
c.TI (1'0/1', - 1)
2[(PO.2/PI)<'-1l/k - 1]
= (16-27a)
M,'(k - 1)
For the aboye cases I-c and II-a Or II-b, whIch were presumed to be
isentropic except for shock effects, these become, respectively, 089 and
090 for case I-c, and 0 903 and 0.95 for case lI-a or II-b.
16-14_ Ejcclor.. The ejector is a uniquely compact although
rather inefficient deVICe that accomphshes the objectives of a com-
pressor but does so through the direct agency of II hIgh-velocity Jet
FIgure 16-27 provides a schematIC representatIOn, and also indICates
relatIve pressure and velocity magnitudes en route. In the device the
let of aotuating fluid enters through a prImary (supersonic) nozzle,
from a higher-pressure supply source. A second fluid enters at low
velOCity and pressure and passes VIa n. secondary nozzle to a section a,
at whIch tbe t\"o streams merge At this scction the local pressures
ART. 16-14 EJECTORS 457
of the two .are effectively the same, but their velocllles and thermo-
dynamic propertlCs dIffer materIally.
In a followmg combining ,eetio", the two streams j om and the kinetIc
energy of the Jet IS m part Imparted to the mduced secondary flUId, by
entraInment through the agency uf molecular colhslOTIS ami associated
(1.0)
I ml
.
Secondary
p nozzle
PO,3
Pa,b
__'U2a I
Fig 16-21. Ejector
momentum transfer, and correspondingly quite irreversIbly The com-

bining sectIOn is normally so proportioned that the mIxing and momcn-
tum transfer proceed at about constant pressure, usually resultmg in
the departure of the mixture at location b at a moderately supersonic
velocity
The desired compreSSlOn effect is then prOVIded both In shockWlse
manner and by dIvergence and associated subsOnIC deceleration of the
stream of mIxture In the diffWJer sectIOn of the ejector It frequently
happens that both a better performance and a desired operating flex-
ibility are secured If the dIffuser takes the form of a tube of unifonn
area preceding a conventional dIverging (i e., subsonic) sec han The
usual ejector operatlOll IS at flow rates sufficiently great that the overall
processes are effectIvely adIabatic, although not Isentropic.
In many SItuatIOns in whICh the ejector IS employed in practice the
primary and secondary fluids dlffer, 8S illustrated respectIVely by the
458 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS CUAP. 16
steam jet and mduced stream of saturated air IQ the conventional
equipment used for air removal from the condenser of the steam power
plant. In equipment such as is used in evaporative cooling equipment
the two fluids are, however, the same, and {he state changes mvolved
may thus be reprcsented on a single thermodynamic diagram, as illus-
trated lor convenience III Fig 16-28 to h-s coordinates
hl,O
h
-,
Fig. 1..28
The enthalpy decrease and assocIated kinetic energy increase of the

actuatmg fluid in the primary nozzle equal (hl,o - hI .• ). The parallel
quantities for the induced flUid in the secondary nozzle are (hz,o - h".).
But note, that the mass rates of flow of the two streams will undoubtedly
differ and, except in the simpler situation to which the figure relates, the
fltuds themselves may differ.
The energy relation for the mixing process m the combmmg section,
at pressure pa,b, is
h
I,.
(UI,.)'
+ 64.34J Ih'[1
+ !hI I,.. + 64(U235J
.• )'] _
-
(1 +!h,m,)[ h m .,
(Um,')']
+ 64 35J
where subscript m refers to the mixture of the two fluids. Or, in terms
of their stagnation states,
ART. 16-14 EJECTORS· 459
Presuming that ill this relation h,.o, h,.o, and rh2/ml are specified
information, and the mIxing pressure PIJ,b may also be adopted, both
the enthalpy and veloClty of the mIxture at b remain as unknowns. For
their determination a requisIte second relatIOn is aVallable in the familiar
momentum equation, as herewith written, neglecting frictional effects
and with po = p.; that is,
mlul. CI + m2u2,11 = (ml + ffl2)U ... ,b
or U!fl.~ =
UI •• + (m,/ml)u2 .•
1 + (m,/mt)
where the several mu-products are the rates of momentuIll entry or
departure, in ft-Ibm/sec'.
The enthalpy and the kinetIc energy of the streatU leaving the COffi-
bming section evidently depend on a number of independently controlled
items. The leaving kmetIC energy exerCIses in turn a major control on
the (stagnation) pressure po .• to which the mi~ture may be decelerated,
compressed, and deltvered. The energy relation for thlB deceleration
and compression process is hm ., + (u m •• )'/64.35J = "m.O, where h m .o
represents the stagnation enthalpy of the mixture lcaving the ejector.
Although this process might Ideally be effect€<! isentropically, If U m .•
is supersonic this is quite Improbable. Dependence must instead be
placed in part on an initial shockwise compression in or precedmg a
constant-area entering section of the diffuser (see Art. 16-17). Final
decelerallOn and compression of the resultmg SUhSODlC stream of mix-
ture is provided by the following diverging scctlOn A representative
manner of pressure and velocity vartation in the dIffuser IS Illustrated
in FIg. 16-27.
The inittal pressures of the primary and secondary fluids, that in the
combming section, and that to which ultimate dehvery of the mixture
may be made, and also the relative rates of flow of the two fluids, are
of necessity mutually depcndent. Because of the mLiitlpltClty of inde-
pendent and dependent variables, analytical forecasting of optimum
or even of possible magmtudes of these requires procedures by suc-
cessive trials and ultimate experimental venficatlOn. Frequently the
provision of two or more ejector stages becomes advantageous or neces-
sary If either or both fluids are in part vapor, its condensabon
between stages reduces materially the compression work to be done
by the second stage.
Example 16.8. Air at 300 psis and 530 0 R IS used 8.'lI the pnmary flUid in 8.0
ejector for removal of air from a vessel at 5 PS1S and 530 oR, at presumed relative
flow rates such that m2/ml = 035 It may be taken that the mduced air leaves the
460 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS CHAP, 16
secondary nozzle nt M = 03, and that the expansiOn III primary and secondary
nozzles and the compression m the BubsOIllC portIOn of the diffuser are effectively
isentropIc, but that normal shock occurs at the entrance end of the constant-area.
aeetloD of the dIffuser.
For these conditions determme the followmg Ca) pressure ill combmmg sectIOn,
and relevant attrIbutes of prImary and secondary streamB at a and theIr Jnlxture at b,
(b) attrIbutes of shearn leavmg the nonnal-shock plane and after deceleration to
stagnation, and (c) corresponding relative proportJons of pnmary and secondary
nozzles and of combinIng section Use the compresSIble-flow chart or go.s tables to
rulIest posable extent.
Solutton (a) For secondary fluid, at .M2,a = 03; P2,a/P2.0 = 0 D4, U2,rl/a2,Q =
0297, and T 2,o/T 2,o = 0982. Thus P2,a. = 094 X 50 = 47 pSUl (= Pa.), U2,a. =
336 Ips, "at 530'n au - 1130 Ips, and T 2" - 0 982 X 530 - 520'n.
For the primary fluid, at Pl.lI = 47, Pl,o/Pl,O = 47/300 = 00157. Th1lB
AI 1 ,a = 337,11./00 = 18() or 11.1,11 <= 1 BG X 1100 = 2100 fps, and T /To = 0305 or
T • - 0 305 X 530 - 162'n
" , 2100 + (035 X 336)
For the combmmgsectlon, bythemomenturnequatlOn, Um,b = 1 + 0 35
= 1540 Ips; by the energy equatlOn, fIB lD thls Instance hl,O = h 2,o, (hoh.~ - hm,b =
(u,.,.)'/6435J - MO,and T m ,' 530 - 540/024 - 305'R.
-
(b) At combining-sectlon exit and ddfuser entrance, as T =- 3D5°R und u = 1640
Cps, .M = u/a = 1640/856 = 1 93 and also equals },[:; for the Immment normal
shock. Thus ut the downstream face of the shock plane .Mil = 0 5UO, T1/ = 1 63 X
305 = 407°R, all = 1002, and Urn,II = D 590 X 10fl2 = 645 Ips, PII = 418 X 4.7 =
19 65 psis, T o,lI = 4fl7/0!l35 = 53DoR Ilnd = (To) 1.2, andpo.1I = 5.29 X 47 = 249
pSla.
Except as supplemcntnry fnctional effects and irreverslblhtIes In nozzles, combin-
Lng section and dlffuser will operate to reduce It appreciably, the IllBL Item represents
the (stagnatIon) pressure to whICh the Ullxture mIght be delivered by the ejector
(c) For the prImary nozzle, at Pl,a/Pl.O = 00157, AI,a/A·1 = 610, Fl)r the
secondary nozzle, A2,1I = m2 T 2,a/U2.a. = 035 520/330 = 705 or A2a/A*1 =

Al,a m!'l'l.a/Ul,a. 162j2100 ' .
61XZ05-43
A,/A", •_ 1.35 X 305/1640 X
For combupng
1+ (A",/A".) 1 0 X 162/2300
1 326
1 + 7.05 - 8,05 - 0405, or A,/A', - 19,8.
Various sorts of llldlCCS may be and have been employed for desctlb-
ing overall performance characteristics for the ejector. A useful one
whlCh has been referred to as Its overall effiCl-ency, and is defined below,
serves in effect to compare its performance with that of art engine-
driven compressor performing a parallel duty; i.e,
. m2( l1h 2).
Overall effiCIency = (h ) (16-28)
ml 11 1 •
where
ml and m, = actual mass rate of flow of primary and sec-
, ondary lIUlds, as found by test.
ART. H;-15 'FLOW, CONSTANT-AREA CHANNELS 461
(llh , ). = enthalpy decrease per unit mass of primary
fluid for Isentropic expansion between Its
supply state and the delivery-region pressure
(PO.3, not P •. ,)
(Ilk,). = enthalpy increase per unit mass of secondary

fluid for isentropic compression between Its
entry state and the delIvery-region pressure.
The term (Ilk,). corresponds to the work ideally secured per unit mass
of primary fluid if supplied t6 an engine operating through pressure
range PLO - P3.0, and the term (M2). to that Ideally required per unit
mass of secondary flUlU for 'lCtuatmg a mechanically dnven compressor
operating through range P3.0 - P2,0 The ratio (/!;h,)./(llh2). ex-
presses the number of pounds of secondary flUld that might ideally be
compressed per pound of primary fluid supplied Thus the ahove
efficiency is expressible also as
o (m2!ml)actual (28 )
Overall effiCIency = /') 16- a
(m2 ml Ideal
and is directly determinable if the actual mass ratio for an operating

ejector has been found by test. 1t becomes a useful guide in select-
mg an optImum compromise among a multiphcity of vanables.
The overall effiCIency correspondmg to the conditions and results of
Example 16-8 becomes, for a pressure ratio of (259/300 =) 00863 for
the pnmary flUJd and of (5/25.9 =) D.193 for the seco1ldary fluid:
286
Effi i nc = 035 X 0.240 X 530 X (1 - 0.193° ) = 0261
ce y 100 X 0.240 X 530 X (1 - 00863° 286)
If supplementary losses should permit the ejector actually to delIver to

20 pSla (vs. 259), tho corresponding efficiency figure becomes 0213
This would correspond to a common value of (VD.2i3 =) 0.46 for the
adiabatIC efficienCies of the eqUIvalent engine and compressor. Al-
though ejector efficiencies, III whatever manner defined, are relatively
low when compared to corresponding ones pertaining to an eqUIvalent
engine and compressor, the device remams attractive in many installa-
tions because of its compactness and lower first cost, absence of moving
pam., and an attendant minmoum operating and maintenance cost.
16-15. Flow through Constant·Area Channels. The foregoing
analyses related in the main to the flow of compressible fluids under
circumstances m which active linear acceleration or deceleration of the
stream IS a prImary obJectIve. In many other instances it is desired
simply to provide for the passage of a compressible fluid from one
location to a second through a duct or a pIpe of constant area but some
length Primary concern may be limited to the effect of frictional
resistance and/or turbulence in causing pressure decrease and entropy
increase en route, but accompanying velOCIty changes may on occasion
be important. ~
Frequently the flow may be suffiCIently rapid or take place under
such conditions otherWIse that It may be regarded as effectively adia-
batic, although not isentropic. In other sItuations there may be active
heat exchange durmg the flow. In connectIOn WIth either, two distlllct
although related matters require attention. One pertains to the pro-
gressive influence of the frictional effects on the thermodynamic state
of the fluid t the other involves a recogmtlOn and correlation of various
items of mechanical character that affect the magnitude of the fric-
tional reSIStance. It will develop, however, that, in a sense, the ther-
modynamic state change in passage through a channel proceeds WIth-
out reference to these mechanical items, and that their influence affects
SImply the positIOn along the channel 'at WhICh a specific state will exist.
Association of the fnctional effects and the thermodynamic state
change requires again the us~ of the continuity, energy, and entropy
relations, and mcorporatmg the frICtional-effect term 'it (Arts. 3-8 and
7-7). Attention is limited to effectively steady-flow conditions, and it
is accepted that at any location the stream is suffiCIently homogeneous
that its mean state may be described. Restating these relations in
forms as particularized for flow at constant stream area:
G(=m/A) = u/v or up and constant (16-29)
2
d(u ) [ G2 ]
- - or - - d(v 2 ) =
[J.q - dh or (16-30)
6435 64.35 -v dp - .", (113-31)
Td. = dh - vdp/J or oq +.",. (7-4a, 7-6)
In relation to the variables of more mechanical character which
affect the magnitude Qf the frictional effects, and to the means that are
available for their correlation, it is sufficient here simply to list them
and indICate several dimensionless parameters through the use of
which theIr correlation is normally accomplished. The varIables that
require consideration include:
Features of the Channel FeatuTes of the Fluid Flow CoruIitions
Transverse area and SpeCIfic volume, v, or Mean linear velocity,
perImeter; or the ra ti~ density, p. Uj or mass velocity,
of these, known as the ViSCOSIty, Jl. G.
hydraulic radius, Til.. CompresSlbtltty, Laminar,
Length, L. (.pliJp) •. turbulent, or
Shape and surface supersonic.
roughness.
ART. 16-15 FLOW, CONSTANT-AREA CHANNELS 463
Except in simplest circumstances it is impractICable to associate the
frictlOnaI effect (or) and these numerous variables 'Wholly by ratIOnal
analyses. However, evidence furnished by the available analyses
and by a great accumulation of empmcal data indicate that, at low
or moderately varying values of the Mach number, the remaining
variables may be associated in a functional relation of the general form
(lif/dL)r, [or 64.35 (lifldL)] = cp (Gr,) (16-32)

u'/64.35 G',2/r, ~
for geometrically simrlar channels,
where '" = frictional elTects, It.-Ibl/lbm

~ = viscosity of fluid, lbm/ (sec, ft)
G = mass velocity, or flow densrty, Ibm/(sec, sq ft).
L = length of continumg channel, ft.
r, = hydraulic radrus, ft (=dram/4 for circular channel).
u = mean velocity, fps, and = Gu.
u = specrfic volume, cu It/Ibm.
Either item to the left is a dimensionless composite known as the
friction/actor (f), and evidently a multiple of the ratio of the frictIOnal
effects per unit length t.o the kinetIc energy per lirut mass of fluid. The
item to the rrght is in effect the Reynolds index (N .), and may be shawn
to express the ratio between the inertial and the viscous forces on parcels
of the fluid during flaw. The relation may thus be abbreviated to the
form
(16-32a)
The relatlOn between these parameters has been determined by
extensive experiments. Values of the Irictron factor for turbulent
flaw ranges from about 0005 m smooth-surfaced pIpes to about 0.01
for rough-surfaced Ones.
Havmg deSIgnated the parameter to the left m equatron 16-32 as the
friction f'etor (f), one may write that
f u2 f G'v'
liif;=-6435dL=-643 dL (16-33)
rh. rh. 5
By introducing this expression for the frIcbonal effect (",) in equa-
tion 16-31,
2
.£
dL = _ 5435 [G d(V2) + V dp ]
ro G'v' 6·1 35
du 6435 dp
or = -2----- (16-34)
V G2 V
For subsequent purposes it is advantageous to glve major attention to
the ideal gas, and also to have transformed these functlOns of dL mto
ones in terms of G, T, and p, or of u and T. That is, as pv - RT
or d[lnp) + d[lnv) - d[ln T) and thus dvlv - dTIT - dplp, and
also as G - ulv and thus dulu - dvlv at constant G,
LdL = -2 dT _ (6435 P _ ~) dp (16-34a)

r, T G2RT p
and also = -2 (dU + 32.17RT dP)

u u2 P
or -2 [dU + 32.17RT (dT _ dU)] (16-34b)

U u2 '1' U
The following analyses apply one or another of these relatlOns to

reasonably representative engineering situatIOns In whIch
(a) Approximate procedures are adequate.
(b) Flow is through a heat-insulated duct or is sufficiently rapid that
it is effectively adlabatic, although not isentroplC.
(c) Heat entry from uniform-temperature environs mamtains an
effectively constant (local) fluid temperature.
(d) FnctlOnal effects are mmor but the [Jaw is accompanied by active
heat receptIOn, or perhaps by a progressive energy release by chemical
reaction or combustIOn.
16·16. Conventional Appro~imalion., Duct Flow. If the pres-
sure decrease accompanymg the flow is sufficiently moderate as to permit
the employment of a mean temperature T, equation 16·34a may be put
into the followmg integrated form expressmg the pressure drop'
p12 _ P22 = G2RT [L lL2 + In (Pl)2 _ In (Tl)~] (16.35)

32.17 T, P2 • T2 f
f G2RT
or = r.
- - - ,L2
3217
(16-35a)
lf the logarlthmic terms are negligible.

An accompanymg example indlCates that the magnitudes of the loga-
rithmic terms may well be relatively minor Their neglect is further
Justified by the conslderation that the character of the intenor surfaces
of a duet is commonly sufficiently uncertain and subject to such vana-
tion with age or use that only a moderate preClSlon may be clmmed for
an adopted friction factor (n Except m speclal circumstances the use
of relations having some inherent degree of approximatlOn is thus qUlte
justifiable. In this connection note also that an appreciable range of T
. may well he a minor proportion of the absolute temperature.
ART. 16-16 APPROXl]\lATIONS, DUCT FLOW 465
If for PI 2 - p22 one writes the product (PI - p2)(PI + P2) or
(PI - p,)(2p), and notes that RT/fJ = V, equatIon IG'35a becomes:
J G2v
PI - P2 = ~ 61.35 ID'l (16-35b)
or, if for a circular pipe one writes d/4 for r" and 41iI/7rd2 for G,
rh2
PI - P2 = 0 10lfi d' IL2 (16-35c)
EquatlOn 16-35b is also the form taken on integration of equation 16-34

11 dv - 0, 1 e., if, as with a hquid, the specific volume changes neg-
hgibly. Equation 16-350 indicates the significant practical consId-
efatlOns that, in so far as vanation of f may be dISrcgarded and other
apprOXImatIOns tolerated, the pressure loss accompanying flow through
a circular duct of given length IS proportional to the first power of
the specific volume and the second power of the mass rate of Jlow, but
Inversely so to the fifth power of the dmmeter.
Example 16-9 illustrates the use of the above approximate relatlOns,
and also indICates several relevant energy eonsideratlOns.
Example 16-9. It IS proposed to delIver wc at the rate of 600 lb/mm through
a 6-m. (ld) circular pipe 500 ft long, of such mteclOr-surince character that the
fflction. factor 18 about 0006 The aIr enters at 100 pSlg and 125°F but cools to
85"F en route. Ca) Estimate the pressure loss by the above relations, but for
convemence dOing so In reverse order (b) In approXimately what proportlOD
would the pressure loss be changed If the pipe dmmeter were 5 In mstead of 6 In.?
(c) Determine the correspondmg magrntudes of the termmal vcloclties, the
a.mount of hent loss en route per pound of air and per mmute, the entropy
change. and the magmtude 11S"!lgnable to the fricttanal-intluence term.
Solution, G ~ (6oo/60)/(07854 X 0 5') ~ 509 lb/(.q ft/.ec), ~ 0.5/4 ~ T,
0125 ft; (f/r,),L, ~ (0.006/0 125)500 ~ 240, TdT, ~ 585/545 ~ 1074 nnd
if ~ 565'R, and ff'RT/32 17 ~ (50.9)' X 5335 X 565/3217 ~ 243 X 10'.
(a) AntiCipating a pressure loss III the order of 10 psi, giving a mean pressure (p)
of about (115 - 5 =) 1]0 pfda and ('orrespondmg mean specific volume (v) of about
(5335 X 565)/(110 X 144) or 19 eu ft/lb
10'
By equation In-3.Sc: P< - p, - 0101 X 0006 X 1 9 X - , X 500
05
= 1850 psi or 12.9 pSI or
By equation 16-35b Pl - p, ~ (240 X 50 II' X 1 9 )/64 35 ~ 1840 psi
509' X 53 35 X 565
By equation 16-35a: p;l - P2'J. = 240 .1217 = 240 X 243 X lOti
~ 584 X 10'
p,' ~(1l4.7 X 144)' - 584 X 10'
~ 2.73 X 10' - 584 X 10' ~ 2.146 X 10' and
P2 = 14,650 psia or 101 7 pSla and PI - pz = 13.0 pel
By equation I1J..35, but acccptmg PI!P2 tentatively n.s 1147/101.7 = 1.128,
p,' ~ 273 X 10' _ 50.9' X3~~1~5 X 565 (210 + 0 211 - 0.142)
~ 2.73 X 10' - 2.43 X 10' X 24099 = 2144 X 10'

which dlffers neghgibly from the 2,146 X 10 8 by equation 16:35«-
(b) With 5-in. pipe, p, - p, ~ 13 0(6/5)' ~ 13 0 X 2.49 = 324 psi.
(c) u, ~ 5O.9
5335 X 585 .,'
. X 144 = 962 fps, 64 35 ~ 144 ft-Ib/lbm.
114 7
53.35 X 545 u,'
u, ~ 50.9 1.7 X 144 = 101.1 fps, 64 35 = 159 ft-Ib/lbm.
10
,q,= (159 - 144)/(778) + 0240(545 - 585)
= 0 02 - 9 60 ~ - 9.58 Btu/Ibm
4 = -9.58 X 600 =' -5750 Btu/DUn (loBS)
8, - ' , = 0.24110 (545/585) - 0 0687 In (101 7/114.7) = -00087 Btu/(lb,'ll).
By equation 7-6
~~ 12 T ds - ,q, = 'F(" - ") - ,q, ~ -565 X 0 0087 + 958 = 466 Btu/lb,

or by equation ~a
U1 2
1
2 U22 -
~ - vdp - (ati ~ 1936) = 1936 X (1850 -70)
1 64 35
~ 3250 ft-lbjlbm, or 4.52 Btu/Ibm,
or byequa.tion 16-33
, ~ 240 (50.9 X 1936)' ~ 3520ft-Ib/lbm or 465Btu/lbm.
6435 '
The evidence of Example 16-9 indicates the proprIety of the usc of
the approximate procedures in the usual instances where only a mod-
erate pressure loss would be desirable or permissible in practice. The
following matenal relates to more extreme situations
16017. Adiabalic Flow in Duels. At rapid rates of flow in a
shorter pipe or in a longer one having effective 'heat insulatlOn the
flow may be virtually adIabatic. In analyses relating to this condi-
tion it is convenient to regard the local state and velocity of the stream
at entry as one attained by a preceding isentropic acceleration from
the corresponding stagnation state, by an arrangement such as that
,llustrated in Fig. 10-29. The energy relation lor the progressive entry
to and passage through the pipe is thus:
G2 G2
Jho = Jh, + 64.35
-- V,2 = Jh + --
64.35
v' (16-36)
A significant consideratlOn shown by this relation is that, as the

stagnation enthalpy is established by the inillal state of the fluid, at
a stated mass :velocity (G) the local enthalpy and specific volume at
ART. 16-17 ADIABATIC FLOW IN DUCTS 467
any location along the duct arc mutually dependent. Thus the .taie
of the fluid may change only in one parii<:Ulur manner as the flow
(0)- ;(l;.:.)_ _ _ _._jJ
Flg._l(}'29.
proceeds. This feature will first be illustrated and utilized in an

example relatmg to the flow of a flUId for which only tabular or graph-
ical thermodynamic data are available.
Example 16·10. Steam at 800 pSJa. and 700·F 1B entering and flowmg through
a. 6-m. dIameter pipe at a mass velOCity of 270 Ib/(sq ft, sec), effectIVely
adiabatica.lly but nglllDst a fnctIOnal rCSl:ltance such that f = 0005 (a) Ha.vmg
determined hOI and selectmg several local va.lues of h, determme the requisite
ccrresponding values of v and thus of p, T, 8, and u. Plot the state change to
T-s coordmatea and, selectmg graphIcally the sUltnble values of T for each incre-
ment of 8, determine the correspondmg Increments of 1/1. (b) Regardmg the
steam as havmg an effective pvlT = 79 rt-lb/(lb. OR) estimate the lengths or the
successive sectlOns of the pIpe in whIch the determined pre.$ure drops will have
occurred, nnd their aggregate. (c) Note Oond comment on an apparent ultimately
decrensing entropy, after arrival at a maXimum
Solution (a) At 800 psi. and 700°F, h - 13386 and v = 0783, .0 that ho =
13386 + (270 X 0783)'/64.35] -13395.
The accompanymg tabJe lndicates selected values of h and the correspondlDgly
requiSite values of v, and the assocLIlted values of p, T, and 8 These are found
more conveniently by use or the Ellenwood-Mackey h-v dIagrams for steam.
State h • p T, OF • u( = au)
0 1339.5 0708 811 702 1548 -->()
1 1338.6 0783 800 700 1548 212

2 1337 1307 480 662 1598 354
3 1333 2109 296 633 1645 570
4 1320 365 167 591 1694 988
5 1275 664 83 400 1724 1790
6 1200 977 47 330 1700 2640
Interval 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 &-6

T,"R 1141 1107 1013 1020 850
,"
1'L>, (or y,)
0050
57.0
0.047
62.0
0049
52.6
0030
30.6
-0.024
-20.4
(b) Relevant items for determinmg the in('remenm of pipe length, by equa-
tion 16-35, are tabulated below. Converuent constants are; r"lf = 250, and
144'(32 17/G'R) ~ 0.116.
Interval [32.17(Pl· - p,') _ In (T,)' + In (~)'J X ':' ~ Aggregate

