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Asian Journal
of Social Science
BRILL Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 www.brill.nl/ajss
§enol Korkut
Presidency of Religious Affairs of Turkey, Department of Foreign Affairs
Abstract
In this paper the method proposed by Ibn Khaldun in the political and social fields, will be
examined in its original dimensions. The political philosophy that started with al-Farabi as a
systematic style of thought in Islamic thought used deduction as a mandatory part of the tradi
tion belonging to the philosopher. In one sense, this is a journey from 'description' to 'depiction'.
Ibn Khaldun stated that this method remains insufficient in order to explain social phenomena
and events, and widening this perspective indicated that political philosophy, in one sense, is
compelled to present a Utopian social model, and departing from this point criticised al-Farabi
as not being a philosophical realist. At this point, the accusations made against the philosophers
and his approach to the criticism of al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah are investigated as to whether or
not Ibn Khaldun approached political philosophy from a universal point of view, and if, while
making these accusations, the theories of the philosophers were taken into account. Accordingly,
Ibn Khaldun's theory of prophethood and happiness and the falasifa's influences on Ibn Khaldun
are investigated.
Keywords
Ibn Khaldun, falâsifa, Islam, political philosophy, political science, al-Farabi
The criticisms levelled by Ibn Khaldun against the epistemology of the falasifa
(i.e., the Muslim philosophers of the peripatetic tradition), based on the
impossibility of acquiring objective knowledge of certitude especially in the
1 There are different approaches among scholars of Islamic philosophy as to the English
translation of the Arabic phase al-Siyâsah al-Madaniyyah. F. Rosenthal translated the phrase in
Muqaddimah (1958:[II]127) as "political utopianism", M. Mahdi (1969:130) rendered the term
"madani" as "political", C.E. Butterworth (2005:266) as "political regime", and, finally, D. Gutas
(2004a:269) asserted, based on philological evidence, that the phrase should be translated as "gov
ernance of the city". In this article, since I primarily focus on the comparison between the falâsifa's
and Ibn Khaldun's methodologies in political and social fields, I preferred to use the phrase in its
original form (al-Siyâsah al-Madaniyyah), without delving into the discussion on translation.
© Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2008 DOI: 10.1163/156853108X327074
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548 §. Korkut I Asian Journal ofSocial Science 36 (2008) 547—570
field of metaphysics, led him to adopt a differing approach in social and polit
ical thought, as well as in physics and metaphysics, thus his self-developed
science of umran and the method and themes of al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah,
imperatively differed from each other. Ibn Khaldun hence construed the falas
ifas views regarding such central themes in political philosophy as the virtu
ous city, prophethood, and happiness as incoherent, effectively subjecting the
issues to a review.
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$. Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 549
conducive toward pinpointing their causes and that explaining them with
static social and political principles is ultimately unfeasible. In keeping with
Ibn Khaldun, social occurrences are only exposed to single common and natu
ral law, namely the laws of progress and transformation (e.g., Bayraktar,
2004:159). In the given circumstance, a historian or a social scientist investi
gating a social or a political event must personally implement a method in
concordance with the relevant phenomenon. Right at this point, Ibn Khaldun
senses an insufficiency in methods such as induction, deduction, and analogy,
endorsed by the former philosophers, historians, religious scholars and social
scientists, in amply exposing the nature and incentives behind social phenom
ena, appraising them on the whole as incompetent.
Similarly, as it abounds in abstraction and remoteness from feelings and as
it, moreover, concentrates on the second intelligibles, one cannot afford to
render logic infallible in matters of politics. The second intelligibles consist of
matter, produced from the first intelligibles (images) that correspond with the
foundational structure of objects, and the furthest universals for which sec
ond, third or even further abstractions remain impossible (e.g., Ibn Khaldun,
1958:[III] 108-110). Upon a desire to obtain knowledge of certitude, there
could be found, in these intelligibles, matters hindering judgment derived
from principles. Ibn Khaldun accordingly avows that the concepts that serve
as predicates of being, which together with constituting a theme of logic, is
predominantly perused by philosophers within the spectrum of metaphysics,
do not contribute providing a basis for practical philosophy, as is the case with
the entirety of philosophical sciences, in that conceptions compatible with a
given can only be afforded by their material content, vis-à-vis their content
according to reason. Inasmuch as Ibn Khaldun is thus concerned, the neces
sity, possibility and impossibility of premises are dependent on their matter,
and once the essence, type, form, quantity and force (i.e., the potentialities it
comprises) are known, the impossible, contingent or necessary qualities it will
spawn, along with the impossible, contingent and necessary sphere in relation
to it would be ascertained. Ibn Khaldun's conception of science, therefore,
eschews the area dubbed the second intelligibles, in addition to the refusal of
utilising concepts that are not perfectly compatible with external objects,
emphasising their proclivity of deterring away from developing true concep
tions of certain objects (Türker, 2006:257). The deliberation of Ibn Khaldun
advocating against the use of second intelligibles in scientific research, can be
seen most in his attacks regarding the natural philosophy endorsed by the
falasifa-, though embarking from that verity, it can be asserted that the same
applies for the social and political sphere, and that Ibn Khaldun banishes
the very idea of applying the second intelligibles, in a science oriented in
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550 5. Korkut /Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570
examining social life. This bestows upon Ibn Khaldun a dynamic, changing
character with a heavy slant toward experience, from the vantage point of
appraising historical and social phenomenon, or the science of umran, uni
formly granting a greater terminological plane in elucidating political and
social facts.
