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40 th Anniversary Commemorative Volume of the Southeast Asian Geotechnical Society
Forty Years of Geotechnical Developments in Singapore
K. Y. Yong
National University of Singapore, Dept of Civil Engineering, 1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576
upryky@nus.edu.sg
M. F. Chang
Shannon & Wilson, Inc;, Washington 98103, USA; formerly Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
mfc@shanwil.com
S. K. Tang
Amberg & TTI Engineering Pte Ltd, 2 International Business Park, #1101 The Strategy, Singapore 609930
sktang@amberg.com.sg
Abstract: This paper summarizes the geotechnical engineering practice in Singapore over the last 40 years. The topics covered
include Geology, Geotechnical Information Hub, Site Investigation, Slope Stability & Protective Measure, Tunnelling &
Underground Space Construction, Shallow & Deep Foundations, Numerical Methods as well as Professional Practice in Geotechnical
Engineering.
1 INTRODUCTION geology map of Singapore and a text which relates the geology
of the Republic. The text gives a detailed description of the
Geotechnical Engineering is a special area of Civil Engineering definition, distribution, content, field relations, and correlations
which is unique in that its development is primarily driven by for the some twenty geologic units in Singapore. The nine
demands and challenges of various projects in different geologic map sheets at scale of 1:25,000 show the distribution
geological/ground conditions and the need of geotechnical and extent, major characteristics, age relations and structural
professionals to acquire a better understanding of the relevant relations of these twenty rock units.
problems from one project to another. In the past forty years, we The country’s geology is most broadly characterized by four
have witnessed significant developments in Geotechnical major groups, namely, the Kallang Formation consisting of
Engineering in Singapore in various different areas; much of Recent alluvium and marine clay; Bukit Timah Granite
these were accomplished by the former Singapore Public Works consisting of granite rocks that occupies an extensive area in
Department, as reported by Tan S. B. (1997). It is useful to Central Singapore; the Jurong Formation consisting of
review all major developments, including lessons learned from mudstones, shale, sandstones and conglomerate in areas to the
failures, in the past. Nevertheless, because of our limited west of the Bukit Timah Granite on mainland Singapore and the
resources and time constraints, the coverage in this report is by southern islands; and the Old Alluvium comprising clay, silt,
no means exhaustive, and a few aspects of definitely no less sand and gravels which underlies a large tract of eastern
significance have to be left out, as a result. Singapore (Lee K.W, 1987).
Between the time of publication of the Geology Map of
Singapore and the present, there have been new findings of
2 GEOLOGY OF SINGAPORE geological condition in Singapore, which were not featured in
the map. For example, limestone (known as the Pandan
2.1 Geology Map of Singapore Limestone) has been discovered within the Jurong Formation in
the southwestern and western parts of Singapore. A localized
Among the first major initiatives which the former Public Works bedding of a bouldery clay layer (known as Fort Canning
Department of Singapore has undertaken is the setting up of a Boulder Beds) is commonly encountered within the Central
geological unit in 1972 to study the geology of Singapore and to Business District. The boulders, consisting of fresh and strong
map out its geology. In 1976, the Department published the first sandstones, are embedded in a hard clay matrix. The origin and
geology map which has since then provided a comprehensive the mechanism of its formation have yet to be established. Also,
account of the geology of Singapore for the various disciplines there have been a few discoveries of granite ridges within the
that are involved with the ground, namely civil engineering, land Old Alluvium formation in the eastern and northeastern parts of
utilization, urban planning, agriculture etc. The publication is Singapore. In addition, the entire picture of the geologic map of
very well received and is a milestone in the history of Singapore has extensively changed with the creation of
geotechnical engineering in Singapore. It also represents reclaimed land that are mostly covered by sand fill, which can
Singapore’s contribution to the earth sciences in the Southeast be considered and as new geologic unit in its own right.
Asia region as well as to acquaint the public, teachers and It is expected that the Geology Map of Singapore will be
students with the geology of Singapore and its evolution over the updated in the near future to incorporate the new geological
past 500 million years. findings.
The publication “Geology of the Republic of Singapore” has a
2.2 Geotechnical Information Hub Singapore. In 2003, along with the upgrade of some software,
the façade of the interfaces for both BIS and GDB2 was changed
During the early stages of a project, general geotechnical
to provide more map area and existing features were enhanced
information from earlier investigations in the vicinity of the
along with additional features.
project are usually obtained, reviewed and interpreted. Such
The average response time of GDIS from the perspective of
information often facilitates the initial assessment of the site
the users’ PC is dictated by the speed and capacity of the LTA
characteristics, identifies special problems peculiar to the area
Intranet, time required by the map server to generate maps and
and helps establish a detailed projectspecific investigation
time required by GIS software to get data from the Oracle
program. The information is typically found in the form of
database. The specified response time at maximum loading of
hardcopy geotechnical reports, arising from many ground
75 concurrent users is to be less than 8 seconds for 90% of the
investigations which have been carried out for a diversity of
queries. Presently, users are experiencing significantly faster
purposes.
response time in accessing the maps and performing queries.
With a modest library of about 1000 records of ground
With GDB2, Site Engineers can monitor geotechnical
investigation, the former Public Works Department of Singapore
instruments on site and their data submission with the assistance
(PWD) has in 1976 set up a centralized Registry of Ground
of data statistics. They can better monitor the sites with the
Investigation Records. The ground investigation data is an
availability of settlement plots of an area. Engineers can better
important preliminary evaluation of any building and civil
monitor tunnel/station construction by relying on the graphical
engineering projects. They supplement the geological
plots of absolute movement and distortion of the adjacent
information. In addition, the data has also been found to be
monitored tunnels. Other users can also benefit as they can view
extremely useful in many areas such as geotechnical research,
site activities photographs, reports and comments via eJournal to
engineering geological mapping, planning of quarries,
relate to the instrument data collected.
preparation of landuse maps, hydrological studies etc. In order
The Borehole Information System has a major advantage of
to better serve the construction industry, the PWD published in
ensuring efficient storage and usage of all historical and existing
1982 a Location Index Map for its ground investigation records.
site investigation boreholes data. With the BIS, repetitive works
The index has made the search for existing information easier
can be effectively avoided. Engineers and planners are now able
and accord users easy access to valuable ground information.
to retrieve and gather soil related information for new project
In order to make the information even more accessible and
sites easily and quickly. The implementation of the AGS format
retrievable, it is deemed that the data has to be transformed into
for site investigation data also greatly enhances the storage,
electronic form. The system of retrieval has to be designed in a
portability and reusability of LTA’s data. AGS together with BIS
friendly PCbased environment to enhance interpretation and
will form the main supporting tools in the management of
presentation of data. It is desirable that Graphical representation
current and future LTA’s site investigation data.
such as sectional views and profiles of geological and
With GDB2, graphical charts can now be generated easily to
geotechnical parameters can be featured. Ideally, the system
enable technical staff check the function of the various
should also be directly linked and interfaced with the
instruments installed at the sites. In addition, the data retrieved
engineering testing laboratory so that test results can be
from the common database and the trigger alarms generated
electronically transferred and centrally stored.
daily by the system, can help site Engineer to monitor the
In 1997, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) recognized the
performance of construction works and their effect on adjoining
aforementioned needs for managing geotechnical
structures efficiently and effectively. For the Tunnel Engineers,
instrumentation data. The NorthEast MRT Line Project with 16
GDB2 can assist them to plan and control tunnel constructions
underground stations and 20 km tunnels was then at the start of
effectively. Ultimately, GDB2 can be used as a learning tool for
the construction phase. The Changi Airport Line project with an
fresh engineers since site activity records can be placed in the
underground and elevated station includes 5km of tunnels was to
system chronologically that provide them with the information
follow thereafter. It was expected that the 20,000 instruments in
on the performance and behaviour of the work sites in relation to
the projects would produce 60,000 records per day from 15
the site geology and the construction methods employed.
contracts. Hence, 100 manhours per day would be required to
Though the GDIS currently meets the user’s needs,
collate, interpret and report the data if handled manually.
enhancements and new features need to be explored to meet the
In 1998, Geotechnical Database (GDB1) was set up
ever changing needs (both internally and externally). The LTA
specifically for NorthEast Line and Changi Airport Line
is currently embarking on an upgrade to the system hardware.
construction projects. The GDB1 has been described in
Hence major enhancements are expected in the new system to
Kimmance et al (1999). In 2000, upon completion of the North
cope with user and statutory requirements.
