Wear 250 (2001) 726–735

Erosion– and cavitation–corrosion of titanium and its alloys

A. Neville∗ , B.A.B. McDougall
Department of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK

Abstract
The economic and effective operation of machinery and plant involved in fluids handling is increasingly dependent on the utilisation
of materials that combine high corrosion resistance and good wear resistance. This paper studies two wear–corrosion situations: (1)
erosion–corrosion, where the wear is due to impacting solids in a liquid medium and (2) cavitation–corrosion, where the wear is due to
impacting liquid micro-jets formed by imploding air bubbles. The characteristics of a commercially pure titanium (CP-Ti) and three alloys
in erosion–corrosion and cavitation–corrosion conditions have been studied. The erosion–corrosion characteristics of each material was
assessed using an impinging-jet apparatus. The tests were performed at an angle of impingement of 90◦ C at a particle velocity of 17 m/s and
in a saline solution of 3.5% NaCl at 18◦ C. A series of experiments was conducted to determine the mass loss by combined erosion–corrosion
before independently determining the electrochemical corrosion contribution to mass loss. It has been shown that exposure to liquid–solid
erosion causes disruption of the passive film on Ti and active corrosion occurs. In contrast, the materials exhibited passive behaviour in static
conditions and when exposed to a cavitating liquid only CP-Ti became active. The role of corrosion in these wear–corrosion environments
on CP-Ti and Ti-alloys is discussed in this paper. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Erosion; Cavitation; Corrosion; Titanium; Titanium alloys

1. Introduction
Titanium and Ti-alloys are seeing increasing application
in industrial sectors outside the military and commercial
aerospace sectors for which many of the materials were de-
veloped. In a recent review of the titanium industry in USA
by Seagle [1], the expansion of Ti use in energy extraction,
biomedical and consumer products such as sport equipment
was discussed. Titanium and its alloys can arguably pro-
vide low cost material options through economic process-
ing. Whereas in the USA and in Europe, Ti and Ti-alloys
have primarily been utilised for aerospace components, in
Japan the trend is very different [2]. In 1996, it was esti-
mated that 80% of Ti was used on non-aerospace applica-
tions such as production of turbine blades, marine structures
and consumer goods.
As Ti increasingly becomes regarded as a viable alter-
native to other high grade alloys in industrial components,
alloy development work is expanding to provide materials
with tailored corrosion resistance and mechanical proper-
ties. In particular, small additions of Co and Pd have been
found to form a Pd and Co-enriched layer which improves
passivation through reduction of the hydrogen overvoltage
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-131-449-5111;
fax: +44-131-451-3129.
E-mail address: a.neville@hw.ac.uk (A. Neville).
[2]. There is now a wide range of ␣-, ␣/␤-, and ␤-Ti-alloys
available which include additions of Al, V, Ni, Mo, Ru and
other elements.
The corrosion behaviour of Ti and Ti-alloys has been
widely studied and there is an extensive literature relating to
corrosion in acidic media [3,4], in biomedical applications
[5,6] and in seawater [7,8]. However, there has been much
less attention paid to their resistance to tribo-corrosion where
corrosion occurs in association with a mechanical degrada-
tion process (e.g. abrasion, erosion, cavitation, etc.). Some
work has been reported on assessment of surface engineer-
ing options (Cr plating, plasma coatings, etc.) for improving
the surface resistance of Ti–6Al–4V to slurry abrasion [9].
Jiang et al. [10] reported the susceptibility of Ti–6Al–4V
to degradation under sliding conditions in acid where
hydrogen was evolved at the surface through a cathodic
reaction. Tu [11] reported results from a study in an aqueous
slurry where the surface resistance of TiN as a coating and
␣-Ti were compared. The ␣-Ti substrate was found to have
a much higher degradation rate through stress corrosion
mechanisms.
It has been shown in previous work that on high-grade al-
loys such as the stainless steels and Ni-based alloys material
loss rates can be significantly accentuated when the passiv-
ity of the material is breached by a mechanical influence
[12]. The material can make a transition into a regime which
consists of active and passive sites on one surface which

0043-1648/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 7 0 9 - 8
 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735 727

depend on the mechanical influence and the frequency and

extent of impacts by sand or other impacting species.
In this paper, the corrosion behaviour of commercially
pure titanium (CP-Ti) and three Ti-alloys is assessed under
liquid–solid impingement and under cavitation–corrosion
conditions. The role of corrosion in the overall degradation
of the materials is discussed.