Ibn Khaldun, it could be asserted, had embraced proceeding from the exist
ent itself in delineating the borders of concepts like necessary, contingent and
impossible, concurrently accentuating the imperativeness of determining the
necessary, contingent and impossible states impending upon the real social
area of existence. Ibn Khaldun (1958:[III]214—215), however, reminds that
the case of the first intelligibles, more easily deduced from matter, differs from
the case of the second intelligibles, in that being imaginative, the first intelli
gibles, thus, deposit in the imagination matters known through emotions,
consequently informing the degree of compatibility of these images to reality.
And this triggered Ibn Khaldun to develop an experimental science primarily
concerned with the structure and causes of social occurrences. Hence accord
ing to Ibn Khaldun, the nature of the scientific methods investigative of social
phenomena must be empirical and positive, or scientific put briefly; and
imperatively a method needs to be developed entrenched in observation and
empirical, sensory data, at the detriment of rational methods proposed by the
prior philosophers, jurists, and historians (e.g., Bayraktar, 2004:160). Thus,
Ibn Khaldun (1958: [III]268—270) argues that chances of stumbling into fal
libility of sharp witted philosophers, religious scholars, and bureaucrats, who
made a career of distancing their thoughts and feelings from matter and
endowing it with profound meanings and strive to interpret each social occur
rence with broad methods like analogy, remains higher than persons possess
ing an average wit, intelligence, albeit with a robust character, unaccustomed
to regulating action in line with analogy and other general principles, who
endorse the method which appraises and seeks to solve each event within its
own terms and do not bifurcate their perspective and thought from what is
intertwined with the senses.
Speaking from the vantage point of al-Farabi, and contrary to Ibn Khal
dun's related conception, it can be stated that the method utilised by philoso
phers in the field of practical philosophy are evaluated within the framework
of logical premises, such that the first intelligibles essentially progress forth
from the second intelligibles. Al-llm (knowledge), in al-Farabi's view, is com
prised of general and certain premises fundamentally embedded in the princi
ple of identity; thus a reality of whose knowledge is acquired corresponds to a
true premise (Kiiyel, 2005:13-14). The pertinent knowledge defines this real
ity. If a definition is impossible, then in politics, as is the case in medicine and
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£ Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 551
astronomy, the reality is described through law or expert knowledge; the sci
ence of politics, therefore, is a concoction, foundationally harbouring each
persons morals and nature, of the definition or description of the volitional acts
of societies across the world. Al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah, in view of that, exam
ines society form the perspective of the ruler and the ruled, and harbouring, in
essence, the principle of identity, is comprised of a group of universal and
certain premises. Hence state, in al-Farabi's opinion, is the reality that defines
or describes the science christened as al-ilm al-madani and al-Siyasah al
Madaniyyah (e.g., Küyel, 2005).
In his Kitab al-Millah, al-Farabi articulates that the science of politics, a
part of philosophy, is contended merely with universals and their descriptions
in what it investigates through acts, behaviour and volitional faculties, simi
larly illustrating how, with what and in what amount the descriptions should
determine the particulars, although refraining from determining them in
exactitude. Keeping with al-Farabi, the situations and events potentially regu
lative by such a determination can be incessant and unfathomable and, thus,
an actual determination belongs to an expertise other than philosophy (al
Farabi, 1986b:59). Al-Farabi asserts that the task of determining the things
left untouched by the science of politics, bearing in mind the exigencies of
space, time and conditions, belongs to the first premier (al-rais al-awwat), a
status attained through political virtue (ta'aqqul) (Aydinh, 2005:36-37).