East MRT Line and Changi Airport Line, user feedbacks on
GDB1 were as follows:
3 SITE INVESTIGATION
- Effective ground monitoring system;
- Enhanced cost effectiveness in design and construction; 3.1 Introduction
- Usage to strengthen design where necessary and avert
possible catastrophes and several nearmiss incidents; and Site investigation is an important part of geotechnical
- Need to provide borehole logs to better understand site engineering. For most construction project, the objective of site
subsurface condition. investigation is to establish the soil stratification and evaluate
the engineering characteristics of the soil strata within the depth
In 2001, the Geotechnical Database Information System of influence, as required for engineering analyses and designs. A
(GDIS), a generic system, comprising 2 major applications typical site investigation program usually consists of field
Borehole Information System (BIS) and Geotechnical Database investigation and laboratory testing. Although, traditionally,
GDB2, was set up to store and manage ground information in geotechnical engineering designs are based mainly on soil
parameters obtained from laboratory tests of "undisturbed" 3.3 Developments in Site Investigation Practice
samples recovered from the construction site, there is a growing
3.3.1 Changes in the immediate past
trend towards designs based on results of insitu tests. It is
useful that one reviews the common practice and developments The site investigation practice in Singapore has followed closely
that have taken place in both laboratory testing and insitu the British Code of Practice BS 5930 (British Standards
testing in the past 40 years in Singapore in order to improve the Institution, 1981) until the recent past. Differences between the
site investigation practice. main geological formations in Singapore, including the Jurong
Formation, the Bukit Granite, the Old Alluvium, and the
Kallang Formation (PWD, 1976), and others peculiar to
3.2 Common Practice
Singapore, such as the Bouldery Clay, had not been properly
In Singapore, soil investigation tenders or request for quotations considered in the past. It is recognized that proper identification
can be called either at the planning stage prior to engineering of local geological materials based on their origins is extremely
design or at the construction phase when addition data are important. To tackle this inadequacy and others in the British
required to overcome construction difficulties. Supplementary based practice for local applications, relevant problems were
soil investigation works may also be carried out occasionally for addressed in the drafting of Singapore’s CP4: Code of Practice
specific purposes or to satisfy special requirements in works for Foundation and a more appropriate procedures for describing
such as those adjacent to MRT tunnels. geological materials pertaining to weathering classification of
Site investigations in Singapore are traditionally based on rocks and the local geology have been proposed (SPRING, 2003)
direct boring and sampling followed by laboratory testing. as a result.
Normally the rotary wash drilling method is used in direct There have been changes on regulations relevant to site
boring. The percussion drilling method, which generally investigation imposed by the relevant authorities, the Ministry of
produces significant soil disturbance, was phased out in Manpower (MOM) and Building Construction Authority (BCA)
Singapore some 20 years ago. Undisturbed samples are often following a few recent failures and collapses of temporary works
obtained by Shelby tube or other thinwalled tube samplers, and deep excavations in Singapore. For example, BCA has
following The British Standard BS5930 Code of Practice for recently issued the following advisory notes:
Site Investigation. In the case of investigation in stiff to hard
residual soils, a Mazier triple tube core barrel is sometimes used (a) For building or structures of 10Storey or more, the numbers
to obtain high quality undisturbed samples. Sometimes, thick of boreholes should be the greater of the following: (i) one per
walled samplers commonly used in UK's stiff soils, such as U2 300 m 2 ; (ii) one per every interval between 10 to 30 m.
and U4 samplers, are used.
Occasionally, the plate load test is used for shallow (b) Boreholes should be terminated into hard stratum with SPT
foundation design and the Swedish ram sounding test, the blow counts of 100 or more within 3 times the pile diameter
Swedish weight sounding test, and the Mackintosh probe, beyond the intended founding level.
commonly used in Malaysia, are also used occasionally for quick
sounding of geological profiles. Although there is a gradual shift of traditional drillingcum
Routine insitu tests, such as the standard penetration test laboratory site investigation toward more emphasis on insitu
and the field vane test, are often incorporated whenever tests, significant changes have also been seen in laboratory
appropriate in the soil exploration. Occasionally, nonroutine in testing. The Jurong Town Corporation (JTC) was the first to set
situ tests, such as the pressuremeter tests, the cone penetration up a soil laboratory in Singapore; but the Public Works
test, the dilatometer test, are included and specialist Department (PWD) was the first to set up the traixial
geotechnical investigation contractors are often engaged to do compression test apparatus in 1960s. In 1980s, significant
the tests. changes have been made to advance the traditional standard
For laboratory tests, only geotechnical investigation firms tests to more sophisticated tests in order to satisfy the demand of
possessed the SINGLAS (Singapore Laboratory Accreditation advanced geotechnical analyses that are common in the present
Schemes) Certificates are allowed to tender for the site day design. In additional to routine shear strength testing, stress
investigation works for most government and public projects. path tests have been introduced since the 1980s. Hydraulic
Common soil laboratory tests include the general properties tests consolidometer tests have also been used in replacement of the
as well as the engineering properties tests, such as the traditional oedometer tests for the assessment of compressibility
consolidation test, the shear strength test and the permeability and consolidation properties for special design requirements.
test. Occasionally, compaction and CBR (California Bearing Furthermore, soil stiffness tests involving small strain
Ratio) tests of soils are carried out for earthwork and road measurements in the triaxial apparatus have been becoming
subgrades; and point load tests, uniaxial compression tests and more popular due to the needs for the prediction of ground
splitting tensile strength tests are carried out for the deformation since the 1990s.
characterization of rocks. Tests are usually conducted in In order to cater for the special needs of tackling the stability
accordance to British Standards, B.S.1377: 1990 Method of of slopes in tropical residual soils in Singapore and in the
Testing of Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes. region, special shear strength, permeability and consolidation
According to Seh (1998), the budget for site investigation for test apparatus that incorporate suction control have been
large scale civil engineering projects like reclamation works and developed in Singapore, particularly at the Nanyang
major infrastructure development projects generally varies Technological University, for the testing of unsaturated soils
between 0.22% and 3.0%. For major commercial and residential (e.g. Rahardjo, et al. 1994).
developments, the cost ranges widely from 0.008 to 0.15% and Another development in special laboratory testing of sand
from 0.012 to 0.068%, respectively. The corresponding figures involved the use of controlled stress path testing technique for
for industrial development projects are 0.14 to 0.146%.
the investigation of instability of loose as well as dense sand complete dissipation. The use of a dualfilter cone may prove
(Chu et al., 2003). worthwhile in this particular area of application.
Classic insitu tests have long been used in site investigation These past applications of various insitu tests since 1980s
in Singapore. For example, field vane tests are common in soft provide an evidence of the increased use of insitu tests for site
to medium stiff clay deposits and standard penetration tests are investigation in Singapore, particularly for major and large scale
used instead when sands and stiff to hard clays or highly construction projects. As many of these tests are highly
weathered rocks are encountered, as discussed earlier. However, specialized, the reliance of foreign expertise represents a major
a wide range of insitu tests, such as the piezocone test, the problem for an increase in the use of insitu tests in geotechnical
dilatometer test, the selfboring pressuremeter test and the cone practice in Singapore. However, difficulties in the interpretation
pressuremeter test, as well as various geophysical surveys were and uncertainties of soil parameters obtained from results of
gradually introduced as a supplement or in partial replacement these tests remain the hindrance to the direct use and the
of the heavily laboratorybased methods of determining soil popularity of insitu tests in geotechnical design. It is useful that
parameters since the 1980s. The cone penetration test and the one addresses the issue of interpretation of insitu tests and its
prebored pressuremeter test have been used in Singapore for development in Singapore.
general site investigation for various major projects since early
1980s and the cone penetration test, in particular, is presently 3.3.2 Advance in interpretation methods
the most commonly used insitu test. The dilatometer test was
introduced to Singapore in 1985 and first used for the evaluation Research aiming at improving the methods of interpretation of
of the horizontal coefficient of earth pressure in Singapore various insitu tests and the evaluation of soil parameters from
marine clay near downtown Singapore during the construction of results of these insitu tests was initiated in the 1980s in
the EW MRT line using the earthpressure shield tunneling Singapore in recognition of this as a necessity to promote the
method. The dilatometer test was used in the offshore wide use of insitu tests in geotechnical design for the benefit of
geotechnical investigation in the proposed New Container the profession. Although, the progress was slow, certain targets
Terminal in Pasir Panjang in early 1990s. It was also used in the have been achieved in the development of methods of
geotechnical investigation for the MRT Northeast Line, in the interpretation of selected parameters of fundamental importance,
Changi East Reclamation Projects, as well as in the Kallang such as the overconsolidation ratio and the undrained shear
Paya Lebar Expressway recently. strength, from various insitu tests since 1990s.