G'RT T, Pl f
AL
length, It
1-2 (41.6 + 005 102 ) X 25 ~ 1015 1015
2~1 (15 I + 005 o D7) X 25 ~ 355 1370
3-4 (0.35 + 0.08 110 ) X 25 ~ 135 1505
4-5 (239 + 0.20 140 ) X 25 ~ 30 1535
5-6 (0504 + 0368 1136) X 25~- 60
(c) The above tables mrucate that, after a progressive pressure decrease III
passage through some 1500 ft of pipe, In the remammg length there 18 an abrupt
decrease and attamment of a ma.ltmum entropy (Fig 16-30). Thereafter, hOl\'ever,
700
~
1
600
~ ['--...
4[\
...
..
• - 500
5
400
v~
1
6
300
150 160
.-
Fig. 16-30
170
there would appear to be a. decrease of entropy. III an apparently negatwe length of

pipe. The pnmary concept of entropy precludes, however, the pos~'lIbihty of such
entropy decrease m an 8mabllLlC and irmverslble process, and further, Its apparent
occurrence in a negative length of plpe is a physical absurdity,
The inacceptable combination of occurrences which the above com-

putations ,,,ould seem to indicate for interval 5---6 may, however, become
qUIte acceptable and meaningful If' sUItably interpreted To enable
such observe (a) that at the pomt of maximum entropy the temperature
IS 950'R and (b) that, accepting a value for k of about 1.31 for water
vapor at the accompanying state, the associated sonic velocity is about
V32 17 X 131 X 79 X 950 or 1780 fps and effectively the computed
velocity (1790) at that point That IS, the arrival at maximum entropy
sigmfies also" flow SItuatIOn at which Jl[ = 1.0.
ART. 16-17 ADIABATIC FLOW IN DUCTS 469
Correspohding interpretations which are both reasonable and well
substantIated by experimental' eVIdence are as follows'
(I) The flow situation between states 1 and 5 illustrates the famIlIar
subsoDlc flow of an expanSIble fluid through a duct. with progresSIve
pressure decrease and velocity Increase en route. However, the indi-
cated sImultaneous amval. at both maximum entropy and sonic
veloCIty have specIal significance. It is sufficient for the present to
say only that the pressure which exists concurrently In the duct is In
fact the mmimum exit-end pressure to which expansion could proceed
wdh", the duct. Its occurrence would mean a "chokmg" of the duct.
(2) The flow situation to which the data for interval 5-6 of Example
16-10 actually and suitably relates is an opposite one of entry to a
duct at supersonic velocity (state 6) and of progressIve veiOClty
decrease and pressure increase as flow proceeds. This IS suggested
by the arrows in FIg 16-30 The simultaneous arrival at maximum
entropy and sonic velocity has again a special sIgnificance. It is suffi-
cient for the present to say that the pressure which concurrently exists
is in fact a ma:nmum to whICh progressive compression could proceed
within the duct when flow conditIons are otherwise as speCIfied.
The limItIng termInal pressure whIch is thus seen to have significance
In both the above Jlow regImes is analogous to the ISentropIC crItical
value encountered in a convergent nozzle or diffuser. It will therefore
bc ldentJfiod by the asterisk, but distinguIshed by subscript F, to denote
its present connection with irreverSIble "Fanno-type" flow through a
uniform-atea duct.
For a low-pressure (ideal) gas the local pressure (p) at any point
along a duct is • unique functIOn of G, To, and M, or
G = ~ = MV3217kRT or p= - G~T
-- (16-37)
v R1'/p M 3217k
Also, at 111 = 1.0,
~
p' = G "32.ffi (16-3ia)
T 2
But for adiabatic flow, whether reversible or not, - = -----."
To 2+ {k-I)Jl[2
T* 2
and -T = - - , so that
o k 1 +
G RTo/1609k • _ /RTo/lG 09k
p=- and +
M 2 + (k - I)M2 P F - G,,· k 1
(16-37b)
Therefore, for a given gas the ratIO between the local pressure at
any pamt along a d\lct and the critical (terminal) pressure becomes a
f\lnction solely of the local value of lIf, or
p 1 I k+1
(16-37c)
pO, = 1I["V2 + (k - 1)M2
Note that th,s ratio may be written also in the form ~/PO.l , and so in
p P/pO.l
terms of the abscissa scale of the flow chart. Again observe that pip' p
is a unique function of 1II. To utilJze these conslderatians far ascer-
taming the pressure change accompanying flow, but in circumstances
where p' p is not reached, the above relations need only be put m the
form
PI - pz = p'P(P';P'F - PZ/P*F)
For a gas having a (mean) k of 1.40, p', = GVRTo/7 35 and P/P'F =
1/MVO.833 + 0 167J1I2.
It develops that a parallel procedure is convenient when we propose
further to determine the channel length (L) in which a gIven change of
thermodynamic state and/or velocIty will have occurred, but a length
insufficient for reaching somc velocIty. Such a relation would take the
. like form
L = (£OF)l - (L*,)2
where L',is the length required to reach sonic velocity. The followmg
shows that it is a umque function of M.
By equatIon 16-16, hut dlll'erentiated WIth respect to T and M,
dT 2(k - 1)M dM .
+
T = -.2 (k _ 1)11[2' Slmllarly, by equatlOn 16-19 if differ-
.. du 2dM/M
entlated Wllh respect to u and lIf, - = (k 1)2' Recalling
u 2+ M -
also that u'/32 17RT = kM2, by mtroducing these three relations in
equation 1G-34b 1ll such a manner as to eliminate terms in u and T,
LdL = 4[(1 - kM2)/kM3 (k - 1)/kM ] dM
r, 2 + (k - l)M' + 2 + (k - 1)M2
or, if integrated between limits of 1 0 and M, and of L', and zero,
I L* = 1 - ]Jf2 k + lIn (k I)M2 + (16-38)
T, p k]Jf2 + 2k 2 + (k - 1)1II2
Quantita~ive solutlOn of equation 16-38 is provided graphically 111
AnT. 16-17 ADIABATIC FLOW IN DUCTS 471
the flow chart for gases for which k - 1.40 SolutIOn IS also provided
by tabular arrangement in the gas tables for thIS and ,several other
values of k.
Referring to Fig. 16-31, the adjoimng supplementary scales of 1II
and fL·,/rh, along the upper margin, serve to associate these param-
eters directly. PractICal considerations will frequently dICtate entry
to the flow chart via the scale of G/ G' I. Here G is the flow densIty
which is perhaps desired or attainable in a gIven sItuation, in present
connections G', is best regarded as simply a dIrect and constant func-
tIon of the imtial stagnation pressure and temperature (Po., and To.,)
reqUIred for haVIng acquired flow-denSIty G' by isentropic expansIOn.
, fL;/rh 0 01 0,5
'"I i
I i
i
I
o 05 ulao i 1.5
i
1.0 09 I 08 05
I
l0i--t--~~~~~~~--~~~
o 05 ---..5
----
0'
-'- 1(2)
,,
I
10
Fig 16-31.
Passage at constant G/G', to the primary isentrope gives dIrectly

tbe value of M, and indIrectly the values of p" T" and u" all at
entry to the duct. Passage thence to intersection WIth any M -lme
provides similarly the corresponding local values of p, Po, T, and u;
and continued passage to the lllle for 111 - 10 gives similarly the
critIcal or termmal value of p. F. It may be remarked III this con-
nection that the eXIstence of this critICal pressure at the exit end of
the duct does not imply that lower dIScharge-region pressure may not
exist. In such case the stream leaving the duct IS rapidly dlsorgamzed
and its kllletic energy dissipated, but G IS the maximum rate of which
the duct is capable WIth a given Po" and To".
The curves of Fig. 16-32 WIll perhaps exhIbit more clearly the mutual
relation between duct length, flow denSIty, and pressure decrease in
the subsoDlc flow regime,
472 FLOW OF COI\[PRESSlBLE FLUIDS CHAP. 16
In the case of entry to a duct at superSOnIC relative velocitles, and
when cxistmg condItions are not compatible with those whIch provIde
for progressIve deceleration, the possIble SItuations which may be
encountered are more varied If not compatIble, deceleration en route
--
20
!
I
I-
I- V /
..~", /"
I- /
10
\J
vV
5
4
I-
I )/
II / l.-- I
I
I
I
/ ~V
3
/ / 1/ v v / ;
~ Lj'a<::::JtJ
1/ ~ I' t:fi
-.. ;.-
o • "
o~'D"
i-
- ~
15" IV ....
J§
10
V I,
l-ll!H ; f!t(;-fIt:
'b .t:"
~
/
_ t:"
I
qy-- ;'(3iii .
05
II / -f
04
0.3
I.
02 10 09 08
f lPd
07 06 05 04 03 02 01
PZ/PO, l
Fig 16-32.
may well be m part by normal shock, after whICh acceleration at sub-

sonic velocities occurs The sketches of FIg 16-33 represent two of
several such situatIOns. Case I illustrates a SItuation in whICh normal
shock IS mduced by higher-than-compatlble discharge pressure. Case
II illustrates the 5ltuatlOn in which the built-in length parameter fL/r.
exceeds the value of fL' /T,,, correspondmg to gIven entry velocity.
ART. 16-18 ISOTHEHMAL FLOW IN DUCTS 473
The flow phenomenon so induced is reverSIOn to subsonIC velocity, by
normal shock, followed by an acceleration to (m .the instance illus-
trated) sonic velocity, plus an after-expansion in thc discharge region
CD % Y
Scale of fL"'lrh
L""1. L\
Case I N onnal shock induced by high discharge pressure.
entry
M,>!lJ
Case II Normal shock mduced by Incre3.sed length of duct

Fig 16-33
16-18. Isothermal Flow in Ducts. In contrast to rapid and efTec-

tively adIabatIc but subsonic passage of a gas, III longer and unmsu-
lated pipe lines the flow may well be such that the gas temperature
is maintamed effectively constant by active heat transfer from environs
of umform temperature For thIS situatIOn the conventional approxi-
matIOns of and followmg equatIOn 16-35 are readily employed and
normally adequate. However, in special instances the cncountermg of
a choking effect, quite analogous to that for adiabatic flow, may
reqUIre consideratIon.
Conditions associated with the choking phenomenon may be shown
by notmg that on its occurrence the pressure gradient ("piaL). be-
comes infimte. A limltmg termmal pressure P"T may thus be found
by solving equatIOn 16-34a for p w,th dT/T and (iJL/iJph - O. It is
thus established that
-
P'T = G
J RT
_-
32.17
Also, by introducing th,s item in equation 16-34a after its integration
between 0 and L*T, and p, and P'T,
f_ • _ 32.17 2 _ _ I 32.17p,2
r. L T - G2RTPI 1 n G2RT
where L*T represents that hmiting length of pipe for which choking will
occur for isothermal flow at given magrntudes of G, T, and PI For such
a length an imposed delivery-region pressure less than P'T could effect
no increase in flow rate The duct length for which Isothermal flow
becomes choked ordinarily is moderately less than that for adIabatIC
flow, and thc limitmg pressure is greater.
By observing that, for gas flow, j [ = u/a = (G/p)VRT/32.17k, these
relations may be transformed to eqUIvalents in terms of M, such as
1 1
fL'T/T, = k.1f2 - 1 - In kJl[2
or -f (IL2)T = -
r.
1( I ill,'1) In (M-M,')'
k M,'
- - - -
By observing further that arrival at the limiting terminal state denotes

a zero value of L*T, the value of 1If which at that state satisfies the first
relation is seen to be
M'T = l/vk (or = 0845 at k = JA)
That is, for gas flow with energy reception such that the local tempera-
ture is maintained constant the limiting situation assomated w,th chok-
ing corresponds interestingly to arrival at M = 1/ vk, mstead of the
unity magnitude characterizing adiabatic flow.
16-19. Rayleigh.Type flow and the Rayleigh Equation. In the
preceding analyses, relating to flow at constant G, pnmary concern
attached to the influences of frictional effects. In two Illstances how-
ever, although rather unrelated ones, circumstances are such that
fflctional effects may be neglected. One is the familIar shockWlsc
deceleration of an imtially supersonic stream. The second is illus-
trated by flow, again at constant G, accompanied by heat-transfer
effects much e!,ceeding any fnctional effects. An equivalent would
ART. 1(}'19 RAYLEIGH-TYPE FLOW 475
be an active energy release in 'an exothermic process, such as com-
bustion in a 'flame tube
A relatIOn expressmg the essential characteristics of such flow
becomes available either (a) by regardmg the friction factor f in
equatlOn 16-34 as zero; or (b) by revertmg to earlier considerations
and writlllg the primary relatIOn of equation 3-6 without the ,'{; term,
but recalling that now G ~ u/v and constant Thus, also discarding
dz and OW,
32 17 dp + G' dv = 0
and PI + 3~~:~ (or PI + 3~U;7) = p, + 3~~:~ (or p, + 3~~t7 )
By noting that for ideal-gas flolV M = u/a = Gv'v/32 17kp, for such
flow these relations may be transformed to terms of ],[, such as
+ kM = p,(l + kM,')
PI (1 I ')
1 + HI I' 1 + kl;[,'
or
VTI (k + 1)],[1' = VT; (k + l)J\f,'
Any relation such as these IS conventionally designated as a Rayletgh
equation, and a graphICal record of succeSSlve states conforming to its
requirements as a Rayleigh line [Is typical appearance to T - s
coordinates (together with a lme for Fanna-type flow, see Art. 16-17) is
indtcated in FIg. 16-34 It is suffiCIent for present purposes to indicate
several significant aspects of a Rayleigh line.
(a) Passage in the dIrectIOn of mcreasing entropy along the upper
hranch represents subsonic flow WIth active heat reception (or release of
"chemical') energy), increaslllg veloClty, and decreasmg pressure A13
fnctional effects are taken to be neghglbJo, the area under the curve
(1' TdS) represents the energy receIved as heat or released; also
Iq, (h, + 6;';~J) - (hI + G4U~:J)
=
(h, + G' G4v~:J) - (hI + G' 6:;:J)

=
or = ho., - ho,1
where the last Items denote" stagnahon enthalpy and thus, for an ideal
gas, Iq2 = <.(To" - To,I)'
The feature of arrIvmg ultimately at a point of maXImum entropy
denotes agam a critical or limitmg situation as regards the temperature
(T'R) or pressure (p*.), and has the significant interpretation that, even
in the absence of frictional effects and a consequent independence of tube
length, at a given flow density (G) a suffiClent concurrent energy recep-
tlOn or release will also cause a tube to become choked
(b) Passage in lhe opposite direction along the upper branch of'a
Rayleigh lme represents subsonic flow with actIve energy removal or
absorptIOn
Fig. 16·34
(c) Passage along the lower branch represents flow at supersolllc

velocitlCs, with like directlOnal slgmficances as between heat-energy
reception or departure but again an lmpendmg choking effect on heating.
Convenient tabulatlOns a,"ooiating M with the ratio between func-
hans of l?cal or stagnatlOn properties and those" at the limiting state
may be provided in Rayleigh-line tables
In relation briefly to a special adaptation of the Rayleigh Ime or rela-
tion to the normal-shock phenomenon, as that occurrence is necessanly
adiabatic it may be thought of as figuratively the eqmvalent of passage
along a Rayleigh line from a pomt x on the supersomc branch to a pOlnt y
which 15 so located on the subsonic branch that .!J, + ,qy (or .[' T ds +
JY TdB) = 0 The two pOlnts are also on a Fanno Ime, and so may
ge regarded .s intersections of the Rayleigh and Fanno lines corre-
sponding to a common value of G (and M .), as lIlustrated in Fig. 16-34
Analytical prpcedures for establishing the state change across a normal-
shock plane have frequently utilized this approach. (See Art. 16--20.)
ART 10-20 APPENDIX; NORi\IAL--SHOCK ANALYSIS 477
16-20. Appendix; Normal-Shock Analysi.s. To aVOId" divertmg of Interest
by temous preilminary details, the matenal of Art. 16-10 only Introduced the
concept of normal shock, and f,ubsequent materIal only utIhzed the facllities
available fur Its accQuntmg, WIthout analytIcal Justifications for the techlllCS
employed These are provIded here and Involve the de,'ciopmg of thp. reintlOns
bet-ween Items such as the upstream and dow~tream Mach numbers, and aSSOCI-
ated local temperatures, pressures, velocItIes, etc,
The physical feature umquely charactenzmg the normal-shock phenomenon
18 Its abrupt occurrence III passage of the flUid stream through a lamma of
effectJvely zero thickness, and consequently equal upstream and downstream areas
A. and A, Sufficient descriptIOn of the stream at entry and departure mvolves
data on two thermodynamiC propertIes of the fiUld, and the stream velOCitieS
The three physical relations wluch enable correlation of the three un)..nowll.S
are.
(a) The contmudy equat'l,Dn, bult with m/A = mjA ... ,,,, or Gy "'" Gz
(b) The steady-flow energy equa[ton, but now requirmg mcluslOn of only the
enthalpy and kmetlc-energy terms.
(c) A momentum relaturn such as utilIzed in Art. 3-8 or 16-1{), but in present cir~
rumstances reducible to the Simple form
m
(p, - p,)A". ~ 32 17 (u" - u,)
ReqUlred algebraic adjustments and coor'dinailOn of these are provided below both
for moderate-pressure gases, m temperature rangea for wluch a mean k mayamtably
be employed, alld for a. I1on~ldeal gllB or vapor
I deal-Gas Stream
(a) By the continUlty equation, and as mlA3;,tI = uzI"~ or 'Ilylv", also mlAz,tI "'"
1J,zPr/RTz or ulI'P,iRT'1"
. Pil - pz
(b) By the rnomentumequatlon, m/A-Z;,IJ = 32.17--- ,
Uz - U v
• Uz - U v Pll - pz PlIV" p;r.Vz RTIJ RTz
(c) ComblIllllg tJJt:!se relatiuns - - - ~ - - - ~ - - - - -- - --.
I 3217 m/A 1Lv Uz u ll Uz
uz 2 -Utl 2 (a",)2
(d) The energy equatIOn) Jhz + 6435 = Jhv +
6435) and also =- Jh* + 64 35'
need to be put In a form adapted to correlation with the above relations For doing
Rk . " ,
so, recall that J t:.h = JCpfl.T = k _ 1 aT, an.d that by defimtion 32.17kRT* = (a·) .
Thereby
RT ~ RT' + (k - l)(a')' (k - l)u 2
6435k 6435k
~ (a')'(~ k + 1) _(k - l)u' ~ (k +

l)(a')' (k - l)u'
6435 k + k G435k 6435k 643Sk
(e) Effeetmg the required correlation of the energy equation with the continuity
and momentum relations by mtroducmg in relation (c) values of RTz and RTIf as
expres.eed by use of the last relation,
u, - u. ~ (J. _J.) (k + l)(a')' + (k - 1)(u, - u,)
32.17 u, u, 64 35k 54 35k
AB (l/ull - l/uz ) = (uJ: - Uy)/(u%u,,), tlus relatIOn reduces simply to
U (k -I-l)M' (k + I)M;
ThUll, as (by eqlllltlOn 16-17), - (or M*) ...
o· 2 + (k -1)M"2 -I- (k -I)M.'
2 + (k - I)M,'
Solving for jll,/"
(k + I)M,'
, 2 +
(k - 1).1/,'
M, ~ 2kM,' _ (k _ 1) (10-'19)
With respect to any j'llfr-POlDt" 00 the pnma.ry lSentrope of the'flow chart, this
relation enables the locatIOn of the conjugate y-pomt of the norIIllll-shock loop, by
passage at the re1evant G/a-' to mtersectlOD wIth the .Ma.ch lIne havmg a value CM71)
as sO computed. AssOCiated values of TlIlT z or U;t/UIJ are directly determinable by
use of the T ITo and u/ao Bcales of the cbart.
To provide alternatIVe relatIOns In terms of PIS a.nd p;!:, recall that, by the con-
PlI 1lx/Tz •
tmUity equaLlon of a a.bove, - = -IT . But, by equatIODS 16-17 and 16-18,
r---,----:-:-::: pz U 71 II
U •• 2 +
(k - I)At' .oM (k -I)JI[' 12 +
T c:: r* M k+1 or '\j 2 To
. Thus, by equa-
tions 16-9a and Ub,
E! ~ M.';2 + (k - 1)M,'
p. J[, '1'2 + (k - 1).lf,'
a,nd by Bubstituting the value of M 1/ in terms of .Mz as expressed in equatlOn 16-39,
E!(_ P'/PO,') __ 2kM.' -
-
(k - 1)
(10-40)
pz pz/po, 1 k+1
WIth. respect to any <1ft[ z-pomt lJ on the prImary Isentrope, and vnth correspondmg
value of Pz./VO,l, this relatIon WIll siIml,uly enable the locatIOr:J of the conjuga.te
y-point of the IJormul-bhock loop, by passage at the re]evaJJ~ G/G* tu the pomt
ha.vin$ a value of PI//PO.l u.s so computed,
The gas tables provide tabular data. on the values of Mil, PII/PZ, vz/VI/( = uz/u lI )
and TII/T z at 8 value of k == 1.40, and at several others,
Non-ldeal-Ga8 SlreamfJ
For a non-ideal gas for whIch a table of the thermodynamic properties IS avwlable,
the speClfic nature and consequence of normal sllock ma)' agam be determined by
sUItable combinations of the energy, contmuity, and momentum equations. How-
ever, a procedure by successive trials is finally required A way of provldmg the
prImary faclilties is briefly as follows.
By energy equatIOn:
Jh
u' ( or Jh + G4G'v')
+ 0435 35 ~ J/l o (A)
By energy equatIOn, but with Gil = Gs = Oz" at shock phme'
Jh + (G.,,)' v ' ~ JI + (G",)' ,_ Jh (A')