All things considered, we can maintain that in al-Farabi's view, al-Siyasah
al-Madaniyyah describes what is real, bequeathing the scrutiny of the details
to a sub-branch of expertise. Simply put, al-Farabi is well aware of what Ibn
Khaldun had so inveterately emphasised; but inasmuch as his conception of
knowledge was concerned, he entrusted particular events and predicaments to
be resolved through political and deliberative virtue, with the first premier,
thus al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah restricts itself with defining the events to be
described by the first premier, more precisely, limits itself with general princi
ples. Ibn Khaldun, alternately, is cognisant of the exact incompatibility of
these definitions with social reality. Observing the subject matter from another
angle, we may say at this point that the method for the science of umran
proposed by Ibn Khaldun commences at the point where al-Siyasah al
Madaniyyah ceases, and the theory of the latter begins where the realm of
research of the former stops and hence, in spite of being extirpated from the
systems of the pertinent thinkers, the two seemingly conflicting theories none
theless form an inherently synthesised unity. While al-Farabi stipulates that
the first premier be a just, sane and healthy person distanced from the pleas
ures of the world, Ibn Khaldun (1958: [I] 349, [II] 86-87) specifies supplemen
tary requirements aimed toward the economic life and practical politics, such
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552 §. Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547—570
"We do not mean here that which is known as 'political utopianism' (al-Siyasah al
Madaniyyah). By that, the philosophers mean the disposition of soul and character
which each member of a social organisation must have, if, eventually, people are com
pletely to dispense with rules. They call the social organisation that fulfils these require
ments the 'ideal city'. The norms observed in this connection are called 'political
utopias' (siyasah madaniyah). They do not mean the kind of politics (siyasah) that the
members of a social organisation are led to adopt through laws for the common inter
est. That is something different. The 'ideal city' (of philosophers) is something rare and
remote. They discuss it as a hypothesis." (Ibn Khaldun, 1958: [II] 127)
Making mention of sages and philosophers, Ibn Khaldun does not cite any
specific names, although considering that his enquiry focuses not only on
ancient Greek philosophers but particularly on the concepts of al-Siyasah
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$. Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 553
"It (umran) is also not politics, because politics is concerned with the administration
of home or city in accordance with ethical and philosophical requirements for the
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5 54 S- Korkut I Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570
purpose of directing the mass toward a behaviour that will result in the preservation
and permanence of the (human) species." (Ibn Khaldun, 1958:[I]62)
Hie limited data bequeathed by the short extractions pertaining to Ibn Khal
dun's conception of al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah may be further enriched via its
comparison with the characteristics of the science of umran. In hindsight,
perceptible is the fact that Ibn Khaldun defines umran as a theoretical disci
pline per se vis-à-vis al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah, depicted as boasting the aim of
implementing practical principles contributing toward the individual and
society, rather than mere theory (e.g., Ibn Khaldun, 1958). According to Ibn
Khaldun, as for as its objectives are concerned, umran is theoretical, not prac
tical; its subject matter is umran with the aim of explicating events occurring
in the umran. The science of umran examines notions and phenomena that
arise in the umran, in pursuit of propounding necessary principles and deter
mining the required guidelines imperative in investigating historical events.
Al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah, by contrast, seeks not the scrutiny of occurring
facts and events, it rather inquires into what ought to happen. Consequently,
on the word of Ibn Khaldun, rather than examining the nature of society and
social occurrences therein, al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah instead aims to set prin
ciples in relation to the individual and society, and thus holds a practical goal.
Put more simply, it investigates not the occurrence, but what ought to occur
(e.g., Arslan, 2002:417). Therefore, in terms of objectives, methods, and rel
evant paraphernalia, the sciences of umran and al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah are
entirely distinct (e.g., Arslan, 2002). In a sense, Ibn Khaldun had desired to
liberate a science which supposed to investigate social and political incidents
occurring within the umran from metaphysical and ethical extensions and
make it an independent discipline concentrating on social facts and occur
rences. This, however, does not entail an absolute segregation of umran from
metaphysics; contemporary interpretations have established that from the ver
ity examining society for what it is, umran, of its own accord, constitutes a
specific social metaphysics. But the subject matter and reference of the perti
nent metaphysics promulgated by Ibn Khalduns science of umran are not the
Neo-Platonic conceptions or philosophical terminologies of existence, uni
verse, human, and God. Umran is in fact a metaphysics construed by readings
in history, and in preference of cleaving to a Neo-Platonic core, it is a social
metaphysics in that it proceeds from and focuses on society and its history
(e.g., Gôrgiin, 1999:544-555). Thus, while it remains possible to speak of a
metaphysics that investigates being from its aspect of existence, in the case of
Ibn Khaldun, one is dealing with a metaphysics, investigative of political,
social occurrences taking place in the umran, or more precisely, of society due
to its being a society.
