Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
environments especially where the feeder channel is in a fan- relation to the position ofthe axial channel and the probability
head trench, but may also occur throughout, especially on of sediment reworking.
larger fans. On distal fan surfaces, channels may switch courses Such trends are likely to be expressed in vertical sections
by avulsion, but sheetfloods are more common on the distal with differences between sequences from small or intermediate-
surfaces of desert fans (Blair and McPherson, 1994). sized fans and those from larger fans, and differences between
Fan sediments are coarse and texturally immature, having proximal and distal environments (Harvey, 1997). In the prox-
been deposited during floods either as debris flows or as fluvial imal zones of smaller fans, sequences are likely to show rapid
deposits fed by steep mountain streams. Common sedimentary vertical variations between debris-flow and fluvial channel de-
facies include matrix-supported gravels (Gms: after Miall, posits (the TroUheim type of Miall, 1978), but in distal zones
1978), deposited by debris flows, and clast-supported gravels debris flows will be rarer and thin sheetflood sediments more
(Gm, Gt, Gp), deposited by both channelized fluvial flows and common. On fluvially dominant fans (with sequences of the
sheetfloods. Sandy facies and fines are of less importance Scott type of Miall, 1978) alternations between channel and
except in distal environments. Debris flows will be represented sheetflood sediment are common. In both cases paleosols could
by massive boulder- to cobble-conglomerates, with true debris- be important horizons.
flow deposits exhibiting matrix-support and an internal fabric In fan distal zones sediments may exhibit simple stacked
of crude oblique-to-vertical clast alignment resulting from stratigraphy, but proximal zones prone to fanhead trenching,
compression and internal shear (Wells and Harvey, 1987; Blair may exhibit inset stratigraphy, preserving deep incisions of
and McPherson, 1998). Transitional deposits are usually buried fanhead trenches (Harvey, 1987). Indeed the presence
massive, poorly sorted, clast-supported (fanglomerate) gravels, of fanhead trenches produces two contrasting models of fan
with less matrix than true debris-flow deposits. They have little sedimentary sequences. On non-trenched aggrading fans an
or no internal structure or may exhibit weak bedding. Fluvial overall fining sequence would be expected, associated with
deposits within alluvial fans range from thin sheet gravels, the progressive burial of the mountain-front topography,
often showing coarse and fine couplets, associated with max- whereas on fans undergoing fanhead trenching sediment
imum and waning flows (Blair and McPherson, 1994). They sequences would be expected to show overall coarsening as
may show relatively little basal scour, in contrast with gravels formerly proximal deposits are reworked distally (Heyward,
deposited by channelized flows. These deposits will show char-
1978; Steel era/., 1977).
acteristics of stream deposits, scoured bases, bedding (planar
and locally cross-bedding), moderate sorting and often weak
imbrication, though they are likely to show less order than Essential concepts: controls on fan development
perennial braided stream deposits, due to limited reworking
and reorganization by moderate flows. Two main groups of controls influence the development of
alluvial fans, those relating to the setting of the fan and those
Because fans are generally flood-event related, receiving related to processes. Those related to the setting include the
sediment only occasionally, and because sedimentation takes gross topography of the site, governed by tectonics and long-
place on only parts of the fan, most of the fan surface under- term geomorphic history (e.g., glaciation), and control the
goes weathering and soil formation for most ofthe time. This is accommodation space. Those related to processes include the
accentuated on surfaces incised by a fanhead trench. Soils and delivery of water and sediment from the mountain catchment,
paleosols are therefore important constituents of fans. They its transport to and deposition on the fan, and the potential for
are especially useful for correlation and dating purposes, and erosion of the fan surface. These processes are in turn con-
have been used in this way on Quaternary fans in humid trolled by the size, relief and bedrock geology ofthe catchment,
regions (e.g., Harvey, 1996a), in tropical areas (Kesel and by the climate, and by the fan morphology itself, including its
Spicer, 1985), but above all in arid and semiarid regions (Wells relationship to local base levels.