Geophysical Seismic refraction survey was used in the
beginning of 1990s to investigate the area and depth extents of Overconsolidation Ratio
limestone cavities for the proposed New Container Terminal in The overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is one of the most important
Pasir Panjang. It was subsequently used for the evaluation of basic engineering soil parameters. Traditionally, OCR is
ground stratifications for a number of potential underground determined by onedimensional consolidation tests of
cavern sites in Jurong Formulation and along the routes of the undisturbed samples. The approach is time consuming and
Changi Airport extension and the eastern Deep Tunnel expensive especially when a complete OCR profile of a soil
Sewerage System. Borehole geophysical survey in the form of deposit is required.
downhole PS logging was conducted at a number of potential Chang (1991a) proposed that the OCR of clays could be
underground caver sites in Jurong Formation and in a project to deduced from results of three common insitu tests including the
study the earthquake effects on soft marine clay of Singapore. A field vane test (FVT), the piezocone test (CPTU), and the
downthehole density probe was used for checking of insitu dilatometer test (DMT). Chang’s (1991a) proposed correlations
density for the semisuspension materials in a silt pond and for are, however, empirical or semiempirical in nature and is
sand in the reclaimed fill subjected to densification in the generally applicable to local marine clay and similar clay
Changi East Reclamation Project in early 1990s. deposits elsewhere. An improved interpretation method requires
A Cambridge type of selfboring pressuremeter was first a theoretical basis to be incorporated, although purely theoretical
introduced to Singapore in late 1980s and tests were conducted frameworks may not be that appropriate for the interpretation of
both offshore and on newly reclaimed land for the Changi East most insitu tests due to difficulties in quantifying the effect of
Reclamation Projects. Cone pressuremeter tests were also installation disturbance prior to the test.
conducted in sand in the Changi East Reclamation project A theoretical study which aims at the development of
beforeandafter the deep compaction of the soil improvement interpretation methods for CPTs in saturated clays, particularly
works. This insitu test was also used for the site investigation at reclaimed sites, was undertaken in 1990s. A theoretical model
for the proposed MRT Extension to the Changi Airport in early is being developed primarily for the evaluation of OCRs of clays
1990s. on the basis of the cavity expansion theory and the Cam Clay
In a special application, a piezocone with two filters, one model. Based this study, Cao (1997) and Chang et al. (2001)
located at the base and the other located on the cone face, was proposed two separate equations based on the pore pressure
employed to measure the insitu porewater pressure at a recently ratio, which is defined as Bq= ( ubt u0 ) / (qt svo), where qt and
reclaimed site as there is a special need for detecting the insitu ubt are, respectively, the net cone tip resistance and the
porewater pressure in clays beneath the reclaimed sand fill. The penetration pore pressure at the conical base from CPTU and uo
observed dissipation curves show that for the excess penetration and svo are, respectively, the insitu porewater pressure and the
pore pressure readings differed by 12 kPa initially and gradually insitu vertical total stress. For clay with Bq < 0.75, OCR can be
merged as the tail of the sshape dissipation curve became estimated directly from qt and ubt, using the cylindrical cavity
established (Chang, 1995). This merger allows an extrapolation expansion theory, as follows:
of pressure readings corresponding to the full dissipation of pore
pressure as long as the dissipation is significant or near 80% of
1 / L
é 0 . 87 q t - u bt ù (3.1)
OCR = 2 ê ' ú These equations allow a more rigorous evaluation of su values
ë p o (1 + 1 . 69 M ) û form the CPTU measurements. Evaluation of undrained shear
strength from other insitu tests is also possible. For example,
where ae is the strain rate correction factor for cone which can based on the DMT, Marchetti (1980) suggested that, for
be taken as 1.64, M = 6sinf¢/(3sinf¢), L is typically around 0.8, uncemented clays, su can be estimated from the horizontal stress
and s¢ vo and svo are insitu vertical effective and total stresses, index (KD) as follows:
respectively. For clay with pore pressure ratio Bq between 0.75
and 0.85, the suitable equation is as follows: su = 0.22s¢vo ( (KD/2) 1.25 (3.7)
1 / L
é q t - u bt ù Chang (1991b) reported that the undrained shear strengths
OCR = 2 ê (3.2)
ú calculated based on Marchetti (1980) for the upper and the
a s '
ë e vo (1 + 0 .
67 M ) û lower marine clay layers in Singapore at several onland sites
are 5 to 20% and 40% higher than the field vane strength,
Equations (3.1) and (3.2) were found to produce reasonable respectively and proposed the following modified correlation for
estimates of OCR for Singapore marine clay and many other the Singapore marine clay:
lightly to moderately overconsolidated clays elsewhere (Chang
et el., 2001). su /s¢vo =0.175 (KD/2) 1.25 (3.8)
Shear Strength Bo et al. (2001) suggested that Marchetti’s correlation can be
The evaluation of undrained shear strength (s u) of clay from the generalized as
cone resistance (qc) as obtained in the CPTU is traditionally h
based on the bearing capacity theory: su = 0.22s¢vo (KD/2) (3.9)
su = (qt svo)/ Nkt (3.3) where “h” is a variable which may vary from one clay to
another. Bo et al. (2001) indicated that h of 1.0 and 0.7
where svo is total overburden pressure and Nkt is the cone factor. provided a very good fit of data for the upper marine clay and
The relationship between qt and su is not universal and it the lower marine clay, respectively, when the estimated su
depends on the type of clay and the field or laboratory test on values were compared with those from the FVT. For the
which the su value is based. Published data show that there is a intermediate layer, a limited number of data points indicate that
large scatter of the inferred Nkt values for different clays, with h = 1.0 is a good approximation.
the typical values ranging from 10 to 20. This variation of Nkt
values could lead to 30 to 40 % difference in the predicted 3.4 The Trend
undrained shear strength.
Cao (1997) indicated that Nkt is a function of the rigidity More intensive use of insitu tests is in the making. Although,
index and the value is typically between 7 and 15 based on the the reliability of soil parameters evaluated from insitu tests has
cavity expansion theory and the modified Cam clay, if values of improved, further refinements on the interpretation method are
undrained shear strength as obtained from triaxial compression necessary for most insitu tests. Laboratory smallstrain tests for
tests on isotropically consolidated samples, or su (CIUC) values, the deduction of modulusdegradation curve are becoming more
are used as a reference. Bo et al. (1998) proposed an empirical common because of the need for reliable prediction of ground
correlation between Nkt and plastic index based on FVT and deformation and settlements.
CPTU data from the Singapore Marine Clay and the correlation
is as follows:
4 SLOPE STABILITY AND PROTECTION
Nkt = 23.8 (0.263 Ip) (3.4)
In landscarce Singapore, the need for usable land has
Cao (1997) indicated that the correlation between su and qt is necessitated cutting of hill slopes and filling of lowlying
influenced by the stress history of the soils and the critical state grounds for infrastructural developments. This, coupled with
soil parameter M, based on the cavity expansion theory and frequent rainstorms in the tropical climate, has resulted in
modified Cam clay concept. He suggested that, for clays with Bq frequent occurrences of earth slips. For the past thirty years, the
< 0.75, the su corresponding to the triaxial compression annual mean rainfall ranges from 2000 mm around the fringes of
condition (su) tx can be related to qt as follows : the island to 2300 mm in the central region. Although landslides
in Singapore are not comparable in scale to those of other
( )
M 0. 866 q + 0 . 134 s vo - u bt
Southeast Asian countries and no fatal accident has been
(3.5) reported, they nevertheless are of appreciable significance and
(s u )tx = t
3 . 28 (1 + 0 . 67 M ) have posed problems to geotechnical engineers in Singapore.
