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Generators or Alternators
Most of the electrical power used aboard
Navy ships and aircraft as well as in civilian
applications is ac.
As a result, the ac generator is the most
important means of producing electrical
power.
Ac generators, generally called alternators,
vary greatly in size depending upon the load
to which they supply power.
Regardless of size, all electrical generators, whether
dc or ac, depend upon the principle of magnetic
induction.
An emf is induced in a coil as a result of
(1) a coil cutting through a magnetic field, or
(2) a magnetic field cutting through a coil.
ROTATING-ARMATURE ALTERNATORS
The rotating-armature alternator is similar in construction
to the dc generator in that the armature rotates in a
stationary magnetic field
the generated ac is brought to the load unchanged by means of
slip rings.
The rotating armature is found only in alternators of low power
rating and generally is not used to supply electric power in large
quantities.
ROTATING-FIELD ALTERNATORS
The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature
winding and a rotating-field winding.
The advantage of having a stationary armature winding
is that the generated voltage can be connected directly to
the load
A rotating armature requires slip rings and brushes to
conduct the current from the armature to the load.
The armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to
insulate, and arc-overs and short circuits can result at
high voltages.
For this reason, high-voltage alternators are usually of
the rotating-field type.
Since the voltage applied to the rotating field is low
voltage dc, the problem of high voltage arc-over at the
slip rings does not exist.
The stationary armature, or stator, of this type of
alternator holds the windings that are cut by the rotating
magnetic field.
ALTERNATOR ROTORS
Types of rotors used in rotating-field alternators.
1. Smooth cylindrical (or turbine-driven)
- for high speed
- 2 or 4 poles
2. Salient (or projecting)
- for low to medium speed
- With 6 or more poles
Smooth-cylindrical
Salient - pole
36-pole rotor
4-pole rotor
ALTERNATOR CHARACTERISTICS AND LIMITATIONS
cos
vector sum of induced emf' s per coil
kp
arithmetic sum of induced emf' s per coil 2
where,
-- angle (in electrical degrees)by which the coil span
falls short of full pitch
Es Es
Algebraic sum
2Es
E Vector sum
Es
Es
Distribution or Breadth Factor, Kd
•This is due to
(1) Voltage drop IaRa where Ra is
the armature resistance per phase.
(2) Voltage drop IaXL Fig. (1)
EΦ
E
θ V
I
NOTATIONS
E V I a ( Ra jX L )
EΦ
E E I a ( jX AR )
EΦ
E V I a Z S V I a ( Ra jX S )
X S X L X AR
Zs= Ra+ j Xs
Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator
Fig. (4) shows the phasor diagram of an alternator for the
usual case of inductive load.
Fig.(4)
The armature current Ia lags the
terminal voltage V by p.f. angle φ
The phasor sum of V and drops
IaRa and IaXL gives the load
induced voltage E. It is the
induced e.m.f. after allowing for
armature reaction.
The phasor sum of E and IaXAR gives the no-load e.m.f. E0
Note that in drawing the phasor diagram either the
terminal voltage (V) or armature current (Ia) may be
taken as the reference phasor.
A phasor diagram of a synchronous generator with
a unity power factor (resistive load)
Fig. (5)
Determination of the parameters of the equivalent
circuit from test data
• The equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator that has been
derived contains three quantities that must be determined in order
to completely describe the behaviour of a synchronous generator:
– The saturation characteristic: relationship between If and (and
therefore between If and Eo)
– The synchronous reactance, Xs
– The armature resistance, Ra
•
If
+
Vdc Vt
Short-circuit test
If
+ A
A Isc
VDC
DC Test
– This test is conducted to measure-winding resistance of a
synchronous generator when it is at rest and the field winding is
open. The resistance is measured between two lines at a time
and the average of the three resistance readings is taken to be
the measured value of the resistance, RL, from line to line.
– If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator DC resistance is
RL
Rdc
2
– If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase stator DC
resistance is
3
Rdc RL
2
X s Z s2 Ra2
Find the generator’s model at the rated conditions (i.e., the armature
resistance and the synchronous reactance).
Since the generator is Y-connected, a
DC voltage was applied between its two
phases. Therefore:
VDC 10
RL 0.4
I DC 25
1
Ra 1.5 Rdc 1.5 0.4 0.3
2
The internal generated voltage at the rated field current is
VT 540
EA V ,OC 311.8V
3 3
311.82
Xs Z R
2
s
2
a 2
0.32
0.995
300
V VT 3 277V
At no load, the armature current IA = 0 and the internal generated voltage
is EA = 277 V and it is constant since the field current was initially adjusted
that way.
a. The speed of rotation of a synchronous generator is
120 120
nm fe 60 1200rpm
P 6
1200
which is m 2 125.7rad s
60
b.1. For the generator at the rated current and the 0.8 pf
lagging, the phasor diagram is shown.
The phase voltage is at 00, the magnitude of Eɸ is 277 V,
V 2
E X S I A cos X S I A sin 236.8V
2
VT 3V 468.4V
b.3. For the generator at the rated current and the 0.8 PF
leading, the phasor diagram is shown.
Then:
VT 3V 535V
c. The output power of the generator at 60 A and 0.8 PF
lagging is
480 468
Unity PF: VR 100% 2.6%
468
480 535
Lagging PF: VR 100% 10.3%
535
Practice Problem
A 381-V, 60-Hz, Y-Connected synchronous
generator, having the synchronous reactance of
0.8 ohm and negligible armature resistance, is
operating alone.
1. Determine the induced emf
a. If load current is 100A at 0.8 PF lagging
b. If load current is 100A at 0.8 PF leading
c. If load current is 100A at unity PF
2. Calculate the real and reactive power delivered
in each case.
3. Calculate the %VR at each case.
PARALLEL OPERATION OF ALTERNATORS
Alternators are connected in parallel to