etal., 1987; McFadden etal., 1989; Bull, 1991). Several aspects These factors can be grouped into four partially related sets,
of desert soils on fan surfaces have been shown to change any of which may be subject to change within the timescale of
progressively with age, including desert pavement surfaces the existence of an alluvial fan. These sets are: (i) source area
(Dan etal., 1982; McFadden etal, 1987; Al-Farraj and Harvey, relief and geology, (ii) tectonic factors, (iii) climatic factors,
2000), soil B-horizon color, Fe-oxide and mineral magnetic and (iv) base level. Fan processes may respond to changes
properties (White and Walden, 1997; Harvey etal., 1999a), in these factors—the changes being recorded within the fan
and pedogenic carbonate and calcrete (caliche) characteristics morphology and sediment sequences.
(Lattman, 1973; Machette, 1985; Alonso Zarza etal., 1998). Source-area relief and geology influence the sediment yield
There are implications for interpreting ancient as well as Qua- of the catchment, but may change little over the short term.
ternary fan sequences (Wright and Alonso Zarza, 1990). However, changes may occur in response to headwater stream
The spatial and vertical variations of fan sediments depend capture (Mather etal., 2000) causing sudden changes in water
on the relationships between fan morphology and processes. and sediment supply, or to long-term changes in sediment
On many intermediate-sized fans debris flows may not travel availability related to progressive erosion of the source area.
much further than midfan. Sheetflood processes will occur only Past tectonics may have a major influence on the fan setting.
on non-dissected fan surfaces or on distal surfaces beyond the Ongoing tectonics may cause uplift of the source area and an
intersection point. Under both sheetflow and channelized increase in sediment production, or may cause a change in fan
fluvial flows transporting power may diminish downfan. These gradients by tilting. At the regional scale uplift-induced dissec-
three trends lead to spatial patterns in sediment properties, tion may cause a change in base level, triggering fan-toe ero-
with a tendency for proximal-to-distal variation in the relative sion (see below). However the most significant role of tectonics
importance of sediment types (Harvey, 1997) and an overall for basin-margin fans is the ongoing creation of accommoda-
tendency for a downfan decrease in sediment size. Laterally tion space brought about by continued basin subsidence. With-
there are also likely to be spatial variations in sediment types in in the literature on Quaternary fans, tectonics has been seen as
ALLUVIAL FANS
an important control on fan sedimentation (Calvache etal., provides the basis for a clearer interpretation of ancient fan
1997) and on geomorphology (Bull, 1961, 1978; Silva etal., sediments, related to knowledge of modern fan processes and
1992), but in the sedimentologieal literature as a whole is often sedimentology.
seen as the primary control over fan sediment sequences in the In relating Quaternary fan sequences to the climatic
ancient record (e.g.. Sharp, 1948; Steel, 1974; Heyward, 1978). sequence, the interdisciplinary nature of such studies is becom-
Climate influences sediment availability within the catch- ing increasingly apparent (Harvey etal., 1999b). Fundamental
ment through weathering processes, and sediment delivery here are advances in dating and related techniques, for example
from hillslopes to channels through slope failure and slope the application of cosmogenic dating techniques (Harbor,
erosion processes. Climate also influences both water and sedi- 1999), and more sophisticated analyzes of soils (e.g.. White
ment supply to the fan through its influence on the flood and Walden, 1997) on alluvial fan surfaces will provide a much
hydrology of the stream system. Processes on the fan and the tighter framework for alluvial fan chronologies and environ-
resultant morphology respond to climatically led sediment mental reconstruction.
