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Author(s): R. S. Burington
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 47, No. 6 (Jun. - Jul., 1940), pp. 362-373
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2303633
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362 USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES [June-July,
2. Basic principles of wing theory [4, 5, 6]. The basic principle underlying
the construction of all flying machines is the property of a body (such as an in-
clined plane), when moving horizontally through the air, of experiencing a force
R which may be decomposed into two components, one called the drag D in
the direction of the airflow and the other called the lift L in a direction perpen-
dicular to the flow. (Fig. 1.) The angle between the direction of the flow and the
FIG. 1
force R exerted on the body is a function of the geometrical shape and position
of the body with respect to its motion. The lift is essential for carrying the air-
plane but the drag is largely undesired and must be compensated for by the
thrust of the propeller.
The drag is largely due to the friction of the air along the airfoil and to the
* Extracted from an illustrated lecture given to the Ohio Section of the Mathematical Associa-
tion of America, April 8, 1939.
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1940] USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES 363
p + 2pU2 = Po + 2pv2,
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364 USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES [June-July,
d(-) da"
(2) ()
defines a function i(S, ) known as the stream function. If (2) holds, the fluid is
incompressible.
L yB(c id)
V'
FIG. 2
and conversely, and the motion of the fluid is then said to be irrotational. When
(5) holds the integral
r (xY)
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1940] USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES 365
(7) F + i J
dF ad a4,
(8) d= - + i- =X- iv.
The curves of the family =c1, a constant, are called stream lines, and the
curves of the family ?$ = c2, a constant, are known as potential lines. These fami-
lies are mutually orthogonal.
The simple types of generalized potentials are well known. For a fluid flow-
ing with a uniform velocity Ue+ia, U and a being real, the potential is
FRz=R+iV/R= Ue-ia; for a simple source of strength m (real) at Do,
tial is F8 = (m/2r) log (D - to); for a vortex of circulation F (real) and center at
to, the potential outside a circular barrier of radius a and center to is Fv=
-(iP/2wx) log (D-Po)/a; for a doublet whose axis is the line of angle a with the
i-axis and of moment M at 0o, the potential is FD -Me i/( - 0).
If F1, , Fn are n generalized potentials then any linear combination of
these is also a generalized potential, hence by superposition of simple potential
flows, flow fields of various degrees of complexity can be constructed.
0w t~
go
FIG. 3
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366 USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES [June-July,
We require that the flow across the boundary of the circle v-0o=aeil be zero.
This means that for v on this circle, ik = O. From (9), we then find that M= Ua2.
The velocity function for this flow is
dF Ua2eia ir 1
(10) - = Ue-ia ? = U-iV, .
The velocity at infinity in this case is Ueia. Figure 3 illustrates this case. Note
the barrier circle and barrier lines emanating from the stagnation points P and
p.
From Bernoulli's theorem and the relation
the total resultant force R due to pressure on the circular boundary =re il can
be calculated. When a =O, we find
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1940] USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES 367
of the earlier work of Lord Rayleigh, Kutta (1902) calculated the stream lines
around an airfoil using conformal mapping. This method has proved to be of
great value, though by the nature of the mathematics used, the method is largely
restricted to two-dimensional cases.
The theory of the two-dimensional flow of an incompressible ideal fluid
around wing sections is based on the following principles.
We suppose that the potential function for a plane flow about a profile G of
boundary G in the A-plane (Fig. 4) is known and is
AA
FIG. 4
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368 USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES [June-July,
Since for each v on G, V(t, )=0, and F(P) is real, it follows from (15) and
(a) that T'(x, y) = 0, for all points on P, so that the flow across P is zero.
The velocity function for the flow in the c-plane is dF/d=u-iv=w?, and
for the new flow in the z-plane is
dF dF dD dt
(16) = =Wr = lz ivz Wz.
dz dA dz dz
The restriction (c) is made in order that the velocity wz of the fluid at in-
finity in the z-plane be a real constant K times the fluid velocity wr at infinity in
the c-plane.