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§. Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 555
Prophethood
From the perspective of the totality of the system he defended, Ibn Khaldun
appraised the metaphysical and ethical aspects prevalent in the social sphere
of the falasifas political philosophy, by which he attacked the style adopted
by the falasifa in explicating the cornerstones of their political philosophy
such as happiness and prophethood. The issue of prophethood occupies a
pivotal place in Ibn Khaldun's umran as it does in the falasifas al-Siyasah al
Madaniyyah.
As is also indicated by Muhsin Mahdi, because Islamic society owes its very
existence, character, and jurisprudence to prophethood and revelation, it is
only natural for such a matter to form a central problem of practical or politi
cal philosophy, thrusting it to ultimately toil at once to elucidate the phenom
enon of prophethood, and rationally explicate the source and nature of
prophetic knowledge (Mahdi, 1957:84). From this standpoint, prophethood
absorbs a particular function, role and task in Islamic thought (Ahmad,
2003:9-10). Ibn Khaldun equally acknowledges prophethood as the source of
vital social values, institutions and actions, and in that insofar as prophethood
is appraised the nucleus of civilisation in the thought of Ibn Khaldun,
infiltrating into the phenomenon that is prophethood is rendered an impera
tive of comprehending umran (e.g., Ahmad, 2003).
Opposing the inherent proclivity of al-Siyasah al-Madaniyyah of reading
prophethood with political intent, setting off from Ibn Sînâ, Ibn Khaldun
(1958: [I] 70-71) equally launches a bitter criticism of their view regarding the
attributes of prophets and the nature of miracles. To the demise of the falasifas
contentions, Ibn Khaldun (1958:[I]72) argues the impossibility of the neces
sity of prophethood anchored in the need of imposing laws for the governance
of societies. Neither the observation of historical events nor reason can attest
to the requisite of prophethood and divine law, strictly on the implementation
of adequate power and laws for sustaining the existence of social life; the Mag
eans, for instance, had formed a social community, established a state and have
moreover bequeathed many books, despite not having access to divine texts
(e.g., Ibn Khaldun, 1958). Reason, Ibn Khaldun contends, suffices to allude to
the need of having a prudential discourse, albeit it doesn't stipulate that the
prophet per se be the source of this discourse. Hence, as per Ibn Khaldun
(1958:[I]73), the premises established by philosophers as the prerequisites of
creating a society, carry no corroboration of being in line with general laws and
principles. Further elaborating on the matter, Ibn Khaldun rebuffs the falasifiis
conception of the necessity of prophethood for human nature, similarly
endowing political authority not with the prophets but with divine law (Mahdi,
1991:202), thus giving precedence to the notions of caliphate and imamate.
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556 §. Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570
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Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 557
Happiness
Yet another aspect which the falasifa manage to elicit the disparagement of Ibn
Khaldun, interconnected with what has been mentioned above, is their con
ception of happiness. In Ibn Khaldun's words (1958:[III]212), philosophers
hold that happiness, whether it be emotional or beyond emotions, is com
prised of the perception of the entire beings through contemplation and evi
dence of certitude. Ibn Khaldun argues that happiness based on contemplation
and perception is not acquired in such a way. A human being consists of two
parts, namely matter and spirit, each of which harbours its own perceptive
faculties. The spirit perceives the spiritual through its essence without a
medium, while the brain and five senses perceive the material. Ibn Khaldun
claims that the perception of the spirit without an intermediary and of the joy
subsequently felt is more enhanced and intense than that felt by the brain and
the five senses, hence the impossibility of procuring of such happiness through
contemplation. Evidence of certitude and various scientific knowledge and
proofs (Ibn Khaldun, 1958: [III]216—217) insists on the incoherence of the
alleged method of perception the falasifa claim to have reached through
rational evidence and certitude, with which peace, joy, and happiness are pur
portedly acquired, since being a harvest of imagination and thinking, regarded
as mental faculties, rational evidence, and proofs of certitude are physical per
ceptions. To obtain such happiness, initially and as a requisite, the relevant
powers of the brain must be eradicated. In parallel, Ibn Khaldun writes off the
rare possibility, vehemently defended by the falasifa, of acquiring happiness
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558 §. Korkut I Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547—570
through unity with the active intellect achieved by virtuous humans after hav
ing surpassed certain stages of knowledge, and attaining its knowledge, as the
active intellect is spiritual, while the process expounded of reaching that level
is incongruously physical.
