CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

Introduction to Fluid Pumps

Fluid Pumps Overview

Pumps fall into two main categories: positive displacement pumps and rotodynamic pumps.
In a positive displacement pump, a fixed volume of fluid is forced from one chamber into another. One of
the oldest and most familiar designs is the reciprocating engine, utilizing a piston moving inside a cylinder.
Steam pumps, the ‘nodding donkey’, stirring pumps and hydraulic rams are all of this type. Animal hearts
are also positive displacement pumps, which use volume reduction of one chamber to force flow into
another chamber.
The FM50 pump is, by contrast, a rotodynamic machine. Rotodynamic (or simply dynamic) pumps impart
momentum to a fluid, which then causes the fluid to move into the delivery chamber or outlet. Turbines
and centrifugal pumps all fall into this category.
The FM50 provides an example of a centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pumps are widely used in industrial and
domestic situations. Due to the characteristics of this type of pump, the most suitable applications are
those where the process liquid is free of debris, where a relatively small head change is required, and
where a single operating capacity or a narrow range of capacities is required. The general design is usually
simple with few mechanical parts to fail, however, and it is possible to operate a centrifugal pump outside
ideal parameters while maintaining good reliability.

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

Exercise A
Objective
To create head, power and efficiency characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump
Theory
The operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump may be described or illustrated by using graphs of
pump performance. The three most commonly used graphics representations of a pump performance are:
 Change in total head produced by the pump, Ht
 Power input to the pump, Pm
 Pump efficiency, E
Total Head
The change in total head produced as a result of the work done by the pump can be calculated as,
Total head (Ht) = Change in static head (Hs) + change in velocity head (Hv) + Change in elevation (He)
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑖𝑛
Hs =
𝜌𝑔
Where, 𝑃𝑖𝑛 is the fluid pressure at the inlet and 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the fluid pressure at outlet in pascal (Pa).
2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Hv =
2𝑔
𝑉𝑖𝑛 is the fluid velocity at the inlet and 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the fluid velocity at the outlet measured in 𝑚/𝑠.
Change in elevation accounts for the vertical distance between the inlet and the outlet, which is
0.075m for the FM50.
Power Input
The mechanical power input may be calculated as,
Power input (Pm) =rotational force × angular distance = 2𝜋𝑛𝑡/60
Where, 𝑛 is the rotational speed of the pump (revolutions per minute) and 𝑡 is the shaft torque (Nm).
Pump efficiency
𝑃𝑕
Pump efficiency (E) = × 100
𝑃𝑚

Where, the hydraulic power imparted to fluid (𝑃𝑕 ) = 𝐻𝑡 𝑄𝜌𝑔

𝑄 is the volume flow rate in 𝑚3 /𝑠.

Each of these parameters is measured at constant pump speed, and is plotted against the volume flow
rate, through the pump. An example of this type of graphical representation of pump performance is given
in Figure 1. By examining figure 1, the general performance of the pump can be determined.

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

Figure 1

The 𝐻𝑡 − 𝑄 curve shows the relationship between head and flow rate. The head decreases as flow rate
increases. This type of curve is referred to as a rising characteristics curve. A stable head-capacity curve is
one in which there is one possible flow rate for a given head, as in the example here.
The 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑄 curve shows the relationship between the power input to the pump and the change in flow rate
through the pump. Outside the optimum operating range of the pump this curve flattens, so that a large
change in pump power produces only a small change in flow velocity.
The 𝐸 − 𝑄 curve shows the pump capacity at which the pump operates most efficiently. In the example
here, the optimum operating capacity is 0.7 dm3/s, which would give a head of 1.2 m. When selecting a
pump for an application where the typical operating capacity is known, a pump should be selected so that
its optimum efficiency is at or very near that capacity.

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

Exercise B
Objective
To create head, power and efficiency characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump
Theory
One way of illustrating pump characteristics is to construct contour line of constant power or efficiency on
a graph of pump head plotted against pump discharge. These allow engineers to see the maximum
efficiency of a pump over a range of operating parameters, which can assist in the selection of an
appropriate pump to suit particular conditions. An example is given in figure 2.

Figure 2

Pump manufacturers typically publish information on the performance if their pumps in the form of this
type of chart. In addition to the use of these charts in initially selecting a pump, the charts may also be
used to compare actual pump performance with that expected. If the pump performance deviates
significantly then the system must be investigated for problems and design flaws, and if the pump initially
performs as expected but later displays a change in performance then the pump should be investigated for
faults.