Landslides in Singapore occur frequently on engineered slopes
For clays with Bq between 0.75 and 0.85, the following equation in colluvial deposits and heavily weathered and completely
decomposed rock or residual soils.
can be used:
In Singapore, slides of rotational form, both circular and non
circular, are common in natural slopes as well as in manmade
( )
M q t - u bt
(3.6) slopes. Slides of compound forms involving small rotational or
( ) s u tx =
3. 28 1 ( + 0. 67 M ) even translational slides in slope development process are also a
common phenomenon. Major falls and flows are rare been used for erosion control. It works by protecting the top soil
occurrences. Localized shallow rotational slides due to erosion against erosion, thereby encouraging plant growth.
at the slope surface are commonly found in the residual soils. It
is also not uncommon to find more than one such individual
slides occurring in the same slope. Generally they involve a 4.2 Counterfort Drains and Horizontal Penetrating Drains
depth of no greater than 2 metres and extending to a short Counterfort drains with graded stones have been used to prevent
length. These slides are attributable to water penetrating in the shallow surface slope failures as early as in the mid 1970s.
slopes and soil softening effects. Without proper vegetation Shown in Fig. 1 is a typical section of a counterfort drain used to
cover and proper drainage, the residual soils are susceptible to stabilise a 13.5 mhigh earth slope at Clementi Road (Tan S.B.,
rapid surface erosion or weakening by rain water infiltration. In 1997). The counterfort drains consist of graded 20 mm coarse
areas like Bukit Timah in the central part of Singapore and aggregates wrapped all round with geotextile. The geotextile
Jurong in the western part, it is common to find slides of serves to minimise clogging of the coarse aggregates. The
dislodged materials underlain by relatively less permeable in counterfort drains are about 500 mm wide and are cut in steps
situ weathered rocks. Slides are also frequent occurrences on into the earth slope. The columns of counterfort drains down the
slopes in which poor backfill material had been dumped during slope are spaced about 5m apart. The drains are covered with a
the construction. 300 mmthick layer of soil to enable turfing over them. The
Prior to 1975, very few major slides in slopes of the Jurong counterfort drains serve to remove much of the infiltrated
Formation were observed (Tan et al., 1987). A major landslide rainwater in the slope, thereby helping to reduce the extent of
which occurred at Tanjong Gul in Jurong before 1972 was one of saturation of the slope and hence, enhancing its stability. The
them. The landslide involved a benched cut slope with an counterfort drains also help to reinforce the surface of the slope.
overall gradient of about 30° and a maximum height of about 25 In addition, horizontal penetrating drains have been used to
metres. The slide had affected the highest part of the cut slope, help lower and control the groundwater table level, thereby
stretching about 60 metres in length. It resulted in a vertical increasing the stability of slopes. Typically drains consist of 75
backscarp of about 2 metres and a bulge at the toe of the slope. mm diameter perforated PVC pipes wrapped round with a
The material involved in the slide was volcanic agglomerate and geotextile and inserted into holes drilled horizontally into the
shale, and residual soils derived from the parent materials. slopes. Horizontal penetrating drains were used for the first time
Over the years, many cases of landslides occurred, and on a largescale basis to stabilise a 40 mhigh slope at Balestier
measures used to control or mitigate landslides include a Hill. Horizontal drains were also used in the construction of the
regrading of slopes, surface and subsoil drainage, and use of Bukit Timah Expressway to ensure stability of some stretches of
retaining walls, ground anchors, soil nails, and other types of the cuttings.
restraining structures. For minor slips, small timber (bakau) In December 1991, another major slip occurred after a heavy
piles driven at close spacing have been used for stabilizing rainfall, on the hillslopes located beside the Bukit Gombak
slopes in many parts of Singapore. Other measures of slope Stadium (Yang and Tang, 1997). The height of the failed slope
stabilization include the use of counterfort drains, horizontal in Gombak Norite Formation was about 40 metres, and the
penetrating drains, and geogrids. average slope angle was about 20 to 25 degrees. Groundwater
level was high and in some areas the groundwater was flowing
out of the slope. Failure surfaces were found to be shallow, at
4.1 Regrading of Slopes
about 2 to 3.5 m below the ground surface. Lowering and
Where land is available, regrading of slopes by cutting or filling controlling of groundwater level was adopted as a measure to
them to a more stable configuration is usually first considered improve the stability of the existing slope. For the stabilisation
for adoption. For routine design of cut slopes, empirical works, strips of counterfort drains, each of length 35 m and
approaches based on past experience and limit equilibrium depth of 1.5 m, were constructed at 3 metres centretocentre.
analyses using circular failure surfaces are commonly used. The length of these drains was about 35 metres, and the depth
Generally, the Code of Practice CP18 suggests a factor of safety about 1.5 metres. In addition to the counterfort drains, about 330
of 1.3 to 1.4, however, the acceptable longterm factor of safety nos. of horizontal drains, with lengths of about 8 to 10 metres,
against slip failure can be 1.5 depending on the client’s need. were installed in a grid formation and at a spacing of 2.5 metres
Slopes in residual soils along most road cuttings in Singapore centretocentre. These horizontal drains were made of high
are formed with a gradient of 1:1.5 to 1:2.0. Berms with widths density polyethylene subsoil drainage pipes, which were 80 mm
of 1.5 to 2 m are usually provided at every 8 to 10 m vertical in internal diameter,
intervals. Intercepting drains are generally provided at the berms wrapped with nonwoven geotextile and installed in prebored
and at the top and bottom of the slopes. For the control of soil holes. Since the completion of the stabilization works, the slope
erosion, slopes are always turfed. Proprietary matting has also has been performing satisfactorily and there were no further
Fig. 1 Slope Stabilisation with Counterfort Drains (after Tan S. B., 1997)
slips. After the heavy rainstorms that occurred in March 1984, a
Rahardjo et al. (2003) have conducted studies to examine the landslide involving a 1500 sq.m. stretch of a 40 mhigh slope
effectiveness of horizontal drains in stabilizing residual soil
slopes against rainfallinduced slope failures under a tropical took place at Fort Canning Park. The failure surfaces were found
climate. The study includes field instrumentation at two residual to be shallow, being about 3 m below the ground surfaces. There
soil slopes complemented with a parametric study relating to was an urgency to arrest the continuing movements of the earth
drain position. Field monitoring results indicate that rainfall slope to avoid damaging a swimming pool complex located at
Fig. 3 Slope Stabilization Using Ground Anchors (after Tan S. B., 1997)
Fig. 4 Slope Stabilization Using Soil Nails and R. C. Grid Beams (after Tan S. B., 1997)
Fig. 5 Slope Stabilization Using Geogrids (after Tan S. B., 1997)
predicted damage from such failure. Most of the critical slopes up downtown area. However, due to the escalating cost of land
identified as “major” have been constructed since the 70s and and the necessity to conserve surface land due to the tremendous
80s and bear telltale signs of strains and weathering from long development potential around the MRT stations the trend has
term exposure to inclement conditions in Singapore. The been to move MRT lines, even in the outlying areas, below
appraisal work will determine current conditions of the slopes ground. This has opened up tremendous scope for tunnelling and
through modelling and parametric simulations using soil underground works in Singapore.
parameters derived from laboratory and field test results. Repair, The Land Transport Authority (LTA) of Singapore is
regrading and/or slope stabilization will be carried out on parts responsible for the implementation of the Mass Rapid Transit
of the appraised slope that are deemed to be high risk and highly (MRT) System on the island. Underground construction for the
hazardous. rail network commenced in the early 1980s, with an estimated
The HDB’s Slope Appraisal Project was designed to ensure total route length of 138 km of rail been laid by this time. LTA
safety of the residents/public and also to safeguard HDB's continues its expansion of the rail network into the millennium
properties/infrastructures, which are in close proximity to the with the implementation of the Circle Line MRT (2007). By
major slopes. Field and laboratory testing and numerical 2010, a further 34 km route length of rails would have been laid
modelling of slopes based on Limit Equilibrium and Finite fully underground. Other transit lines to meet the future
Element Methods are the standard tools used in slope and transportation needs of Singapore are on the drawing board,
seepage analyses. If more information on expected slope either in the evaluation or the feasibility study stages.
movement is required, instrumentation and even online slope MRT construction, started in early 1983, involved a total of
monitoring will also be carried out. The benefits from the 35 major civil contracts and 22 electrical and mechanical system
approach adopted for the project include: wide contracts, at a cost of S$5 billion. This undertaking, at its
peak, was one of the most extensive tunnelling projects in the
- Prompt mitigation of danger and thus ensuring public safety; world at that time as described by Hulme (1988), with 19 km of
- Safeguard of buildings and infrastructures; and the MRT system underground, 11 km of it in twin tunnel. A
- Development of a slope safety management system for total of 15 of the stations were built.
efficient and effective maintenance of high risk slopes. Phases 1 and 2 of the MRT construction were carried out in
38 separate tunnel drives with a wide variety of equipment used
to cater to the varying ground conditions. Tunnelling was mainly
5 TUNNELLING AND UNDERGROUND SPACE carried out using Greathead openface shields with backhoe or
roadheader for mechanised excavation (see Table 1).
