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NAME ID NUMBER
1. MESERET GETNET BDU1112880
2. EMEBET AMOGNE BDU1112872
3.DEBREWORK DESALEGN BDU10953
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Microminerals
1. Iron
1.1 Introduction
Iron, a metal, exists in several oxidation states varying from Fe6+ to Fe2 , depending on its
chemical environment. The only states that are stable in the aqueous environment of the
body and in food are the ferric (Fe3+) and the ferrous (Fe2+) forms.
The human body contains ~2 to 4 g iron. Or ~38 mg iron/kg body weight for women and
~50 mg iron/kg body weight for men. Over 65% of body iron is found in hemoglobin, up
to about l0% is found as myoglobin, about 1% to 5% is found as part of enzymes, and the
remaining body iron is found in the blood or in storage. The total amount of iron found
in a person not only is related to body weight but also is influenced by other physiological
conditions including age, gender, pregnancy, and slate of growth.
1.2 Source
represents iron that is contained with the porphyrin ring structure. Heme iron is derived
mainly from hemoglobin and myoglobin and thus is found in animal products, especially
meat, fish, and poultry. About 50% to 60% of the iron in meat, fish, and poultry is heme
iron; the rest is nontherne iron. Nonheme iron is found primarily in plant foods (nuts,
fruits, vegetables. grains. tofu) and dairy products (milk, cheese, eggs). Although dairy
products have very little iron and represent a very poor iron source. Nonheme iron is
usually bound to components of foods and must be hydrolyzed, digested. or solubilizes in
the gastrointestinal tract before being absorbed into the intestinal cells.
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Foods particularly high in iron, such as liver and organ meats, are not popular items in
most American diets. More popular foods that are relatively good sources of iron include
red meats, oysters and clams, beans (lima, navy), dark green leafy vegetables, and dried
fruits. In addition to amounts of iron found naturally in foods, foods such as breads, rolls,
pasta, cereals, grits, and flour are fortified with iron. Fortified flour, for example, contains
20 mg iron per lb, and corn grits, corn meal, and rice contain from I3 to 26 mg per lb.
Pasta has I3 to l6.S mg per lb, and bread, rolls, and buns contain l2.5 mg iron per lb.
ferrous gluconate, ferrous lactate, ferric ammonium citrate, ferric chloride, ferric citrate,
ferric pyrophospltate, and ferric sulfate are approved and used for food fortification.
Heme iron must be hydrolyzed from the globin portion of hemoglobin or myoglobin
before absorption. This digestion is accomplished by proteases in both the stomach and
the small intestine and results in the release of heme iron from the globin. Heme,
containing the iron bound to the porphyrin ring (also called a metalloporphyfin; Figure 1),
remains soluble, especially in the presence of the degradation products (amino acids and
peptides) of globin, and is readily absorbed intact across the brush border of the mucosal
cell (enterocyte) by heme carrier protein . Heme carrier protein is found mainly in the
proximal small intestine. Iron absorption occurs throughout the small intestine, but it is
most efficient in the proximal portion, particularly the duodenum. Within the mucosa cell,
the absorbed heme porphyrin ring is hydrolyzed by heme oxygenase into inorganic
ferrous iron and protoporphyrin. The released iron may associate with proteins such as
mobilferrin that make up the paraferritin complex and can be used by the intestinal
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mucosal cell, excreted with the sloughing of the enterocytes, or, following transport out
of the enterocyte, used by other body tissues.
Nonheme iron bound to components of foods must be enzymatically freed (hydrolyzed)
in the gastrointestinal tract to be absorbed. Gastric secretions, including hydrochloric
acid and proteases in the stomach and small intestine, aid in the release of nonheme iron
present as ferric (Fe3+) iron in the stomach. Ferric iron remains fairly soluble as long as
the pH of the environment is acidic. Some of the ferric iron may be reduced to the ferrous
state (Fe2+) in the stomach. Once the iron passes from the stomach into the small intestine,
ferric iron mixes with alkaline juices secreted into the intestine from the pancreas, in this
more alkaline environment, ferric iron may complex to produce ferric hydroxide
Making the iron less available for absorption. In contrast to ferric iron, ferrous iron
remains fairly soluble at a more alkaline pH, although some ferrous iron may be oxidized
in the alkaline of the intestine to the ferric form. Ferrireductases, including ferricfcupric
duodenal cytochrome reductase, have been identified on the brush border membrane
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euterocytes and function in the duodenum to reduce ferric iron to the ferrous state.
Vitamin C appears to be needed for reductase activity.
Transport
Iron in its oxidized ferric state is transported in the blood attached to the protein
transferrin. Iron oxidation, transferrin's role in iron transport, and the importance of
protein in iron binding in the body.