2. Experimental methods and materials

For erosion–corrosion tests, an impinging liquid–solid jet

containing 500 mg/l solids was generated using a recircu-
lating rig as shown in Fig. 1a. The jet was directed at right
angles onto the sample surface through a 4 mm diameter
nozzle and the velocity was maintained constant at 17 m/s.
The rig contained a dual nozzle system. The solution used
as the recirculating medium was 3.5% NaCl fluid and the
solids were SiC sand with a size distribution as in Table 1.
The temperature of the liquid was 18◦ C.
Cavitation tests were conducted using a Branson Ultrason-
ics Sonifier Cell Disrupter Model 450 with an exponentially
shaped horn to generated a vibration frequency of 20 kHz
and amplitude of ±25 ␮m. The distance from the horn tip
to the static specimen was kept constant at 1 mm and the
immersion depth of the sample in the liquid was 12 mm
(Fig. 1b). The temperature of the test fluid (3.5% NaCl) was
18◦ C.
All sample surfaces were prepared by a final grinding with
600 grit paper.
Electrochemical analysis was used in conjunction with
weight-loss analysis to determine the total material loss and
to isolate the contribution due to pure corrosion (C). The
corrosion rate was measured in situ using a three-electrode
electrochemical cell (Fig. 1c) composed of a Ag/AgCl
reference electrode connected by means of a salt bridge
and a platinum counter electrode. The dc anodic polarisa-
tion tests involved scanning the potential of the working
electrode (the specimen under examination) from the free
corrosion potential (Ecorr ) in the more noble (positive) di- Fig. 1. (a) Recirculating apparatus used for liquid–solid impingement
rection at a fixed rate of 25 mV/min. The potential was tests, (b) experimental set-up for cavitation tests and (c) three-electrode
scanned in the positive direction until a value of 0.5 V was cell used for electrochemical monitoring.
reached.
Following all tests, the surface was examined using light
and scanning electron microscopy to determine the extent of • CP-Ti: Grade 2 CP-Ti is used in this study. It is one of
degradation and to identify the material loss mechanisms. four grades and has higher strength at the expense of duc-
The four materials considered in this study were CP-Ti, tility. It is an unalloyed, ␣-phase metal with maximum
Ti 5111, Ti–6Al–4V ELI and Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru. Details 0.3%Fe, 0.03%N, 0.1%C, 0.25%O and 0.015%H. Hard-
of the alloy type and composition are given as follows. ness is 219 HV.