Ibn Khaldun, moreover, explains that the falasifa argue that even in the
absence of revelation, humans, as dictated by their ability to think, have the
ability to discern between good and evil and refraining from evil, to do what
is good, thus achieve virtue and happiness. The falasifa, in keeping with Ibn
Khaldun (1958:[III]218—219), believe that all beings are capable of converg
ing on the good, through consulting their knowledge and the natural disposi
tion of reason; thus the falasifa have effectively identified happiness, predicated
upon knowledge and the disposition of reason to discern right from wrong,
with the promised happiness of the afterlife and the ignorance with the tor
ment in the grave. However, they averred the impossibility for humans of
fathoming the entire area of being; even if there existed such happiness, it
would not have much to do with that of the afterlife.
Unity with divine beings, Ibn Khaldun (1958:[III]219) states, will only
become possible after the physical death. Happiness, serenity, and joy there
fore may transpire only as a result of the spirit perceiving with its essence,
without an intermediary; thus real happiness is a state that transcends percep
tive and rational faculties. In fact, it may be inferred that the most central
theme of the practical philosophy of the falasifa, based on the conception of a
prophet or a philosopher who, having accomplished unity with the active intel
lect, conveys to their followers the beliefs and practices, which lead to the estab
lishment and maintenance of the virtuous city, is regarded by Ibn Khaldun
as mere fiction.
Having touched upon Ibn Khaldun's criticism of the theory of al-Siyasah
al-Madaniyyah, based on his assumption of its being an incoherent and fictive
system vis-à-vis social and historical reality, we may now proceed to presenting
his conception and classification of political regimes from the standpoint of
their emergence from umran.
Living socially, Ibn Khaldun holds, is imperative for human beings. In turn,
a social organisation requires a political authority for the implementation of
security and justice within the society. Political authority must promulgate
publicly accepted and enforceable laws that entail punitive ramifications to
provide for the flow of social life and to govern mutual relations between the
individual, the society, and the state. At this point, Ibn Khaldun (1958:[I]342
343) recognises the feasibility of two political orders, from the standpoint of
founding purpose, administrative structure, function and their realisation
in the umran. If the laws regulative of a certain state are propounded by the
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£ Korkut I Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 559
2 Ibn Khaldun (1958: [I] 349) had purported the shari'a necessity of the perpetuation of the
conceptions of caliphate and imamate as determinants of political authority, the vitality of the
maintenance of the former with its characteristics of tribalism, justice, strength and power, advo
cating ummah activity through election in upholding the caliphate. Ibn Khaldun had similarly
emphasised the caliphate's need of clutching to tribalism, a circumstance on which race, tribe or
geography has no bearing. For instance, despite accepting the hadith declaring that the caliph
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560 £ Korkut I Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570
must be of Qurayshi stock, Ibn Khaldun interprets it in relation to his concept of tribalism; thus
what the hadith essentially amplifies, is the centrality of tribalism in political order and stability.
Hence in effect, the pertinent stipulation is not motivated by their Prophetic lineage, rather from
the incentive of possessing the tribalism required to offer security, protection and demand right
(e.g., Ibn Khaldun, 1958:[I]354). Appropriately in such a reading, the purposes of the hadith
take precedence over its ostensible racial incentive (Kôktaç, 2003:318-320).
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$. Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 561
perceptible in Ibn Khaldun, who separates ethics and the science of umran}
On the other hand, we are aware of Ibn Khalduns knowledge of Kitab Sin
al-Asrar, a Hellenistic work composed in the name of Aristotle, consequently
enjoying centuries of fame in the realm of Islamic thought as Aristotle's
magnum opus in politics (e.g., Ibn Khaldun, 1958:[I]64—65). Although in
the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun sporadically refers to Kitab Sin al-Asrar under
the pretext of its supposed lineage to Aristotle, he accredits its content as
insignificant. Ibn Khalduns classification of the types of governance by reason
and evaluation from the perspective of the sovereigns benefits, however, could
especially serve to show the influences of that work.
Under the shade of these premises, Ibn Khaldun may have just about elabo
rated the most fundamental critique, in the history of Islamic thought, of the
falasifa's conception of politics. A further allusion to Ibn Khaldun is also needed,
for being the first critical thinker of Neo-Platonic political philosophy, a post
Aristotelian synthesis of the political theories of Plato and Aristotle emphasis
ing the individual journey of the soul, for being irreconcilably Utopian.