The Singapore tunnelling experience started when the former Compressed air was widely used in soft and water bearing
Public Works Department (PWD) started to lay great lengths of ground to improve face stability.
sewers and drains more than thirtyfive years ago. Tunnelling With advances in technology, the use of EPB shields was
was necessary in the Bukit Timah Flood Alleviation Drainage introduced during Phase 2 of the MRT construction, tunnelling
Scheme work which the PWD first initiated in Nov 1966. The from Lavender to Bugis station in soft marine clay. Surface
canal, about 10,000 ft long, had three stretches of twin tunnels settlement using EPB shields were well contained and are
with an average diameter of 13 feet. The longest tunnel documented by Broms and Shirlaw (1989). However a
stretched for 750 feet through rocks and shale which had to be maximum settlement of 140 mm was recorded and was higher
blasted through using explosives. Another stretch of tunnel 545 than that experienced during tunnelling in similar ground
feet in length, was made to pass through the stiff red clay excavated using open face shields and compressed air. Based on
beneath Garlick Avenue and a building. The tunnelling work the MRT tunnelling experience, the following measures were
was carried out successfully not only without endangering the necessary to reduce the settlement when tunnelling in soft clay:
safety of the building but also without disrupting the vehicular
traffic on a busy road. - Avoid using a face pressure more than 20% over the total
In the early 1970s, many sewers with diameters ranging from overburden pressure. Face pressures over this level can
21 in. to 30 in. were laid by the PWD some 40 feet below the result in excessive consolidation settlement.
ground and across the junctions of major and busiest thorough - Minimize, and preferably avoid, the use of overcutters
fares in Orchard Road area. Heading or pipejacking technique (which increase the diameter of the hole cut by the
was used in tunnelling in the residual soils beneath the roads machine).
and road junctions without disruption to traffic flows and - Use simultaneous tail void grouting to ensure that the void at
without the public knowing that sewers were being laid under the tail of the machine is grouted before the ground can
their feet. move onto the tunnel lining.
In 1983, an earth pressure balance machine (EPBM) was
used to construct a 3.7 m diameter tunnel approximately 3 km By the time the North East Line (NEL) project started in the mid
long to accommodate a 3.3 m diameter sewage pipeline 1990s, tunnelling technology had advanced significantly with
(Krishnan, 2000). EPBMs becoming common. Of the 16 TBMs deployed on the
North East Line, 14 were EPBMs, and 2 were openface
Greathead type machines (Table 2). The bored tunnels have an
5.1 Mass Rapid Transit System
internal diameter of 5.2 m.
After several years of study the Government of Singapore in Changi Airport Line (CAL) was also constructed in the 1990s
1982 decided to implement a comprehensive mass rapid transit and provides a 6.5km extension to the EastWest Line from
(MRT) system. This marked the beginning of major tunnelling Tanah Merah to the Changi Airport. Contractors participating in
and underground works in Singapore. Initially, the tunnelling the tender were given opportunity to price for any modifications
works for the MRT line was mainly confined to the heavily built
that they required to the TBMs specified by the Authority, as the
TBMs were to be transferred to the successful tenderer.
Table 1 Tunneling Equipment Used in MRT Phases 1 and 2 (Krishnan, 2000)
Table 2 TBMs on the North East Line (NEL) and Changi Airport Line (CAL)
Punggol
LRT (2004)
Sengkang LRT
(2002)
Bukit Panjang NorthEast
LRT (1999) Line
(2002) Changi Airport
Line (2001)
Marina Line
Fig. 6 Present Mass Rapid Transit and Light Rail Transit Network in Singapore
Table 3 Summarized Details of MRT Tunnel Projects in Singapore
A summary of the MRT projects implemented in Singapore is The System Map as shown in Fig. 6 illustrates the present MRT
tabulated in Table 3. Besides providing details about the various and Light Rail Transit (LRT) network in Singapore.
MRT projects, the table also outlines the use of different types
of TBM machines. The choice of tunnelling machines is mainly 5.2 Deep Tunnel Sewerage Scheme
affected by the type of ground conditions, advances in
Krishnan (2000) reported that Phase 1 of the DTSS scheme,
technology as well as site constraints along the tunnelling route.
which has recently been completed, is a S$3 billion project. It
consists of 50 km of tunnels to intercept existing and new
gravity sewers through drop shafts and channel the flow by of the main points that can be concluded from the study are
gravity to a new centralised sewerage treatment works to be summarized as follows:
commissioned at the southerneastern end of the island. The
treated effluent will be discharged through deep sea outfall - Soil settlement caused by tunnelling (i.e. from volume loss)
pipelines. Phase 1 of the system has been let as 6 designand had resulted in negative skin friction acting on the pile shaft
build packages (Table 4). above the tunnel level, leading to downdrag on the piles.
All the deep tunnels were excavated with TBMs. Reinforced - The axial force only started to increase when the EPBM was
concrete precast segments provided the initial ground support. at a distance of 25 m approaching the piles. Peak axial force
Castinsitu reinforced concrete provides the secondary lining was recorded when the EPBM was adjacent to the piles.
with its inside surface lined with HDPE or PVC membrane as a - Axial force and bending moment in the front pile were
primary protection lining. Included in the works were the observed to be higher than the rear pile.
construction of 10 drop shafts and 28 escape shafts. - There was an increasing relationship between the tunnelling
induced axial force and bending moment in piles with
Table 4 DTSS (Phase 1) Contracts (Krishnan, 2000) volume loss.
- Tunnelling induced bending moments were small although
the piles were located very near to the tunnels (i.e. 1.6 m
Contract Length Diameter Contract Cost clear distance). Bending moment in the longitudinal
direction was found to be either equal to or smaller than the
(m) (m) (S$ million)
bending moment in the transverse direction.
T01 Changi Tunnel 5,791 6.0 80.6
T02 Bedok Tunnel 7,716 6.0 95.6
T03 Paya Lebar Tunnel 5,100 6.0 68.8 5.4 Immersed Tube Tunnels
T04 Ang Mo Kio Tunnel 7,268 4.3 74.2
In the mid 1980s, the then Electricity Department of the Public
T05 Kranji Tunnel 12,600 3.6 139.5
Utilities Board decided on a tunnel for housing the undersea
T06 Queensway Tunnel 9,600 3.3 92.0
section of the 2500 MVA transmission link for its new power
station on the former Pulau Seraya, an island lying
Fig. 7 shows a schematic diagram of DTSS (Phase 1).
approximately 2.5 km south of Singapore. The designandbuild
contract for the tunnel was let in April 1985 and the work was
5.3 Response of Pile Foundation Subjected to Nearby
completed in 1988. The route was 2.6 km overall with 1.8 km
Tunnelling Works
of it below the sea bed. The rectangular tunnel, 6.5 m wide and
Tunnelling in problematic soils, such as soft marine clays and 3.7 m high, was laid as a submerged tube. Each section of the
peaty clays, are often associated with potentially large ground tube was made up of 28 numbers of 3.5 m long match cast
movements and stability problems. Very often, tunnelling works segments and a special end section. These were then stressed
are done within Singapore’s dense urban environment. A major together to form a 100 m long tube which was then floated out
concern is to prevent or minimize damage to adjacent buildings and sunk in position.
during the tunnelling works. Hence, it is imperative to have a With the development of the new Tuas Power Station on the
reliable interpretation and understanding of the response of pile tip of the reclaimed Tuas Bay at the western end of Singapore in
foundation to tunnelling works. Pang et al. (2005) conducted a the early 1990s, an immersed tunnel was again identified as
case study from the construction of MRT NorthEast Line providing the most direct routing for the transmission cables to
Contract 704. The study involved monitoring of twelve working connect with the central areas of Singapore. The designand
piles during the advancement of EPBM and backanalysis. Some build contract for the works was let in May 1996 and was
completed in December 1998.
Fig. 7 Schematic Diagram of DTSS (Phase 1)
in this direction in the last 23 years has seen the development of
The 2.6 km Seraya Cable Tunnel linking Pulau Seraya to the home grown talent in these specialized fields.
mainland and the subsequent 2.9 km Tuas Cable Tunnel beneath The contractor’s choice of tunnelling method is constrained
Tuas Bay remain as one of the few longest immersed tube mainly by the ground conditions along the tunnelling route. Also
tunnels in the world. Both the cable tunnels consist of taken into considerations were the proximity and foundations of
rectangular precast concrete elements sunk into position and buildings adjacent to the tunnel alignments. During the initial
jointed underwater. tunnelling projects in Singapore, the alignment was prudently
As part of its effort to maintain Singapore’s world class chosen and most of the routes were aligned below major arterial
power supply infrastructure, PowerGrid is continually upgrading roads to avoid tunnelling below buildings. Where the route was
its transmission system to meet the power transmission needs of constrained by buildings, stacked tunnels were adopted.