Table 1
Sand size distribution for erosion–corrosion tests
Size (␮m) >425 300–425 250–300 180–250 106–180 <106
Mass (%) 6.8 20.0 20.5 36.2 15.9 0.6
728 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735
• Ti 5111: It is a near ␣-alloy of intermediate strength. It
is designated ASTM Grade 32. The nominal composition
is 4.5–5.5%Al, 0.6–1.4%Sn, 0.6–1.4%V, 0.6–1.4%Zr and
0.6–1.2%Mo. Hardness is 265 HV.
• Ti–6Al–4V ELI: It is an ␣/␤-alloy which has 6%Al and
4%V as the major alloying additions. It is designated
ASTM Grade 23. The ELI denotes ‘extra low interstitial’
and refers to the low oxygen content aimed at keeping the
interstitial phase content low to combat stress corrosion
cracking. Hardness is 342 HV.
• Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru: It is a variation of the Grade 23 alloy
in which 0.1%Ru is added. This is referred to as Grade
29. Ru is added primarily to enhance corrosion resistance.
Hardness is 348 HV.
3. Results
3.1. Measurement of total weight loss under
liquid–solid impingement
A series of 8 h tests were conducted under liquid–solid
impingement conditions with 500 mg/l solids in 3.5% NaCl
at 18◦ C. Measurement of the total weight loss (TWL) was
Fig. 2. Total weight loss (TWL) after 1, 2, 4 and 8 h under liquid–solid erosion, 500 mg/l solids, 18◦ C and 3.5% NaCl.
carried out after 1, 2, 4 and 8 h. Fig. 2 shows the time trends
for each material where it can be clearly seen that there is
a distinction between the behaviour of CP-Ti and the other
three materials. No significant difference exists between the
other three materials on the basis of TWL measurements un-
der these conditions. The time trend of CP-Ti clearly shows
that the TWL rate decreases as a function of time. The other
three materials exhibit a similar, but less pronounced, de-
creasing degradation rate as time progresses.
3.2. Measurement of total weight loss under
cavitation–corrosion conditions
Measurement of weight loss was carried out after 1, 2, 4
and 8 h as in the previous section under erosion–corrosion
conditions. Fig. 3 shows the time trends for each material.
CP-Ti exhibits greater weight losses at each time interval
than the other three materials in common with the results
under erosion–corrosion conditions. There is no significant
difference between the other three materials after 1 and 2 h.
However, after 4 h, the three materials have diverged and
the difference is augmented as the time increases to 8 h.
Whereas Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru shows an almost linear time
trend the other three materials all exhibit increasing material
 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735
Fig. 3. Weight losses after 1, 2, 4 and 8 h under cavitation, 18◦ C and 3.5% NaCl.
loss rates as a function of time in contrast with the response
under erosion–corrosion conditions.
3.3. Electrochemical monitoring — anodic polarisation
In the previous section, environmental conditions have
been shown to play an important role in the overall degra-
dation of a material in a particular environment (i.e.
erosion–corrosion or cavitation–corrosion). In this work,
the effect of wear (cavitation and liquid–solid erosion) on
corrosion has also been assessed. Anodic polarisation tests
have been carried out on samples in static 3.5% NaCl and
in situ on samples under erosion or cavitation conditions to
determine the corrosion characteristics.
In Fig. 4a–d, the anodic polarisation plots from the Ecorr
to a potential of 0.5 V are shown for the four materials under
static, cavitation and erosion conditions. It can be seen from
these anodic polarisation results that each of the materials
exhibit passive behaviour in static saline conditions at 18◦ C.
This is characterised by the low currents (<10 ␮A/cm2 )
recorded in the electrochemical circuit as the potential is
scanned away from the free corrosion potential in the posi-
tive direction. Fig. 4a and b are plotted as E–i curves and c
and d are plotted as E–log i.
729
Anodic polarisation tests under cavitation conditions in
3.5% NaCl at 18◦ C showed that the presence of high fre-
quency impinging liquid jets caused by bubble implosion
had a pronounced effect on CP-Ti in contrast to the lesser
effect on the other materials. CP-Ti exhibits behaviour more
akin to active corrosion behaviour under cavitation condi-
tions whereas the three Ti-alloys continue to exhibit pas-
sivity albeit with Ti–6Al–4V ELI and Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru
registering larger currents than in static conditions. As shown
in Fig. 4b, there is very little change in the currents mea-
sured on Ti 5111 — the only change being the slightly less
stable current under cavitation conditions. In addition to the
larger currents exhibited on Ti–6Al–4V ELI (Fig. 4c) under
cavitation conditions, there is also an increased oscillation
in the current as the potential is increased.
Under liquid–solid impingement conditions, there was
a drastic change in the corrosion characteristics of all
four materials. This is shown clearly for each material in
Fig. 4a–d, where under liquid–solid impingement condi-
tions each material exhibits an initial rapid increase in cur-
rent density as the potential is scanned away from Ecorr in
the positive direction. Each material exhibits active corro-
sion behaviour under these conditions but the current did
not continue to rise rapidly as expected for truly active
730 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735

behaviour. As the potential is pushed to more positive val-
ues, the current reaches an almost stable value independent
of potential but oscillating by up to 20 ␮A/cm2 . The current
oscillations are thought to be caused by the impacting sand
and the depassivation/repassivation events occurring over
small regions of the material.
The anodic polarisation results of each material under
static, cavitation and liquid–solid impingement conditions
were analysed to determine the corrosion current density,
icorr , which, through use of Faraday’s law, gives a mea-
sure of the material loss rate due to corrosion. In order
to obtain a value for the corrosion current density, the
potential–current data is plotted in an E–log i form (as shown
in Fig. 4c and d) and Tafel extrapolation is used to deter-
mine icorr (the corrosion current density at the free corrosion
potential).
The icorr values resulting from the Tafel extrapolation
analysis are presented in Table 2. The table shows that un-
der static conditions very low icorr values are obtained, as
expected for CP-Ti and Ti-alloys which exhibit passive be-
haviour. CP-Ti experiences currents that are at least an order
of magnitude higher than those experienced by the alloys
under static and cavitation conditions. Under cavitation con-
ditions, the currents are indicative of a material displaying
active corrosion behaviour. Under liquid–solid impingement
conditions, the corrosion currents are considerably larger for
each material than those obtained under static or cavitation
conditions. These current values are clearly not representa-
tive of passive behaviour.
Comparison of the measured current at +0.5 V was made
as another means of comparing the corrosion characteris-
tics of the four materials. These values are presented in

Fig. 4. Anodic polarisation curves under static, cavitation–corrosion and erosion–corrosion conditions at 18◦ C in 3.5% NaCl for (a) CP-Ti, (b) Ti 5111,
(c) Ti–6Al–4V ELI and (d) Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru.
 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735 731

Fig. 4. (Continued).