In the Neo-Platonist tradition of political philosophy, into which we can
partially incorporate the falasifa, the systematic reading has been ascertained
of the blend between the Platonist political legacy and the Aristotelian theory
of ethics, with the purpose of divinising the individual soul and the state.
With the incentives of divinising the soul through political virtue and divinis
ing the state through the science of politics, to render it a means for the
transcending and mystification of the soul, the Neo-Platonist school had prom
ulgated a political philosophy, which virtually is an amalgamation of Platonist
politics and Aristotelian conception of the soul and metaphysics (O'Meara,
2003:5,17,52,66-67,199). Ibn Khalduns censure of the Neo-Platonic con
ception of politics, destructive of social layers, that moreover advocates a
3 Except for some extracts, the Politics of Aristotle had not been translated into Arabic.
S. Pines holds that despite the absence of an entire translation, certain sections of the first and
second books of Politics had been translated with the aid of selections, summaries and doxogra
phy, possibly compiled in the Hellenistic period. Embarking from the insinuation of al-Farabi of
a lengthier explanation in Politics, of the relationship between city-neighbourhood-village in Ara
and Siyasch, and of the slave-master bond in Kitâb al-Millah, Pines concludes that al-Farabi had
drawn heavily from the mentioned compilation. Thus, the source of al-Farabi's relevant opin
ions, keeping with Pines, is more Aristotelian than Platonic. Pines likewise compares al-Amiri's
allusion to Aristotle, in his Kitâb al-Sa'âdâ wa'l-Is'ad, with particularly the relevant sections in
the first book of Politics, deducing that al-Amiri had either masterfully abridged Aristotle's text
or the abridgement had already been made before al-Amiri in a source beyond our knowledge.
Al-Amiri's work, in spite of minor differences, corresponds with the relevant parts of Politics,
from which Pines confidendy reiterates the factuality of the indicated partial translation (Pines,
1975:153-158). D. Gutas, conversely, ruminates on the probability of the translation of the
seventh book, as opposed to the second (Gutas, 2004a:262,266-269).
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562 §. Korkut I Asian Journal ofSocial Science 36 (2008) 547—570
political order jettisoning the need for a ruler after the accumulation of virtue
of its residents and excelling of their souls, on the basis of its incongruence
compared versus social and political reality, is indeed a significant observation.
It should be stressed however that the political philosophy of the falasifa had
not exactly developed along the relevant Neo-Platonic lines.
There have erupted a cluster of interpretations in modern literature
surrounding the authenticity of the criticisms enunciated by Ibn Khaldun,
broadly of the conception of being and particularly of the al-Siyasah
al-Madaniyyah theory, the exact line of tradition in Islamic thought he emu
lated, plus his philosophical knowledge, especially of the area of political phi
losophy.4 But we may concede that owing to his adoption of the terminology
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$. Korkut I Asian Journal ofSocial Science 36 (2008) 547-570 563
proceeding from Ibn Khaldun's words regarding the science of umrân and self-accent on his
historiographer identity, has inferred Ibn Khaldun's observance of a rational philosophy, con
cluding he was an adamant al-Ghazzalian. Ibn Khaldun effectively gives concession to philoso
phy in some areas, albeit taking the criticism, at other times, even further than al-Ghazzali
(Lacoste, 1993:214). Another interpretation of his traditional allegiance is to the effect of brand
ing him as the continuation of the Greek philosophical tradition, particularly Ibn Rushd, over
tones predominant in the Ibn Khaldun research undertaken by Richard Walzer and Muhsin
Mahdi. Accounts of Ibn Khaldun's reading of the works of Ibn Sînâ and Ibn Rushd, specifically
his supposed annotations to certain works of the latter, are the force behind Mahdi's construal of
Ibn Khaldun's adherence to Ibn Rushd, stressing that although Ibn Khaldun had censured the
Neo-Platonic notion of philosophy endorsed by al-Farabi and Ibn Sina, no such criticism was
made against Ibn Rushd and, therefore, he was simply seeking to unfetter Aristotelian philoso
phy from the shackles of theology and mysticism (e.g., Mahdi, 1957:33,72,89,109,225,289;
Gezer, 1997:123). On the word of Mahdi (1957:8,285), therefore, Ibn Khaldun is but a tradi
tional pupil of classical and Islamic philosophy. Besides hinting at the imprints of Greek phi
losophy on the political theory of Ibn Khaldun, Walzer maintains that, beyond imitating
al-Farabi, by expanding the political arguments verbalised by the virtuous and non-virtuous
social organisations, Ibn Khaldun had implemented them on to the explanatory forms of
nomadic and settled lives of the time (Rosenthal, 1955:77,84; Walzer, 1963:40-41), challeng
ingly, cannot justify the influence of Ibn Rushd on Ibn Khaldun, in that had Ibn Khaldun been
aware of Ibn Rushd's annotation to Plato's republic, he would not have appraised the virtuous
city of the falasifa as merely a hypothesis and offered casual remarks in passing; as in the annota
tion, Ibn Rushd refers to the states of Maghreb of the time, as cases in point for types of non
virtuous cities, condemning them for being unethical from a realist angle. As the chief impetus
behind Ibn Khaldun's founding of the science of umrân, Rosenthal pinpoints his embracement
of the empirical method and his rearing in traditional education. Rosenthal confirms the
influence of al-Ghazzali in Ibn Khaldun's criticism of philosophical and rational sciences, and
brands the latter as a al-Ghazzali an thinker for recommending his works, particularly Tehafut.