:t 64.35 z ~ 64 35 VII 0
AR". 16-20 APPENDIX; NORMAL-snOCK ANALYSIS 479
By continuity equation, across shock plane:
u, u"
G~," = - ==- (8)
V. VII
Dy momentum equatIon:
_ "" _!!!:_ _ G U z - UJI
Pv P, A (- •. v1 (C)
I %,1/ 3217
By Bucces:.ive introduction of equatlOIlS B and A In equat on C'
G Uz - u"
p" - pz = :r.II""32.i7
... u'z?/vz - u,//vu
3217
[or 2 (U z2/64 35 _ ;..uv,-',-/64=.3",5)J
v. v"
_ 2J (110 - h. _ ho - hv) (D)
VZ v"
The fillgnificance of these relatIons 18 that, if at the upstrenm face of the shock plane
the flowing fluid is at a thermodynnmic stnte as described by pz, hZl and/or liz. and
the stream h!l.S further the flow density G, velocity u., and associa.ted stagnatIon
Flg 16-35.
enthalpy 11.0, ita state at the dOWIlBtrenm face '\\;11 be such thn.t equa.tiofIB A and D
are jointly satisfied.
A graphical procedure for Il.9ccrtaining this state lB mdlCsted In Fig. 16-35 III
which the state at the upstream face of the shock plane is located to h-v coordinates
at point x. Through that pomt a. "Fauna" curve representing equatlOn A IS gen-
erated by computing values of Vy whIch satisfy It at a number of selected magrutudes
of "",. AI!, any point on this lme desCrIbes a defimte state of the fiwd, 6 scale of
correspondmg pressures mlght lD prinCiple be laid down along It. 'The particular
state existing at the downstream face of the shock plane will be that for which
simultaneous values of P, h, and V (I e, PilI hy, and VI') also satisfy equation D State
Y IS alao a point on a second curve whIch would represent a Raylelgh-type flow
(Art. 16-19). The state lB on occasion descnbed as one fixed by 8. (second) mter-
section of a Fanno hne and a Rayleigh lIne drawn through pomt x.
480 FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS CIlAP. 16
16-21. Problems. 1. Compute the some velocity and the M!l.ch number tof-
responding to a stream velocity of 1000 fps and local temperuture of 70° F for
(a) dry nir, (b) carbon dIOxide, (c) hydrogen, llnd (d) n mIXture having a molar
composition of 25% nitrogen and 75% hydrogen Use the relatlOns of Art. 16-4
and the specific heat or k values or Fig 9-4, and where pm.:slbIe verify by meaDS
of the gas tablet! Ans (d) AI = 0479
2. Determme the stagnation pressure, temperature, and (relative) enthalpy for
a stream of air which has respective local values of 68 7 psia, 88 g~ F, and 150 fps
3 Determine '1', h, tJ, u, a, M, and G for a stream of dry au If expandmg
lsentropICo.lly through a nozzle from an lllltW.l stagnation state at 100 pSla and
70·F to local pressures of 80. 60. 55. 50. 3D, and 15 psia. and the values of A
Jf Bow IS at the rate of 2 Ibm/sec Determme also the pressure and associated
Jtems at an entry sectlOn at which the velocIty 1S 200 fps Plot the results to
a common abSClS63. of pressUiC Comment on the indICated geometncal character
of the nozzle and report ,approxunate values mdicated for p*, T*, and G* (I e .•
the maxImum flow density)
4. Determine for a Dozzle to which steam at 800 psia !lnd 700°F is to be
supplied at 7200 Ibm/hr, through an entrance area of 1.5 sq In. the sUItable
throat and eXit area. and the eJot velOCity If effectIvely isentropIc flow may be
anticIpated and the delivery-regiOn pressure is (a) 500 psia, (b) 300 psia For
throat-area computatIOn III the second Illstunce the cntJeal pressure ratio may be
taken wIth ample rehablhty to' be 0.55 -
5. Determine the entering velocity for a nozzle that is to pass 3600 Ibm of
!llr/hr through an entrance sectiOn of 30 sq lD area at 0 local pressure anJ
temperature of 75 psia and 300°F, and Lhen deterrnme III the following several
ways the stagnatIOn pressure' and temperature, the suitable throat and exit areas,
and the exit velocity and Mach number on the baslS of effectively isentropIc
expansion to a dehvery-regton pressure of 15 PSIO' (a) By the methods of
Examples 16-1 and 16-3, except that the crlticaJ pressure ratIo may be selected
with suffiCIent accuracy by equation 16-10a, with k = 140; (b) by use of the
relevant equations of Table 16·2; (c) by use of suitable gas tables; (d) by use
of the faCIhties of FIg. 16-7 (flow chart).
6 The following table gn-es miscellaneous data for vanous nozzles. In the
table the subscnpt 2 refers to the eXit section of the nozzle Ilnd the subSCript t
to the throat sectIOn Compute all results as mdIcated by the blank spaces III
the table" except as any may not be pertInent. Take" dry rur with To = l00~F
as the gas, and presume IsentropIC flow.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (j) (g)
Po, psia 150 150 150 150 150 150 200
Vo, eu ft(lb
Pz, psis. 148 lI5 100 79 50 15 15
V2, eu ft/lb
v" eu ftjlb
v"', eu ft/lb
'U2, fpi!
'Ue, ips
u·, Cps,
A",qft 001 o 01 o 01 001 o 0182
At, sq ft
m, lb/sec 6.33 10.0
7. Compute the ldeal mass rate ,of flow of aIr tillough a flow nozzle or 1-111.
dmmeter from a regIon at 100 psia and 70~F to a discharge region' at a pressure
of (a) 80, (b) 60, (c) 50, (d) 30, and (~) 15 pSl3 Draw a. graph of the rates of
flow VB. the diScharge-regIon pressure
8 Compute the Ideal eXIt velocIty and the ideal mass rate of discharge to
atmospheric pressure for hehum from a tank WhICh IS at 70°F and a pressure of
2 m. of waler above a.tmospherIc, dlScharge takmg place through a !-1O. dIameter
onfice Also compute the Ideal volume I ate of flow, -
Anll 254 ips, 00575 It/sec; 331 eu ft/sec
9 It IS deSired to test an rur compres.sor lhe capacity of whICh IS expected to be
about 100 ell it of "free alf" per mm (1 e, the volume of Em at atmosphertc
temperature and pressure which enters the compressor per mmute) It is
proposed to use a sharp-edged orifice ill the discharge Ime, m wilH,h the pressure
is 80 psia and temperature about l00"F. Select a sUItable size of orifice for a
specificatIOn such that the pressure dIfference across the onfice shall not exceed
265" Hg, and that a discharge c.:oefficlent of about 061 ",1(1 be encountered
(Neglect pIpe velocity in thiS prehmInary estImate) Am, 21 Ill,
10 (a) A 100m, X 6-in. ventUfl meter delivering nir shows a dlfIerentlal pres-
sure of 10" Hg With a pipe pressure of 5 1 pSt gage and a pipe temperature of
85°F Compute the Ideal throa.t veloCity, mass rate of flow, and volume ra.te In
the pIpe. (b) Compute the throat velOCIty, mass rate of flow, and the volump
rate In the pipe on the assumphon that the flUld IS carbon dIOXide rather than aIr
11. A Pltot tube traverse of a 12-m Circular duct through wInch air at
atmospherIc pressure and 70°F IS flOWlIlg showed the followmg schedule of values
of (Po - p) at the mdlcated pomts across one d13.meter of the duct
Center
Above Center Below Center
Line
Du~tan('e from center of
duct, Inches 57 50 425 33 19 (00) 1 9 33 425 5,0 57
po - p, inches of water 37 41 4.4 4G 48 (4.8) 48 4.8 47 43 39
Compute the average velocity m the duct, the volume rate of flow through
the duct (Cll ft/mm) and tbe ratIO of menn to center velOCity Draw the
traverse to scale and ascerLum a pomt at WlllCh the local velOCity equals the
average.
12. (0) Usmg gaB-table da.ta exclUSively, locate suffiCient pomts far drafting
WIth reasonable care the primary lscntrope of 8 flow chart for [J,Jr; make lengths
of GIG· l and pJpO,l scales 10 em or 5 III each. whl(~hever IS mOle conveDlent
(b) Contmuing to use gas-table data, supply on thlS background hlles for }If =
00, 05, 10, and 1.5; locate carrespondmg pomts for an AI-scale along upper
margm, and mdlcate the correspondmg values of rlTo and 'Ulao if scales of those
items were generated above the M-scale (c) Employmg equatIOn f of Art 16-9
and gas--table data, locate suffiCient points Cor draCtmg the supplemenfary lrentrope
for PO.2/PO,1 = 0.80, and mdicate the correspondmg value of .18
13 A stream of air IS approachlDg a plane of normal shock a.t p( = p.) .... 10
pSla, T = ""oooR, and :!J( = AI.) = 175 What WIll be the pressure, temperature.
and velocity of the stream immedIately after the shock plane?
14 Ta.kmg the throat and eXit areas for the nozzle of problem 16-5 to be
0680 and 0 {l2,5 8C1 Ill, respectIvely, determine rn the fallowmg ways the eXit
ve(oclty and Mach number If a delivery-region pressure of 60 pSIa is actually
Imposed and normal shock occurs, the ratIO of tha.t velocity to the velocity on
ISentropIc expansIOn to 60 pSla, the pressures, temperatures, densities, and
velocitIes on the two sldes of the shock pla.ne, and the area at wbich the shock
occurs: (a) By use pnmarIly of the (aclhbes of the flow chart; (b) by use
pnmanly of gas tables What throat area would be reqUlred for deltvery at the
same mass rate (3600 Ibm/hr) and lsentropically to 60 psla? At what IDLnlffiUm
deh"'ery-rcglOll pressul e would the shock plane have retreated to the eXIt end of
the convergmg-chvergmg nozzle?
15 Air at a local pressure of 14 7 PSIR enters a dlfJuser hll.vmg 3" X 6"
dIameters at a velOCity of 300 mph (440 ips), eqUivalent to a. Mach number of
040 To what pressure might the stream Ideally be brought on Isentropic
deceleration in this diffuser? Am. 16.3 pSIS.
16 A supersoOlC au stream (.11 = 1 5, p .... 61 pSla, T = 448°R) undergoes
normal shock, after whICh a portIOn enters a divergent dlfIuser With eXIt/entrance
area ratio of 50 What, IS the discharge pressure obtalDable at m3.XImum
through·flow?
11 For a divergent diffuser With an area ratio A2/At of 3 0, determme at several
values of lUI between 00 and 1.0 and between 10 and 20 the optimum value of
pdpi and correspondmg value of (m~J/(pIAt) that are obtalDttble when the
pressure ratIO is just such as to proVide ideally for IsentropIC comprresion of air at
maximum attainable flow rate (except as a preceding normal shock is to be antiCIpated
when M I > 10). Construct n. graph Bwtably exhibiting the vanation of these by
r-urves drawn to a common abscissa of MI.
IS A Pltat tube, operating in n. Bupersonic air stream of local temperature 475°R,
gave pressure readmgs such that PU/PO,1I = 0 75. What are the indicated values for
AIl and UI? Inwcate method of solutIOn on a srhematic compresSIble·f]ow cbart,
• and verify result~ by URe of the gas tables
19 A smgle-stage steam ejector operates WIth saturated steam at 150 pSI ga.ge,
and uses 1600 Ib of actuatmg steam to compress 1000 lb of saturated water vapor
at sooF to a discharge pressure of 16" Hg abs. \Yhat is the overall efficiency of
thiS eJector? Depict the prOCC8'1I on 8. schematic h.s diagram.
20 Superheated steam at 700 psia and 700°F flows through piping of length
eqUivalent to 50 it and of 2-m actual mternal diameter The mass rate of flow
15 675 Ib/sec, and the fnctlOn factor may be taken as 0008 Determme the
probable pre&9ure drop Use the approXImate relalioIlS', but With mean value of
T equal to that of the mItlSl conditIOn. What change in plprng diameter would
be reqUired to reduce the pressure loss by approximately one-half?
21 An air tank contammg rur at 240 pSIa. and 70~F discharges through 8. hne
100 ft long and !·in. diameter, and for which the friction factor may be taken
as 0006. What IS the maximum attamsble ma&9 rate of (adIabatIC) flow, and
at what pressure IS It dehvered? What are the correspondmg \'alues If the tank
pressure IS reduced to 30 psm, With tank temperature remalnmg at 10 0 ? What
are the mass rates In each case If p,Ulebu •• """ 14 7 psis?
22 Estunate the length of a duct 1 It X 1 ft cross section in wbich an 81r
stream entering at M = 200 will just decelerate adiabatically to unity Ma.ch
number. What is the flow density, and what is the pressure at discharge relative
to that at "entry? What are the efl'ecl.B if the supersonic air stream enters at
. M ..,. 300 rather than at 200? Depict on a schematlC compresslbJe-flow chart
17 . DYNAMIC FORCES
17·1. Foreword. The precedIng chapter developed the thermo-
dynamIc techmcs whereby one may anticipate the nature of the pro-
gressIve state and velocity changes which, III a variety of circum-
stanccs and whether ideal or otherwISe, wIll accompany the flow of a
compressIble flUId. In many enginecring devices such a flUId stream
becomes the agency by which work output or input is effected, by the
operation of dynamIC forces and as in the turbme engine or dynamIc
compressor or in jet propulsion It IS therefore necessary to have
further facilitIes whereby one may anticipate the forces which cause
or are caused by the state and velocity changes accompanylDg flow.
-%
FIg. 17-1.
The following material indicates, therefore, ways in which thermo-

dynamic and mechanical considerations may be correlated to advan-
tage when force aspects thus become of concern
17·2. Dynamic Forces. The dynamic aspects of a fluid stream
were noted earlier (Art. 3·8), but then wIth the purpose only of pro-
vIding Ii desired alternative to the steady-flow energy equation. It
was there convenIent and sufficIent to regard any energy departure as
work as accomplished through the agency of a hypothetical "harness"
on a component parcel of a flUId stream. Such work effects need now
to be recognized, more realistically, as attained through the agency
of forces on the (solId) surfaces which confine the stream, and in con-
junction wIth motion of those surfaces.
The elementary flow situation indicated to the left in Fig 17·1 will
serve for introductory purposes, although it involves change only in
483
484 DYNAlIlIC FORCES CHAP 17
veloClty magnitude. In the figure there is shown a transverse seg-
ment of a flUId stream of local dcnslty p, and of thickness dx equal
to the dIstance It WIll have moved m tIme dt, and the surface or "wall"
confinmg It. Rcgardlllg lhc segment as caprrblc of movement In duec-
tlOn x, force components as noted Lelow need to be recogmzed as
operatmg on It and dctermmlllg the nature of Its motion Forces,
motions, or accelerations III the (hrectlOTI of incrcasmg x win be
regarded as posItIve In sense Permissibly neglecting gravitatIOnal
force and regardmg the velocity of the segment as representable by •
smgle vector, of magmtude and dlrectlOn U,z; the several forces are.
1 The net force assocIatcd with the pressure on the upstream and
downstream faces of the segment, in amount pA - (p + dp) (A + dA)
or -A dp - P dA, and thus -d(pA), where area A IS normal to the
dJrection in which the force may act.
2 The force attrIbutable to the inertia of the segment (of mass pA dx)
if accelerating at rate d(ux)/dl, the associated force bemg a retarding one
pA dx d(u.) h
and so negative in sense, and representable as - 32.17 dt ,or t us
pA U2 m
as - 3217 d(u.) or - 3217 deux).
3, The force exerted on the segment by the surface confinIng It, of

magnitude p dA and With POSitive or negative slgmficance attaching to
the annular area dA as the stream area respectIvely mcreaseS or decreases
on proceedmg in the direction of increasmg x.
4, The x-component of any retarding frictIOnal reSistance, attributable
to vl,scosity and represented for the moment by symbol -OiIr'choTl
The equilibrium relation associating these forces IS
m .
-d(pA) - 32 17 d(u.) + P dil - oj',,","n = 0
But note that in thiS relation only the aggregate (+p dA - ,j'",'"n)
represents the force actually actmg on the fluid segment through the
agency of the channel walls or, in opposite dIrectIOnal sense, that acting
on the channel walls through the agency of the moving segment
If readily integrated between entry and departure sections the result-
ing quantity would express the dynamic or wall jorce whICh is of present
concern. But the task of expressing these differential items in integrable
form may well be qUIte hothersome or actually impracticable. However,
the aggregate d(pA) + (rft/32, 17) du fortunately provides an equivalent
although indirect evaluatIOn of the wall force Furthermorc, these are
. directly integrable, without need for concern as to detaIls of varIation of
ART. 17-2 DYNAMIC FOnCES 485
Pl A) or u as How proceed~) from entry to departure sections of the
channel. CorrespondmglYl one may \vnte that
X-component of wall force, "'
" 10,%
on channel, ~F = (PIAl - P2A 2 ). +32.17 (Ul .• - U2 •• )
(17-1)
Although none of the Items to the right mIght properly be regardeu
as actmg dIrectly on the channel SUl faces) for convenIence they WIll
be referred to as Ilpressure forces" and "velocity forces,)J "'hen em-
ploymg thIS terminology one ds also 11nplymg that the pressures and
velOCItIes [Lrc so uniformly distributed at any sechon that the asso-
cLated (eqUIvalent) forces,arc in effect representable by slDgle vectors.
If such reservatIOns are recogmzed, the convenience of relatIons of
the above character qUlte justify theIr usc. They arc to the same
degree vahd "hether the flow situatIOn IS adIabatIC or not, or whether
mechanlcally reversible or IrreverSIble The influences of heat transfer
or of IrreversIbility arc, however, reflected III effects on the termmal
states and velOCItIes of the fluid stream
For mtroductory sImplICity tile 'flow situatwn of F'g. 17-1 involved
change only III velOCIty magllltude DynamIc forces of consIderably
greater magmtude may be obtamed ,f dIrectIOn change 18 also enforced
Both are therefore normally employed m power deVICes WhICh utilIze
such forces The source of the addItional wal! force, produced by
diverting a stream, is descrIbable in a general way as that reqUIred
for causmg the acceleratIOn of ItS component partIcles in directlOn
norm.l to an existmg dIrectIOn of mollon. But, defcrrmg attention
to thIS aspect, for evaluatlOg the net effect one may again employ as
a convenient approxImation several relatIOns ,,,Illch paralJcl equa-
tIOn 17-1.
Referring to FIg 17-2, the situatIOn there mdICatcd IS one in whIch
(1) The dIrectIOn of the enterlng stream IS represented by the angle
• rei alIve to an X-dIrectIOn, that bemg the dIrectIOn for WhICh force
evaluation is demed, and the orientation of the plane of the entry end
of the channel 13 such that the "pressure force" PIAl is m effect at
angle AI'
(2) The directIOn of the departlOg stream IS represented by angle {J,
and the '·pressure force" P2A2 is at angle '\2
Adapting the concepts of equatIOn 17-1 to this "Itll"lIon,
cos a] [ cos (l]

"tF.,z = [ .(pv!J) cos Al + lhul3217 - (P2A z ) cos A2 + mU2
32.17
(17-2)
48G DYNAMIC FORCES CHAP. 17
The parallel relation expressing the y-component of the force IS
:J;F " .• ~ [ (PIAl) sin ~I

sin a] -
+ mUl32.17 [(P2A2) sin ~2 + 1hU2
32.17
am fJ]
(17-3)
In frequent sItuatIOns it may be that angles ~ ~ 90°; or that ~I = a or
~2 ~ {3. Observe here that products of the form A cos ~ and A sin ~
Fig. 17-2.
represent the projections of areas A to planes respectIvely normal to the

x-ducclion and to the y-d~rection) with reference to which pressure-force
evaluations are mdmoually of concern.
Equivalent and qUlte convement relations, but m.terms of the flow-
rate m and the thermouynamlC state and velocity at entry and departure,
are evolved by writing for A its equ.ivalent from the contmuity equation,
uA cos (~ - a)
or m = By so doing,
v
!.F tD,Z =
m
[PIVI cos AI
"ttl cos (AI - a)
+ ~J
32 17
_
[ -P2V2 cos X2
U2 cos (~2 - {3)
-cos-f3]
+3217
U2
(17-4)
The expression for the y-component is the same except that the relevant
functIOn of a, and {3 and ~ (individually) IS the sme.
If the fluid is aq effectively ideal gas and the local velocities are expressed
ART. 17-2 DYNAMIC FORCES 487
in terms of the Mach number, or pv = RT and ,,' = A['(32 l,kRT),
equatIOn 17-4 may be put in the form'
- w..
~F- = -
RT- [ j
cos Al + kJlf 12 eosa ] -
m ," cos On - a)
RT2[
-- COS A,
+ kJI,' cos ~ ] (17-5)
u, cos (b - ~)
The expression for the y-eomponent IS agam the same, except that the
relevant functlOn of ". {3, and A (indIVIdually) is the sme. This (or
preceding relations) is also adaptable to situations in \I hlCh entering and
departing flow rates differ If wntten as·
F III.~ = mI¢I. - m'lcpz
where <p represents the smtable function of entering or departing stream
Such situations are Illustrated by the rocket, with rh, = 0; also by the
turbojet propulsion Installation, when rh, exceeds mj by the maSS rate
of consumptIOn of the lucl.
If the flow of the g.s is, furthermore, through a channel lor which A = a
or/3, and so cos (AI - ,,) or cos (A' - (3) = 1 0, the composite terms of the
last relation eVIdently take the general form (RTlu)(1 +
kJ1[2) cos a
(or (3). If for subsequent converuence there IS mtroduced in equation
17-5 a term (I +
k)RT'/u', represented ill the followmg as F'lm and
evidently the form taken by the above function of M, T, and u if
JIf = 1 0, the equation may be written as
Uw .• = (I + k)RT'[(1 + k.I[j')RT,lul cos a _
m u' (1 + k)RT'/u'
(1 + k"II,')RT.lu, ]
+ k)RT'/u' cos ~
(1
But (1 + k)RT'lu', or F'lm, may through equations W-16 and 16-18

be expressed to advantage as "\J
/(1 k)RTo
15.08k
+ .
' where To 1S the "tagnatlOn
temperature and constant throughout any aUIabatlC flow Thu"

F'lm = V (1 + k)RTo/16 08k or 0 3264VRTo if k = 1.40 (17-6)
Also, by equatIOns lG-17 and 16-18, above ratIOS havlllg the form
(I + kM2)RTlu mny be expressed as
(I + kM2)/11! an
d
(1 + k)RT*/u* v(1 + k)(2 +
(I, - l)JI')
thus as functions only of k and M. Representmg this ratio as FIF',
488 DYNAlIIC FORCES CHAP. 17
equatIOn 17-3 may thereby be put ill sImpler form
"J:.Pw.,jm = (P*jm)[(PJ/P*) cOSQ - (P 2 jP*) c05~1 (17-7)
and slmilariy for ~p1/J,y/m, except as the relevant function 18 the SIIlC
For direct utIllZation of this relation the flow chart of Fig 15-7
provIdes a scale of values of FIF' (at k = 1 40) parallehng the M-scales
EquatIOn 17-6 is also quoted on the chart The gas tables quote values
of FI P* over a range of M at several values of k
Example 17-]. An au stream of OOl-sq ft area, If entenng a statIonal}"
tlozzle at the rate of 10 lbrn/sec and at To = 'i'056"R, PI = 100.pH8, and Ul =
259 fps, and M 1 = 0200 Will Ideally have acqUIred a velOCIty of 1927 fps and
,If 2 = 1 973 m a stream of 0005,)6 sq ft area on expandmg l"cntroplc.:t1ly to
/
FIg 17-3
137 pSla. (See example 16-3,) (a) What WIll he tbe c()rre~ponJ.Lng amount and
directIOn of the aXial force operatmg on the nozzle walls If Its aXIS IS straIght
(Ie, a=fJ- X)1 Check the reslllts as oht:llnf'd by equatiOn 17·2 by the use
of the valuE'S oC F / F· (b) Determme the same Items If the nozzle IS so curved
as to dls('harge at 180· from the llirectlOn of the slrmm ['ntry (J e, a = Xl = 0°,
and fJ = A:! = 180°) (c) DclellTIme the x-<omponent of the wall force if entfY HI
aL a-= Xl = 15° (Fig 17·3) ami (J = x:! = 135°, also the y-component (d)
What WIll he the influen('e on the wall fOfces If lhr lCllnng velOCity 18 as before,
hut fnct](Jnal f'fff'C'is rlf'COmpanYlng ttl{' Row nf'(·p..,:,,!latp cntlY of the Ulr at higher
pressure, but retalTlmg the same sta~natlOn teOlJlelallllf' and. MILch number?
SolutIOn,
(n)
I () )
Fw- ( IOOXI44XOOI+3217X259-
~ X In7)
( 137 X 144 X 00055'l + 32.17
(1521 -70n) - 81211>f
. To venfy by u~e of the PIp· ratIO' ut'l'f) = 705 (i°lt,
2.4
IG 08 X 1.4 X 53 35 X 705 6 - 63.4
ART. 17-3 !:lYNAMIC-FORCE GENEIlATlON 489
at Nl = 0:200, Flip· = 2400, ana at .liz = 11]73, F2)F* = 1118 Thus F1tJ =
! X G3 4(2 ~OO - 1118) ~ 81.21Lf
(b) As the OPPosite directIon of tho uepurtmg stream gives Opposite algebraiC
slgnJfI('Un(c Lo the lellYlng ptC:s~ute and velocity fOleos, F", = 1521 +
709 =
2230 Ib!. 0] 63 4(2 400 + 11l8) _ 2230
(0) F ••• -152! cos 15' -;on tos 135'.=1480+501-1981 lb!, F •.• _
152 1 ~lll I:;" ,- 709 Sin 135 0 = 394 ......, 501 = -107 lbf, the negative value Blg-
IlIfYlIlg lhl.l.L lhe fOlee HI OppoMte tu the y-dlrectiOn.
(d) Silleo fO! an aumoahc ploecss with a gas To IS DoL modlhed hy Indlonal
f'fieds, emu p. 18 affected only by 1'0, the reqUIred greater entry pressure ,,,II
not moddy the wall forcc If 1'H•.MI, and ..1(2 (lre mamtained. The "upply pre~urc
lClIUllCU for effedmg the flm\ and the aroa rcquiled for accommmiutlDg It at
\he specdied rate Mil, however, be affected.
Example 17-2. The propulsive equIpment of the turbOJet type of !Hrcraft
('onslsls eS'-cnLmlly of a fore-anti-aft thannel to the fOT\urd end of whICh lur
f'nters and In passage through \vluch there may occur successIvely the processes
of (a) comptession of the air, (b) heating by the introduction and combustion
of a fuel, (c) partial expansIOn of the products of the combustIOn by a turbIne
englfie whIch dm'es the compressor, and (d) ultImate- further expansIOn to form
a rearward Jet of conSiderable velOCity and at elevated temperature. The fuel
IS caflieu aboard the craft If m such an installatIOn the aIr cnters at an
effectively atmospheriC pressure and tempcrnturc of 10 psid. and 420"'R (-40~F),
and a rebtlve velOCIty of 500 fps, anJ the combustion produets depart at ef-
fectn'ely Lhe same pressure but a temperature of 1300 H (840~F) and reluLJw
0
velOCity of 1750 fps, what propu1sn'e force IS oblamaL1e for euch pound of Ulf
mducted per second? Presume that the ratio of the mass of the comLustlOn
prodllCts to that of the entermg air l\·dJ be about 102/100, and thIlt their gns
constant w1l1 be about 5425 ft-lb/Obm, OR).
Solutwn For the specIfied terminal condItions, by equation 17-4'
Fw ~ (5335 X 420 500) _ 102 (54 25 X 1300 1750)

m 500 + 32 17 1750 + 32.17
~ (44 8 + 155) - 102(403 + 54 3)