supply and flood hydrology regimes. The relationships between Furthermore, the interdependence of geomorphology and
debris-flow and fluvial processes depend on the water-sediment sedimentology in alluvial fan research is becoming even more
mix during flood events (Wells and Harvey, 1987), and the apparent. This is true not only for understanding the dynamics
erosional-depositional regime as a whole depends on the of alluvial fans themselves (e.g., Leeder and Mack, 2001), but
threshold of critical stream power (Bull, 1979), itself governed also in relating alluvial fans to their source areas, where knowl-
by the water-sediment regime. While it is recognized that allu- edge gained from the study of Quaternary and modern fans is
vial fans may occur in any climatic environment, a climatic being applied to interpreting older fan sequenees (e.g., Mather
change may modify these relationships, resulting in changes in etal., 2000).
fan dynamics. Signiflcant changes in erosion-sedimentation
regimes resulting from Quaternary climatic changes have been
identified in many dry regions including the American south- Summary
west (Bull 1991; Wells etal., 1987; Dorn, 1994; Harvey etal.,
Alluvial fans are important sedimentary environments that are
1999b), and the drier parts of the Mediterranean region
fundamental in a coupling/buffering role within mountain
(Roberts, 1995; Harvey, 1996a). Similarly in mountain areas
(especially but not exclusively dry-region) geomorphic systems.
glaciated during the Pleistocene, fan deposition has been iden-
They preserve a sedimentary record, on modern fans of drai-
tified as a paraglacial phenomenon, supplied with sediment
nage-basin response to Quaternary climatic change, and in the
from previously glaciated catchments (Ryder, 1971; Brazier
longer term oi" the tectonic controls over sediment supply to
etal., 1988).
sedimentary basins. There is a close two-way interaction
Most fans accumulate under relatively stable base-level con- between geomorphic and sedimentologieal processes on allu-
ditions. However, a base-level change may cause a switch from vial fans. Fan sedimentology and morphology respond to tec-
deposition to erosion in fan-toe zones, which may progressively tonic, climatic and base-level controls, and as such express the
dissect the fan headwards. Base-level changes may be induced fundamental dynamics of geomorphic and sediment systems.
tectonically or as secondary effects of climatic change. These
may be important on coastal fans following Quaternary Adrian M. Harvey
eustatic sea-level changes, or on fans at the margins of pluvial
lakes following changes in lake level. Similarly a base-level
change may affect tributary-junction fans following climati- Bibliography
cally-induced incision of an axial drainage. However, the Al Farraj, A., and Harvey, A.M., 2000. Desert pavement character-
effects of base-level change are not necessarily straightforward. istics on wadi terrace and alluvial fan surfaces: Wadi Al-Bih, UAE
In the common case of a fall of base level, dissection will occur and Oman. Geomorphology, 35: 279-297.
only if the newly exposed gradients are sufficient to trigger Alonso-Zarza, A.M., Silva, P.G., Goy, J.L., and Zazo, C , 1998. Fan-
incision. On the other hand, a regional sea-level rise may cause surface dynamics and biogenic calcrete development: Interactions
fan dissection if it is accompanied by coastal erosion and fan- during ultimate phases of fan evolution in the semiarid SE Spain
(Murcia). Geomorphology, 24: 147-167.
profile foreshortening (see Harvey etal., 1999a). The effects are
Blair, T.C., and McPherson, J.G., 1994. Alluvial fan processes and
similar to erosional "toe-cutting" by a laterally migrating axial forms. In Abrahams, A.D., and Parsons, A.J. (eds.), Geomorphol-
drainage (Leeder and Mack, 2001). ogy of Desert Environments. London: Chapman and Hall, pp. 354-
Interactions between tectonic, climatic and base-level factors 402.
Blair, T.C., and McPherson, J.G., 1998. Recent debris-flow
form an ongoing discussion in the literature. The consensus is processes and resultant form and facies of the Dolomite alluvial
that, at least for Quaternary fans, climate appears to have the fan, Owens Valley, California. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 68:
primary role (Bowman, 1978; Frostick and Reid, 1989; Ritter 800-818.
etal., 1995). Blissenbach, E., 1954. Geology of alluvial fans in semi-arid regions.
Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 65: 175-190.
Bowman, D., 1988. The declining but non-rejuvenating base-level - the
Modern trends in alluvial fan research Lisan Lake, the Dead Sea, Israel. Earth Surface Processes and
Latulforms, 13: 239-249.
In addition to considerations of interactions between the main Brazier, V., Whittington, G., and Ballantyne, C.K., 1988. Holocene
groups of causal factors, several other trends in modern allu- debris cone evolution in Glen Etive, Western Grampian Highlands,
vial fan research can be identified. There has been detailed Scotland. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 13: 525-53L
study of the relationships between the fundamental processes Bull, W.B., 1961. Tectonic significance of radial profiles of alluvial fans
in western Fresno County, California. United States Geological Sur-
that affect alluvial fans and the properties of the sediments vey. Professional Paper 424B, pp. 182-184.
preserved. This is especially true of debris flows (see Costa, Bull, W.B., 1972. Recognition of alluvial-fan deposits in the
1988; Blair and McPherson, 1998). Such an understanding stratigraphic record. In Rigby, J.K., and Hamblin, W. (eds.).
ALLUVIAL FANS
Recognition of Ancient Sedimentary Environments. Society of Memoir: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, 5: pp. 669-
Economic Palaeontologists and Mineralogists, Sp. Publ. 16: pp. 702.
63-83. Hirst, J.P.P., and Nichols, G.J., 1986. Thrust tectonic controls on
Bull, W.B., 1977. The alluvial fan environment. Progress in Physical Miocene alluvial distribution patterns, southern Pyrennees. Inter-
Geography, 1: 222-270. national Association of Sedimentologists. Special Publication 8: pp.
Bull, W.B., 1978. Geomorphic tectonic activity classes of the south 247-258.
front ofthe San Gabriel Mountains, California. United States Geo- Hooke, R. le B., 1967. Processes on arid region alluvial fans. Journalof
logical Survey. Contract Report 14-08-00l-G-394, MenIo Park, Geology, 75: 438-460.
California: Office of Earthquakes, Volcanoes and Engineering, Kesel, R.H., and Lowe, D.R., 1987. Geomorphology and sedimentol-
59pp. ogy of Toro Amarilio alluvial fan in a humid tropical environment,
Bull, W.B., 1979. Threshold of critical power in streams. Geological Costa Rica. GeografiskaAnnaler, 69A: 85-99.
Society of America, Bulletin, 90: 453-464. Kesel, R.H., and Spicer, B.E., 1985. Geomorphic relationships and
Bull, W.B., 1991. Geomorphic Responses to Climatic Change. Oxford: ages of soils on alluvial fans in the Rio General valley, Costa Rica.
Oxford University Press. Catena,\2: 149-166.
Calvache, M., Viseras, C , and Fernandez, J., 1997. Controls on Kochel, R.C, 1990. Humid fans of the Appalachian Mountains. In
alluvial fan development - evidence from fan morphometry Rachocki, A.H. and Church, M. (eds.). Alluvial Fans: A Field
and sedimentology; Sierra Nevada, SE Spain. Geomorphology, 21: Approach. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 109-129.
69-84. Kostaschuk, R.A., MacDonald, G.M., and Putnam, P.E., 1986.
Costa, J.E., 1988. Rheologic, geomorphic, and sedimentologic Depositional processes and alluvial fan - drainage basin
differentiation of water floods, hyperconcentrated flows, and debris morphometric relationships near Banff, Alberta, Canada. Earth
flows. In Baker, V.R., Kochel, R . C , and Patten, P.C. (eds.). Flood Surface Processes and Landforms, 11: 471-484.
Geomorphology. New York: Wiley, pp. 113-122. Lattman, L.H., 1973. Calcium carbonate cementation of alluvial fans
Dan, J., Yaalon, D.H., Moshe, R., and Nissim, S., 1982. Evolution of in southern Nevada. Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 84:
Reg soils in southern Israel and Sinai. Geoderma, 28: 173-202. 3013-3028.