Singapore. The new system will enhance the transmission Scarcity of open land and the high price of land in Singapore
capability through better fault handling and more economical coupled with ever growing environmental concerns are factors
power transmission. PowerGrid has started accommodating new that drive major infrastructure works below ground. Phase 2 of
and future extensions to its transmission system in bored the deep Tunnel Sewerage Scheme, extension of transit system
tunnels. The bored cable tunnels would enable refurbishment and underground road system as well as the possible cavern
and upgrading of the transmission system with minimal cost and schemes will be major underground infrastructural investments.
disruption to the public. Thus the scope of tunnelling and underground works is expected
to increase even more rapidly in Singapore in the future years.
5.5 Underground Caverns
6 DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Scarcity of land has been the driving force in looking towards
underground caverns for both civilian and military uses. Early
Except for low rise buildings, deep foundations are extensively
studies on the feasibility of the use of caverns were carried out
used for the support of heavy structures and buildings in
in 1989 and 1993. Further studies were carried out on
Singapore. The use of raft is very much restricted to the
construction of caverns in Bukit Timah granite since 1996.
The Defence Ministry (MINDEF) has recently completed the financial district in downtown Singapore where the very hard
boulder clay of the Fort Canning Boulder Bed is common. This
construction of an ammunition storage complex in caverns in the
foundation practice is due partly to the unique undulating terrain
Bukit Timah granite at Mandai. This has saved more than 300
of the Singapore Island and partly to the generally conservative
ha of precious land at ground level. The caverns, each of which
can hold up to 100 containers, are interconnected by tunnels. approaches adopted in civil engineering designs. This review of
foundation aspect of geotechnical practice in Singapore is for
Construction was primarily by drill and blast technique at depths
uses primarily on rafts and deep foundations.
of about 100 m and spans up to 60 m.
Geotechnical studies have been carried out between 1996 and
1998 jointly by NTU and the former PWD in sedimentary rocks 6.1 Past Practice
of the Jurong formation. The findings have opened up The geotechnical practice on foundations in Singapore has been
possibilities of developing underground space in materials other strongly influenced by the traditional British engineering
than the Bukit Timah granite rocks. A significant geology of practice for which the structural engineers often play a dominant
Singapore is made of sedimentary formation and this would help role, particularly for buildings. Very often, the design of
to open up usable volume without using up valuable surface land foundations is carried out by structural engineers in the past, and
area and helping to keep the natural environmental intact. still continues even at present, except for major projects where
The JTC Corporation has recently announced the specialist geotechnical engineer or foundation experts might be
implementation of the Phase 1 Jurong Rock Cavern. The Jurong consulted.
Rock Cavern project involves the construction of about 1.5 mil
m 3 of underground hydrocarbon rock cavern storage space 6.1.1 Raft foundations
beneath the Banyan Basin at Jurong Island. The proposed
storage products in the rock cavern include but not limited to Raft foundations had been used in the financial district in
crude oil, condensates, naphtha, diesel oil and fuel oil. Access to downtown Singapore where the very hard boulder clay of the
the underground storage facility is proposed via two vertical Fort Canning Boulder Bed is present at reasonably shallow
shafts and connecting tunnels. The shafts have an internal depths. For the past 30 years, raft foundations were popular for
diameter of approximately 20 m and will be terminated in sound the support of highrise buildings, on one hand because of the
Jurong Formation rocks at a depth of approximately 100 m extremely high bearing capacity and low compressibility of the
below ground level. Construction will be carried out primarily boulder clay, and on the other hand because of the difficulty of
by drill and blast technique. drilling or penetrating of piles through boulderabundant layers
using the traditional piling methods. The construction cost for a
raft foundation is also generally lower compared to that for deep
5.6 Concluding Remarks on Underground Structure Works and large diameter caissons due to the simpler and more
The history of tunnelling and underground works in Singapore is straightforward construction method and the shorter construction
relatively young. The first tunnelling works commenced only in time for rafts.
1983. However significant development in underground The Fort Canning Boulder Bed in Singapore consists of
tunnelling works has taken place since. This development has sandstone boulders which are embedded in a matrix of very stiff
been made possible by local and international teams of to hard silty and sandy clay. The strength and deformation
consultants, designers, geotechnical specialist, contractors and characteristics of the soil matrix are close to those of a weak
tunnelling and specialist equipment suppliers. The rapid growth rock or a heavily overconsolidated clay. The average value of
the reload modulus is estimated at 480 MPa from the 6.2.1 Raft foundations
pressuremeter test and the plate load test. The average
As foundations for highrise buildings, rafts have been used
undrained shear strength of the clay matrix from is estimated at
successfully for many years. However, analyses of raft
1000 kPa from insitu tests (Ooi, 1994).
foundations subjected to working loads indicate that generally
Rafts were chosen for the highrise structures of the Raffles
the bearing capacity requirement can be fulfilled without much
City in the late 1970s. The Shell Tower, the Ocean Building and
difficulty but the rafts may settle excessively in many cases,
the Tung Center which were constructed in the early 1980s are
although it does not appear to be significant for rafts resting on
also founded on rafts. The performance of these rafts as well as
Singapore’s bouldery clay. The requirement for settlement
that of the Savu Tower I & II, which was completed in 1992,
reduction has resulted in the use of piled rafts elsewhere in the
have been excellent, and the measured maximum and
past two decades, but the design for such a combined foundation
differential settlements are all well within the allowable limits.
system is still very much based on the concept of a pile group
Rafts for highrise buildings founded on the Fort Canning
with an integrated cap and it is not yet an economical solution.
Boulder Bed, or the bouldery clay, in the Centre Business
A study using a twodimensional finite element programme
District have not been common since the late 1980s and early
ABAQUS was conducted at NTU for rafts with or without
1990s, except for the Savu Tower I & II. The OUB Center
settlement reducing piles to evaluate the performance of rafts on
tower, 280 m in height, is supported on seven hand dug caissons
a hard clay. Analytical results indicate that a relatively small
with 5.0 m and 6.0 m in shaft diameter and about 100 m below
number of piles are generally required to reduce the settlements
street level, extending past the bouldery Clay into the siltstone
of the rafts to an acceptable level and lengthening the piles and
of the underlying Jurong Formation. The UOB Plaza and the
concentrating piles within a small core area of the rafts are
Republic Plaza, both 280 m in height, are supported on large
effective in reducing the settlement and the bending moment
and deep hand dug caissons 4 to 6.8 m in diameters and 40 to 60
significantly (Cao, 1998). Also, a low factor of safety on the
m deep constructed in the bouldery clay. The Central Ministry
structural and geotechnical capacities of the settlement reducing
Building is supported on barrettes. Cost for these type of
piles can be adopted if proper connections are used between the
foundations is extremely high and the construction time required
pile heads and the raft. Based on a study on the raft with
is large compared to raft foundations.
disconnected settlement reducing piles on stiff clay,
In local design for rafts, the rafts are generally considered as
disconnection of piles from the raft does not significantly affect
subjected to vertical static loads only. As a consequence, the
the efficiency of reduction in the settlement and bending
superstructure, including the core wall stiffness, is assumed not
moment of the raft. Also, possible horizontal loads from
to have much effect on the performance of rafts founded on the
earthquake or other actions may be effectively resisted by the
bouldery clay. Elastic analysis methods are adopted and the use
adhesive force along the soilraft interface. Disconnection of
of reload modulus as obtained from the unloading and reloading
settlement reducing piles from the raft may therefore be a
of at least two cycles from pressuremeter tests or plateload tests
reasonable approach to develop the design strategy of piles as
in the bouldery clay are usually recommended (Ooi, 1994).
“settlement reducers” with greater flexibility (Wong, et al.,
2000). This research fining has yet to be incorporated into the
6.1.3 Deep foundations
local practice of design for piled rafts, which may become more
As the general foundation practice is conservative, there were attractive than caissons in Singapore in the future.
cases where caisson foundations that support highrise buildings
of over 60 storey in height were designed as standing columns 6.2.2 Deep foundations
resting on competent bedrock, with the contribution of shaft
Traditionally, driven piles such as precast concrete piles and
friction totally ignored, even that the caissons were embedded
steel H piles are commonly used in Singapore, disregard of
predominately in the bouldery clay of Singapore’s Fort Canning
locations and the prevailing geological formations. These piles
Boulder Bed (SPRING, 2003). This had led to solid piers of
were often driven to “set” based on different set criteria derived
huge diameter of up to 6.8 m extending to 100 m in depth, such
locally from a comparison of driving records and field
as under the UOB Centre.
performance of piles from proof tests on selected piles.