~ GO 3 - 965 ~ -36.21b!
for each pound of air mducted per serond, actmg In a dnectlOn oppo<;lte to 1I at
of the flow.
17-3. Dynamic-Force Generalion, by Diverted Stream. The

foregomg has indIcated mdirect means whereby one may more easIly
approximate the wall force operating on the mtenor ,urfaces of a
channel whICh confine::. and dIverts a fiUlrl stream For recognizing
more adequately the "mechamsm" \vhcreby change in the dlrectlOo of
a stream generates (or IS generated by) a force, conSider the parcel
which IS represented lfl FIg 17-4 as movlllg about an Instant-center 0,
and IS to be regarded as a component of a stream HUVi'II1g In a SImilarly
curved path The parcel IS of mass (din), expreSbcd us p(dx dy dr),
and is moving at tangentIal velocity u, at radial distance r from 0
DYNAi\lIC FOltCES CHAP. 17
Rad1al forccs p,(dx dy) and (p, + dp) (dx dy) may operate to changc
Its dircctlOll of motion, wIth merbal resistance to such change In
amount (dm/32.17) (U,2/ r , or w 2r), or the centrifugal force. Wnting
the associated equihbrial equation,
p,(dxdy) - (p, + dp,) (dx dy) +

p(dxdydr)
32.17
(U,2
-; or
dp pU,2 ( po'" )
or dT = 32 17r or (17-8)
3217
Cons1derations md1cated ,by tillS relahon are that (1) if there is any
tangential veloc1ty the pressure necessarily increases w1th mcrense m
the radial distance; but that (2) thc pressure gradient dp/ dT is deter-
mined by the manner of variation of u, w1th r.
It is this pressure excess on the surfaces of greater radius that pro- .
duces the dynamic force associated with the diverting of • fluid stream
But utllizabon of these considera-
o tlOns for wall-force determInations
would not only require specific data
on the manner of variation of u,
with r, but also an ab"ity to sum-
mate the relevant components of
r
I forces p d'A on all elemental sur-
I
I faces forming the interior surfaces
I of the channel. The problem may
I
'=--
I well be most complex,
P
A radial dlstr1bution of the tan-
/' !
dy dr
iari .1-. _
'
Ut
gential velocities and radial pres-
sures, and a consequent stream
-'-- ' configuratlOn which may ·perhaps
he regarded as basic, is one which
Pr +dp tends spontaneously to be assumed
by reason of a natural tendency. to
Fig 17-4 eqmdlstnbution of their aggregate
mechanical energ1es as between all partICles comprising a stream. Thls
configuratIOn 1S known as that of the free vortex. It lS readily shown
that, as an attribute of the eqmlibrial energy distribution, the radial
distnbutlOn of the (tangential) veloClties is such that the product Ittr
is the same througbout the flow field
. However, such a flow configuratIOn wlthm a moving channel would
111 fact be fullie 111 s1tuations where an energy passage to or from the
stream as work is the very objective of the stream deviation, and
ART. 17-4 TI)RBINE BLADING ARRANGE~lENTS 4\)\
departures from that How pattern nrc thus necessa.ry. But SImulta-
neously an inescapable trend to tnechantcal equilibrIUm III nature tends
to restore the free-vortex configuratIOn. Frictional effects also induce
turbulence. These consIderatIOns arc SImply illustrahve of the ddfi-
cullles III attemptmg a rigorous formulation of the wall force generated
by a diverted stream. so makmg the above concept of equivalent "pres·
sure forces" and j'veiocity fOl~CCSJ" nominally actmg at a channel entry
and eXIt, a lIelcome although approximate alternatwe,
\
~Slatlonary channels
~ MOVing channels
Casing Casing
~ ~r:l\~
Rolor Rotor
FIg 17-5
174. Turbine Blading Arrangements. The turbine-type of

engine is a device that enables an energy departure from a fluid
as work by deflecting a f!uui stream whzle en route through movtng
channels withm the device The direct agencies through which such
energy transItion is effected Rre the tra.nsverse non-uniformIty of
pressure and consequent force distribution in a deflected stream, and
an accompanying motlOn of the surfaces which confine and direct it.
In the more usual type of turbme the moving channels become
merely the spaces between a succession of blades whICh project radi-
ally from the periphery of a rotor. Two sides of the channel are
formed by the surfaces of adjacent blades, the thIrd by the outer sur-
face of the rotor, and the fourth either by a shroud nng attached to the
blade bps or by a surroundmg stationary casing. FIgure 17-5 illus-
trates a turbIDe rotor and casmg, and one row of moving and stationary
4D2 DYNAMIC FORCES CHAP, Ii
channels on each, and al::m mdicates the general nature of the path
of a stream through t hem The function of the statIOnary channels,
secured to the l'a~mg, IS that of generatmg amI smtably dIrectmg the
stream approachmg the movmg ones The paIr of siatlOnafY and
movlllg rhannels may be SaId to form a ,I;!,tage, the turbme as a umt
WIll normally consIst of a sucreRSlOn of 5uch stages The flow through
the stage and the turbme IS III general axmlm riIrectlOn, but also some-
'what hehcal III character, the mach me corre~pondmgly bemg known
as one havmg aXlal flow As indIcated 1ll the figure, the siatlOnary
channels also are frequently formed by bladmg proJectmg Inwardly
from the C:lfung, but groups of mdl'nciulllly formed nozzles are also
employed
The passage of the flUid through the turbme channels is in gencral
at such a rapId rate that any accompanymg heat transfer per umt ma8S
IS negligible. It IS thus effectIvely adiabatic and ideally is IsentropIc
But the conslderahle velOCity and tortuous path of the stream mes-
capably mtroduce frIctIOnal effect.-.: uncI turbulence an(l arcompanymg
entropy Illcrease
The proportIOnmg and dI:5tributiun of the tranbverse areas of the
stream 'iVhIle It IS en route through the succeSSIve channels IS capable
uf WIde vanatIon One extreme IS that m whIch the decrease of pres-
sure and enthalpy, wIth aE>50CIateu acceleratIOn, occurs only III passage
thro'ugh the statIOnary channels or nozzle~ The movmg blarles sen'c
merely to deflect the resultmg Jet an,! are known as "npulse blades
Thp, other extreme IS one III whIch the pre5-SUl e and enthalpy decrca~e
occurs \vholly whIle the i':!tream IR en route between the movmg blacks
Such movmg blades woula be ;ala to have 100 per cenl reactlOn The
more usual sItuatI()n IS, hO\vcycr, an mtermecllate one m which enthalpy
accreas~ is provlded for III both the statIOnary and the.movmg channels
,rhen any ~uch r1ecreas.e occurs III passage through the channels formcd
by the movmg blades thev are desenbed as reoclzan bladzng, the ratIO
between the enthalpy dec~ease occurring m'the movmg blades to that
for the entIre stage servmg to expre~s the percentage reactwn charac-
terIzing the stage.
The resulting character of the state changes accompanymg the flow
through the succe-:srve statIOnary and movmg channels may thus be
represented, to the h-s coordmates of Fig 17-6 Lme 1+2 represents
an Impulse (0 per cent rcactIon) stage, lme I-m-2 an arrangement
havlllg about 50 per cent reaction; and lme 1-r-2 the mfrequent con-
dltian of 100 per cent reactIOn A dlslingUlshmg feature of Impulse
blalling IS a proYISlOn for effectIvely equal pressures entering and lcav-
mg the moving blades. Broken rather than solid lilles are shown for
Am'. 1H TUltBINE l3LADING ARltANGEl\lENTS 493
denotmg the aCtual ImpractIcablhty of desCrIbmg or representmg by
a smgle pomt the dlVer~E' states d'xIstmg at any locatlOn in do stream
B-
FIg 17-6
when It is not only changmg jts dIrectIOn of motlOn but aIst) IS marC'
or less turbulent.
J n spIte of undoubted Iffipropnehes in rcpre;enlIng by smgle vec-
tal' the fltream velocity at entry or exit of curved channels, various
Flg 17-7
auvantages make It customary to tolerate the assocIated approxima-

tions On that basis there are mdlcated in FIg 17-7 vector diagrams
representmg the velocItIes enterIng and IcavIng both the stationarv
and mOVIng channels of one stage of a turbIne For generahty a
494 DYNAl\IIC FORCES CHAP. 17
SltuutlOfl of partJal reactIOn IS mdICated, with enthalpy decrease and
(relative) velocity increase occurring m both channels. They may
thus be regarded as a succession 01 stationary and moving nozzles
The velocities represented are m effect the components m a cylmdncal
surface parallel to the axis about which thc rotor turns. The motIOn
01 these blades m traduces a necessity for considering both the veloCltles
relatlve to tbe statIonary portion of the stage, and those relatlve to
the moving channels which are dlstmguished by subscript T. In Flg.
17-8 the entry and departure vector diagrams of Flg 17-7 are for con-
venienee combllled, WIth the solld lines of the figure possi bly repre-
senting the interrelation more reallshcally but WIth some advantage
in the arrangement in wInch the vector triangle representlllg departure
conditions is transferred and shown by broken lines Velocity u, IS
the tangential velOCIty at wbICh the blade is mOYlng and equals wr,
where w represents the angular velOCIty of the rotor (radwns/second)
and T is a representative radUlI distance of the blade from the rotor aXI,.
l\Iajor considerations pertammg to the stationary channels Include
the followmg:
(a) The divertmg and accelerating of the stream m passage through
them generates a force, or thrust, that would cause motlOn if unre-
stramed by the stationary casmg The relation of equatJon 17-4
expresses the magnitude of the x-comronent of tIus thrust, or as
A, - 1.2 - 90°,
m
F z) statIOnary channeJs = -- (u a cos a - Ub cos~) (17-4a)
. 32.17
ART. 17-4 TURBINE BLADING ARRANGEMENTS 495
Ai; in the diagram cos a is negative the two terms m the parentheses
become numerically additive, and their negative aggregate signifies
tbat tbe thrust IS opposite to the x-direction However, as the blades
are stationary and the force is thus mcapable of operating through
space, no work IS done on or by the stationary channels.
(b) An axial thrust is exerted on the stationary channels In the
amount, by equation 17-3,
F" statIOnary channels

m
~ (P.A. + 32 17 u. sin a) -
(P.,i, + 3:17 u, sin ~) (17-9)
where areas Aa and Ab are measured normal to the y-direction

(e) The energy relatIOn for the stream through the statIOnary
channels is, per unit mass of fluid,
u lI? Ub 2
Jh. + 64 35 ~ Jh, + 6435
(d) The proportlomng of the trans"erse areas in the stationary
channels is raade by the general methods of Art. 16-5, with due con-
sideratIOn of the enteTIng state of the stream and the proposed pressure
at whICh it "crosses over" to the moving channels. For reducing
probabilities of shockwise irrevcrsibIiities supersonic velocity may well
be avoided ReqUisite areas, normal to the direction of the departing
stream, eVidently dcpcnd on the velocity and density at that position and
the required mass rate of fluid flow; e g, A, ~ Thlu,p,.
Considerations relating to the moving channels and bladmg include
the following:
(e) The diverting of the stream in passage through the moving blades,
and Its further relative acceleration If the bladIng is of reactIOn type
generate the thrust which causes the blades to move and enforces an
associated tUfmng of the rotor against an external restraming force,
thereby providing for energy transfer from the stream as shaft work
EquatIOn 17-4 again expresses the x-component of the force, but now
the relation may be written In terms Clther of the relative velocitIes u",
and U"d or the absolute velocities u, and U,. That is, referring to
Fig 17-8,
m
F., movlllgblades ~ 3217 (u,.,cos-y - U,.dCOSO) (17-10)
In
or ~ 3217 (u,cos/3 - u,cos.) (Ii-lOa)
496 DYNAM[C FO[{CI~S CHAP. 17
To such extent as the relative entry and departure velocities may be
regarded as representable by single vectors, those veriors H\r\'e to indl-
eate sUItable angular orlentations of the blade profile at cntry ·and
departure sections The term m the parenlhese, of cquation 17-IOa
is frequently referred to as the change m the veloctly of u·h,,! The
algebraIc significances of the several CO'3inc functlOns normally cause
the veloelty terms actually to be addlti,·e, and theIr aggregate to he
[1081tl\"e m sense, the latter fact estahh,hmg tl,at tIle force" III the
illfccilOn of urlvance of the blades
(f) The rate of energy tran,fer as shaft-work through the agency of
the b[admg and rotor, or the associated power, equals the product of
the force times the bhtding \'elocity, or
Power, hp = - [32 limX 550 (U."COb"y - U"'C080)J,,,
In
or = - 17,700 (Ubeos(3 - u,COS')Il,* (17-10&)
The energy transfer per pqund uf fiUld " corresjlondingly
11,
W = - 32 17 (Hb cos (3 - u, cos ,) (17-[ 1)
hut note III Fig. 17-8 that 2UbUt co~ {3 = u,/ + Ut 2 - ur ,c 2 and 2U"Ut cos E
= u.2 + U,2 - lir i, so that the last relatIOn may abo be wrttten as
(u.? - U/)2) - (ur,i - ur . c2 )
10= (17-11a)
6435
Also tho famlhar steady-flow energy e~llatlon as adapteu to the stream
approaching awl departmg from the moving blades IS
([7-11b)
The energy equatIOn for the adwbah<: How whIle a /:3trcam ie: ell route
thruugh the movlIlg channelS is thus
U 2 - U 2
',' .,' = J (h - h ) (17 12)
6435 b,
This relatIOn serves for associating dIrectly the relatIve \'eioCltlCs and
flUld states. Also, through the contmuity equation m = u,Ap, determi-
. * lnlrDductJ~n of the mmus sIgn IS necessitated by the cOn\'ent!un of regarding
energy departure from It system as negative In bense
ART. 17-5 L\IPULSE-TURBINE BLADING 497
natIOn may thereby be made, of the transver&e areas of stream and
movm/!: ehllnncl for accommodatmg a dosired flow rate.
(g) The aXIal thrust exerted on the rotor thlOugh the agency of the
moving blades IS expres.ed as (equatIon 17-3)
~)
m
F" movIng blades = (Pbil b + 32 17 lib Sl!! - (P,A, + 3;'17 u, sin,)
(17-13)
where Ab and A(l denote arcas no measured normal to the y-dlrcctlOll
The foregomg an[lly~es can relate in prmclplc only to conditIOns nt
a smgle fanwi locatIon on a l1lf)"mg blade and a correspondmg blade
velocIty r!l,(~ wr)] When blades of consIderable length and eorre-
~ronding dlfferem'c III \"eloc~ty as between root and tIP are required for
accommodatmg a large YOhlme rate of fhud How, favorable bladIng
design necc:3s1taic:5 the recognitIOn Dut only of tl11:3 VelOCIty dIfference
but albo of an assocIated ra<iJal vanatlOJ1 m the pressure and the
tangential component of the velocIty III a stream which has a gener-
ally hehcal path This radlUl varIatIOn of the fiUld state approximate,
that of tbe fIre vortex, nne! lJl cop8equcnc(' of these cDnsideratlOn~
longer blanes vi'ill suitably be ilwarped" In such fashion that, in effcct,
angles y and. vary WIth radial pOSItIOn along the blade.
For expre5~ing the pt'rforrnance of a turbme stage, un index that i"
commonly employed, parallelmg one relntmg to the turbme as a '1Nhole,
18 known a~ Its U:ienhoptc (also ((adiabatic") stage efficlency It l!:l
definei! as the rallO between the work output actually delIvered m the
stage and the decrease III enthalpy Ideally resultlllg from Isentropic
passage of the filIllI from the snpply state to the delIvery pressure, or
Isentropic stage effiCIency = w/J(!1h). (17-14)
H IS impractIcable to Isolate and measure the actual work output of
an mdmrlual stage in the typical multistage turbmc For purposes of
analYSIS or prelinunary deSIgn the work output IS nllrm~dly antiCIpated
through cbtimates of inthVldual items tSuch as:
(a) The effiCIency of the statIOnary channels as nozzles
(b) Probable enthalpy and entropy increase due to turbulence effect,
III crOSbo\'cr between the stationary and moving channels.
(e) Consequences of fnctlOn and turbulence in passage through the
movmg channels
(d) Departing and unutilized kmetie energy
(e) Leakages about the channels, etc
l7-.~. Impulse-Turbine Blading and Characteristics. PartIcular
charactCr1stlcs of Hnpulsc-turbinc bladmg llnd arrangemcnts are best
IndICated by conslderabon of Example 17-3
498 DYNAMIC FORCES CHAP. 17
Example 17-3. Impulse Stage. In a stage of a steam turbIne the steam
approa.ches the stationary channels at a (local) state of 420 psia and 600°F and
a velocity of 100 fps. ExpansIOn to 340 pSJa HI to be provIded for In the
statIOnary channels (nozzles), the work output to be obtamed by passage of the
resulting jets through channels formed by a smgle row of moving blades and
these also to' be so proportIOned that Ole (local) eJnt preBSUIe is also 340 pSlfL.
Neglect radIal vanatIon of pressure or velOCIty. Make determInatIOns as called
for below on the two prelIll8eS (0) that flow IS lSentroplc throughout, and
(b) that more realistic flow condltlOns eXist m features us noted
1 Determme the eXIt enthalpy, speCIfic volume, velOCity and reqUired trans-
verse area of the stream [sq in /(Ibm/sec), A/m] leaVIng the nozzles for (a)
IsentropIC flow and (b) at {)5% nozzle effiCIency.
2. Compute the associated velOCItIes and construct the related vector dUlgrams
that may be regarded as representing the nature of the flow on the premLSe
(a) of Isentropic flow and (b) that nozzle efficiency = 050/0, thnt stream dIS-
turbance in the crossover between stationary and movmg channels produces an
enthalpy mcreaso of 0.2 Btu/lh, nnd that ulsturbances In passage through the
movlDg ch:mnels produce an enthalpy Increase of 15 Btu/lb Further specifica-
hons are that urlu~ = 05, f3 = 150, and a = 15JO.
3. For each of condItIOns a and b determme the tangentIal force driving the
blades and the aSSOCIated power output (per Ibm/sec of flow), the work obtained
per pound, adiahatic efficiency of the stage, and the kinetIc energy of the IC[l.ving
stream,
4 WIth reasonable attention to scale. represent the successive states and
processes to h-Il coordinates, and also final states correspondmg (a) to IsentropIC
deceleratIOn of the uepurting stream Lu stagnatlOn and (b) dla::jlpatlOn of the
leavmg kmetlC energy by turbulence
, 5 DetermIne the stream and/or channel areu reqUIred at entry and eXIt
ends of the movIng channels [sq lD /Obm/sec) of flow], for both flow conditIOns
6. Determme the roual forces on the blading for each flo.w cODchtlOn.
7 - For purposes of companson. but only for presum~d isentropIc flow condI-
tions, determme the driVIng force and power (per Ibm/sec of flow) and the work
output If for the moving channel u. = 320 fps and If 665 fps, the bladmg being
Ilymmetrical m each instance
Solution. At 420 psia and 600°F: hI = 13053, 81 = J 5820, and VI = 14014
Subsequent property values are as obtamed graphlcnlly by drafts of a 34O-psia
lme to h-s and to v-s ('oordmates, usmg superheat-table data. For correspondmg
,tagnatton, ho ~ 13052 + 1002/64 35J ~ 1305.5 Btu/lb
1 (0). At 8 ~ 15829 "OU 310 pSla, h - 1282.8, T ~ 550°F, and v ~ 16510 Thus
u,'/6435 - J(1305 3 - 12828) + 100'/6U5 ~ 22.5J + 155 ~ 17,660 It-lb/lbm
or 227 Btu/lb, and u, ~ 1065 Ip', al,o A,/m ~ 1 6510/1065 ~ 0.00155 aq It or
0223 'q ,"./(Ibm/a.c)
(b) At 95% nozzle efficiency, hI - bl) - 005 X 22 5 - 21.4, Ab - 1283.9,
'. - 15840, and t', - 16550; slso u, = 802V21.4J + 100'/6435 = 1038 Ips snd
A./m ~ 1.6550/1038 ~ 0001595 sq It or 0 230 sq In /(Ib/s.c).
2(a) At u& = 1065 fps and f1 = 15 0 • Ub.sIll {J = 276 or also = Ur.e BIn 'Y, and
1Ib cos {3 = 1030 or also = Ur.~ cos 'Y + UI, whcn~ Ut = 1065/2 = 533 Ips, by speclfi-
ca.tion. Thus Ur,c cos 'Y = 1030 - 533 = 497, Ur,c = V276 2 + 407 2 = 567 fps,
and'Y == to.n- 1 276/407 = 29.10
_For the specI,fied isentropir. How through the moving ch:umels, WIth pe = Pd,
AnT. 17-5 IMPULSE-TURBINE BLADING 499
h. = hb and (by equation 17-12) u,.,d = Ur, . . Thus, at B = 151~, by specifica-
o
tIOn (and = ISO - 1'), Ur,d Sill 6 = 567 sin 151 0 = 275 or also "'" U II sm e;
ur,d cos § =>I -496 or also = UI: cos E - U', and u, 008 E = 533 - 496 = 37 Eps
Further, u, = .,,1275' + 37' = 277 Ip, and. = tan-'(277/37) = 82.5'.
(b) Rega.rding the eIlthalpy increase of [) 2 Dtujlb in crossover aa actmg to decrease
the kmetlc energy of the stream acluaUy approadrillg the movtng channels, ub 2j64.35
u,
= 1038'/64 35 - 02J = 16,620 and = 1034 fps. By procedures patalIehng the
foregoing, Ub 13m {i = u,.,. Bin l' = 2G8: ltb cos (i - Ut = 1000 - 1034/2 = 483 =
+
U"e cos 1'; ur,e = V268 2 483 2 = 552 fps, and l' = tan- 1(268j483) = 291°.
Fig 17-9. ImDulsc stage
For the speclfiE'<i enthalpy increase of 15 Btu/Ib In passage through the movUlg
channels, by equation 17-12, (u, .• )'/64.35 = [(u",)'/64351 - 15J = 3573
ft-lhf/Jbm, and Ur,d "'" 479 fps Again by procedures patal1elmg the foregoing, at
"f == 151°, u,.,dsin ~ = U" SJD E = 232; u,.,d COB 5= U" cos E - U, = -419, u" cos E = 98;
tt" = 252 Cps, nnd E = tan- 1 (232/9S) "" 67.1°,
The raUo ur,d/Ur.cl whICh drl'fers from unity in ImpulBc bladmg solely because of
fnction and turbulence effects and In thIS instance is (479/552=) 0.87, IS frequently
described as the bladmg velot:Uy coejiaent and is employed as the primary index lor
expressing those effects.
Dmgrama correspondmg to the velOCItIes as 80 computed for the speCified Ideal
and actual conwtlOllS appear in Figs. 17-9 and 17-10 respedively. Note an cITecttve
equality of angles l' and (180 - 0) and v. correspondmg symmetry In blading oontour
that IS ra.ther dlllIRcteristic of Impulse blading jn higher-pressure and rngher-veJoeJty
situatJollB
3(a), For the presumed isentropic flow conwtlOns throughout:
F"n./m = (u. 00' ~ - u, 00, .)/32.17 = (1030 - 37)/32 17
- 30,9 Ibf/Obm/sec)
Power/m = -30,\)ut "" -30.9 X 533
-16,4401t-Ib/Ibm or -299 hp/Obm/se<)
Work (w) - -10,440 It-Ib/Ibm, or 21.I BOu/lbm
.1OU DYNAMIC FORCES CHAP. 17
(277' - 1055') - (567' - 557')
or also -16,«0 ft-lb/lhm
6435
0' (12826 - 1282 G)J + (277' - 1065')/64 35 ~ -16,440

UC'gl1rdmg the willaJ kInetIC energy of 0 2 Btu/lb as Ideally available as work,
Stage effiCiency (aruabatlc) = 21.1/227 = 0931
]n thiS Ideahzed situation the stage effiCIency deports from umty only by re~SUIl
of the kinetiC energy of the Uepurtmg stream. Opportumty for ,!;.uh~equent utilIza-
tIOn of tlllS mayor may not be proVIded
Fig 17-10
(b) Flom the le~lUlts of part 2(b):

F"o,/m ~ (1000 - 08)/32.17 - 28.0 Ibl/(lbm/Bee)
Po,w../m ~ -280 X 517 ~ -14,480 It-lb/lbm or -2635 hp/(Ibm/aee)
Work (w).~ -14,480 It-Ibl/lbm, or 18.6 Btu/Ibm

(252' - 1034') - (470' - 552')
or alNo ~ 54 35 ~ -14,4801t-lbf/lbm
~ 15J + 252'6435
- 1034'
-14,4801t-Ibl/Ibm
Stage effiCIency (adlaballe) ~ 186/22 7 ~ 0810

Departure of the stage effiCiency from 10070 is now due cumulatively to the
nozzle IneffiCIency, kinetIc energy dISSipatIOn In the crossover, fnctIon and
turbulence ill passage through the movlllg channels, and the leavmg kmetlC
energy, n may well be aggravated by escape of the stream about rather than
through the nozzle ()f bladmg channels.
A further performance mdex that IS employed for Judging the effectIveness
of the moving cl;lannelli alone IS known M the dta(}ram ejJiCtency, and is defined
ART. 17-3 BlPULSE--TURBINB BLADING 301
by the ratIO
W'ork ohtamed
Kmetic energy, approachmg Jet
For the above conditions it becomes
14,480 ~ 0 872
1034'/643.
4. InItIal stagnatIOn and nozzle-approach states are represented In Fig 17-11
by pomts 0 and I, also the Identical (thermodynamIc) states at nozzle exit,
1310'---'1--'--
I-r--I---rl- - ,1
- --'
0t-----
-1\ 420
, pSI
1300f- \ -
\
l- \
I-
h 1290f-
\ \ 2' 2 -
\ ..&-.... _..0--34'0 pSla
!- .J,o.--~- d
I- (b.c,d,l. b c
1280 f- -
l-
I- .
1270
l- I , , I I
1583 1585 1516 158/ 8
1 sal 1584
Fig 17-11.
hladmg entrance, ami bladmg eXit {or a pref>umed IsentropIC flow throughout,
and the more reahsbc SltuatlOllS of enLfopy Increase en route through the nozzle,
the crO~SOVf>r, and the movmg blades Pomts 2 and 2' denote rcspecllvely the
ultimate states for a presumed Isobaric diSSipatIOn of the kmetlC energy of
the stream leavmg the movmg channels or for a presumed pl€SSUre recovery by
ISentropIc deceleration of the stream The actual processes are' represented by
broken rather thun sohd hnes, for denotmg the non-homogeneity of turbulent
or deflecting strea.ms.
.:; Denoting stream velocIties and their (transverse) areas by relevant subsmpts,
and writing continUity equations lDvolvmg successively the reqUlslle areas
m = (Ub RIO ~) (Ab csc (3)/Vb
(ur,e sin 'Y)(Ac esc "'()/v~
(Ur,d sm 6) (Ad esc 6)/Vd
Note that any product of the form Ab esc {j represents 11 reqmslte channel area III the
plane of moUon of the movmg blades
For the presumed Isentropic flow, wlth symmetrical bIndIng and constant denslty.
Ac Ab/m 1065
- - - - = 0 223-- = 0 420 sq in /(Ibm/sec). For the second conrution, With
m UT.c/Ub 56 7
A, 1656 1038 Ad 1.661 1038
changIng denslty I - = 023 - -
-~ ... 0434 and - =- 0 23 - - -~ =- 0 .500
m 1655 552 m 1655 479
sq in IObm/Bee). The reqUIred progressive area Increase I!i pi oVlded In symmetrical
blading by progreSSively Jncrcasmg (radIal) length of the blade
() Because of the specIfied pressure equaltty on upstream a.nd downstream sides of
impulse b admg and rotor, any axial force Will result only from clunge in the aXial
component of the entry and depa.rture veloeities and IS therefore zero under the Ideal
condItions. For the second conditIOn the frictIOnal effects came a thrust (F II.lI:!IlI) In
the amount (268 - 232)/32 17 = 111bl/(lbm(sec).
7. Since, for lBCDtroplc flow through symmetrical blading, u,,!; ('Os 'Y = -Ur.d cos <5
and also = Ub cos (J - Uti the tangential (driving) {oree and the diagram effi(,Iency
may be formulated 88 a fum·tIon of the blade speed ratIo (UdUb) III the followmg
manner
F Jm = U r.c cos 'Y - U,.d cos is = Ub cos {3 - Ut
,= 3217 16.09
- "" (
--
1609
u,)
COB ~ - -
Ub
Ibf/~bm(sec) (17-15)
cos - -u,) ft-1bf(lbm