Since F(z) = F(z) with v =t(z), it follows that for each z and corresponding ,
q(t, q) =4(x, y) and 41(S, q) =TF(x, y). Hence, to each equipotential line q=c
in the c-plane (ci a real constant) there corresponds in the z-plane the equipoten-
tial line 1? = c1; and to each stream line 41 = c2 in the c-plane (C2 a real constant)
there corresponds in the z-plane the stream line T = C2.
The restriction in (b) that dt/dz shall be analytic, finite and non-zero over I
is made in order that the flow pattern in the region z formed by the families
0 =c1, 4 = C2 shall be mapped conformally (with preservation of angles) int
flow pattern of the z-plane formed by the families I = cl and T = C2.
Since b= c1, and 1'= C2 are orthogonal, so are 1 = c1 and T= C2.
The points in the z-plane where dF/dz = 0 are called the critical points of the
z-plane; at such points the velocity wz vanishes. From (16), we see that if dt/dz
is finite and non-zero at a critical point A' in the z-plane, then dF/d= 0, and
the point A in the c-plane corresponding to A' is a critical point of flow in the
c-plane.
If, however, C is a critical point in the c-plane and at C, dz/dt is zero, then
the right-hand side of (16) is indeterminate. Let C' be the point in the z-plane
corresponding to C. We require that the velocity dF/dz of flow at C' be finite
and non-zero. (The Joukowski condition.) Evidently, C' is not a critical point
in the z-plane.
Suppose that T and T', and A and A' are corresponding points (Fig. 4) and
that T, A', and A are critical points (and the only ones on G and P). T and T'
have the same value of velocity potential q. A short calculation shows that the
circulation I along G from T counter-clockwise through A to T is equal to the
circulation I' along P from T' counter-clockwise through A' to T', and that in
general IfO. Furthermore, if one calculates I (or I') around G (or P) starting
from some point other than T (or T'), one finds a sudden increase in the value
of the velocity potential of the same amount I when crossing T (or T').
We have shown how to obtain from a given potential F(v) and associated
profile G the potential F(z) for the flow of an ideal fluid around any profil
which is generated from G by a conformal transformation.
7. Application of the method. The usual starting potential is that considered
in (9), for the flow around a circular cylinder G of infinite span. Thus
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1940] USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES 369
Ua2eia ir (- -
(17) F(P) = Ue-ia( - ) + + log
- 0 27r a
At present no method is known for obtaining the exact value of the circula-
tion P. The only case in which we are able to calculate P in fair accord with ex-
perience, is that of a profile with a "sharp trailing edge," with moderate thick-
ness, slight curvature, and small angle of attack. In this case we obtain a definite
value of P-independent of viscous phenomena in the boundary layer of fluid
about the body-by using Joukowski's assumption of a "smooth flow" at the trail-
ing edge. According to this assumption, the circulation has in every case just the
amount necessary to secure a finite velocity of the fluid at the trailing edge.
This restriction to profiles with a sharp trailing edge implies that z=f(z) is
not conformal at the point T of G which corresponds to the trailing edge T' of P.
Let T be T and T' be ZT-
If at T the angle ir in the c-plane transforms into the angle (27r-r) at T' in
the z-plane, then at T, z =ff(z) has the development
00
Since -r <7r,
dz-
(19) d =i O
By (16), in order that wz be finite at the trailing edge T, dF/djrT must vanish.
This is called the Joukowski condition for circulation.
FIG. 5
dF- irF
(20) I - Ue-2- Uei(a?2) + -- ei = 0,
dn T 2cra
hence
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370 USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES [June-July,
27raU
(21) r - [e= i(a) - +] = 4-rUa sin (a + ,B).
k1 k2 k3
(22) z = c + v +-_+-+- + **
~.~ 2 ~ -3
which meets the requirements (c) that z has no singularities at cc, and that at
= oo, dz/d =1. Select the center (to, -go) of G so that c=O0. From (11) the
sulting force acting on the airfoil can be calculated; it is equal to pI U, and acts
perpendicular to Ue+ia. Thus from (12) the lift is L=47rpU2a sin (a +i). Here
(a+f) is the effective angle of attack. In Figure 5, the direction of no lift-the
first axis of the profile-is shown.