Even today, the design engineers, in general practice,
However, partly due to the advance in efficient and powerful
commonly require piled foundations that support moderate to
heavy machineries for drilling and boring in relatively hard
high rise buildings be terminated in bed rock or a competent
geological materials and partly because of environmental
bearing stratum with the standard penetration resistance or blow
concerns on the use of pile driving hammers, large diameter
counts from the standard penetration test (SPT) exceeding 100
bored and castinplace piles have been widely used in
blows per 0.3 m penetration, disregarded of what materials in
placement of driven piles for the support of major buildings and
which the piles are embedded. This often leads to overdriving in
heavily loaded structures. This is particularly so in areas covered
the case of driven piles, which were traditional more popular,
by the two dominant weathered formations including the Bukit
and delay in casting of concrete in the case of caissons and large
Timah Granite and the sedimentary Jurong Formation, and the
bored piles that are presently more common.
Old Alluvium that covers very much the eastern part of
Singapore Island (PWD, 1976).
6.2 Changes in The Immediate Past In design practice, as a tradition, large bored piles in
Singapore are often designed for resting in materials with the N
As more and more highrise buildings are erected, development value from the SPT exceeding 100 blows/0.3 m and, similar to
of methods of improving the design for achieving a more caissons in the bouldery clay, the shaft friction has at times been
economical foundation system becomes the top priority for ignored. Although, proof tests are usually specified and
foundation engineers. conducted on selected working piles, they are mainly used to
verify primarily the pile quality, even though pile head
settlements are considered in the acceptance of the test results. of base resistance (qb) data, a conservative estimate using a qb/N
A large number of such load tests has been conducted each year, (kPa) ratio of 20 to 40, suggested by Chang and Broms (1991),
but these tests do not really contribute in any way toward is sometimes used. Recommendations of various correlations for
improving the state of the art of design of bored piles. As a bored piles in different geological formations in Singapore
result, the design of these piles is still often very conservative, general practice have been given in recently published
largely due to the negligence of contribution by shaft resistance. Singapore Standard CP4; 2003, the local code of practice for
With the development of appreciation of the importance of foundations (SPRING, 2003). A global factor of safety of 2.5 or
shaft resistance primarily from load tests on instrumented piles 3 is usually applied to the calculated ultimate pile load to
worldwide and locally since the early 1980s, the design practice determine the allowable pile load. In doing so, the fact that the
has, however, gradually changed in the last 20 years not only in resistance at the base is often mobilized at a much slower rate
the design of caissons but also in the design of large diameter compared to that along the shaft is totally ignored.
bored piles. The OUB Center tower is supported on seven hand Bored piles are constructed by excavating a cylindrical
dug caissons with 5.0 m and 6.0 m in shaft diameter and about borehole, placing prefabricated reinforcing steel cage, and filling
100 m below street level, extending past the bouldery Clay into the excavation with fresh concrete. The excavation is generally
the siltstone of the underlying Jurong Formation. The UOB accomplished by direct boring in a dry or a waterfilled or
Plaza and the Republic Plaza are supported on large and deep drilling mudfilled hole using a shortflight auger and a cleaning
hand dug caissons 4 to 6.8 m in diameters and 40 to 60 m deep bucket in Singapore. Occasionally, the reverse circulation
constructed in the bouldery clay. The change of typical caissons, technique using a rotary drilling head and a suitable drilling
between 4.7 and 6.8 m in diameter, that support three similar fluid is adopted. Temporary casings extending to different
super high buildings in the downtown financial district from depths are also used. The placement of concrete is usually
around 100 m in length (OUB Centre) to 43 to 60 m in length carried out by either direct pour or by the tremie method
and of similar diameter (UOB Plaza and Republic Plaza) with particularly when the excavated hole is wet. Possible direct
the consideration of the shaft resistance deduced from Jacking effect on pile behaviour from construction is seldom considered
tests (Wallace, et al. 1990), is a vivid example showing the in current design practice.
change in the basic design concept at work. For large diameter The behaviour of a bored pile in response to loading depends
bored piles, an estimate of unit shaft resistance has also often basically on the interaction between the constructed pile and the
been made from the SPT Nvalues using empirical correlations surrounding geological materials, which is not only site specific
supported by load tests on instrumented piles (Chang et al. but also highly dependent on details of the construction. The
1990) and incorporated in design calculations. loaddisplacement behaviour of bored piles could vary
The improved practice of pile design is not done without any significantly from one pile to another particularly in highly
problems even for the presently much more popular bored piles variable geological formations. The current methods of design
for which pile instrumentation is easily carried out and site for bored piles in weathered formations in Singapore have been
specific correlations between shaft and base resistance and soil conservative and highly empirical mainly because of the great
resistance (such as the Nvalue) are possible. As the materials in variability in the constructed pilesoil system and lack of
which bored piles are commonly installed are highly variable, consideration for pile settlements. Therefore, the verification of
there is a constant need to verify the unit resistance, particularly the design of bored piles in weathered materials therefore relies
the shaft resistance, from ultimate load testing of instrumented heavily on load testing of preliminary piles at specific project
piles, which is expensive. More importantly, a large number of sites.
such load tests has been conducted each year, but the value of Instrumented preliminary piles are prescribed primarily in
these tests, which depends on careful planning of the test consideration of the importance of the foundation piles and
program and correct interpretation of test results, has not been inadequate knowledge of the ground condition at the project site.
fully explored for the benefit of improving the stateoftheart of The role of instrumented preliminary piles is important because
design for bored piles. In order to address the issue, one needs to of the heavy reliance of the present design of bored piles on field
have a good understanding of the current common practice of performance monitoring for the verification of design in the
bored piling, the interpretation procedure, and various sources of highly variable weathered geological formations. However, in
uncertainties of the load test data. The common pile design current practice, the unique role of preliminary piles has not
practice and its shortfalls, in particular, requires a careful always been fully recognized and the value of preliminary piles
review. Chang (2001) presented a careful review of the has been significantly affected. The prime objective of the
interpretation procedure, sources of uncertainties, and preliminary piles, in addition to providing a check of the
recommended remedial measures for planning and proposed piling method, should be the evaluation of the detailed
implementation of load testing of instrumented bored piles. loadtransfer mechanism and the loadtransfer characteristics.
As a result, the preliminary test pile usually needs to be fully
instrumented to allow for separation of contributions from
6.3 Common Design Practice and Shortfalls in Deep various supporting components.
Foundations In recognition of the importance of load tests on instrumented
The common design of bored piles in the residual soils of piles in the design of bored piles in weathered formations and
Singapore is often based on static formulas and the penetration other stiff to hard soils in Singapore, Singapore’s Building and
resistance (Nvalue) from the SPT. The unit shaft resistance fs is Construction Agency (BCA) has implemented a new regulation
usually estimated directly from the fs/N ratio. For example, a which requires a minimum of one such load test to be carried
typical fs /N (kPa) ratio of 2 for the residual soil of the out at a project site where a buildings of over 10 stories in
sedimentary Formation (Chang and Broms, 1991) and a ratio of height or higher are to be constructed in 2003. However,
2.7 to 3.2 for the Bukit Timah granite soil (Chang and Wong, inadequate recognition of the importance of the role of
1995; Poh and Chiam, 1993) are commonly used. Due to a lack preliminary piles when planning the load test program often
leads to various problems. As preliminary piles are usually Besides the advancement in finite element and finite
located outside the proposed construction areas, the soil difference techniques, there are further developments on
condition at the test pile location is often not adequately numerical method in the geotechnical field. A few examples are
investigated. Unfortunately, the soil condition at the piling summarized in the subsequence paragraphs.
location could be significantly different from those revealed in
adjacent site investigation boreholes in weathered geological
formations. The planning of instrumentation in the piles can be 7.1 Pile Response Adjacent to Braced Excavation
greatly affected and the interpretation of load test results Goh et. al. (2003) developed a simplified numerical procedure
complicated as a result. based on the finiteelement method to analyze the pile response.
Lack of accurate site investigation data also makes the task of The relevant computer program BCPILE has been described
correlating the field performance data to the relevant soil elsewhere (Teh 1995; Goh et al. 1997). The pile is discretized
parameters difficult. This will in turn prevent the field into a finite number of discrete (linear elastic) beam elements.
performance data from the preliminary load test to be The interaction between the soil and the pile is modelled by a
extrapolated to other localities sometimes even within the same series of nonlinear horizontal springs. The loaddisplacement
project site. Consequently, the benefit of adopting a logical relationship of the soil spring is represented by a hyperbolic
design method on the basis of a complete loadsettlement curve equation (Goh et al. 1997). The analysis requires input of the
predicted using field performance based correlations cannot be pile radius, the pile flexural rigidity, the distribution of the
derived. initial shear modulus and the limiting lateral soil pressure with
depth, and the freefield lateral soil movements. Guidelines for
determining the soil parameters have been outlined in Goh et al.