The proclivity toward envisaging Ibn Khaldun as a member of a certain current in philosophy
and history of Islamic thought has currently made way, as illustrated by contemporary works, to
his originality, noticeable among others, in the works of Ahmet Arslan and Umit Hassan (e.g.,
Arslan, 2002:507) asserts that as regards philosophy, Ibn Khaldun advances from an entirely
certain and coherent outlook, palpably thriving to reduce philosophy to a science, concomi
tantly compelling him to reject disciplines he regards as harbouring unscientific premises, and to
accept other. Ibn Khaldun's criticism of philosophy is thus devoid of religious anxieties and
objectives; it is rather a purely philosophical criticsm rooted in philosophical-scientific argu
ments, premises and principles (e.g., Gezer, 1997:128,129; Arslan, 2002:514,512). Reflecting
on Ibn Khaldun's political theory, Omit Hassan (1997:115,117,122) argues that Ibn Khaldun
had developed a realist rationalism based on observation and objectivity, in the face of a specula
tive rationalism based purely on reason; he had established a synthesis between reason and rev
elation and that his philosophical criticisms bore religious concern.
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564 .J. Korkut I Asian Journal ofSocial Science 36 (2008) 547-570
Influences
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£ Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 565
Al-Farabi for instance, had purported that dwellings made out of hair and skin
in the desert engender in their inhabitants the states of character of alertness
and resoluteness. Sometimes the matter intensifies to the point that courage
and boldness are engendered. Inaccessible and fortified dwellings engender in
their inhabitants states of character of cowardice, security, and fright (al
Farabi, 1986a:40, 2001:22)
Testified by recent works and comparisons is the substantial input of
al-Farabi towards classical political philosophy, amplified by the incorpora
tion, in his ideas propounded on the qualities of non-virtuous cities, their
structure and opinions, of significant information denoting real political
concepts (Khalidi, 2003:388-394). It is possible to observe, as an example,
al-Farabi's more upbeat envisioning of the democratic city as compared to
Plato, a replacement of Plato's rather derisive attitude concerning the perti
nent subject with profound evaluations, as well as an enumeration of well nigh
twenty types, albeit with mutual forms, of non-virtuous cities. One may addi
tionally see a detailed appraisal of such types of governing as the monarchy,
oligarchy, tyranny, democracy, virtuous city, and the Persian monarchy, by the
likes of al-Farabi, Ibn Bajja, and Ibn Rushd.
Together with similarities between the view approving of the expansion of
the strong against the weak, promulgated by al-Farabi as the articulation of the
inhabitants of the ignorant city, and the enunciations of Ibn Khaldun of the
growth of tribalism, visible divergences also exist. Tribalism, as said by Ibn
Khaldun (1958:[I]252), is formed by the convergence of men around the
incentives of protection from enemy attacks, repelling of the assailants and
procurement of wealth; an organisation soon attaining a leader who exercises
power through supremacy and predominance. The main aim of tribalism is to
gain enough power to institute a state, after which it would truly fulfil its role,
imperatively involving the overpowering of adjoining tribes and clans, fol
lowed by the devouring of distant tribes and clans as part of the scheme of
attaining adequate power. If their strength is on similar par with the opposing
tribe, a temporary and clandestine agreement will be made, by which both
parties will preserve their borders. The incapacitation and subsequent annex
ing of one by the other, however, means the augmentation of the strength of
tribalism for the appropriation of other tribes (e.g., Ibn Khaldun, 1958:[I]253).
One of the two clashing forces in such an instance, according to Ibn Khaldun
(1958:[I]254), may be enjoying the peak of their tribalism, while the other
may be in the pitfalls of their life of settlement.