Denny, C.S., 1965. Alluvial fans in Death Valley region, California Leeder, M.R., and Mack, G.H., 2001. Lateral erosion ("toe-cutting")
and Nevada. United States Geological Survey. Profe.ssional Paper of alluvial fans by axial rivers: implications for basin analysis
466: 59p. and architecture. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 158:
Dorn, R.I., 1994. The role of climatic change in alluvial fan 885-893.
development. In Abrahams, A.D., and Parsons, A.J., (eds.), Geo- Leggett, R.F., Brown, R.J.E., and Johnston, G.H., 1966. Alluvial fan
morphology of Desert Environments. London: Chapman and Hall, formation near Akiavik, Northwest Territories, Canada. Geological
pp. 593-615. Society of Atnerica, Bulletin, 77: 15-30.
Frostick, L.E., and Reid, I., 1989. Climatic versus tectonic controls of Machette, M.N., 1985. Calcic soils ofthe southwestern United States.
fan sequences: lessons from the Dead Sea, Israel. Journal of the In Weide, D.L. (ed.). Soils and Quaternary Geology ofthe Southwes-
Geological Society, London, 146: 527-538. tern UnitedStates. Geological Society of America Special paper 203,
Gerson, R., Grossman, S., Amit, R., and Greenbaum, N., 1993. pp. 1-21.
Indicators of faulting events and periods of quiescence in Mather, A.E., Harvey, A.M., and Stokes, M., 2000. Quantifying long-
desert alluvial fans. Earth Surface Proces.ses and Landforms, 18: term catchment changes of alluvial fan systems. Geological Society
181-202. of Ameriea, Bulletin, ni: 1825-1833.
Harbour, J. (ed.), 1999. Cosmogenic isotopes in Geomorphology, McFadden, L.D., Wells, S.G., and Jereinavich, M.J., 1987. Influences
Special Issue Geomorphology, 27: 1-172. of eolian and pedogenic processes on the origin and evolution of
Harvey, A.M., 1987. Alluvial fan dissection: relationships between desert pavements. Geology, 15: 504-508.
morphology and sedimentation. In Frostick, L., and Reid, I. (eds.). McFadden, L.D., Ritter, J.B., and Wells, S.G., 1989. Use of
Desert sediments, ancient and modern. Geological Society of multiparameter relative-age methods for age estimation and
London, Special Publication 35, Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 87-103. correlation of alluvial fan surfaces on a desert piedmont, eastern
Harvey, A.M., 1990. Factors influencing Quaternary alluvial fan Mojave Desert, California. Quaternary Research, 32: 276-290.
development in southeast Spain. In Rachocki, A.H., and Church, Miall, A.D., 1977. A review of the braided river depositional
M. (eds.). Alluvial Eans: A Field Approach. Chichester: Wiley, pp. environment. Earth Science Reviews, 13: 1-62.
247-269. Miall, A.D., 1978. Lithofacies types and vertical profile models
Harvey, A.M., 1996a. Holocene hillslope gully systems in the Howgill in braided river deposits: a summary. In Miall, A.D. (ed.). Fluvial
Fells, Cumbria. In Anderson, M.G., and Brooks, S.M. {e(i%.). Ad- Sedimentology. Memoir: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geolo-
vances in Hillslope Processes, Volume 2. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 731- gists 5, pp. 597-604.