2
U6 'lit (
Work (w) ~ -- - ~ (17-16)
1609 Ub UI:>
ann Dmgram effiCIency =4- u,( u,)

u~
cos {J - -
Ub
(17-17)
For the specmed blnde velocities of BGD and 665 ips, and corresponding blade-speed
ratios of (360/1055 ""') 0.338 and 0.625, respectively,
UI/Ub 0338 0625 (0.5)
Flaa,)m 415 22.5 (30.9)
Work 14,920 15,000 (16,UO)
EffiCiency 0.848 0850 (0 931)
Ftang'
0039 00211 (0029)
mu,
Results of lIke computa.tions for the full range of blade-apeed ratIos are represented
In Fig. 17-12 by the (sohd-Ime) curves of the wmensionlesB parameters FJmu~ and
efficiency vs. Ut/Ub for (J "" 15° The broken hnes are mort) IllustratIve of actual
performances Both indicate the progreSSIvely Increasmg tangential force (and
consequent torque) obtaining at lesser blade speed ratIos, but the limited range over
which optimum efficiency may be approached.
of
By equafJ.ng to zero the first derivative the effiCIency WIth respect to the speed
ratIo (U!/Ub), It develops that maXimum wagram efficiency IS ideally attained only
when Ut/Ub = (cos (3)/2, and that it equals (cos 0)2 at that value of the ratio. In
tlus situation the leavmg angle E becomes 90°. The decreMing efficiency at other
.speeds is due 10 an mcreasing leavlllg veloclty (u,,) and assodated kinetic energy loss.
It is noteworthy 10 true connectIOn not only that the ideal performance IS materially
mfluenced by the jet angle and blad{HIpeed ratio adopted when desigmng an Impulse
stage, but also the departure from the Idea.! IS progressively aggravated by operatIOn
ART. 17-5' IMPULSE-TURBINE BLADING 503
at ratios other filan that for ukich the bladmg ts destgnea, IlDd particu1!ll'Cy so if the
operating ratio exceeds the desIgn' ratio and the approaching streaJll thus tends to
Impinge on the leading (com'e,,) 8urfaf'e of the movmg blade
lOr---,----,----,----,----,
u,JU/J
Fig. 17~12. Effects of blade-speed ra.tlO, Impulse turbme.
For reducmg the local pressure and temperature to be withstood by

a turbine casmg at the entrance end it IS frequently deslf,ble that a
relatively larger decrease in pressure and enthalpy be taken in the
nozzles of the first stage nut the resulting jet velocity, even If sub-
sonic, may well be so high that it is undesirable to provide a rotor of
such diameter, or one operating at such rotative and blade speeds, that
the optimum blade speed ratio (about tl is obtamable. In this situa-
tlon a lesser ratio may, of COllrsc, be employed, tolerating lbe lower
attainable effiCiency. However, an efficiency approaching the opti-
mum may sblJ be obtamed If • rotor diameter and speed giving 8
blade-speed rabo of about! is practicable, by providing two rows of
moving channels on the rotor and an intervemng row of statIOnary
channels. The last serves only to redirect SUitably mto the second the
stream leavmg the first moving row'
• In sma.ller Impulse turbme!! several IDgeruous arrangements are also used,
in lieu of successive rows of movmg channels, In which the stream leaVing a
nozzle 18 redirected several hmes but at suitably altered entrance angles through
a single row The obJcchves of velocity "compoundIng!! are so obtmned With
some success by a smgle tow of movmg channels, With savIDgs In space, weight,
and first cost, but wlth appreciable decrease In the nttamable efficiency.
504 DYNAMIC FORCES CHAP 17
Tins general arrangement IS iIIu,trated III Fig 17-13 In whIch sym-
metrIcal blading is also indIcated The proportioning of the several
channels is agam to be in principle such that the pressure is effectIvely
the same at entry and departure points of all, although with pro-
gresSlve entropy alld enthalpy growth due to turbulence elfeets How-
ever a moderate pressure drop per row IS frequently prOVIded for. The
composIte of the nozzles, first row of moving rhannelB, statIOnary
Fig. 17·13 VeloCIty compoundmg
redIrecting channels, and second movmg row is desCrIbed [ls a pressure

stage wdh velocity compoundmg, aJso a Curt1B stage, in dIstmction
to the sImpler Rateau stage of Example 17:3
17-6. Re:ulion Turbine Bla<Jing and Characteristic9. The dis-
tinctive feature of reactlOn-turbme blading and arrangements are best
mdlcated by consIderatIOn of Example 17-4, relatmg to a stage havmg
50 per cent reactIOn The pressure chunge through the stage winch
IS employed In the example, or again 80 PSI, is greater than suitable
But it is adopted for facilitating comparlsons between the general
characteristlCS of a reaction vs an Impulse stage.
Example 17.4. Reaction Ulading. PrOVIsion 18 to be made for the expnn-

sion of steam imtlally at 420 pSIR amI 600°F to 340 pSla m a reactIon stage In
which equal decreases of enthalpy wlil be a.llotted to the stationary and mOVIng
nozzles (1 e., 50% reactlDn) Entry to the sta.ge IS from a precedmg one at a
velOCIty of 250 fps at an angle of 108° A blade speed ratIO of 0.85 WIll be
employe!).. and nozzle exit angles of 18° and 162 0 For these conditions make
ART. l7-fl REACTION TURBINE BLADING 505
determinations parallelIng those of Example 17-3 A 9.57'01 efficIency of the
succeSSIVe channels as nozzles may he assumed, and II negligible dlstlubunce of
the stream In LfOS9{Wer •
Solulwn. Employmg thf' enthalpy deuell.Se of 225 Btu/lb as determmed m
KX!lmple 17-3 lor 18enLropic expansion through the tipCCllled pressure range, allotment
of one-half of tills to the stationary nozzles esw.b1shes the Ideal state of the st-(lall
leaving them M one at 8 ""', 1.5820 and h = 1305.3 - 11 25 = 12Q40,!) Btu/lb, so
that p = 377 pEm, T = 575"F, and v = 1525 eli ft/lh
1 At 95% efficiency for the statiODo.ry nozzles, hJ - hI> = II,25 X a 1)5 = 10 7,
hb "'" 13053 - 107 = 1294.6, Tb = 576°F, 8b = 15835, aBlI Vb = 1.527 Also,
Ub /6435 = 10 7J + 250 /6435 = 92DQ ft-Ib/1brn, Ub = 773 fps, and Ab/m =
2 2
1 5271773 ~ 0 OOUS sq It Qr 0285 'q In I (Ib/sec),
1310 I
h ~•
a
1\
1\
1300 l- I \
I \
1290 l-
W•I
I
\
\
\
J \
I \ y.Q
~
, ,
1280
15B20 15830 1.5840 15850
•
Fig 17~14. lleactlOn stage
At u, ~ 0 85 u, ~ 657 Ips; u"os ~ - u, ~ 773 X 0 051 - 657 ~ 735 - 657 ~ 78

[tnd "" u,.t cos 'Y; Ub sm fl = 773 X 0 3D!) == 239 Ilnd = U,.,: sin 'Y; 'Y = tan- 1(239(78)
= 72 0 , and U c = 239/sin l' = 251 fps.
0
\Vith further enthalpy det'reaso of 10.7 Btu/lb 111 the movmg nozzles. haC = he) =
12\)4 () - 107 == 1283.0 and, at Pd = 310 psIa, Td = 552°F, Sa = 15840, and
va ~ 16549 Also, (u,.d)'/64 35 ~ 107J + 251'/6135 ~ 0305 It-lb/lbm, U"d ~ 773
fps, Ur.dCOS 162° + Ut = -735 + 057 == -78fps and = Us COB E, Ur,d sm 11)2° = 23U
and == u, Bin I!:, I!: -- tan- l (239/ -78) = 108~, 'U e = 239/sIn ( = 251 fps, and Aa/m =
1.6549/773 ~ 0 ()()214 sq It or 0 308 sq in./ (lb(sec).
The vectclr and h - 8 diagrams correspondmg to the above fmdmgs appear w
Fig 17-14, also bladmg representing the aIrfOIl type of contour tYPIcal of reactIon
stages Wlth Buch, U,.e may not be rega.rded as a relabve velocIty Withm the movlDg
channel. but Its l.hrection IS an index of the angle or attack at whIch the stream
approaches the tnovmg blades A typical feature Inrucated In the figure IS tha.t the
stationary ane! moving blad~ for a 50% reactlOD st~ge are "conJugate," In the sense
of havmg hke shapCB but rev-erse orwntation
2
Fta.na/m =-(Ub COB fJ - Ue COS E)j3217 = [735 + 78)/3217
- 25.31bf/Obm/sec)
Power/m - 657 X 25 3 - 16,620 ft-lb/lbm, or 302 hp/(lb/,ec)
Work, w = -16,620 ft-Ib/lbm, as above, or- 2135 Btu/lb
2 2
or _ (251' - 773 ) - (773 - 251') _ -16620 ft.lb/lbm
64 35 '
Regardmg the initial kmetIc energy of (250 2/64.35J =) 1 25 Dtujlb 38 ideally

available as work,
Diagram efficiency - 2135/(225 + 125) - 0805
In a.ny pln.nc norma.l to the rotor axis the stream area normal to that axiS
may be expressed as (mv)!Uz,. For expressing the axial force on the moving blades
the relation of equatlOll 17-9 may be transformed to:
Fax1al = (....J!!!!!_ _
r~~e) + Ub sin fJ - u" sin E
m U6 am fJ
u, SIn E 3217
377 X 1.527 340 X 1.655) 230 - 230
- 144 ( 239 - 23U + 3217
- 7.31o/(lbm/sec)
For thIS SItUatIOn of conjugate diagrams the axial thrust of the moving blading
18 due only to the dIfference between pressure forces at entry and departure.
For the entIre rotor the net axIal force becomes, however, that due to the pressures
on the IDaai projections of alJ other surfaces exposed to those pressures The
tangential and axIal forces on the bIndIng are to be recognized also as the !rums
of relevant components of the forces descnbed !lB those of l'/,ft and of drag which
operate on the cascade of fOIls forming the rows of blading.
For a reaction stage a relation aiming to express an Ideal diagram

efficiency, as a function perhaps of a blade-speed ratio and directIOnal
angle, is of uncertain significance because of charaetenstic structural
features of 11 reaction turbine. That is, Sllch a turbine commonly
consists of a succession of blade rows and stages that are so closely
adjacent that the velocity and kinetIC energy of the stream leavlllg
one stage is in large degree available for immediate utilizatIOn in the
following one. This is III contrast to a probable disslpatlOn of much
of the kinetic energy of the stream leavmg the moving blades of an
impulse turbine while finding lts way to a following group of nozzles
The efficiency of any reactIOn stage of a series may therefore be
regarded as departing from unity pnmanly by reasons o( Items such
as friction and turbulence effects in passage through and between thc
stationary and moving channels, by-passing of a portIOn of the flUId
from the higher to the lower pressure sides of the bladlllg past the
blade tips, etc. •
It was seen in Example 17-3 that for optimum performance of an
ART. 17-7 COMPRESSOR BLADING 507
lmpulse stage with a smgle moving row the blade speed lS on the order
of 0 5 tnncs the veloCIty corresponding to the change of enthnlpy
allotted to the stage (= 223 8~) In Example 17-4 this ratio
became (657/223.8v'13053 - 1283.9 =) 0.04, or more nearly -y'0.5.
The blade speeds actually employed wlth reachon bladmg are, however,
rather typlCally lower tnan with impulse bladmg, due to the allotment
of materially less enthalpy decreases and associated pressure dIffer-
ences per stage, for minimizmg leakage of the flUld about the blade
tIps. The consequent lower stream velocities act to lessen the energy
dissipation due to fluid friction and turbulence. The characteristic
airfoil bladmg contours tend further to occasion less harmful conse-
quences of operation at, blade-speed ratios dJfIermg moderately from
the design ratio.
In Example 17-4 a 50 per cent reaction stage was illustrated, but
more for convemence than for any ba~lC reason. It is quite permis-
sIble nnd in many instances preferable to employ greater or less per-
centages of reaclion, either in the successive stages forming an entire
reactIOn turbine or at yarying radial distances from the rotor axis in the
channels of an individual stage in whICh a large volume rate of flow
of (low-pressure) fluid necessitates relatively long blades.
Results of reaction-percentage variation include such items as
follow.
(a) Increase m reactlOn percentage 1S accompamed by smaUer
angles through whlCh the stream is diverted in passage through the
bladmg channels (i e., angles f3-a and I)-y) , and by generally more
favorable conditIOns for blading design.
(6) Increase in rcaction percentage lS associated with hlgher rela-
t!Ve blade velocity, as indicated by the ratio u,/223 Sv'h, - h" but
less tangcntlalloadmg, also by blades the general plane of which (or
the "chord" of which) IS more nearly in the plane of rotation
(c) Increase in reaction percentage is characterized by lesser axial
components of the stream velOCIty, so reqUlring a greater annular area
for accommodating the Bow of the fluid, 'and also by lesser velOCIties
within the channels.
(d) Conjugate stationary and moving blades are characteristic only
of 50 per cent reaction.
In aUotting the reaction percentage in a given stage, or at different
radml locations along a longer blade, the designer IS confronted not
only by considerations such as the above but also by various others
between some of which bothersome compromise may need to be made.
17-7. Compressor Blading_ The turbme is able rather readlly
to furmsh work output through the acceleratIve expansion of a fluid
508 DYNAl\[IC FORCES CHAP 17
and a subsequent or concurrent deflection of the fluid stream, utIlIzmg
associated wall forces to provIde • tangential drIVIng force on the
mO\'ing surfaces and contrIving also to mmimize the departing veloclt)'
and kmetic energy of the stream. The objective of the compres,or
is the evidently opposIte one of effecting the pressure rise and delivery
of a flUId through the agency of work input In the posllwe-dlSplace-
ment type of compressor) such as those WIth reciprocating piston, the
problem IS relatIvely simple. In the dynamic types, of whIch the
centrtflt9a~ and anal-flow arrnngcmcnts are representative, the char-
Fig 17-15. Compressor bladmg
acter and sequence of the processes employed in accomplishing their

'obJectIve nre generally oppoSIte in nalure to those employed in the
turbille. .
)llare specifically, in each stage of the compressor an mcrease of the
absolute velOCIty of the fluid stream is first induced by an enforced
motion of the blades or falls whICh form flow channels, contrIving,
however, to do so m such a way that while the flUld stleam IS en route
through those channels the relalwe velocity b instead decreased and
the enthalpy and pressure lhus mcreased (see equatlon 17-12). A
further pressure mcreasc may then be effected through deceleratlOn
of the stream leaving the movmg channels on passmg through sta-
tJOnary ones.
Again accepting the approxlmations mvolved m representmg by a
single vector the velocltIcs at any section III a dIverted stream, the
vector d,ingram of Fig 17-15, WIth accompanying representatIOns of
ART. 17-7 COMPRESSOR BLADING 500
correspondmgly suitable blade contours, WIll serve to indIcate the
manner m which theBe processes and the general objectIve are accom-
plIshed in lin aXlfil-flow stage The corresponding succession of ther-
mo(iynamlC states of the flUId is mdicated in FIg 17-16 The termi-
nology of the turbme having been adopted also for the compressor,
the mdICated arrangement would be said to be one havmg about 60
per cent reaction, as the enthalpy rISe effected hy the moving channels
IS that proportion of the total flse effected by the stage It IS to be
understood that the absolute velOCIty entering the movmg channels
FIg 17-16
wIll have been estabhshed, both In magnitude and directIOn, by passage

through precedmg ;tatwnRry channels. The mdlcated departure of
the stream from the stage wIth effectIvely the same speed and direc-
tIon as that at entry IS adopted In the figure only ,arbItrarily, but It
lVould enable the adoption of hke or repetitive dJagrams for successIve
stages.
Example 17-5 wIll serve to iIlustra te thermodynamIC aspects of an
arrangement such as IS indICated in Fig. 17-15. The example is the
source of the quantities employed in draftmg the figure.
Example 17-5. A stream of airst 6(M)°R (140°F) is caused to approach a cascade

of blading fornung the moving channels of a stage of fln aXial-flow compressor, at a
veio('ity of 500 fpa (Uti) at 70° (0:) with their direction of motion Their tangentIa.1
vel{){'lty (u/) is 818 Ips The stage IS to provule all enthalpy increase of 120 Btu/lh,
of whlch 60% IS assIgned to the movmg channels, and the stream lB to depart at the
Bame velOCIty as at entry. Each portion may be expected to have a. compression
510 DYNAMIC FORCES CIIAP. 17
effiCiency (.:lhldeal/ Ahactluil) of 0 85. Determine correspondmg values of Items WI
follows, the symbols being those of Fig 17-15 and 17·16' ea) angle (J, Ur.b and U,.,a;
(b) 'Ud, and angles 'Y and 0; Cc) Ft.ar.c/mfor the moving bla.des, and the power required
per Ibm/sec; Cd) the pressure ratIO through which compression is effected in the
movmg and in the stationary channels, and the overnll flltJO; and (e) the speed ratio.
u,(223 SVh. - h,.
Solut'Lon
Cal
U a ain Ci 470
~ ~ 180 - tan-I ~ 180 - tan- 1 ~ 144.0·
Uj -uacosa 818 -171
Ur.b = U a sin a/sin p = 470/0.5878 = BOO.O fpa
u,., ~ VCU".)2 - 64.3SJCh, - h.) ~ -V'800__:"---64-.3-5""'J"'(0-6-X-I-2) ~ 528.7 fp.

(b)
u, ~ V,-,,' + 64 aSJCh, - h,) ~ V5OO' - 64.35J(0.4 X 12) ~ 700.2 Ips
+ ttl -1 81S 2 + 528 7 - 700.2:2
2
_I tt,:! (U r ,.:)2 -
'Y = 180 - cos = ISO - cos
2u""" 2 X 81S X 52S 7
= 180 - cos- 1 0. .530 "'" 1220°
• Ur,D SID 'Y 4484
o= Bln- 1 = BlJl-1 - - = am- 1 0 6404 = 399°
Ud 700.2
(c)
FtaD.K udcos8-uacoscr
-- = = 537.8 -171 =
1
1 .40
lb/(lb /
m sec)
•
m 32.17 32.17
~~ 11.40 X SIS ~ 9325ft-lb or 12.0 Btu(lbm, ~ 10.9Shp/(lbm/sec)

m
(d) At 6OO oR, h" = 143.47 and Pr:CO 2.005. The actual enthalpy rise of
(12 X 0.5 =) 7.2 Btu/Ibm at 85% effidency corresponda to an isentIOpW rIse of
(7 2 X 0 85 ~) 6 12, or to a value of h of 149.59 and p, of 2.31S Thus P,.'/P. ~
2 31S/2 005 ~ 1.155.
+
At h,.d ~ 143.47 7 2 ~ 150.67, T,.d ~ 6:l0"R and p, ~ 2,379. The actual
enthalpy rise of (12 X 04 ""') 4.8 Btu/lb at 85% efficiency corresponds to an
isentroJlic rIse of (4 8 X 0.85 =) 4.08, to values of h of 154.75 and P.. of 2 610 Thus
p.fPd ~ 2.610/2 379 ~ 1.097.
Ovemll pressure rabo ~ 1.1S5 X I 0~7 ~ 1267 (at h. ~ 150 67 + 4 80 ~ 155 47,
Te = 6.50 oRor 190°F).
(,) u,/223.8Vh. - h. ~ 818/223 sv'i2.0 = SIS/775 ~ 1055
Evident features of both the moving and the stationary bJadJDg of

the axial-flow compressor, distinguishing them from turbine blading
and necessitated by their opposite objectives, are the progressive
diverging rather than converging of the stream en route through the
blading channels; also a generally opposite onentation and character
of ·curvature. The seJection of blading contours that also are aerody-
• The difference Ud cos .5 - lLa cos cr IS recognized Ilgam as the item referred to as
the "VelOCIty of whIrl" in connectIOn with equation 17-10.
ART. 17-8 l\lULTIPLE STAGING, REHEAT FACTOR 511
namlCally suitable IS regarded as even more essentIal than m the
turbme.
Following conslderabons are relevant. (a) that the relatIve velocitIes
become of .bout the same order of magnitude as the bladm£ velocity
(u,) , (b) that, for escapmg shockWlse "choking" of the flow, even an
approach to the sonic velocity at any point needs to be avoided; and
(e) lhat a suitable blade velocity may now exceed that corresponding
to the attained enthalpy increase (the ratIO u,/223.8~ becoming
1.055 in the above example). These combine to permit only a limited
cnthalpy rise per stage. The compressor is consequently and neces-
sanly characterized by a greater number of stages than is required in
the turbine m effectmg the same enthalpy change.
17-8. Multiple Staging of Turbine or Compressor; Condition
Curve and "Ueheat" Factor. PrevIOus discussion was limited to
dynamIC and thermodynamIC aspects of the flow through an element
formmg a single pressure stage in the turbine or compressor. For
accommodatmg the pressure ratlOs even of 5/1 or 10/1 which currently
are encountered in gas-turbIne installations, or pressure ratlOs well
exceeding 1000/1 in high-presmre steam turbines, it becomes necessary
that the passage of the working fluid shall proceed through a successIOn
of such stages, to each of whIch a limited enthalpy change is allotted.
Among reasons for such hmltatlOns are the minimizing of the fluid
fnction and turbulence that would accompany greater velOCItIes or
the aVOldance of shockwise flow nccompanymg supersomc velOCIties,
and structural considerations hmitmg permissIble blade speeds. Also
excessive leakage of the workmg fiUld will occur through the mechan-
ically necessary clearance annulus provlded, as between the stationary
casing and the tips of moving reactlOn blades, If there is too great a
pressure dIfference between the entrancc and eXIt planes of the moving
channels.
Slgmficant furthcr observatIOns in the last connectlOn are that
(a) the change of enthalpy of a fluid WlllCh provides a given change
of ItS kmebc energy involves an increasmgly greater range of pres;ure
change at hlgher pressure and density levels; and (b), as a generally
smaller area is reqUlred for the directed flow in zones of greater fluid
denSlty, in such zones the area of the clearance annulus tends to repre-
sent a greater proporllon of the duected-flow area and so to further
encourage leakage about the blading
Such considerations necessitate the employment of blading designed
for lesser percentage rcncbon in the higher-pressure end of a turbme
or compressor, but permlt progressively increasmg reactIOn at lower-
pressure levels
512 DYNAMIC FORCES CIIAP 17
In the case of a turbme supplied with very hIgh-pressure steam it
IS also dewable that the casmg be relieved of the necesSIty for with-
standing that pressure A resultant general practlCe 18 therefore to
expan~ the entering steam immedIately to 0 pressure only moderately
exceedlllg that correspondmg to aUamment of somc velOCIty, through
the stabonary nozzles of an JillPulse stage, perhaps employing also
the velocity compoundmg of a Curbs stage to a void dlllicultly high
blade speeds and perhaps employing further a succeSSIOn of impulse
stages Clearance leakage IS Immmlzed by locating the nozzles,
Impulse
(CurtiS) stage
Reaction stages
Shaft
work
•
FIg 17-17
through whIch the large pressure change occurs, near the perIphery of
stationary dwphrugms whlch extend mwardly from the casing to the
rotor shaft Subsequent expansIons of less pressure range may be
. through a number of reaction stages m whiCh the movmg blades are
mounted on a rotatmg d1"Um, with the allotted percentage of reaction
lIlcrcasing as the expanSIon proceed~ FIgure 17-17 represents such an
arrangement, and also mdieates to h-s coordInates the general nature
of the state changes of the steam en route through the successive stages
of the turbme
The state change representatIOn of the figure, or perhaps one indI-
cating only the states at entry to and departure from the succeSSlve
stages, IS referred to as the condllion curve It becomes a most useful
tool when ,,·e endeavor to dIstribute sUItably the enthalpy changes and
consequent pressure ranges to be allotted to the succeSSlve stages
of a proposed turbme, or to antICIpate its overall performance as an
assembly of those stages.
Sevcml obscrvatlOns of practical concern are as follows: (a) For
ART, 17-8 MULTIPLE STAGj~G, REHEAT FACTOR 513
descnbmg or antIcipatIng thy effechvenc~s of nn imhYldual stage of
a turbine it l"l more practIcable to do so 1Il tcnllS of a raho bet" een
the actually procurable work output of the stage and the enthalpy
dccfl!ase correspondmg tu isentropIc expansion between the ternllnai
pressure of that stage, or Its adiabatIc effiCIency (equatIOn 17 -H,
Art 17-4).
(b) For the turbmc as an assembly of ~uch ~tl1ge~ it ]"l however mOfe
l'()nVenH~nt to express its pel fonnane!? III terIllS of the who of Its aggre-
gate work output to the enthalpy cha.nge on dlrect ]scntr(]pJ(~ expanSIOn
from the state at winch the 1V0rkIng flUId IS supplied to the pressure
at which It departs, or In terms of the adIabatic effiCIency of the
entire umt.
But it IS also to be noted that, due In a ;cnse to the charactenstlC
dIverging of IsobarIC ImeR \\hen drafted to h-s coonhnatcs, a summa-
tIon of the IsentropIC enthalpy ch:lngr~ In the indivIduul stHge~ exceCUR
the change corresponuIng to iscntrojJlc p.;;oge from the supply state
of the flUId dIrectly to the departure pressure for the umt The pro-
portIOn by whICh the summation of the mdlvidual changes ($ !!.h ••
m(hvidual) exceeds the dIrect change (:,.h" direct) increases WIth
Increase of the ratIo between the supply and departure pressures for
the umt, and also "'Ith lessening of the mdlvidual stage effiCIenCIeS
The work output of the unit equals, however, the summatIOn of those
for the indiVIdual stages.
For convenIent accounting of this SItuation it IS the prnclIce to
employ a ratIO knm\'ll conventionally, although perhaps inappropri-
ately, as a reheat factor and defined as
2:6.h" individual
Reheat f actor = _ - - ' : ' - : - - - (17-18)
6.h" dIrect
For reasons noted above Its magmtlJue varIes and IS best uscertained
from data provided from the condItion curve or antiCIpated frolIl
expencnee It may range from the order of 1 05 whcn the overall
pressure ratio is moderate to tile order of 1 2 when the prcssure ratio
IS large and stage efficiencies arc moderate.
An alternatIve aspect of the reheat faclor IS that It expresses the
proportion by which the adIabatic effiCIency .senbable to the turbme
as a umt exceeds that which may be regarded as representative for
the mdlvldual sLages. From a more baSIC vIewpomt, the mfluence
expressed by the factor reflects the situation that such energy excess
as IS retamed in the flUId leaving a stage, by reason of mefficiency In
that stage, is stIll In part avaIlable for transformatIOn to work in
succeedmg st[1ges.
514 DYNA1\ILC "FORCES CHAP. 17
In the succeSSIve reaction stages of the conventional multistage com~
pressor of dynamic type, for whIch the condition curve is characterized
by lllcrease not only of entropy but also of enthalpy (Fig 17-18), a
summation of the enthalpy dlffercnucs on isentropic passage between the
terminal plessures of individual stages will agam exceed that for direct
isentropic passage from the initial state to the dehvery pressure. Thus a
r--------
Ab.
direct
,
Flg.17-18.
reheat factor continues to be a relevant and convenient parameter.