Table 3. It can be seen from Table 3 that the current values
at +0.5 V reflect the general trends observed in Table 2 for
the icorr values with much larger currents measured under
liquid–solid erosion–corrosion conditions than under static
and cavitation conditions.
3.4. Visual examination of material loss mechanisms
The wear scars formed after 8 h exposure to liquid–solid
erosion and cavitation conditions are very different on a
macro scale. There is a noticeable depth loss of material

Table 3
Table 2 Current values (␮A/cm2 ) at +0.5 V recorded for CP-Ti and Ti-alloys
The icorr (␮A/cm2 ) recorded for CP-Ti and Ti-alloys in 3.5% NaCl at in 3.5% NaCl at 18◦ C under static, cavitation and erosion–corrosion
18◦ C under static, cavitation and erosion–corrosion conditions conditions
CP-Ti Ti 5111 Ti–6Al–4V Ti–6Al–4V CP-Ti Ti 5111 Ti–6Al–4V Ti–6Al–V
ELI ELI/Ru ELI ELI/Ru
Static (␮A/cm2 ) 0.82 0.07 0.02 0.06 Static (␮A/cm2 ) 7.8 0.86 2.15 0.81
Cavitation 9 0.18 0.75 0.17 Cavitation 25 3.4 6.5 5.47
500 mg/l solids 34 19 13 0.9 500 mg/l solids 60 56 55 28
732 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735

Fig. 5. Macro-wear scar on CP-Ti under (a) liquid–solid erosion and (b) cavitation; 8 h tests at 18◦ C in 3.5% NaCl.

Fig. 6. (a) Mechanical attack at centre of liquid–solid erosion wear scar on Ti–6Al–4V ELI and (b) low angle ploughing damage at outer region of wear
scar from liquid–solid erosion on Ti–6Al–4V ELI; 8 h tests at 18◦ C in 3.5% NaCl.
 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735 733

under liquid–solid erosion compared to cavitation on the
macro scale. The wear scar formed under liquid–solid ero-
sion conditions takes the form of a circular groove (Fig. 5a)
with its greatest depth, a small distance (around 2 mm) from
the central stagnation point of the impinging liquid–solid
water jet. The wear scar formed under cavitation conditions
is exactly the size and shape of the vibratory horn that was
used during testing. The wear scar takes the form of a uni-
formly roughened and dulled surface on the macro scale
(Fig. 5b).
Interesting damage mechanisms are revealed under mi-
croscopic examination of the wear scars. Under higher mag-
nification, the central zone of the liquid–solid erosion wear
scar shows a clear pattern of plastic deformation damage in
association with pitting. Little directionality is observed in
this region due to the high angle of the mechanical attack
(Fig. 6a). Further out from the centre of the wear scar, the
outer regions, the damage is composed of low angle direc-
tional ploughing and cutting, leading to directional plastic
deformation of the surface (Fig. 6b).
In contrast to the central wear scar damage under
liquid–solid erosion conditions, under cavitation conditions,
the centre of the wear scar (accounting for the major-
ity of the wear scar) shows severely plastically deformed
surface with no directionality evident. The surface has a
“honeycomb” appearance (Fig. 7a). At the edge of the wear

Fig. 7. (a) Central wear scar damage under cavitation on CP-Ti and (b) platelets formed under cavitation on Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru; 8 h tests at 18◦ C in
3.5% NaCl.
734 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735
scar, the plastic deformation of the surface decreases and
areas of the original surface are evident. The regions at the
edge of the wear scar less effected by cavitation damage
show the formation of platelets (Fig. 7b), as found by Tu
[11] under liquid impingement conditions. These platelets
appear to be formed by liquid micro-jets during cavitation
but the intensity of cavitation attack on these areas has not
been enough to completely plastically deform the surface
of the material into the “honeycomb” structure.
The ploughing and cutting by silica sand particles dur-
ing liquid–solid erosion causes the continuous generation
of fresh material on the material surface as well as remov-
ing the protective passive film of the material temporarily.
This ploughing and cutting evidently causes more electro-
chemical activity during liquid–solid erosion than is caused
by impinging liquid micro-jets during cavitation since much
higher currents are recorded. This may be caused by a dif-
ference in impact kinetics. Under cavitation conditions, a
single impact cycle takes milliseconds to complete [12] (and
only one out of every 104 –105 impacts cause damage) and
the area of temporary damage will be less than that under
liquid–solid erosion with silica sand particles penetrating
the passive film while plastically deforming the materials
surface, thus leading to more electrochemical activity under
liquid–solid erosion.
4. Discussion
This study has shown that the time trends exhibited by the
materials under cavitation conditions are different to those
under erosion conditions. The increasing material loss rates
exhibited under cavitation conditions are typical of those
Fig. 8. Vickers hardness vs. total weight loss under erosion–corrosion and cavitation–corrosion conditions.
reported in the literature, where incubation periods for ma-
terials are reported as in the work by Kwok et al. [13] and
Auret et al. [14] on stainless steels. The decreasing material
loss rates exhibited under erosion–corrosion conditions is in
agreement with other work reported in slurry erosion [15]
and may be attributed to surface work hardening which in-
creases the resistance with time and/or decreasing abrasivity
of the sand. In this case, very little degradation of the sand
was experienced during the 8 h test period.
Ti-alloys are normally employed where their corrosion
resistance is required. This study has confirmed that even
under severe impingement conditions, the alloying additions
provide a substantial benefit in resisting degradation when
compared with CP-Ti. Benefits are also evident through al-
loying to resist degradation in cavitation conditions. The
ranking of the alloys was different under liquid–solid im-
pingement and cavitation as shown below, where ‘>’ means
that the ‘material has greater overall resistance than’.
Erosion–corrosion resistance:

Ti 5111 

Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru > CP-Ti


Ti–6Al–4V ELI
Cavitation–corrosion resistance:
Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru > Ti–6Al–4V ELI > Ti 5111 > CP-Ti
Interestingly, whereas the small addition of 0.1%Ru
to Ti–6Al–4V ELI makes little difference under erosion–
corrosion conditions, it gives a substantial improvement in
cavitation conditions.
Fig. 8 shows that there is a general trend of increasing
resistance to cavitation–corrosion as the materials hardness
 A. Neville, B.A.B. McDougall / Wear 250 (2001) 726–735
Table 4
Weight loss components
Material C − erosion (%) C − cavitation (%)
CP-Ti 12.7 5.2
Ti 5111 8.6 0.11
Ti–6Al–4V ELI 5.41 0.64
Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru 0.42 0.6
increases. However, the trend is not linear which suggests
that there are other factors which affect the performance of
CP-Ti and Ti-alloys under these conditions. In particular,
the large difference between the performance of Ti–6Al–4V
ELI and the Ru containing variation is not expected should
hardness of the alloy be the only controlling factor. Under
erosion–corrosion conditions where there is a large differ-
ence in the hardness of Ti–6Al–4V ELI and the Ru con-
taining variation compared with the Ti 5111 alloy, there is
little difference in their overall resistance. These inconsis-
tencies in the performance/hardness correlation can be partly
attributed to the role played by corrosion processes in the
overall degradation process as described in the following
section.
4.1. Wear and corrosion components
Data obtained from combined wear–corrosion testing
enables important information relating to the relative influ-
ence of the mechanical and electrochemical factors in af-
fecting the mass loss rate under cavitation and liquid–solid
erosion to be obtained. It is possible to identify how much
of the total weight loss due to wear–corrosion is due to
pure electrochemical corrosion (C). Results are presented in
Table 4 for the pure corrosion component (C) of each ma-
terial under cavitation and liquid–solid erosion conditions
in 3.5% NaCl at 18◦ C. As expected from the polarisation
results, there is a larger proportion of corrosion contributing
to overall deterioration rates on CP-Ti under both cavitation
and erosion conditions. The contribution due to corrosion
is generally larger under erosion conditions than under cav-
itation conditions. In comparison with recent work on three
high-grade stainless steels, it is clear that the proportion of
pure electrochemical corrosion is larger on CP-Ti, Ti 5111
and Ti–6Al–4V ELI under similar conditions [16].
5. Conclusions
This paper has demonstrated that the alloys of Ti, de-
veloped primarily to improve corrosion resistance provide
increased protection to erosion–corrosion and cavitation–
corrosion when compared with CP-Ti. There is a general
735
trend of increasing resistance to material loss under cavita-
tion conditions as the hardness increases but the relation-
ship is not linear. The large difference between Ti–6Al–4V
ELI and the Ru-containing variation is partly attributed
to the much lower corrosion rate on Ti–6Al–4V ELI/Ru.
Under cavitation conditions, all three alloys remain in a
passive corrosion regime yet under erosion–corrosion condi-
tions, currents are larger and the materials tend to be ‘active’.
This is attributed to the different kinetics of impact of solid
particles and imploding cavitation bubbles which affect the
time for electrochemical charge transfer and the subsequent
corrosion rate.
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