The moment of the forces acting on 4P with respect to 0o is
(23) Mc = (z - o) w dz],
The line through ?o with inclination Py to the a-axis is known as the second axis of
the profile. Now
k2
8. The Joukowski family of airfoils [3, 4]. Case r = 0. Airfoil with vanishi
tail angle. Consider
Z - ZT ~
(24) z+ST \t+ T/
Z + ZT + vT
b2
(25) z = + '
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1940] USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES 371
which (with a properly defined inverse) satisfies the requirements listed in ?6.
The non-conformal (critical) points L and T of transformation (25) are ? = ? b.
Using transformation (25), we find that every circular arc through T and L
in the c-plane is represented in the z-plane by an airfoil of circular arc through L'
and T', where L' and T' are the points z = + 2b. The circle of radius b and center
at P = 0 is represented in the z-plane by the line segment (called the chord) join-
ing z= -2b and z=2b.
By using different circles passing through L and T in the D-plane as genera-
tors, we can obtain information concerning the flow about indefinitely thin air-
foils of circular shape with different curvatures.
Airfoils of finite thickness and rounded nose can be investigated by using as
generators circles passing through T and having L as an interior point. (Fig. 6.)
Let the center of the generators be
where e is a constant, keeping constant the direction of the first axis. The radius
of the generating circle is a(1 + e).
G~~~~
FIG. 6
Airfoils deduced from (25) in this manner are called the airfoils of the
Joukowskifamily. The skeleton L'T' of a Joukowski airfoil section is the image
of the circle whose radius is a and whose center is (0, h/2).
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372 USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES [June-July,
9'7~~~~~ Z - ZT / T -
(27) = X =2- T/7,
Z + ZT \ + ~T/
/~~
FIG. 7
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1940] USE OF CONFORMAL MAPPING IN SHAPING WING PROFILES 373
1. Rayleigh, Lord, On the irregular flight of a tennis ball, Messenger of Mathematics, vol. 7,
1877, p. 14.
2. Kutta, W., Lift forces in flowing fluids, Ill. Aero. Mitt., 1902.
3. Joukowski, N., On the profiles of airfoils, Z. Flugtech. Motorluftschiffahrt, vol. 1, 1910,
p. 281; vol. 3, 1912, p. 81.
4. Joukowski, N., Aerodymamique, Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1916.
5. Aerodynamics, vols. 1-6, Durand, Editor-in-chief, 1934. This work includes an excellent
bibliography.
6. Tietjens, Applied Hydro and Aero-mechanics, McGraw-Hill, 1934.
Tietjens, Fundamentals of Hydro and Aero-dynamics, McGraw-Hill, 1934.
7. Curtiss, D. R., Analytic Functions of a Complex Variable, Open Court Publishing Co.,
1926.
8. Burington, R. S., and Torrance, C. C., Higher Mathematics, McGraw-Hill, 1939, pp. 268-
269; pp. 616-620.
9. von Karmfan, Th., and Trefftz, E., Potential flow round airfoil profiles, Z. Flugtech. Motor-
luftschiffahrt, vol. 9, 1918, p. 111.
10. von Mises, R., The theory of lift of profiles, Z. Flugtech. Motorluftschiffahrt, vol. 8, 1917,
p. 157; vol. 11, 1920, pp. 68 and 87; Z. Angew. Math. Mech., vol. 2, 1922, p. 71.
11. Aerodynamics, vol. 3, Durand. See section by C. Witoszynski and M. J. Thompson.
12. Piercy, N. A. V., Piper, R. W., Preston, J. H., A new family of wing profiles, Phil. Mag.,
ser. 7, vol. 24, no. 161, Sept. 1937, pp. 425-44.
13. Caratheodory, C., Conformal Representation, Cambridge Tract in Mathematics and
Physics, London, 1932.
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