However, III the compressor its influence is wholly obstructive, in
contrast to that WIth the turbine More specifically,
For the turbine, WOll t/J = - J;ilh" llldlvldual X iJstallll
= - Ah" direct X reheat factor X ~!t4,e

where 77~to.rre denotes a representative mean value 6f the indIvidual ~tage
efficiencies, but
For the compressor, Win/J = ~t,.h'J individualjijatal'8
= D.h a) dIrect X reheat factor/Tilto.It(l
In the turbine a maximum work output is desired; m the compressor, a
mmimum work requirement Magnitudes of the factor ror mUltistage
dynamic compressors are aga.in a functlon of several influences, but are
normally appreciably greater than the tYPlCal magnitudes for the turbine
17-9. Propulsion by llIermol Jet. In preceding mntenal it has
been presumed that, m sItuations where work output 18 the objective,
it would be obtained through the agency either (1) of the pressure
ART. 17-9 PROPULSION BY THERMAL JET 515
force exerted by a confined flUId ,an a movmg pIston, as m the recip-
rocatmg-plston engine, or (2) of the pressure gradient across a con-
fined stream if forcibly diverted while en route through a moving
channel, as m the turbine
In both mstances the work energy is subsequently transmltted
through a stressed and rotating shaft. When the objectIve IS further
'that 01 propelhng some vehicle which also conveys the engine (i.e.,
"automotIVe" eqUIpment), that is readily accomplished if the asso-
CIated forces may ulllmately operate against some relatively unyield-
ing medIUm, such as the raIl or roadway which supports the vehicle
However Jor self-propulSIOn through a YIelding medIUm thIS facility
IS lacking, and instead use IS necessarIly made of the inertIal force
whieh resIsts a rearward acceleration eIther of some portIOn of the flUId
environs of the vehicle, or of a portion of its own cargo, or of both
In manne installations and, until relatively recently, m aIrborne
craft, the enforced rotation of the device known as the propeller has
generally served as the agency through which the dnving force IS pro-
VIded, and has acted to enforce rearward acceleration of a relatively
large stream of surrounding water or .mr More recently a sufficient
recogmtion of their thermodynamic and mechanical aspects has made
pOSSIble the practical development of airborne propulsive equipment
in which the energy stored elther In famillar fuels or in other energy
resources is utilIzed in a more direct manner. Such eqUIpment is
broadly classlfiable as (a) thermal-Jet eng,"es and (b) rocket motors.
The pre.sent arhcle deals pnmarlly wlth the first
1n an aircraft whICh is propelled by the thermal Jet a stream of aIr
enters from the atmosphere through whICh the craft is advancmg, fuel
which is a portIOn of its cargo is steadIly injected mto and burns in
thIS aIr stream, and the hot combustIOn products are caused to depart
in a rearwardly directed jet of conSIderable relative velocity The
power installatIOn dIffers in principle from thc elementary gas turbine
of Art. 14-2 only III that:
(a) The forward speed of the craft may be utilIzed for securing the
l]Iffuser or ram effect of Art. 16-13 and. consequent air pressure at
compressor entry somewhat in excess of atmospheric.
(b) The pressure range for which expansion IS provided in the tur-
bine is only suffiCIent for its power output to drIve the compressor.
(c) Completion of the expansion, to atmospheric pressure, IS through
an appended nozzle WhICh permits the rearward acceleration and de-
parting velOCIty that are reqUIred for effectmg the propulSIOn. On
DccaSlon 3 further veloclty lllcrement ]5 made possible by causmg a
51G DYNAMIC FORCES CHAP. 17
tempcratme flse, between turbme dlscharge and nozzle entrance,
through an "aftcr-injcctlOnll aUtl COlubustlOll of additIonal fuel
Figure 17-19 indicates the general character of the InstallatIOn and
the state changes of the aIr and combustIOn products en route Ex-
ample 17-6 illustrates thermodynamic aspects 01 such an mstallatlOn
T, 'R (4)/ h, prod

14,087
:: _:-_:-_:-~=====:Z1(.~ 11,752
1274 -------/..,~Jf6)
<;f\t. '1.:>;' /
9122
(1) r,§l / / Il,alr
(3),.,::If' o~.p:
"?-7- ~<,~~
~-?-______ 1l90
2010 ----
{ I f - - - -1099 - - - -
•
Fig 17-19 Thermal-Jet engme.
Example 17-6. An aucraH employmg thermal-Jet propulsion IS to operate

nt a speed of 400 knots (676 Cps) relatIve to the surroundlllg air at a (local)
pressure and temperstuT€ of 80 pSla and 460"R (O°P), Ie, a Ma(..'h number of
0643 AntIcipated operatmg features are as follows
Pressure coeffir.!lent, dIffuser, 080 (Art. 16-13, equatIOn 16-27),
Pressure ra.tlO, compressor, 511.
AdJababc effiCiency of compressor, 085, of turbme, 088
Veloclty coefficient, nozzle, 004. If SUperSOnIC, 097 If convelgent only.
PermiSSIble gas temperature, turbine entry, 1900 0 R (1440°F).
Heatmg value of fuel, IS,600 Dtu/lb from llnd at 'l'rF
Equlvalent formula mass of combustion products, 28 O.
For simphclty, regard the kmetIc energIes entering and lcavmg COmple~or or
turbme as relatIvely negligible, all st,tte changes as adiabatic, and the propertIes
of the combustwD products effectively as furnished by Table 4 of the gas tables
On these' preml~es determille the states at entry and departure for compressor
and for turblDe, and the velOCity, local temperllture, and Mach number of the
lea-vmg jet.
Solutton DlffuUT At hI = llYl D CLUJ 111 = G76 fps, awl With 1£2 neghgible,
h, ~ lOG 9 + (576)'/64 35J ~ liD 0 and T, ~ 498°R By FIg. 11\-7 or Table 30
of the gas tables, at.M 1 = 0.643, (pi/po, 1) = 0 760 and (P2). = 80/0 760 = 10 50
Thus P2.BI)tu&1 = 80+ 0 80(10 50 ~ 8.0) = 10 0 PSI&
Compressor. Ath2 = U90,Pr.2 "'" 1.044. Thus (Pr,a)s = 5 X 1044 = 5221 and
(h3l, ~ 188.7 Buth3,~tu.1 ~ 1190+ (188 7 - 1190)/0 85 ~ 1190 + 82 0 ~ 201.0
Btu/(Ib, au); T3.,IIC~UBI = 838°R (378(1}~), and 'U'aatusl = 820 Btu/Ob, ruT) Also
pa = 50 0 psia.
Combustor. By equatlOll3-14 and for product,lHlt T" == HlOOon, m,.(201.0 - 1283)
+ m, X 18,600 ~ (m. + m,)(14,087 - 3747)/28 9 nnd m,!mo ~ 0 D1565( ~1/64)
The material to whIch Table 4 relates ('onforms qwte closely to the combustion
. products of ~ representative hydrocarbon at this fuel-air ratIo,
AUT 17-9 PROPULSION BY THEH1I1AL .JET 517
Turlrtne Work lequlred, a~ 82 QUtu/lb(atr to compressor) = 820 X (64/65) =
80 8 Btu/lb or producb or Z335 Btu/mole of proau('L9. Thwhs = 14;087 - 2335 =
11,752 and T, ~ l"llon (1l31°F).
For an isentropIc cxpnlllllOn to Po, (hflh = 14,087 - 2335/088 ___ 11,434 ann
(Pr,6)" = 71.81 Thus, with pr,4 = 1554, Ps ::: (71 81(155 4)P4 = 23.1 psia..
Nozzle. At T6 = 16Il"R and pr,5 "" 7!.1.42, for nn isentropic expansion to 8 0 pSla
and a correspondIng pressute ratio of 23 1/80 or 2 89, (Pr,S), = 7!) 42/2.89 = 27.5
and (h,), ~ 8776 Tin",", ~ 0 94V64 35J(1l,752 - 8770)/28 9 ~ 001 X 2270
~ 2134 1p8, I" ~ 11,752 - (213!'/643W) X 28 V ~ 9122, 1', ~ 1274°11 (B14°F),
a, ~ V3217 X 136 X (IM4/289) X 1274 ~ 1722fpo,nndM, ~ 124
Use of a convergent-dlVergent nozzle IS thus Indicated, and the nozzle should have
IlII area ratlO A 6/ A * (by equatIOn lG-23, at k = 13G) of about 1 011) and an eXit area
53 t3 X 1274 )
A6 of ( 10157 "" 0 0281 .sq ft/(lb/~ec) of air mtake, or 180
2134 X 8 X 144
sq HI (lb/sec olluel)
TIus (omparcs with an origmol alr-strcam area o{ (53,34 X 4001076 X 8 X 144 =)
00315 sq ft!(lb/sec} of SIr Intake, If t.here were nClther convergen('c nor cilvcrgen('e
In the air stream nppl'oa.dullg the cliff U~CI (s<,e Fig H\-24), this would represent also
the diffuser entrance area A J
A merely convergent no~zlc W1U provide ac<'eleration thNelil only to J1 = 1.0 Al-
though such a nozzle WJ.ll be underexpanded It IS simpler physlcl1lly (Lnd not necessarIly
dIsadvantageous in these I1jlphcations, as E~ample 17-7 shows On such expansion of
the p,ouucts, 1',( ~ 1") ~ 21',/ (k + 1) and rat k ~ 1 34) ~ (2 X 1611)/2 34 ~
1377°lt, h, ~ 9916, P•• , ~ 42.74, and u,( ~ ao) ~ V6t 35J(11,752 - 9916)/28.9 ~
1784 fps, The attammg of thiS velOCity by IsentropIC expansion would corresponu
tn a pressure at nozzle e'{lt of 23 1 X (4274/7942), or 12.46 psm, But wlth a velol'lty
('ocfficient of (Lhout 0 97, for a Simply ('onvcrgent nozzle, the actual cut prC8'3Ure (P&)
would necessanly be RufficIently less that (h6) .. = 11,752 - (1784/097)2/64 35J X
28 9 ~ 9802, (P.,'). ~ 4098, and p, = 23 1 (4098/79 42) ~ 11.9 pSi. Cmrespond-
ingly, A, = 10157[(534 X 1377)/(1i 9 X 144 X 17S!)] ~ 0 D2!4 sq It/(lb/s.c) 01
air (versus, () 0281)
DynamlC aspects of the thermal-jet engine are of qlllte as defimte

concern as arc Its thermodynamic aspects, as Its utIhty hes in the
proviSIOn of a wall force which (a) operutes through the agency of
pressure forces imposed on the varIOUS mterIor surfaces wll1ch confine
the stream of aIr and combustIOn products, \\ohile It IS en route between
the entry and departure points of the stream, and (b) tends to enforce
a forward motion of the vehIcle which houses the InstallatIOn
The wall force, actIng on the mterwr surfaces, IS In eqUlhbflLlm
with a varIety of other collinear forces, or force components When
the engine and vehicle are m motion these include the following'
1. The mertIal force P, 01 the mass of the engme plus vehicle if accel-
eratmg hnearly.
2 The axial component of their gravIty force F,
a A frictional drag FI operating on the exterior surfaces of the
vehicle through the agency of viscous restraint in the boundary layer
between those surfaces and the aIr through which the velucle advances.
4. An aerodynamic drag associated wIth the flow pattern established
about the exterWr surfaces and a consequent dIstribution of (absolute)
pressures acting on those surfaces (i e., excludmg the apertures of area
Al and Ao which form the entry and departure channels of the engine)
The distrIbutIOn is characterized by pressures exceedmg atmospheric
on forward-facing surfaces and less than atmospherIC on rearward-
facing ones. The resulting force may be represented asJ P dA. or
alternatively as J (p - p,tm) dA. + P,tm(A o - Ad, where dA. de-
notes the axial proJection of any surface element and due attention
must be given to the dIrectIon of assoclated elementary forces.
Wnting the cotrespo!'ding equilibrium rebtion,
F. + F. + F, + PI + P.tm(A. - AI) + f (p - Patm) dA. = 0 (17-19)
But, while the wall force is in a gUlte real sense the primary propulsive
agency furnt8hed by the engme, a force correspondmg to the Item
P,tm(A. - AI) of relatIon 17-19 is lllvariably operatIve on the convey-
ance housing it. For that reason theIr sum, F w + Patm(A6 - AI), tS
conventlOnally regarded as a resultant propulstVe force F p An eqUIva-
lent equilIbrium equatlOn therefore becomes
F p + F. + Fp + PI + f (p - p.tm) dA, =0 (17-19al
Expressing the wall force in eonfonmty w1th equation 17-2 except as in

this lOstanee the dcpartmg mass exceeds that entermg by the amount of
the fuel cargo whICh is currently consumed but has lmtially a zero
. momentum relative to the vehICle, the value of F p thus becomes
Fp =. pult (P.tm)
1 - - - - p.A. (patm)
1 - -- !iz l
+ --UI - --u,
"'6
PI p. 32 17 32 17
(17-20)
or Rt7,!
= ml [ - -(1-
UI
P.tm)
- -
PI
+ 32.17
--
UI ] -!no [RoT.
-- ( 1
u. - +--
Palm)
- -
p.
u, ]
32.17
(17-20a)
and
= 3~~7(UI - ::uo) (l7-20b)
In a customary test procedure nn engine and its casing are mounted

hOflZontally on a stationary test stand, and they are restrained from
ART. 17-9 ,PltOPULSION BY TIIEHl\IAL JET 519
motlOn by a measured supplementary force F.. The merha, and the
gravity and drag forces arc not opcratlve, and the pressures on the
exterior surfaces ma.y be effectively atmospheflc throughout, Ie, in
equation 17-19a, (p - Pot .. ) = 0 In thlS situ.tlOlI the force relatIOn is
W. + P'tm(A o - At)] + F. = 0 (17-19b)
where the bracketed sum',. agam that referred to abol"e as the propul-
sive force but has now the slgmficance of a slatzc thTWlt.
Example 17-7 illustrates severnl of the above dynamic consIdera-
tIOns.
Example 17.7. For the thelfilUI-jet engwe of Example 17-6 determzne tlie
followmg Items, assuming for simplicity that there IS no convergence or divergence
to the diffuser entrance (a) The wall and propulMve for(.es, per pound per
second of air and of fuel Cb) The required air and fuel rates for providing a
propulSive force of 5000 lb, DoDd specific fuel consumptIOn, Obm/hr) IObf, thrust).
(c) The energy correspondmgly made efiecllve for propulsion, per pound of fuel
consumed, If advance IS at the specified rate of 676 fps (400 knots). (d) The
correspondmg thermal efficiency of propulSion. (e) The kInetIC energy of the
leavmg stream of products, the sum of thIS plus the propulSIVe output, and the
correBpondmg mechaDlcal effiCiency of propulSIOn Determme these both for
the use of the oonvergent-dlvergent n,ozzle nnd of the 8lmply convergent nozzle
Solulwn
Wtth Coovergenf,..[)wergrnl Noz.zlesj M 6 == 124
1'1 = 460 P, "Ill = (376 fp.!l, T6 == 1274°1t,
0
U6 == 2134 fps, and (rna + m,)/mr1,
1 + 1/64 ~ 1 0157( ~ m,/m,).
(a) By equation 17-20, but SUitably modified,
53 34 X 460 676 ) (53.4 X 1274 2134)

p. ~ ( 676 + 32 [7 - 1.0157 2[34 + 32 [7
~ (363 + 21 0) - (323 + 67.4) ~ -42 4Ib/(lb/,ec) of .ir,
m directIOn opposIte to that of the let, or
~ 42 4 X 64 ~ 2710 lb/ (lb/see) offuel
By equation 17-20b,
Pp ~ (676 - 1 0[57 X 2(34)/32.17 ~ -46 4Ib/(lb/sec) of ,Ir, or
2970 lb/(Ib/gec) 01 fuel
(b) ReqUired rates for propulsive force of 5000 Ib = 5000/46.4 = 1077 Ib of
rur/sec, or 1.685 Jb 01 fueJ/sec.
Specific fuel consumptIOn = 3600/2970 = 1 21lbm/hr per Ibf of thrust.
(c) Energy ma.de efI'edlve for propulsion = 46.4 X 676 == 31,400ft-Ibf/lbm of aIr,
or 2,OlO,OOO ft-Ihf(lbm of fuel.
(d) Thermal efficiency 01 propulSlon ~ 2,010,000
18,000 X 778
~ °1385(13.85')t,)0
(e) Absolute veloclty, leaving stream = 2134 - 676 = 1458 Ipsi correspondmg
kmetlc energy ~ ([458)'/64 35 ~ 33,100 ft-Ib/lb of products, or 2,120,000 ft-Ib/lb
of fuel.
AggregatemechulllcaiefTects = 2,010,000 + 2,120,000 = 4,130,OOOft-lbjlbofluel.
l\ferhanl('ai efficiency of propulsion = 201/4.13 = 0487 (487%).
Wtth Sl,mply Converging Nozzh:; .116 = 10
T6 = D
1377 R, and U6 == 1784 fps
(a)
} (53.34 X 400 676 ) (534 X 1377 1784)
"w = 676 + 32 17 - 1 0157 1784 + 32.17
= (363 + 21.0) - (419 + 5& 4) = -41.0 Ib/(lb/8ee) of air,

or 2&10 Ib/ Ob/,ec) of fuel
By f'quaLioli 17-20a,
Fp= (00+21.0) -[41 ~(1-8/1l9) +5().41
= -4U llbf(lb/,ee) of 01', or 3HOlb/ Ob(5Oc) of fuel
(1J) ReqUlretl rates = l0171b of air/s~cJ or 1 591h, fuel/sec.
Specific' fuel consumptIOn = 3600/3140 = 1.141bm/hr per Ibf, thrust.
Cc) Propulsive energy = 40 1 X 676 = 33,200 ft-Ib/(lb, aIr), Or 2.12 X 10 6

rt-Ib/(Ib, fuel).
. . . 2,120,000
(d) Thermal elll( lenry of propUl"lOl1 = = 0.145 (145%)
18,600 X 778 •
(e) Absolute leaving velOCity = 1784 - 676 = 1108 fps, corresponmng kinetic
energy = 19,100 fl-Ib/(lb, products), or 1,240,000 ft-Ib/(lb, fuel)
AggregaLc mechanIcal efiecte "" (212 + 124) X 10& = 3,360,000 f~lb/
(Ib, fuel).
Mechani('aI effiricncy of propulsion = 2 12/336 = 063 (63%)
. An mterestIng oh~ervahon In the ahove ('onncebOnEllS that, although the aggrc~l1te
mfOch.miral eITed", produced With the (.'onvergcnt nozzle IS considerably lesa, the
proportloll (hseanletl as kmetic energy In the departmg stream IS 8uffirlently reduced
that a greater proportIOn of the energy of the fuel becomes Rvrulable for propulSIOn
The results of Examples 17-6 and 17-7 mdICate the typically low
effiCiencies which are procurable mth thermal-Jet propulsion The
mechamcal cfficiency of propulslon of 50-60 per cent compares with
80 per cent and better obtamablc with a well-designed propeller. The
thermal effiCIency of 13-14 per cent compares ,nth ones of 20 to 25 per
cent obtamable WIth propeller-mternal-eombustlOn engine com bIlla-
tlOns. However, such poorer performance can frequently be tolerated
by reason of marked reducholls in weight, space, and frontal area
obtamable Wlth the thermal-Jet engine, and also of cumulatIve reduc-
tion in the reqUIred SIze and aSSOCIated drag of an aircraft conveying
the jet engme.
Several characteristics of Jet propulSIOn whICh become of direct
concern may be indicated suffiCiently, although \\'lth admitted approx-
ART. 17-9 PROPULSION BY THEHlIIAL JET 521
imatlOn, by utihzing equation 17-20b (i.e., at p, ~ Po ~ p.tm) and
regarding the relath'e entry velocity (u,) as effedn·ely equal to the
velocity of the plane (U), but neglectmg the added mass o'f fuel burned
With these restJ-ictlons,
ntU
Propuloive power = F.U ~ 32.1
--7 (u, - U) (17-21)
where tt, represents the jet velocIty relative to the plane (I.e J Uti m
equatIOll 17-20). Or, m terms of a dimenslOnless fOl('c parameter,
. 3217 u,
Propulsive force parameter = - - F, = U- 1 (17-21a)
mU
This rel.tlOn is represented by one of the two curves of Fig. 17-20 It
indIcates the general SItuatIOn that a poslhve propulsive force may
ex,st only if the jet exhaust velOCity exceeds the plane velOCIty, and
that the force Lncrenses With greater excess.
The mechanical efficiency of propubion, as found m the above
examples, represents the quotient of the useful propulSIve po~ er
dlVlded by the tot.l of the propul,slve power plus thc rate of kInctic
energy loss m the departIng stream. Acceptmg the approXlmatlOns
as above for propulsIve power, this becomes
l\Iechanical efficiency of propulsion = F

pU + m/u, pU- U)2/64 35
2U/u,
= 1 + V/u, (li-22)
This relation is also represented in FIg. 17-20 It indIcates the

general sltuatlOn that the excess of jet VelOClty over )llane velocity
(U/uJ < 1), WhLCh is required for the plOductJon of power, represents
a wastage of lunetIC energy III the stream leavmg the nozzle, with
Immediate dlsslpahon as turmOIl in the atmosphere. This Imposes
the situatIOn that not only actually but also m principle a 100 per
cent mechalllcal efficiency of propUlsion could be approached (m a
Yleldmg medium) only in the futile circumstance of a propulsive
power approaching zero
Example 17-8. Certam practIcal consequences of the above general con-
BlderatlOns c.:m be lllustrated by example. Thus, to adueve a mechamcal
effiCiency of propulsion of (sny) 070, as opposed to the vnlue 0487 oC
Example 17-7, the ratio udU IS necessanly reduced from (2134/676 _) 316 to a
value (1/0538 =) 1.86 (FIg. 17-20) correspondmg to a let velOCIty of 1258 Cps at
speCified plane velocity. There must be a correspondmg mcrease In the mass rate
of flow III the proportIOn (316-1)/(186-1), or some two and one-half tImes, to
obtam the same propulsIve power.
A further reqUlremen~ is that the compressor must delIver the mcreased rate of
flow at a much hIgher pressure For an apprOXimatIOn of the reqmred pressme
ratio, and emploYing the subscnpt signIficance of FIg 17-19, note that.
lep(T, - T,I - U'/6435 Jep(T, - 1",) - u,'/6435
If the small dIfference in IDass-flow rates through the compressor and turbIne IS
neglected, then U'~omp = U'turbID6, and
cp(T, - TIl - U'/64.35J - cp(7', - T,) - u,'/6435J
]0
, --------+------
I
,,I
I
tI
I
I
I
I
RatiO Plane velocity