752. Nemec, W., and Postma, G., 1993. Quaternary alluvial fans in
Harvey, A.M., 1996b. The role of alluvial fans in the mountain fluvial southwest Crete: sedimentation processes and geomorphic evolu-
systems of southeast Spain: implications of climatic change. Earth tion. In Marzo, M. and Puigdefabrigas, C. (eds.). Alluvial sedimen-
Surface Processes and Landforms, 21: 543-553. tation. International Association of Sedimentologists, Special
Harvey, A.M., 1997. The role of alluvial fans in arid zone fluvial Publication 17, pp. 235-276.
systems. In Thomas, D.S.G. (ed.). Arid Zone Geomorphology: Pro- Nilsen, T.H., 1982. Alluvial fan deposits. In Scholle, P.A. and
cess, Form and Change in Drylands, 2nd edn., Chichester: Wiley, pp. Spearing, P. (eds.). Sandstone Depositional Environments. Memoir:
231-259. American Association of Petroleum Geologists 31: pp. 49-86.
Harvey, A.M., and Renwick, W.H., 1987. Holocene alluvial fan and Nilsen, T.H., and Moore, T.E., 1984. Bibliography of Alluvial-fan
terrace formation in the Bowland Fells, northwest England. Earth Deposits. Norwich: Geobooks, 96p.
Surface Processes and Landfortns, 12: 249-257. Rachocki, A.H., and Church, M. (eds.), 1990. Alluvial Fans: A Field
Harvey, A.M., Silva, P.G., Mather, A.E., Goy, J.L., Stokes, M., and Approach. Chichester: Wiley, 391 p.
Zazo, C , 1999a. The impact of Quaternary sea-level and climatic Reinech, H.E., and Singh, I.B., 1973. Depositionalsedimetitary envir-
change on coastal alluvial fans in the Cabo de Gata ranges, onments with reference to terrigenous classics. 3rd edn., Berlin:
southeast Spain. Geomorphology, 28: 1-22. Springer Verlag, 1983. 549p.
Harvey, A.M., Wigand, P.E., and Wells, S.G., 1999b. Response of Ritter, D.F., and Ten Brink, N.W., 1986. Alluvial fan development
alluvial fan systems to the late Pleistocene to Holocene climatic and the glacio-glaciofluvial cycle, Nemana Valley, Alaska. Journal
transition: contrasts between the margins of pluvial Lakes of Geology, 9A\ 613-625.
Lahontan and Mojave, Nevada and California, USA. Catena, Ritter, J.B., Miller, J.R., Enzel, Y., and Wells, S.G., 1995. Reconciling
36: 255-281. the roles of tectonism and climate in Quaternary alluvial fan
Heyward, A.P., 1978. Alluvial fan sequence and megasequence models, evolution. Geology, 23: 245-248.
with examples for Westphalian D - Stephanian B coalfields, Roberts, N., 1995. Climatic forcing of alluvial fan regimes during the
northern Spain. In Miall, A.D. (ed.). Fluvial Sedimentology. Late Quaternary in Konya basin, south central Turkey. In Lewin,
ANABRANCHING RIVERS
J,, Macklin, M.G., and Woodward, J. (eds,), Mediterranean Qua- terms now applies to braided rivers (see Rivers and Alluvial
ternary River Environments. Rotterdam: Balkema, pp. 205-217, Fans) where the divided flow pattern is strongly stage-depen-
Ryder, J.N., 1971, The stratigraphy and morphology of paraglacial
alluvial fans in south central British Columbia, Canadian Journal dent around bars that are unconsolidated, ephemeral, poorly
of Earlh Sciences, 8: 279-298, vegetated and overtopped at less than bankfull flow. In an
Sharp, R,P,, 1948, Early Tertiary fanglomerate. Bighorn Mountains, anabranching system, the islands are about the same elevation
Wyoming. Journal of Geology, 56: 1-15. as the adjacent floodplain, usually persist for decades or cen-
Silva, P,G,, Harvey, A,M,, Zazo, C , and Goy, J.L., 1992, Geomor- turies, have relatively resistant banks, and support well-estab-
phology, depositional style and morphometric relationships of lished vegetation, Anabranching always occurs concurrently
Quaternary alluvial fans in the Guadalentin depression
(Murcia, southeast Spain), Zeitschrift fur Geomorpliologie, N.F.