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

Exercise C
Objective
To investigate the use of the affinity laws in predicting the head-flow characteristic for a pump

Theory
When selecting a pump for a system, it is seldom practical to test the performance of every size of pump in
a manufacturer's range at all speeds at which it may be designed to run. It is therefore useful to have a
mathematical solution that allows assumptions can be made about operating characteristics of a pump
running at one speed, impeller size, etc. from experimental results taken at another.
The multiple curves obtained from plotting measured pump characteristics on dimensional axes can be
reduced to a single curve if appropriate dimensionless groups are used. Provided the effects of fluid
viscosity on pump performance are small, and that cavitation is not occurring, the characteristic of a given
type and shape of pump may be represented by:
𝑔𝐻𝑡 𝑄
=
𝑛2 𝐷2 𝑛𝐷 3
Where n is the pump speed (rpm or Hz), and D is the impeller diameter (m).
For a single curve of the type suggested by this equation to represent more than one operating condition
of the particular type of pump, the criterion of dynamic similarity must be fulfilled. That is, all fluid
velocities at corresponding points within the machine are in the same direction and proportional to
impeller speed. When this is the case, as for a particular pump operated at different speeds, a simple graph
of data is formed as below.

Figure 3: Dimensionless head-discharge characteristic of a particular

centrifugal pump operated at different speeds
(“Fluid Mechanics, Thermodynamics of Turbomechinery”, S.L. Dixon, Pergamon 1966)

The dimensionless equation given previously is the basis from which the affinity laws are derived. The
affinity laws allow the performance of geometrically similar pumps of different sizes or speeds to be
predicted accurately enough for practical purposes.
The methods used for deriving the affinity laws will not be presented here, but the laws are as follows:
𝑃
Power Coefficient 𝑃 =
𝜌𝑛3 𝐷3
𝑃
Flow coefficient 𝜙 =
𝑛𝐷 3

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

𝑔𝐻𝑡
Heat coefficient 𝜑 =
𝑛2 𝐷 3
These laws are most often used to calculate changes in flow rate, head and power of a pump when the
size, rotational speed or fluid density is changed. The following formulae are derived from the above
considerations, and allow calculation of total head Ht and power Pm at one speed n1 to be deduced from
those measured at another speed n2:
𝑄1 𝑛1 𝐻𝑡1 𝑛1 2 𝑃𝑚 1 𝑛1 2
= = =
𝑄2 𝑛2 𝐻𝑡2 𝑛2 2 𝑃𝑚 2 𝑛2 2

More generally, the relationship between two geometrically similar machines with characteristic diameters
D1 and D2 operating at rotational speeds n1 and n2 is shown in the figure. For any two points at which
values of (𝑔𝐻𝑡 /𝑛2 𝐷 2 ) and (𝑄/𝑛𝐷 3 ) are the same, it follows that:
2 2 2
𝑛2 𝐷2 𝑛2 𝐷2
𝐻2 = 𝐻1 and 𝑄2 = 𝑄1
𝑛1 𝐷1 𝑛1 𝐷1

These are termed corresponding points. The power coefficient (𝑃 ) and the resulting efficiency E can be
compared in a similar manner.

Figure 4: Relationship of performance characteristics for geometrically similar

machines operating at different speeds

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

Exercise D
Objective

To investigate the effect of changing inlet head on pump performance.

Theory
In both the design and operation of a rotodynamic machine, careful attention has to be paid to the fluid
conditions on the suction side. In particular, it is important to check the minimum pressure that can arise at
any point to ensure that cavitation does not take place.

a. Cavitation
If the pressure at any point is less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at the temperature at that point,
vaporisation will occur. This is most likely to arise in the suction side where the lowest pressures are
experienced. The vaporised liquid appears as bubbles within the liquid, and these subsequently collapse
with such force that mechanical damage may be sustained. This condition, known as cavitation, is
accompanied by a marked increase in noise and vibration in addition to the loss of head.
In addition to the potential for physical damage to the pump from cavitation, both from the resulting
vibration and from the explosive force of the collapsing bubbles of vapour, pumps cannot pump vapour
effectively. Hence if cavitation occurs then the pump may not be capable of developing the suction head
necessary to reach the required operating point.