The above mentioned reflections of Ibn Khaldun are in concordance with
the subsequent passage excerpted from al-Farabi, quoted as the opinion of
many residents of the ignorance city:
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566 Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547—570
"Some maintained that association should be brought about by force, the man who
is in need of helpers gaining mastery over people by force and enslaving them, and
with their help gaining mastery over others and enslaving them in turn; and that his
helpers should not be his equals but people overcome by him in battle. For instance,
he who has the greatest physical strength and the best weapons will prevail over some
man and will, then, when the other one has been overcome and with their help over
man or a small group of people, and with their help over others, so that a number of
helpers will be gathered round him gradually; once he has brought them together, he
employs them as his tools and makes use of them in everything he desires." (al-Farabi,
1998:293)
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£ Korkut I Asian Journal ofSocial Science 36 (2008) 547-570 567
The social and political expansion of this fact develops as follows: as being
changes, its mental counterpart changes with it, entailing the pertinent resi
dents to espouse the notion that social principles of the city and state are
compelled to abide by external change, such that, there exists no definite order
in the universe (e.g., al-Farabi, 1998). It goes without saying that the dialectic
and progressive method of Ibn Khaldun displays many variances from the
above viewpoint of al-Farabi. Whereas the issues articulated by al-Farabi ulti
mately bear sophistic aspects, Ibn Khaldun's campaign for the unfeasibility of
dictating general laws pertaining to social phenomena, under exposure to
change enforced by place and time, holds value in view of public benefit.
Al-Farabi speaks of a general relativity pertaining to being, while the inherent
attitude of Ibn Khaldun is a study into the flow of history, from the vantage
point of social facts and occurrences. As al-Farabi had predicated practical
philosophy upon a fixed metaphysical and cosmological background, he con
sidered the political area of the pertinent relativity changeable. The dialectic
of Ibn Khaldun, conversely, does not progress within such a metaphysical
background.
On the other hand, there are similarities between many of the situations
occurring in the settled umran, and many attributes of cities evaluated by
al-Farabi as being non-virtuous, such as the cities of richness, profanity, hon
our, democracy, corruption, digression, and change.
Conclusion
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568 §. Korkut I Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570
Proceeding from what has been stated thus far, stemming from his proposal
of an empirical method we may acquiesce in Ibn Khaldun being the inaugura
tor in Islam of political science, although accepting him as the founder of a
full-fledged political philosophy seems unfeasible. Political philosophy-wise,
Ibn Khaldun, it could be construed, had proposed a more realist, empirical
and scientific political theory, in comparison to Aristotle. Thus a compilation
of Islamic political thought may begin with al-Farabi, though it must not
overlook Ibn Khaldun. The cogitations of al-Farabi with reference to non
virtuous cities are preponderantly illuminative of real politics. Elaborating on
the characteristics of one of the non-virtuous cities, for instance, al-Farabi
argues that the relevant city's first premier may transfer the economic resources
of other cities to his own to provide for the financial proliferation of his sub
jects, a circumstance whose actuality is so vivid especially in the modern world.
Although as necessary components of his system al-Farabi incidentally touches
on the particular matters, he leaves them precisely undetermined. Returning
to Ahmet Arslan's comments, we may infer that the falasifa have proceeded
from Ibn Khaldun's point of departure and Ibn Khaldun from the falasifas.
Thus contrary to being entirely expulsive of each other, the viewpoints per
taining to politics defended by Ibn Khaldun and the philosophers bear unify
ing aspects. The anguish of political philosophy under the sword of political
science has been reiterated of late, concomitantly leading to the questioning of
the veracity of a political science as such, precisely where the political theories
of Ibn Khaldun and the philosophers, singularly from the perspective of the
philosophical legacy we possess, may characteristically impart a constructive
point of view and material of similar stock. Thus the following conclusion
may be reached: in spite of his innately critical approach, insofar as his endorsed
methodology and entailed inferences are concerned, we may affirm that Ibn
Khaldun had ultimately depicted, by help of a different method and expert
knowledge, the laws and social principles described by the falasifa. This, on its
own, may disclose us cogitative inspirations to the effect of revivifying the two
undividable spheres, as revealed in the flow of history, of Islamic political
thought, by taking reference at once the falasifa and Ibn Khaldun; the former
precisely in the theoretical and metaphysical arena, and the latter in the practi
cal field. Thus destiny may just have it that, as a thinker read and studied in
times of crisis in Islamic history, Ibn Khaldun will continue to be regarded as
an overall enlightener in social sciences in the broadest sense, especially in
political science and philosophy.
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£ Korkut / Asian Journal of Social Science 36 (2008) 547-570 569
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