with other patterns such that individual channels braid, mean-
36:325-341, der or are straight. Such rivers occupy a wide range of environ-
Steele, R.J., 1974, New Red Sandstone floodplain and piedmont ments, from low to high energy, and occur in arctic, alpine,
sedimentation in he Hebridean province, Scotland, Journal of temperate, humid tropical and arid climatic settings. They
Sedimentary Petrology, 44: 336-357, are more common than has been recognized previously; a
Steel, R.J., Moehle, S,, Nilsen, H., Roe, S.L., and Spinnangr, A. 1977, total of 90% by length of the alluvial reaches of the world's
Coarsening upwards cycles in the alluvium of Homelen Basin ten largest rivers anabranch, and it is a particularly wide-
(Devonian), Norway: Sedimentary response to tectonic events.
Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 88: 1124-1134.
spread river pattern for both large and small rivers in inland
Suwa, H,, and Okuda, S,, 1983. Deposition of debris flows on a fan Australia, Numerous rivers in Europe used to anabranch but
surface, Mt, Yakedale, Japan, Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie. most of these have now been modified to more "convenient"
Supplementband 46: 79-101. single-thread forms in densely populated and heavily utilized
Wasson, R.J., 1979. Sedimentation history ofthe Mundi Mundi alluvial valleys.
fans, western New South Wales, Sedimentary Geology, 22: 21-51,
Wells, S.G., and Harvey, A.M., 1987, Sedimentologic and geomor- While research continues into the fundamental cause of
phic variations in storm generated alluvial fans, Howgill Fells, anabranching, it has been argued that an advantage of ana-
northwest England, Geological Society of America. Bulletin, 98: branching is that islands concentrate stream fiow and maximize
182-198. bed-sediment transport per unit of stream power, particularly
Wells, S.G,, McFadden, L.D., and Dohrenwend, J . C , 1987, Influence where there is little or no opportunity to increase channel
of late Quaternary climatic change on geomorphic and pedogenic
processes on a desert peidmont, eastern Mojave Desert, California. gradient (Nanson and Huang, 1999),
Quaternary Research, 27: 130-146,
White, K,, and Walden, J., 1997. The rate of iron oxide enrichment in
arid zone alluvial fan soils, Tunisian Southern Atlas, measured by Classification
mineral magnetic techniques. Catena, 30: 215-227, On the basis of stream energy, sediment size and morphologi-
Wright, V.P., and Alonso Zarza, A.M., 1990. Pedostratigraphic
models for alluvial fan deposits: a tool for interpreting ancient cal characteristics, Nanson and Knighton (1996) recognize six
sequences. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 147: 8-10. types of anabranching river; Types 1-3 are lower energy and
Types 4-6 are higher energy systems. Type I are Cohesive
Sediment rivers (commonly termed anastomosing) with low
w/d ratio channels that exhibit little or no lateral migration.
Cross-references They are divisible into three subtypes based on vegetative and
Anabranching Rivers sedimentary environment (Figure A3a), Type 2 are Sand
Caliche-Calcrete Dominated Island Forming rivers and Type 3 are Mixed Load
Climatic Control of Sedimentation Laterally Active meandering rivers. Type 4 are Sand Dominated
Debris Flow
Fan Delta Ridge Forming rivers characterized by long, parallel channel-
Grain Size and Shape dividing ridges (Figure A3b), Type 5 are Gravel Dominated
Gravity-Driven Mass Flows Laterally Active systems that interface between meandering
Sediment Transport by Unidirectional Water Flows and braiding in mountainous regions (Figure A3c), These have
Tectonic Controls of Sedimentation been described as wandering gravel-bed rivers (Church, 1983),
Weathering, Soils, and Paleosols Type 6 are Gravel Dominated Stable systems that occur as non-
migrating channels in small, relatively steep basins.