b. Net Positive Suction Head Required

Manufacturers commonly specify a Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH), based on pump test results. The
usual testing to determine the NPSH will involve running the pump with water at different capacities, while
throttling (reducing the flow in) the inlet (suction) side. The suction pressures at which the first sign of
vaporisation appear are noted for each capacity. These are then converted into head values and are
published on the pump characteristic curve as the Net Positive Suction Head Required (NPSHr) or just
NPSH. NPSH is the amount by which the pressure at this point must exceed the vapour pressure of the
liquid.

c. Net Positive Suction Head Available

The Net Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHa) depends on the system in which the pump is used, and is
calculated according to system conditions. The basic calculation for an existing system using water as the
working fluid may be approximated as,
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠 – 𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 ± 𝐻𝑖𝑛 + 𝐻𝑣

Where,
𝐻𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠 = Barometric (ambient) pressure expressed as a head of water
𝐻𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 = Vapour pressure of water at maximum expected temperature expressed as a head of
water
𝐻𝑖𝑛 = Gauge (sensor) pressure at inlet (note that value is relative to atmosphere, and thus in
some circumstances may be negative), expressed as a head of water in mm.
𝑣𝑖𝑛 2
𝐻𝑣 = Velocity head = 2𝑔

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

NPSH here is calculated in mm of water. In some pump datasheets it may be expressed in inches of water.
It may also be calculated as a pressure by summing the component pressures. To convert velocity head to
equivalent pressure, use

𝑣𝑖𝑛 2
𝑃𝑣 = Pressure due to velocity head = 2𝑔 × 𝜌𝑔

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

Exercise E
Objective
To obtain a Head-Flow curve for the piping system through which the fluid is to be pumped. To determine
the operating point of the pump

Theory
System analysis for a pumping installation is used to select the most suitable pumping units and to define
their operating points. System analysis involves calculating a head — flow curve for the pumping system
(valves, pipes, fittings etc.) and using this curve in conjunction with the performance curves of the available
pumps to select the most appropriate pump(s) for use within the system.
The system curve is a graphic representation of the flow rate in the system with respect to system head. It
represents the relationship between flow rate and hydraulic losses in a system. Such losses are due to the
system design (e.g. bends and fittings, surface roughness) and operating conditions (e.g. temperature).
Assuming,
 Flow velocity is proportional to volume flow rate
 Losses in the system are proportional to the square of the flow velocity
it follows that system head loss must be proportional to the square of the volume flow rate, and the
system head — flow graph will therefore be parabolic in shape.
A predicted system head-flow curve may be calculated using standard coefficients for the system design
and a measurement of the system head at zero flow. The simplest method of calculation is Hazen-Williams
equation for major pipe losses. This uses a coefficient based on the pipe material, along with values for the
pipe length and diameter and the flow rate within the system. This is not the most accurate method and is
only valid for water flowing at ordinary temperatures (approx. 5 to 40°C), but it is sufficient for many
practical purposes. Accuracy may be improved by adding a second equation for calculating the minor losses
due to pipe fittings. The resulting calculation is as follows:
𝑕 = total head loss in the system = 𝑕𝑓 + 𝑕𝑚

where,
1
𝑉 4 0.63 0.54
𝑕𝑓 = major losses in the pipes = 𝐿 0.85𝐶 𝑑

𝑉2
𝑕𝑚 = minor losses in the pipes = 𝑘 2𝑔

where, L is the total pipe length, V is the flow velocity, d is the pipe diameter, C is a coefficient obtained
from standard values (acrylic pipe = 140) and k is a coefficient obtained from standard values, as follows:
Pipe entrance 0.5 (reservoir to pipe)
Pipe exit 1 (pipe to reservoir)
90° Bend 0.3
45° Bend 0.4
Ball Valve Negligible when fully open
Gate Valve 2.1 (half open)
Flow meter 1

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CH 1043 – Fluid Dynamics Practical 1 - Centrifugal Pump Demonstration

The value of 0.85 by which the coefficient C is multiplied in the equation for 𝑕𝑓 makes the equation
relevant for values in SI units. Use of a different value here allows the equation to be used with different
units (e.g. feet).
As noted previously, pump characteristic curves illustrate the relationship between head, discharge,
efficiency and power over a wide range of possible operating conditions, but they do not indicate at which
point on the curves the pump will operate. The operating point (or duty point) is found by plotting the
pump head-discharge curve with the system head-flow curve. The intersection of the two curves gives the
duty point for the pump in that system, as illustrated in the following figure.
It will be seen that the optimum operating condition is achieved if this operating point coincides with the
maximum point in the efficiency-discharge curve of the pump.

Figure 5: Definition sketch for determination of pump operating point

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