Jet velOCity
F~G 17-20 Jet propulslOll perfOJrnance param~ters
However, the (terminal) temperature ratIO T3/T! for the ama.bat]c but Irreversible
compressIOn processes may be made to conform to an Item (pa/Pl)(n-ll "\ where
11 > k > 1 (see Art. 9-113) anclls of the order of 1 49 for the ovemll comprffiSIOnB of
Flg 17-HI Slmtlarly 1 but for adtabatl{' but mevennblE' expamHon between the same
pressure leveIll, k > n > 1, WIth n on the order of 1.28 So altering the last relatIOn.
u 2 _ U2
cpTd] - (p,/p!)' "J - cpT,[(p,/p,I' ~ - 1J - ~4 35J
Wlth representative values of the specific heats, and presummg the velOCItIes and
temperatures used In Examples 17-6 and 17-7, the la..'1t relatIOn WIll besatis6ed by a
pressure ratio P3/Pl of about 45, With compressor ratlO pa/P2 of about 36 Further
analYSIS would show aIllo that these CO'"1dltions might proVide a thermal effiCIency of
propulSIOn of only about 19%, VB the 14% III the e.\.amples, but requue a comprebsor
and turbme sufficlently larger to provide !1' power capacity some rone bme!; lU! great
ami a. flow capacity Borne two and ooe-h::l.!f tImes as great at those of Example' 17-7.
A; machlUes providing preHsure ratIOs and capacIties of the above

orders tend to nullIfy the advantages of thermal-jet propulslOn, lis
practlcal utility i~ m general lImited to situatIOns in whIch propulsIve
efficienCIes hecome of secondary concern. It may be observed in
these connectlOns that the propeller 18 capable of hIgher mechamcal
efficiency pflmarily because of Its abIlity to accelerate air at relatively
greater mass ratlO em), and so permIts lower eqUIvalent magmtudes of
u,/ U, and also that the reciprocatmg mternal-combustion engme is
capable of higher thermal effiCIenCies pflmarlly because of an ablllty to
operate at higher pressure ratios·
17-10. Problems. 1, AIr entels a sh!:Llght nozzle Via a hose to the end of whwh
the nozzle 18 a~tached, at 2750 pSla and 100°F, and e-xpands effectIvely IsentroplCaliy
through the nozzle to an atmosphenc dU'lcharge-reglOn pressure at 14 7 pS13 The
d18meter of hose and nozzle entrance 18 2.545111/ and of the nozzle throat IS 1.20 III
(a) Venfy by flow chart or gas tahles that these plessure and area ratios correspond
to entry to the nozzle at JI ==0130 and df'partureat.M = LOO, and thus themaxlmum
att,1lnable flow rate of 0 700 Ib/sec (b) Determme the magrutude and dIrectIOn of
the force actmg on the mterlOr surftlce.9 of the nozzle, by the use of each of equatIOns
17-1, 17-4, anu 17-7. (c) By use of the flow chart or gab tables prOVIde data sufficient
[or plottIng the pre:.sures (n.s ordwltte) versus the ana] projectIons of the wrrespond-
mg tramlVer~e areas of the nozzle, and compale the results of part b wlth the wtJ,lI
fon'e founJ hy determmmg the area under the resulting curve (1 e , Jp dA) (d)
Determme the character (I e , compreSSIve or terullle) and magmtude of the resultmg
force acrmg on the fasterungs between n(lz.iile and hose If the outSIde dl8meter of hose
and nozzle at entry IS 280m and the environmental pressure IS also 147 psia
(e) Determme the componputs of the wall force on the nozzle If (t were so cuneJ,
hetween entry and eXit sectIons, that the stream was diverted through 40°, and If
through 140r>, and report the effects also If in eIther instance the phLne of the eXit eUi!
of the nozzle were made parallel to the dIrectIOn of the entenng stream (j) R{'call-
ing that the above data related to flow at ma"umum rate, report tnt(! effeQt on the wal!
force on the straight nozzle If the rhscharge-reglOn pressure were reduced to 80 psm
(g) Determine the wall foroo If (1) !1t the 8 O-psia dlRcharge-reglOn pressure a straight
and suitably convergent-divergent nozzle enabled Isentropic flow, but also (2) If with
thIF latter noule a dIscharge-regIOn pressure of 14 7 pSla were encountered.
2 Adoptmg the supply-state, pressure, and nozzle speCIficatIOn of Example 17-3,
and for sImpitcity presuming L.'<entroplc flow throughout the impulse stage, determine
the suitable entrance and eXIt angle for a smgle row of symmf'tncal blades, and
draw the aSSOCIated vector diagram for a blade velocity 1 of the let velOCIty
Also determIne the relevant forces, power obtamed, and stage efficiency, comparmg
WIth the eVlllence of FIg. 17-12
3. Presummg for SimplIcity an isentropic flow throughout, carry out the reqUIre-
ments of Example 17-3 relatmg to an Impulse-turbine stage, but now WIth two rows
of symmetncal movmg blades and an mterpof;ed roW' of symmetrIcal statIOnary
blades Employ a tangential velOCIty for both moVIng rows of 22% of the lllltlal Jet
524 DYNA1IIC FORCES CHAP. 17
velocity, and draft a corre8pondmg vector dIagram for the stage, as 11Ius~rated in
FIg 17-13 Also compute the relevant forces on the blades (Ibfjlbm/sec), the
Individual and aggl egnte power dehvered (per Ib/sec), and the overal1 efficiency of the
stage.
4. General operatmg conditions and proposed pressure dlstnbution tor a 6-stage
resC'tion-type ga~ turbme when operatmg at rated lo.ad are as follows'
PI = 90 l'sia; Tl = 1510"F; 112 = 14.) psm, 50% reaction throughout
Pressure Distflbutions
1st stage, 00--798 psia 4th stage, 53 6--3!l 2 pSJa
2nd stage, 7D 8-675 pSUl. 5th stage, 302-25 8 pSUl.
3rd stnge, 675-536 pSla 6th stage, 258-14.5 psm
The workmg flmd differs sufficiently neglIgibly from air tha~ the a.lr table ma.y be
used. (a) Presummg adUl.I.)8tIc cffi.~lCncic.'! for the mdlvldunl stages of about 0 825,
and for present purposes neglectmg absolute entermg and Icnvmg velocitIes, deter-
mme the enthalpies and temperatures leavmg each singe and draft the con(htlOn
curve Also determme the cumulative isentropic enthalpy decreases (~llh, mdi-
vidual), the IIreheat factor" for the e>::pRnsion, o.nd the correspondmj;!; overall adla.-
batic efficiency. (II) Presume entry to the stationary channels of the linn.! stage
to be at the tempel nture Imhcated by your eomlitlOn curve, at 300 fp~ and 105° \Vllh
the direction of motion of the moving blade, a diverting of the stream through {)5 GO
III passage through the stationary channels, p, moving blade velOCity of 694 fps, and
blade contours simllar to the stntiollllry ones but OppO~ltc m orIenLnlIon (FIg 17-14.).
Develop the correspondmg vector dHl,gram, nnd uetermIne the pertinent forces on
the blades and power delIvered by the stage per lbjacc of gas, also the reqUisite
areas of the hladmg annulus at enttY to the statIOnary and departure from the moving
hlades, sq in, (Ib/sec) Venfy whether theRe blu.dmg speCIficatIOns gIve the stated
50 % reactIOn.
S Gencml operatIng condltions and proposed pressure distribution for a 10-&tage
R"\ial-flow air compressor when operating at rated 10a(I alC as follows
7'1 "" O°F, PI = 14 5 p~Ia.; P<J. = !)O psia
Pressure DistrIbutIon
1st stage, 14,5-207 6th stage, 52,1-60 4
2nd stage, 20 7-27 7 7 t h stage, 60 4-.68 6
3rd stage, 27,1-354 8th stage, 686-763
4th stage, 3S 4-43 7 9 t h stage, 763-83 5
5th stage, 43 7-52 1 10th stage, 83 5-DO 0
Ca) Presummg adiabatic effiCiencIes for the mdIvulual stages of about 0 826, de-
termme the enthalpleB and temperatures leavmg each stage, the cumulative Isen-
tropIC enthalpy differences and the cOru3equcnt "reheat factor" for the compreSSIOn,
and the overall adiabahc effiCIency (b) Presume that the stream entering the 5th
stage of the compressor has a (carryover) velOCity of 455 fps, is at 70° With the dIrec-
tion of motIOn of the movmg blades (angle a, Fig 17-16), that u, = 745 fps, and that
60% of enthalpy rise for the stage IS to be obtamed In the movmg channels Deter-
mme relatIve nlocittes entering and leavmg the movmg channels To prOVIde for
the remamder of the enthcllpy (and pressure) fLse for the stage in the stationary
channels, and presummg the flame velocity (455 fps) leaVIng the stage, what l\ ill be
the reqUISIte absolute velOCIty leavmg the moving channels, the swtable angular
onentatlon of the eXit channel of the moving hlade", <mll the absolute dlredlon leav-
ing and entermg the statIOnary channels? Draft the vel:tor (li,'lgrams for the stage
(c) Determme the drivmg forr'e on an{! the powet reqUired by the moving blades,
both per Ib/sec Uow rate
6 A turbojet IS assumed to be operating with pla.ne l\bcll number 0:2 at about
30 1000-ft altitude, with atmosphenc J.lressure 436 PSl8. and temperature 412°H,
Its IIqmd fuel, formula equivalent to (CH2)S, shows a lower heatmg value of 18,800
Btu/lb, nnd combustion chamber temperature (turbme mlet temperatme) IS 1550°F
'The compressor operates at 80% adiabatic efhclency, giVing a pressure raUo of 4 8
to 1 TurblDe effiCiency IS 0 85. The nozzle III convergent only, and sLow~ a velocity
coefficient of 0.97 Under these conditIons the diffuser ope18.t,cs with some velocity
nt Its throa.t, Bnd wIth a pressure coeffiCIent of 0 [) (a) Show the processes appro'l{l-
tnBtely to scale on T-h-IJ coordmates Cb) For the assumed operating comhtlOns,
and making other assumptIOns as necessary, finn the spcrdic fuel con~umptiOn In
pounds fuel per hour per pound of thrust (c) Fmd the effect of all aftcr-Lumer Hl
which the products leavmg the turLlne are heated to 2100~F before entering the
nozzle. Cd) nepeat for a. plane !IIach number of 0 8, WIth the VU,r10IlS pel form:lIlce
parameters remaining unchanged, but WIth through-flow dlrectly proportJ()nai to
cornbustwn-chamLer pressure and the dHfuser not nccess~lTlly flpeJatmg wlth sOllJe
velocity at Its throat. (e) Compute In each of the four \Il~tllnecs the thrust de-
veloped per square foot of nozzle e'l:hauHt arca
Index
A., see Helmholtz function AIr, equivalent formula mass, 157, 199
Absolute entropy, 93, 110 280
Absolute plessure. 10, 130 equwaJent ga.s coDStant, 157, 199, 200
Absolute temperature, conventional humId, clew-pomt temperature, 2]0
scales of, 86 dry· and wet-bulb tempf'ratllres.
energy and Jdeal gas scales of, 82, 89 212, 213
Absolute zero of temperature, 83, 86, h-x diagram for. 226
110 humidity indtce5. 204
AbsorptIOn refngeratlOn, 403 llygrometnc charts for, 206, 217
AcceleratIon, 7, {I, 17, 42, 235; 484, 495 potentIal temperoture, 220
Accumulator, steam, 149 properties and processes With, Bee
AcoustIc velocity, 417 mlXtures
Activity coefficient, 273 supersaturated. 205, 218
Adiabatic, definitlOc of, 6, 39 T-~ diagram for, 222
Adl8.batic effiCiency, compressor, 343, vutuai temperature, 23[, 234
513 hquefactlOn of, 400, 401
turbme, 187,319,321,333,345,497 requirements for combustion, 276, 280,
Adiabatic flame temperature, 305-309 283, 285
Adlabahe-isobarlc processes, 212-216 speCliic heat, Cp , ]62, 164, 166
.t wet bulb, 213, 215 specific beat ratiO, cp/c. (k), 162, 166
graphical representations , 214, 217, T-h-s diagram faT. 168
224 Air bank, 190
on revel'6ion from supersaturation, Air condltIonmg. 224-2'29, 396, 398
217, 218 energy and ma.ss aCQuntmg, 225, 226
through evaporlltroD, 212, 224 obJectJves, 224
AdiabatIc processes, irreversible, 104 repre~entahon to h-x coordmates, 228
exponential representation of, 187 Sigma function, 215
flow through ducts, 466-473 Air-fuel ratIO, Cram combustIOn-prod-
Ideal gn.ses, 185 ucts analYJSls, 284-287
UuotUlllg, 106, 147, 186, 265, 385 Ideal, see Alr~fuel mho, stoichlOmetnc
vapor, 147 in compresslOu-lgnitlon engme, 361
pseudo-, 23,1 in spark-Ignition engme, 371
reverolble, as isentropic, 95 stoichlOmetrlc, 281-283, 291, 371, 376
gas-vapor-droplet mIXtures, 220 Air intercooilng, 179, 180, 353
224 Air rate, gaB-turbme lllstallations. 347,
gaB-vapor mixtures, 219, 223, 233 353,354
ideal-gas mixtures, 200 Air-standard analyses, Brayton cycle,
idea] gases, 175 349
non.-Ideal grtses, 264 Diesel cycle, 366
vapors, 145 dual-combustIOn cycle, 377
j(wet" VB. Udry", 223, 232-234 gas-turbme cycle, 349
AdsorptlOn TefngeratlOn, 405 Otto cycle, 374
After~bumer, 516, 525 Alcohol, ethyl, formula for, 298
Air, composItIOn of, 200, 279 heating \·ulue t 291
527
528 INDEX
Alcohol, P, 1\ h,'1 data, 213 Berthelot (''IllatIOn of state, 246, 259,
AltImctlY, barometrJc, 230 262, 270
u::,e of 7'-p and T-s dIagrams Ln, 231, Blllele-speeJ ratIO, 502, 503, 507
232 Dladmg, os flow-channel boundarIes,
Amagat law, 198 491
Amencan SOCIety of Mecharucal compressor, 507-lill
Engmeers, 129, 293 shock wise (hokmg of, 511
Ammoma, al.lsorphon re-fngeratlon, olO-l ('onJuga.te, 50ti
aqueous, concentratlOn diagram, 405 dynamiC analysJs for, 491--49i
u.s n reillgcrant, 390, 404- symmetncai, 400, 501, 50·1
p-It dlll.gmm, 390 tmbme, 4.91
property representations, 388, 390 geneJal functlOlls of, 401-491
AnalYSIS, combustIon products, 284, Impulse type, 407-501
287 reactIOn (iIstnbutlOn In, 492, 507
fuels, 282 reactIOn type, 504-fi07
gas mixtures, mass VB. volume, 197 YCl!tor (velOCity) diagrams, 493
Argon, speCIfic heat of, 162 velOCity coefficlenL, 400
A~h and ,eiusc, carbon In, 280 wall-force functIOn utLhzatlOn, 495,
flom solid-fuel combustIOn, 278 497
Atmosphere, uitlmetry In, 230-232 warpeel, 497
as heat engme, 229 Blower, scavenger, 366
COmpOf'lltlOn of, 200, 279 Botler and furnace, availabIlIty ac-
temperature lapse rates In, 232, 234 countmg for, 338, 339
vel tIcal flow In, 233 effiCiency, thermal, 333
"-ertlcal stabilIty of, 234-237 energy dlstnbutlOn for, 292
Atmospheric mtrogen, 200, 279, 280 BOIler, as power plant equipment, 99,
A,-ailabihty accounting, for irrevers- 315
Ibdltles, 337 energy equation for, 38
of gas-tUi bine power plant, 357--359 thermal HrevelSlblhty nspect, 106,
of steam power plant, 337-40 339
AvailabIlIty (Dameus) functIOn (b), BOller noel superheater, prcssurc-t em-
liD, 147,337, 357, 409 per.lture assor Iabon, 321-323
AVaJhlblhty of energy, as released by Bomb calonmL'ter, 289
combustIOn, 337 Bmyton cycle, 349, 362, 368
defimtlOD of, 63 Bntlsh thermal um t, 16
medlalllCal meverslbility mfluence Bruges, 11G
on, 104, 107
thermal meverslbIhty mfluence on, CalOrIe, 16
l07, lOS, 327, 408, 409 Calonfie value, see Heatm~ values
Avogadro law, HJ8 CalorImeter, bomb, 289
AXIal thrust, turbIne rotor, 4.97 {uel, 55. 288, 289
throttlIng, 148
b, see A vaIiabIhty funchon Capacity, UllIt of refngeratwn, 383, 391
!Suck-pressure Yalve, 333 volumetrIC, of compressor, 391
lla,dger, 213 Carbon, air requireel for combustIon,
!Sa,rometnc altimetry, /lee Altlmctry 281,291
Beardsley, 162 atomIC mass, 280
BeaUle-Bndgman equation of state, heatmg value, 291
247 III ash, 278, 280
Bernoulh equation, 40 m fuel, 278
INDEX 529
Du bon dioxule, as indicator In com- ClauslU~, 79, 109, 114, 270, 381
bustiOn, 284 Clnu<llUs equation, 270
as rcfrlgerant, 390, 401 ClausIUS mequalIty, 114
(lit ical-state propertJes, 253 Clau~lU'3 secono-law statement, 109
eqUIlibrIUm constants, 297 Clau,;;uus-Clappyrcm e-quahon, 215
fOlmula ma.-..s, 280 ClealRnee Ipakage, tUI bme bladmg,
gas constant, 157 497,506
p-h di'agram, 138 Clem anc'(J I allO, IcclplOcatmg com-
solid. JHodurtion of, 401 JlI ('bS!)], 3[12
.:Ip(,(,lfi(' henls, and ratlO of, 162, 164, Clearance volume, 181, 360, 391
166 compresslOD-lgmtiOD engine, 360, 391
Cal bon-hydrogen ratIO, by products Closc(l-lycle gas tUlhme, 355
analysis, 285, 286 Cloud chambcr, 140, 205
m lYPlCal fuels, 283 Cloud lc\cl, 233
C •.uLon mODoxlde, cnhcal-state prop- Coal. heatmg "alne, 282
ertIes, 252, 255 hydl ogm-c~rbon ratIo, 282
eqUIlibrIUm constants, 297 Coefficient, blade velOCity, 499
rOimuh mllSS and gas constant, 157, cll.,(har~e, 439
280 J oule- Thomson, 267
beatmg value, 291 pres..<;ure, dlffu.'ler, 456
III combustIOn products, 278, 284, YelouLy, 438, 441
299-30~ Coefflclcnt of prrfOimance, Carnat heat
specific heats and ratio of, 162, 164, pump, 87, 380
166 clpfimllOll, 75
Carburetor, 213, 371 III IefllgeratlOll cycles, 387-308
Carnal, Sach, 72 Cumbmmg section. ejector, 457
Carnot cycle, 70-75, 326, 380 CumhustlOll, 277-309
Cmnot prmclplc, 77, 381 air can tJ 01 Ill, 284
C.-:tl rJ('r ('hart, 217 mr rcqmrement for, 280-283
Casmg, tUi bme, 491 as agency {or energy release, 277
Catn.iyst, 295 control by products analysis, 284
CelslUl'l temperature, 86 energy dIStrIbutIon, 291-293
Center, Instant, 489 enelgy eqllatlOns for, 55, 288
Cenhgrade temperature scnlc, 86 enthalpy of, 56, 309
Centrifugal force, 490 material;; a('countmg Ill, 279--287
ChemIcal energy, 25, 54, 277 temperature eellmgs 10, 304
Chemical equihbnllm, 2!J3-308 CombustIOn chamber, 305
III compression-lgmtlOn cngme, 362 CombustIOn products, analYSIS of, 284
III spark-igniLiOn engme, 373 dew pomt of, 281, 285, 289
tempemllire c€llmg due to, 294 equlhbnal ('omposltlOn of, 295, 298-
Chemical plocesses, energy equatIOns 304
for, 55, 288 flom rich and lean mixtures, 300-304
exothermIC VB endothelmlc, 55, 56 genewl natllle of. 278
Chokmg, III compressor, 511 Intel pretahon of analYSIS, 284--288
m diliuscr, 454 ::.peclfic heat of repre!o.entatIve, 163
In duds. 460. 173, 474, 476 temperatures of, 304-309
m nozzle, 423 With stOIchlometnc air, 279--283
Clapeyron equntwn. 131, 142, 215 CombustIon temperature, 304-309
Clapeyron (p-v) diagram, 135 Composlbon, 111r, 200, 279
Claude process, 402 fuels, 282
530 INDEX
CornpOSluon, of gWl IDlXture, mass, Constant-pressure proc:esses, see Iso-
molar and volumetric, 197, 198 banc proce811es
Compressed liquid, '128, 132, 137, 272 Constant-volume proceSbes, see Iso-
Compressed liqmd diagram, h-s, for m~tnc processes
water, 133 Contmulty equutlOn, 33, 414, 477, 496
Compressed liqUId table, Isothermal, ConvectIOn, 4, 26
for water, 133 Conversion table, energy umts, 18
Compres.<ablht.y factor, 248 Coolmg tower, 212
charts, for ethane, 244, 248 CorrectlOD factor, for mitlal velocity,
generalized, 250, 251 419
from Joule-Thomson data, 269 chart of, 435
Compressible flUId flow, 412-482 for Ideal gases, 426
Compression by diffuser, subsOnIC ap- for venturi meter, 434
proach, 450-454 Corresponding states, 246, 249
superSOllLC approach, 454-456 Co-volume, 245, 246
Compression-IgnItion 'engInes, 359- Cntlcal point, 127, 137, 245, 249, 253,
366 399
CompleSSl(m ill ejector, 454-461 CritICal pres:;ure, as fluid property, 245
CompreSSIOn ratlo, as volwnetric In flow, Fanno, 469
ratIo, 361 isentropic, 420-421
compresslOD.-igIlltlOD engme, 361, 362, isothermal, 474
369 Rayleigh, 475
efficiency mfiuence, 368, 379 table of, 253
spark-lgrubon engme, 372 Critical-pressure rallO In nozzle, 424
CompressIOn work, 10, 46, 48 CntlCal temperature, definitIOn of, 127
isothermal vs. isentropIc, 178 table of, 253
Compressors, 40, 491 CntIcal velOCity, I.:.entropic flow, 420
bladmg, 507-.111 lSothermal, 474
dynaDllc va posItive dISplacement, Crossover loss, 495, 498
50s Curt~ stage, impulse turbme, 504, 512
efficiency, 188, 391 Cycles, as senes of processes, 68
CondensatlOn, from combustion pro- Brayton, 349, 362, 3G8
ducts, 281, 282, 285, 289 Carnot heat engine, 70, 326
m humId and wet mixtures, 210-212, Carnot heat pump, 74, 380
219-222, 224, 233 Diesel, 35!h'l66
III supersaturated mI:xtures, 217, 218 dual-combustIon, 374, 377
Condenser, refrIgeratIOn cycles, 385, elementary gas-turbme, 00
386, 396 eleme[ltary steam-power, 69, 99
steam-power cycle, 99, 314, 316, 330 flUid YS machine, 68
Condition curve, 512 Otto, 37!h'l74
compressor, 514 Rankme, 313
turbme, 513 refrigeratIOn, 380-400
ConilitJOD llne, regenerative Ieed- regenerati'Ve.325--332
heaLing cycle, 328 reheatIng, 323-325
Conduction of heat, 4, 39 reversIble, 70
Conical shock, 449 as availability meter, 82
Conjugate bladmg, 505, 507 CyclIC integral, 1m, 110
Conservation of energy, see FJrst law of
therrnodynam1Cs DaJley and Wood charti3, 431
Conservation of m~, 21, 33, 279, 414 Dalton law, 197
INDEX 531
Dameus (avaIlabIlIty) function, 111, Dry Ice, 401
1337-339, 357, 409 Dryness fractIon, 127
DavIs, 129 Dual-combustIOn cycle, 374, 377
Dense-alf refngeratJOD. 395 Duct flow, 412, 461-475
Density, 28, 416 approXltnate formulas for, 464, 465
DerIvatives, parbaJ, 54, 117, 130 chokIng, 469, 473, 476
DetonatJOD, In spark-lgmtIOn engIne, JU/T. mdcx, HI, 472
372 Isothermal, 473
Dew pomt, defimtlOn, 210 mean velOCity, 438
of combustion products, 284 shock In, 472, 473
DIagonal (two-{hmenBlonal) shock, 445, WIth subsoruc entry, 466--468
449 WIth supersoDlc entry, 469, 472
DIagram effiCIency, turbme bladmg, DynamIC analyslS, steady-fiow, 483
500, 506 DynamIC equation, ste!ldy-fiow, 41
DIagrams, thermodynamiC, 133 DynamiC force, 483
as projections of surfaces, 126 components of, 485
CrT, Ideal gases, 164, 166 pressure and velOCity forces, 484
generatIon of, from primary data,
271 Eastman, ED, 162
(h-h,)., compressed water, 133 EconomIzer, 315
h-s, water, 137 Effectiveness, heat exchanger, 350, 351
h-v, 135, 467 Effects, fnctlOnal, 43, 101, 185, 229, 462
h-x, hunlld aIr, 226 heat, 36
hygrometric, monopressure, 218 internal, 36
multIpressure, 206 mechaDical, 36
p-h, ammOnia, 390 EffiCIency, adlUbaiIc, 187,319,373,513
carbon dIOXIde, 138 Carnot heat engme, 73, 87
p-v, air, 118, 159 definItIOn, 73
water, 135 dmgram, bladmg, 500, 506
T-h-e-s, air, 168 dl.ffuser, 456
T-p~-z, humid air, 206, 218 ejector, 460
T-8, general attnbutes of, 96 mechalllcal, 366
humid aIr, 222, 223 nozzle, 439
water, 137 of compreSSIDn, 188
Diesel cycle, 359, 361 of expansIOn, 187
au-standard, 367 reversible cycles, 78-82
vs dual-combustIOn cycle, 375, 376 stage, turbme, 497
Diesel fuel, hydrogen-carbon ratio, 282 temperature influence on, 80, 81, 88
Differential and deflvatIves, exact, 43 thermal,73
partud,54, 117, 120 VOlumetric, 378, 391
Diffuser, 412, 450-458 appa.rent, 392
efficiency, 456 power control by, 372
pressure cocffiment, 456 EJector, 456---461
With subSOniC entry, 450-454 effiCiency of, 461
With supersonic entry, 454--456 Electncal work, 15, 18
Diffuser section of ejector, 457 Electromagnetic spectrum, 5
Dimensional aspects of energy, 17 Ellenwood, 134, 467
Discharge coeffiCient, 439 Energy, ayu.Iiablhty of, see Availability
Dodge, B F., 247 of energy
Dry-bulb temperature, 213 chemical, 55, 277
532 INDEX
Enelgy, concept und definition, 2 EquilJblLum, at saturation, 126, 127, 139
heat, 3 chemical, see ChemICal eqUlhbnum
mternal, see Internal energy In combustion products, 293-308
nuclear, I, 276 EqULhbnum constants, 296, Z!J7
umts and table of, 6, 15, 18, 36 Ethane, compressLblhty of, 244, 2"-8
work, 6 cliticai stale properties, 253
Energy equations, 32, 35, 49, 54, 57 ~peclfic heat!!, 1132, 164, 166
Energy scale of temperature, 82, 89 Ethyl alcohol, see Alcohol, ethyl
Emmons, 431 Ethylene, cutlcal state propertLes, 253
Engme, 1, 39 EuleL equal!on, 42
atmo~phenc, 229 Evo.poratJOn, enthalpy of, 130
mternal combustion, 219 Exothermi(', 55
reclprocatmg, 152, 317, 342 I!}(panslOn mho, 369
Enthalpy, 37, 51, 54-58 effiCiency mftuence, DLesel cycle, 368
dpfimb.on,37 OUo cycle, 377
Ideal gas, 158, 202, 208 Exten~n'e propertIes, 28, 125
of combustion, formation, reaction, 56 ExtractIon steam-power cycle, 327-331
table, 201 energy balance, 336
non-J(leal gas, 254 on It-s coord mates, 332
pronunciation, 37
rewlual, 259 P, see Gibbs functIOn
Enl hl1lpy-entropy diagram, see ~ Fahrenheit temperat.ure scale, 86
dIagram Fannmg, see Fflchon factor
EnllollY, 91-121 Fauno hnc, 476, 469
as a property. 93, 97 Fanno-type flow, 466--473
absolute, 93, 110 chart for, 472
llS a constant for revclslble adm,· chokmg m, 469
balles, 95 [i'eedwatcr hf'atcr. 00, 315
resIdual, 260-262 [i'c{'dwatcr heatmg, regenerative, 325-
definition, m 332
Plonunciation of. 91 availability aspects, 317
Entropy changes, ga,s..vapor mixtures, Feedwater pump, 99, 313
208 FIrst law of thermodynamiCs, 21, 32, 49
general expleSSlOns for, 100, 102, 119 Flame temperature, 304-309
, Ideal gases, 165 Flame tube, 344, 475
in dllct Bow, 468 Flange taps, pressure, 441
meverslblhty effects, 103-100, 147, Flash mtercooler, 393
186, 443 Flow chart, 433
non-Ideal gases, 260-263 shock loop, 446
on miXing, 203 supplementary Isentropes, 4.J.2
shockwlse, 446 supplementary scales, 431, 471,4&8
sohds, hqUlds, and vapors, 130-139 Flow density, defimtlOn, 419
Entropy of energy, 91 Flow metenng, 433-442
a8 unavallabllIty index, 91, 103, 110 Flow nozzle, 433, 435, 440
growth of, 104, 113, 189, 293, 443 Flow of compreSSIble flUids, 413-481
Endothermic, 56 Flow regImes, 4~3-445, 473
Equations, general thermodynamLc, 273- Flow reiatlOllS, apprmumatioDs, 426, 465
275 ldeal gases, 425-433
EquatlOnB of state, Ideal gas, 155 m terms of Mach number, 429-430,
non-Ideal gases, 245-253 471, 47B, 487
INDEX 533
Flow leIatlOns, tables of, 426,428,430 Cases, Ideal, specific heats, 160-166
Flow wOIk, 13 non-local. see Non-Ideal gases
Force, as potentml for work, 2, 3, 6 CaRohne. heatmg vaJue of, 291
dynamic, 483-491 hydrogen-l'arbon ratio, 282
fnctional, 42, 48~, 517 Generalized property chal ts, non-Ideal
gravity, 6, 7,23, 230--235 gases, compIe8Slblitty, 250, 251
inertial, 5, 42, 484, 517 reMdual enthalpy, 25!)
plessure force, 10, 42, 485 resIdual entropy, 262
propulsive force, 518 resIdual speCific hea~, 270
storage of a standard, 7 Geopotcntml energy, 21, 31, 35, 36, 40,
Units of, 7 230-237
"velocity/' 485 Geyer, 170
wall, 484-488 Gibbs, WIllard, 114, 125, 162, 273
Formula mass, of gas ml'(tures, 199 GILbs (free enelgy) fun('tlOn (F), 114,
table of, 157, 280 275, 295
Four-cycle engmes, 35!) Goodenough, 120
vs, two-cycle, 366 Growth of entropy, 101, 113. 189
Free energy, see Gibbs fUllctlOn In chemical processes, 2~4
FrictIOn, as an mfluence, 12, 42, 60, 104,
189, 463-466 h-s (hagram, air, 168
effecl.s of, 44, 48, 49, 467-472 generatIon of, 271
fluid, 13, 463 water, 136
mechanical, 8, 9 Bend, bydJ auIlc, 4]
FrlctJon factor, 463 Hcnt, 3-G
JL',/TI, 471 defimtlOn of, 4
Fuels, as energy resource, 277 speCific, see SpeCIfic hf'ats
combustion of, 277-311 umts of, table, 18
composltlOn of, 278, 280, 282 Heat balance, 333, 357
heatmg values of, 288-291 Heat content, .'lee allw Enthalpy
hydrogen-carbon ratIO, 282 heat exchanger, 350, 351
stOichIOmetric percentages, 286 IIeat pump, 74, 87, 380-409
FugaCity, 2i3 Heat rate, 320, 325, 332
Heater, eff'ectlvcness, 35L
(j,as gra.vltatlOnal force per umt mass, 7 feed water, 99
Cahleo, 81 regeneratIve, 327, 350
Gas constants, equl\'alent for gas mix- Heatmg valnes, 288--292
tures, 199 constant-pressure vs constllnt-vol~
mdlvldual vs molur, 156 ume, 288
t,bre of, 157 higher Vl'l lower, 289, 290
Gas tables, 169-172,308, 426, 447, 471, lable of, 291
488 Helium, 157, 162, 164, 166. 253, 254
Ca.,_turblllc power plant, 342-359 Helmholtz (free energy) functIOn, (A),
performance Cluns, 348, 352 114, 275, 295
Ga~e'!, Ideal, 155-195 Horsepower, defillltlOn, 16
us basiC thermometric medIUm, &5 mdwated, ::165
energy-property relatIOns for, 157- Hottel, He, 300, 367
167 Hougen, 0 A, 250
mixtures- of, 196--203 Humid mixture, defillitIon, 204
property tables, 169 Humidity control, aIr condltlOllmg, 229
representatnre surfaces, 118 Humldlty mdlces, 204
534 INDEX
Hydrauhc radlUB, 462, 463 IrreversibIlIty, thermal, external, 106
Hydrogen, 151, 162, 164, 166, 253, 254, internal, 107
280, 297, 303 IrrotntlOnal flow, 453
heating value, 291 Iscnthaiplc processes, as thlottlmg
III combustion products, 278, 297 proces:l, 147
In fuels, 278 ID Joule-Thomson apparatus, 267
I1ytlrogen-carbon ratio In fuels, table, m wet-vapor calonmeter, 148
282 With non-ideal gas, 265
products analysIs, 285, 286 IsentropIc flow, 415-417
Hydroxyl, 297, 303 In Ideal nozzle, 417-423
Hygrometer, dew-pomt, 211 relatIOns for, 425-428
wet-bulb, 213 IsentropIC processes, 05, 145
Hygrometnc chart, monopressure, 217 as reversible tuhabatIc, 95
mulhpressure, 206 compressed hqUId, 133
gas-vapor mixtures, 219, 223
Ice pOInt, 86 Ideal gases, 175
Ideal an reqUlremenLs, 281-283, 286 Ideal-gas mixtures, 203
Ideal gus, defimtiOn, 155, 243 nOll-ideal gases, 264
See al80 Gases, Ideal vapors, 145
Ideal process VB actual, 5, 8, 9, 13, 63 I"obanc adiabatic process, saturation
lmep, 365 by evaporailOn, 212, 224
Impact tube, 433, 436, 437, 455 desupersaturatton r 218
Imperfect gas, 155 Isobanc processes, 51, IH
See ako Non-Ideal gaaes gaS-vapor rnIxtures, 209, 210, 223
Impulse bladmg, 497-504 Ideal gases, 160, 174
Impulse functIOn (FIP*), 487, 488 lIqUId-vapor states, 144
Impulse stage, 492 non-ideal gases, 264-
Illdlcated mean effective pressure, 367 Isometric processes, 51, 143
Indicator diagram, 1&1 gas-vapor mlxtul cs, 209, 210, 223
Induction efficiency, 378, 391 Ideal gases, 161, 173
Industrial Revolution, 1,312 lIqUId-vapor slates, 143
Inequality of Clausius, 111 notl-ldeal gases, 2Gij
Inertia, 8 Isothermal flow in ducts, 473
Inexact dlfJerenhal, 43 Isothermal PIOCCSSCS, Ideal gas, 175, 178
Initial-velOCity correctIon, 419, 4.26, 434 nOll-Ideal gas, 263
InjectIOn rutlO, DIesel cycle, 308, 370 Isothermal throttling, 267
IntenSity vanables, 28, 125
Intercooler. 178,353,393 Jet. 412
tnterna.l energy, 24, 52, 54 Jet propulsion, 514-523
Ideal gas, 157, 202 Joule, 16, 158
International temperature scale, 86 Joule (energy umt), 18
Interstage pressure, 353 Joule eqUlvalent (J), 17,256
InversIOn, III atmosphere, 235 Joule e:xperlment, 158
InversIon temperature, 267, 400 Joule-Thomson coeffiCients, 267
IrreverSIblhty, 8, 12, 64, 147 Joule-Thomson effect, 148, 158,266-269,
concept and cnten!1, 13, 65--68 399
entropy growth lU, 103, 185 Joule-Thomson expellInent, 148, 266
III cycle performance, 327
'mechanical, 71, 103 k, chart of values, 166
thermal,68, 71, 106-109, 327 definition, 165
INDEX 535
k, table of values, 162 Mixture ratio, definition, 204
K,., eqUIlIbrium constant. chart of, 297 MIXtures, equivalent g'!S constant, 199
Kay, 253 gas-vapor, 204-218, 237
Kaye, 170, 4:l2 Ideal gascs, eqUIvalent formula mass,
Keenan, 129,170,247,432 200
Kelley, K K, 162 non-ideal go.ses, 252-254
Kelvlll, 82, 84, 89, 109, 158, 405 saturated, 126, 131-135
Kelvlll temperature, 86 thermodynamIC propertIes of, 19'.}-2o.'l
Keyes, 129, 247 Molar compositlOn, gas mIxtures, 197,
Kiefer and Kmney, flow chart, 431 198
KmeUc e~ergy, 23, 2.,13 of alT, 279
of monng stream, 413 Molar gas constant, 156
Mole, defimtlon, 279
Lapse rate, of temperature, 232 Molecular weight, 156
Latent heat, 130 lfollter diagram, see h-s diagram
Lean-ml''(ture combu~tion, 300-302 MonatomIC hydrogen ami oxygen, 297,
Lmde process, 399 303
LIquid, compressed, 132, 157 Momentum equatIon, 459, 477
saturated, 127 Momentum transfer, ejector, 457
supercooled, 142 ~Iultlpressure hygrometric chart, 207
superheated, 141
LIqUId aIr, 399 N A C A tables, 431
Loadmg lU ali condlbonmg, 226 Neon, specific heat of, 164
Lorol temperature and pressure, 413 Nernst, 110
Lower heatmg value, 289 N ewcornen, 1
table of, 291 Newton's second law of motion, 7
N ltrogen, 157, 162, 164, 166, 253, 280
Mach number, 417 as diluent m combustIOn, 304
Mackey, 134, 213, 467 atmosphenc, 200, 279, 280
J\lalthus, law of, 109 Non-flow processes, 4!l
Marks, 129 Non-Ideal gases, 242-276
Mass, concept of, 7 equations of state, 243-247
formula, atomIC and molecular, 157, generahzed characteristics, 249-251,
279 259, 262
Ma.ss velocity. defimtion of, 419 mIxtures of, 252-254
Material balance, 280, 298 processes WIth, 263-266
Maxwell relations, 116-119, 158, 256- specmc heats of, 273-275
261, 275 thermodynamIC propertIes of, 254--
McCabe, 213 263, 267-273
u1fean" pressure and speclfic \"olume, NOimal (one-dImensIOnal) shock, 444-
47 448,477-479
IIMenn" specific heats (c p ), 163, 166 lD dLtluser, 452
IIMean" velocity, 414, 438 in duct, 472
Mecharucal work, 6 lD ejector, 459
Mercury cycle, 323 In nozzle, 444, 447
Metastable states, 139-142 Nozzle, 39, 412
reversIOn to equdlbrmm, 217-221 de Laval, 418
Meteorology, 229-237 efficiency of, 439
Methane, 157, IG2, 164, 166, 253, 282, 291 flow relatlOns for m AI, 429, 430
Mrxmg, entropy growlh of, 203 In p- T, 424-428
\
\
536 INDEX
Nozzle, Ideal, 417-424 P(!Wf'r, Uf'fimtlOn and units, 15, 16
overe'Xpanrled, 445-450 Power stroke, 364. 365
performanre chaI[Lctem,Llf'.'l, -138, 440 Prandtl tube, 437
shape reqUirement~, IsentropIC flow, PrelgmtlOn, 372
418-420 Prfl.'..Sure, as wtenslre rwperty, 28
underexpanded, 439 at ClltluLi .~tate, pe, 245, 253
Llill('al, p*, m flow, 420, 469,474
Obhlj_ue (two-dlmemllonal) shock, 445, mean effeeilV€, 365
449 two-eyrie vs fOLH~('yele, 356
weak \":, strong, 450 l(.dllceu, 245
One-Ulmenl"lOIUl shock, see Normal stagnatlOu vs local, 413
shork Ple~lIre coefficIent, dIffuser, 456
Open-cycle gas-tUlbme plant. 342-354 for Ideal gas, 89
Open ~ystem, 57 PICkbUJe force, 485. 491
Onfice .flow meter, 39, 441 on piston face, 364
Qumt ana[Y~ls, mterpretatlOn of. 198, Proce'<l"Cs. defimtlon of, 32
284-287 non-aciJabatIc and lrrever':>lble, 188-
Otto eyrIe, 370-374 100
throttled. 376 non-flow, 49
O\'ert:!xpanded nozzlE', 445-450 fppresen talive, 142
Oxygen. 157. 163, 164, 166, 253, 280 rf'Vennblilty of, 63-68
18fjlllrernents for combushon, 280--283 ff>illI-flow, 57, 149, 190
s/eaJy flow, 34---45
p dv, 10, 44, 46, 175--177 See al.so Isenthalplc processes, Isen-
[L'l piston-work evaluatIOn, 11 tropH': processes, Isob3t1c pro-
mtegrated formulas for, 48, 175, 177 ct'~se"" I<lometm' processes,
hmltatlOll m slgmncance, 44 Isothermal pro('el"o,cs
P-h dmgram, ammoDla, 390 Process-steam. aC('Quntmg of, 409
carbon dIOXide, 136 Propel hes, lhermotiynamlc, 26, 124
Part1al pressure, defimtlOl1, 146 as pomt functIOn, 27, 43, 117, 121
of ga&-vapor mlXtures, 20,1 denved, 274
P.lth functIOn, 43 exteIlI'IIYe vs mtensm..!. 28. 125, 131
Peded gas, see Ideal gases PropulSIOn In Ylel(img medIUm, 515
Perpetu[ll motIon. 70 PropulsiVE> power, 521. 522
Pha::-'e change, Clapeyron relation for, Pl'leuuQ('ntirul and rrtiucrd values, 252
131, 142 Pl'lychromctnc-chart. 206, 217
Phrtsf' dlag;nm, 126 Pumpmg loop 317
Pha~e rule, 125, 255
PI"ton work. 10, 11 Quahtv, of t'Ilef!!:If'S, 63
pOlytlOP1C plOf'eSSeS with, lSI of h4uJri-vapor mixture, 127, 131
Pltot tube, SUbSOUIC, 437 of ",team. 127, 148
supersomc, 454 m Rankme cycle, 321
Planck, M, 11, 109, 110
Pomt functIOn. 27, 43, 117'-121 r~, hydlauhc radIUS, 462, 463
PolytropIC proces5es, defimtlOn, 181 RalhatlOn, 4. 3q
1 elatlOns fOf, 183 Ibdms. hydraulw, 463
Potential energy, 21, 45, 230 Ram effect, 450
Pound, dual usage, 7, 9 llankme, 86
Pound atom. 279 Rankme cyl'le, 313-323
Pound mole, 279 avullabdity accountmg. 339
IXDEX 537
Ra.nkme ('yelp, encigy b.1lnnce for, RevelSI~llhty, entropy w"llccth, UI, 103
333-335 Revcr.<;lOll from ~upeH,atUl l1tlOn, mlx-
pciformancf' mlilws, 317 tUle, 140,217
Rankme temw'rature, 813 Reynold;" number, 439, 441. 453
Rate, air, 347-349, 352, 354- Rlth-mn:twp LOmhu~t!On, 300
fuel, 336, 347, 352, 354
heat, 320-326, 331, 332 $atleifield, C K, 300, 367
btf'llm, 320, 326, 331 S,lturatf'ti gas-yarol ll11xturf', 204
Rate,'tu stage, 504 Saturateu statf', 12;'-129, 131, 135, 137
Raylt'lgh equahon, 475 SaturatIOn, 127, 128
Rayl(,lgh lme, 475, 476, 470 tkayen~el blower, 366
Rayleigh-type flow, 474 ~C( on(llilw of lhcrmullyn;unlu" 79, 109,
He:tellOn, (hemIcal 381
puuolhclmlc vs exothermic, 55 RemI-doR'd ('Y( Ie, 355
pulll.11py of. 56, 288 Senll-flow pro('ef,~, 57, 140
pel centage of, 492, 509, 512 llicit! ga::;efo, 190
Reachon bladmg;, 492, 504 ~!taft wOlk, 14, 46
Reachon stage, 492 1':lhock, 4H--479
ReceIVer, heat-engme cycles, 69, 82 andl'y~ls of, 477
Renprocatmg compresSOr, 301, 392 normal, 444-448, 4,52, 459, 472, .Joi7
RectIfier, In ahsorphon refrIgerahon, 404 obhque, 445, 449
Rerlw'ed pre:"bures and temperatures, ::-lhroud nng, turbme, 491
245, 219, 252 Sigma functIOn, 215
Reduung Yalve, 39, 147, 333 ~ohd ~tate, wa,tel, 130
Refrigerants, r1roperbes of, 388, 390 ~omc velOCity, 416
Refngeratmg l'apaclty, 383 SOUHC, ht'at-en,!!;llle cycles, 6\), 82
RefrIgeratIon, 74, 380-409 ,sp,\l!;' heutmg, 406
absorptIon system, 403 t5park-lgllltlOn engInes, 370-373
hy heat supply, 402-403 SpecIfic Ilf'.1t..", 53
by mechanIf'al energy suppJy, 384-402 Ideal gnc,:p.", ]62, 164, 166
lierue-,:m sYl-otem, 397 mean "-alues, 163, 165
low temperat.mefl, 399 mlXtm ~ of gaf;es, 201
steam-let bJ1,tem, 396 nun-Ideal gas-cf", 269
With condensmg fImd, 384-395 pret-f"U1€ miIU€llf'f' on, 26$1
Regenerative aIr heatIng, 350 t'5peufic volume, 28, 171
Rr:'gcnemtl"-e Ieed heatmg, 325--a32 ~tablilty In J.tlllo.<;phel€, 234
Rf'gllne.<; In ('omprp.~.~lhlc-flUill fiow, Stage effif'len('y, 497, 500
443-445, 473 Rtaged rompreRRIOn, 180, 355
Reheat factor, compref>~or, 514 StageR, III comple:,,:o,or, 508, 50!), 511
tm bille, 513, 514 III turbIne, 492, 504, 512
Reheatmg cyde, gas tuJiJllle, 3.53 ~tJ,gnatJ(ln PIC%Ul€ and tCIIlI'€wture,
steam tUlbm€, 323, 324 413
Relatn-e humidity, 204 Standaru ('ommerclal ton of refllgela-
Residua] enth,:tipy, chal t, 359 hon, 383
Residual entl ap)' chart, 262 R1ate, cfltIcal. 127
ResIdual functIOns, 254-263, 269 equJ.tiOns of, 129, 243-247
Re1'll{luai specific heat chart, 270 metastahle, 139
UN-Eued cydcs, 73, 380 tJJermodyn.2mlC, 23, 26
Revel~lbdlty, 13,65,73, gl, 103 :Stale chanl};€s, 50, 98
Lrltena of, 13, 65 State functIons, 27, 43
,538 INDEX
States, corresponding, 246, 249 Tempera.twe, scales oI, 86
StatIC temperature, 413 stagnatIOn vs. loca.l, 413
Steady flow. 33 virtual, 231
dynamlC analysIs, 4l-45, 4S3--489 Tempera.ture engIne, 87
energy equatIOns for, 34--36, 38-41, Temperature-entropy diagram, dry air,
288, 412, 477 IG8
III combustIOn, 54-56, 288 mOlst Ulf, 222
reqUlrements for isentropIc, 415-417 steam, 134
specllicatlOll'3 of, 33 Tephlgram, 222
Steam, see Water Th('or~m of correspondmg states, 246,
Steam accumulator, 149 249
Steam pomt, 86 Thcrmal capacity, 53,255
Steam rates, 320, 322, 324, 326, 331 Thermal efficiency, CJ.rnoL, 87
Stearn tables, 129, 2~7 definltion of, 73
StOlchlOmetrlc BIT requirement, 281-283, power-plant cyc1es, 320-377
286 Thermal irrevenubillty, 6&-68, 327
StOIchIOmetnc coefficients, 288, 296 Thermal Jet, 514
StOlchIOmetry, 55, 281-288 Thermodynamic diagrams, air, 168,222
Sllbcooled hquid, Bee Compressed lIquid ammODIS, 390
Subhma.tlOn, 127, 130, 401 carbon dIOXide, 138
Sulfur dlOJnde, 157, 253, 280, 288-290, generatJon of, 271
297 steam, 134, 136
Sulfur m fuels, 278, 282, 287, 290 Thermodynamics, I, 28
Superchargmg, 360, 376 atmospherIc, 229
Supercooled hqUlu, 13\), 142 first law, 78, 109
Supercooled mn::ture, 204 second law, 79, 109
Superheat, 128. 132, 135 third law, 93, 110
Sup'erheated llqllld, 141 Thermometry, 84-86, 89
Superheated vapor, 128, 132 ThIrd law of thermodynamiCS, 93, 110
lD steam cycles, 318, 323 Throat, In nozzle, 418, 433
Superheater, 99, 315, 323 Throttled Otto cycle, 376
Supersaturated Hlpor, 139, 204 ThrottImg calOtimeter, 148
reversIOn of, 140, 217 Throttlwg process, 39, 147
Surfaces, thermodynamic, 118, 126 Ideal gas, 186
Sweigert, 162 Joule-Thomson experiment, 266
System, 31 non~ldeal gas, 265
open, 57 Through-flow, dIffuser, 453
Ton of refrIgeration, 383
T ds, 96 105 Tota] heat, see Enthalpy
1rernperature, 3, 27, 63, 125, 277, 312, Tnple pomt, 127, 137, 39el, 401
339 Turbme bladmg, 491
absolute, 83-88, llO Impulse, 497
as a potential, 3, 277 reaction, 504
as avn1io.blhty influence, 63, 80, 111, Two-dlmenslOnal shoek, see Obhque
339 shock
flame, 304
ideal-glUl, 84, 88 UnderexpanSlOn, 445
pJ)tentJal, 230 Umts of energy, 8, 12
reference levels for, 86 conversion table, 18
reduced, 245 Umts of force vs mass, i
INDEX 539
v dp, 43, 46, 48 WaU lorce, 484-489, 491
Ideal gases, 175, 177 Watson, 250
mtegrated iormulM, 48 Watt, 16
van der Waals, 243 Watt, James, 1
Vapor, 125, 127, 135 Warmmg machme, 405
saturated, 127, 141 Water, as refngerant, 390, 396
superheated, 128, 132 thermodynamiC diagrams for, 134,
supersaturated, ,139, 204 136
Vapor compressIOn dIstillatIOn, 408 thermodynamiC properlIeS, 157, 162,
Vector diagrams, 4.86-504. 164, 166, 253, 254, 280, 297
apprOXImations tolerated, 493 Water-gas reactIOn, 297, 301
compressor bladmg, 50s ·Wave lengths, table of, .)
reaction turbine, 505 Weak obhque aback, 540
,reloClty, acoustic or sonic, 417 Wedge angle, 449
corrections for entermg, 4H), 426 Weight, 6
critical, as sonic, 420 Wet-bulb temperatUlc, 213
mean, 414, 438 Wet compreSSIOn, 146, 224, 407
measurement of, 433 Wet mixture, 204
relative, 494 Whirl, velocity of, 496, 510
traverse of, 434 Wilhams, G C, 300, 367
VoJOCJty coefficient, 43S WJlsOD cJoud chamber, HO, 205
Velocity compoundmg, 503-504 Wilson hne, 140
Velocity force, 4&5, 491 Work content, 116
Velocity of whIr], 496, 510 Work, converSIOn factors for, 18
VentJiatJoD, in alf conrullOnmg, 227 of cornpre'5$lOn and expanSion, 10,
Venturi meter. 39, 433, 443 45,48
Virial equations, 246 table of uni ts, 8, 12
Virtual temperature, 231 Work energy. 6
VISCOSity, 439, 463 Work ratio, 347, 349, 352, 354
Volume, speCific, 28
Volume, coeffiCient, S[) Z function, 248
Volumetnc efficiency, 378 lor mlx~uregJ 2.i3
apparent, 392 In hand s determlDatlons, 2;)7,
Vortex, 490, 491 261