6.4 The Proposed Practice
(1997). The measured pile bending moments were obtained by
In conjunction with the need to improve the design of bored differentiating the pile deflection profile twice. The shape and
piles by taking into consideration of the load transfer along piles magnitude of the predicted and measured pile bending moments
and the new requirement on the verification of pile’s load are in reasonable agreement. There is also reasonable agreement
transfer behaviour by BCA, it has been suggested that certain between the measured and predicted results with respect to the
precautions be taken in the planning and implementation of the location of the maximum deflection and maximum bending
test program with a proper consultation of experienced moment.
geotechnical specialists and the test results be interpreted by the
newly created geotechnical professional engineers, or PE
(Geotechnical), who are familiar with the interpretation method 7.2 ReliabilityBased Design Applied to Retaining Walls
so that representative and reliable load transfer data could be Low (2005) presented a practical reliabilitybased design
obtained. As a subsequent step for improving the pile design, procedure for retaining walls based on the HasoferLind index
consideration should be given on the use of a suitable numerical and FORM. Correlated normal and nonnormal random
analysis technique, such as the load transfer method, should be variables are considered. The efficient spreadsheetbased
employed for the prediction of loadsettlement curves and on the probabilistic approach, based on the work of Low & Tang (1997
adoption of the load transfer approach (Chang and Goh, 1989) in & 2004), achieves the same result as the HasoferLind method
design. and FORM, but uses an intuitive expanding dispersion ellipsoid
perspective that greatly simplifies the computations and
interpretations. The differences between a reliabilitybased
7 NUMERICAL METHODS IN GEOTECHNICAL
design and one based on partial factors were studied. The
ENGINEERING
probabilities of failure inferred from reliability indices were
compared with Monte Carlo simulations.
According to Tan (1997), the former Public Works Department
(PWD) has first applied numerical method by using finite
difference for consolidation analysis of clay involving sand 7.3 Practical Probabilistic Slope Stability Analysis
drains in the early 1970s. Over the last two decades, the
Low (2003) presented a practical objectoriented constrained
application of numerical methods to geotechnical engineering
optimization approach in the ubiquitous spreadsheet platform to
has increased tremendously. It was only in 1983 when the finite
implement the generalized Spencer method. Slope reliability
element technique was first used by the PWD in the analysis of
analyses involving spatially correlated normal and lognormal
the braced excavation for the basement construction of the
variates were demonstrated, with search for the critical
Environment Building in Scotts Road. Since then, numerical
noncircular slip surface. The HasoferLind reliability index was
methods, particularly the finite element method, have been
reinterpreted using the perspective of an expanding equivalent
frequently used in the analysis of geotechnical problems,
dispersion ellipsoid centered at the mean in the original space of
especially those involving deep excavations, tunnelling works
the random variables. The probabilities of failure inferred from
and deep foundations.
reliability indices are in good agreement with those from Monte
The popularity of numerical methods lies in the flexibility
Carlo simulations. The probability density functions (of the
and ease at handling difficult boundary conditions and non
factor of safety) were also derived from reliability indices using
linear soil models, and the versatility of finite element technique
simple spreadsheetbased cubic spline interpolation, and found
which is becoming even more accessible with advanced
to agree well with those generated by the far more time
computer chips. As the personal computers became more and
consuming Monte Carlo simulation method.
more advanced, the availability of 3DFEM programs has begun
to overtake the conventional 2DFEM programs in analyses for
geotechnical works.
7.4 Estimating BasalHeave Stability for Braced Excavations trough can be improved for adequate mesh size adopted. For
in Soft Clay preliminary understanding, Fig. 8 can be referred as a guide on
the estimation of mesh sizes. The accuracy of the guide is
Goh (1994) developed a simple design procedure based on the
indicative only and there are other factors that could jeopardize
parametric analyses and observations. The method takes into
the convergence such as the boundary fixity, soil stiffness and
account the width of the excavation, the thickness of the clay
particularly the effect of boundary fixity at the mesh bottom. The
below the base of the excavation, the depth of the wall below
boundary fixity at the mesh bottom has shown to produce great
the bottom of the excavation, and the stiffness of the wall. The
effect on the overall soil movement. Their study has shown that
factor of safety is expressed in the following form:
a pinned fixity would produce a better result in term of
settlement trough shape and magnitude and therefore, is strongly
c u N h recommended.
FS = mm m (7.1)
gH t d w
The multiplier factors Nh , μt, μd, μw are determined from the
charts derived in Goh (1994). Only wide excavations with H/B
<1 have been considered. A good comparison was obtained from
FS derived from the simplified design procedure and the actual
Nodal Displacement Method (NDM) finiteelement results. The
results are very encouraging and indicate that the simplified
design procedure can be used instead of more elaborated finite
element calculations.
7.5 Analysis of Piles Subjected to Embankment Induced Lateral
Soil Movements
Goh et. al. (1997) presented a numerical procedure to assess the
soilmovementinduced forces and bending moments caused by
soils undergoing lateral movement as a result of the construction
of nearby embankments and their effect on the pile integrity.
Comparisons with documented case histories and centrifuge
model tests confirm that the method provides reliable estimates
of the pile lateral displacements and bending moments.
Parametric studies were carried out for a single pile embedded
in a uniform clay layer overlaying a layer of dense sand. From
their studies, simple empirical equations have been proposed to
provide initial estimates of the maximum bending moment for
piles at the base of a sloped embankment and restrained from
rotating at the pile head. These simple empirical equations allow
a quick assessment of the maximum bending moment in a pile
located at the toe of a sloped embankment at the preliminary
design stage. More detailed analyses can be carried out using the
numerical procedure to obtain a more reliable estimate of the
pile bending moments at the final design stage. Fig. 8 Relationship of B/D and C/D for Maximum Surface
Settlements
7.6 Negative Skin Friction on Piles in Layered Soil Deposits
7.8 Basal Heave Stability for Wide Excavations
Wong & Teh (1995) presented a simplified procedure for the
analysis of negative skin friction on pile in a stratified soil Wong & Goh (2003) reviewed the methods for assessment of
deposit. The pilesoil interface was modelled by hyperbolic soil basal heave stability of excavations in clay by Terzaghi (1943),
springs in a manner similar to the loadtransfer method. The Bjerrum and Eide (1956) and Goh (1994). Their study indicated
actual pilesoil slippage was not explicitly modelled. The main that Terzaghi’s method would yield reasonable factors of safety
intention is to capture the complex phenomenon of pilesoil for excavations involving flexible sheetpile walls in clay but
interaction with a simple hyperbolic model. Attention was very conservative results for diaphragm walls. In their study, the
focused on how to determine the relevant soil parameters for the Terzaghi’s method was extended to take into consideration the
analysis. The validity of this approach was subsequently verified effect of wall stiffness. For wide excavations in clay involving
by extensive comparisons with well documented case histories. very stiff walls, the soil has to flow around the wall toe before it
can move up into the excavated area. Hence, the following
equation should be used in this case.
7.7 Considerations in Finite Element Analysis of Tunnelling
Pang et. al. (2005) showed in their study that soil movement
predicted by finite element model can be highly subjected to the 5. 7 c ub B 1 + c uh H + ( 1 + a ) c ud D (7.2)
Fs =
influence of mesh size. The prediction of surface settlement gHB 1 + qB s
established principles and professional judgments, and field
where α is the adhesion factor; B1 = 0.7B or (T D) whichever instrumentation and monitoring of performance of geotechnical
is smaller; T is clay thickness below formation level; and Bs is works during and after construction, with the first and third
the width of surcharge loading where Bs ≤ B1. Fig. 9 shows the activities collectively called geotechnical investigation at times.
notations used for the modified Terzaghi’s method for Being strongly influenced by the British in the past, the
excavations involving very stiff walls in clay. geotechnical practice in Singapore follows traditionally the
practices adopted in the United Kingdom, with a minor degree
of influence by the American particularly prior to the
development of Singapore’s Mass Rapid Transit System. The
geotechnical practice here is also influenced by other factors
such as the unique local geological formations, the significant
participation of expatriates in the local construction activities,
and the participation of academics from local institutions.
8.2 Geotechnical Works and Current Practice