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Principles of

PAUL J. KIEFER, A.B., B.S., J\I.E., D.Se.

GILDEllT FORD KINNEY, A.n., M.S., Ph.D.

J\IIJ,TON C. STUART, U.S. in M.E., M.E.

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., NEW YORK

All R,ghts Reserved

LLbrary of Congress Catalog Card Number: 54-10031

CH<\PTER 1 ENERGY IN TRANSITIOX

CH'P". 2, STORED EXERGY

CHAPTER 3 ENERGY EQUATIONS

3-9 .[2 vdp and _.[2 pdt, 46

PART II THE AVAILABILITY OF ENERGY

CHAPTER 5 THE CARNOT PRINCIPLE

PART III PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

8-2 Phase Rul~ 125

CHAPTER 9 PROPERTIES AND PROPERTY RELATIONS, IDEAL GASES

CHAPTER 10 PROPERTY AND PIWPERTY RELATIONS;

CHAPTeR 12 THERMODYNAMICS OF COMBUSTIO:\,

PART IV ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS

13.7 Availability Accountmg 337

CHAPTER 14 POWER-GE:\,ERATION CYCLES, NON-CONDENSING

CHAPTER 15 HEAT-PUMP AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES

CHAPTER 16, FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

CIHPTEH 17. DYNAMIC FORCES

Radio we. ves '" to 1 Electric oscIllatIOns In large

Work = JFdx (1-1)

or lV = F(x - xo) for a constant force (l-la)

In consequence of this familiar relation, amounts of energy in transi-

Force (F) a Mass (m) X Acceleration (a) or F = kma

Magnitudes of the numerical constant k as required when using vanous

In engineermg practlCe in the United States the mechanical unit of

A slgmficant observation pertaining to any of the above relations

Work again.t inertlal resistance = J F, dx = k J

its expanslOD. Tin. may typically occur in a cylinder and through

p existing in the fiUld becomes equal to pA, where p conforms to the

It will be advantageous, however, if the work is expressed in terms

A frequently useful graphical facility associated with relatIOn 1-5 is

It is to be noteo, however, that equation 1-5 for work of compres-

A parallel and important precautIOnary observation, but one that

flow of a fluid along a channel, or its introduction mto any region,

force of 1 dyne achng through" distance of 1 cm. The two definitions

..... '" ... E-!

...... '"'" "' '"

'" " '"

the compression of 1 Ib of propane from 10 atm to 60 atm under condItIons such

2·1. Foreword. An earlier article indicated the sUItable classIfi-

The work that is so expended must be regarded as subsequently stored

Wi .... = l' F, dz, of Art. 1-6, when this is

because of the complete haphazardness of the arrangement of the molecules the

2-10. Problems. 1 A muss of 10 lb is at an elevation of 40 ft above a given

3·1. Foreword. In Chapters 1 and 2 were developcd concepts of

Energy III transition lHeat Q against graVIty,

Work, W of compreSSion, - Jv.r

occurring in actual machmes it may frequently be neIther convenient

These devices take quite diversified forms and perform quite

Figure 3-1 represents a device through whICh, for simplicIty, a single

Energies entering via Energy entering or Energies, departing

(gZI +U~2 +e,)+ P,V, + ,W2(:::~') +,q2(:::~') = (gZ2+ ~2 +e2)+ P2V2

ThIS relation is so WIdely used in following analyses that its antecedents

must be made for accountmg of the relative energy magnitudes asso-

The foregoing examples are typical of the many and Important

Here the terms for geopotential energy are retamed.

This IS a form of the famlhar Bernoulh equation. The terms of the