Iron must first be oxidized before it can bind to transferrin for transport in the blood.
Hephneslin, found in the intigstinal cells, and ceruloplasmin, found throughout the body,
are both coppercontaining proteins with ferroxiduse activity. These proteins catalyze the
oxidation of ferrous iron to its ferric form so it can bind to transferrin in the plasma. The
role of copper as part of hephaestin and ceruloplasmin is crucial to iron metabolism.
Copper deficiency results in iron accumulation in sites such as the intestine and liver and
reduced iron transport to tissues. The role of ceruloplasmin in the oxidation of iron may
be described as follows:
Storage
Iron not needed in a Functional capacity is stored in three main sites: the liver, bone
marrow, and spleen. Transferrin delivers iron to these sites, especially the liver, which is
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thought to store about 60% of body’s iron. The remaining 40% is found in
reticuloendothelial (RE) cells within the liver, spleen, and bone marrow (and possibly
between muscle fibers). Most of the iron stored in reticuloendolhelial cells is derived
from phagocytosis of red blood cells and subsequent degradation of the liemoglobiri
within those cells. Ferritin is the primary storage form of iron in cells. Ferritin is
synthesized in a variety of tissues, especially within the liver, spleen, bone marrow, and
intestine, and consists of apoferritin in which iron atoms have been deposited. Ferritin,
which is shaped like a sphere (or apoferritin which is shaped like a hollow sphere). Is
composed of 24 protein subunits. Ferritins subunits are classified based on molecular
mass as H or L. and the proportions of H and L subunits within ferritin vary between
tissues.
The L form, For example, predominates in the liver and spleen and takes up iron rather
slowly, compared with the H form. Iron enters apoferritin through channels or pores. The
pores serve as the site of the oxidation of ferrous iron into ferric oxyhydroxide crystals
(4 Fe2+ + O2 + 6 H20 —+ 4 FeOOH + 8 H+) or
ferrihydrite (5 Fe2O3 + 9 H20), and molecular oxygen functions as the electron acceptor.
Ferric hydroxide or ferrihydrite is deposited in the interior of the protein shell .As many
as 4,500 iron atoms can be stored in ferritin.
Iron functions in the body as part of several proteins, including serving as a cofactor for
dozens of enzymes. In many body proteins, iron is present as part of heme. In other
proteins, iron is found in a cluster with sulfur (2Fe2S, 4Fe4S, or 3Fe4S), by itself as a
single atom, or as part of a bridge with oxygen. Heme proteins represent the largest group
and include hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochromes involved in electron transport, and
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enzymes such as monooxygenases, dioxygenases, and oxidase. Iron sulfur proteins also
enzymes such as aconitase and ferrochelatase. Proteins that contain single iron atoms are
mostly mono and dioxygenase enzymes, and the one iron oxygen bridge protein also is
an enzyme, ribonucleotide reductase.
1.5 EXCRETION
Daily iron losses for an adult male are 0.9 to 1.0 mg/day (l2—l4 mg/kg/day). Iron losses
for women (postmenopausal) are a bit lower, 0.7 to 0.9 mg/day, because of women's
smaller surface area. Losses of iron occur from three main sites:
the gastrointestinal tract
the skin
the kidneys
Of these sites, most (0.6 mg) iron losses occur through the gastrointestinal tract. Of the
0.6 mg, about 0.45 mg is lost through minute (~l ml) blood loss 9(which occurs even in
healthy people), and another 0.l5 mg is through losses in bile and desquamated mucosal
cells.
The skin losses of ~0.2 to 0.3 mg iron occur with desquamation of surface cells from the
skin. Finally, a very small amount, about 0.08 mg. is lost in the urine. Losses of iron,
however, may be greater in people with gastrointestinal ulcers or intestinal parasites, or
women are estimated to be ~1.3 to 1.4 mg/clay because of iron loss in menses. The
average loss of blood during a menst1'ual cycle is ~35 mL, with an upper limit of ~80 rnl.
The iron content of blood is ~0.5 mg/100 mL of blood, which translates into a loss of
nearly 17.5 mg iron per period. Averaged out over a month, iron loss in menses is ~0.5
mg/day; in some women, however, iron loss during menses alone may exceed 1.4
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mg/day.
Balancing iron losses from the body with iron absorption is very important to health. Iron
deficiency remains one of the most common nutritional deficiencies worldwide.
According to Food and Nutrition Board, Institution of Medicine, Dietary Reference
Intakes, Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 2001, pp. 290393.
For adult men, the requirement and RDA for iron are 6 mg/day and 8 mg/day,
respectively. For postmenopausal women, the requirement and RDA for iron are 5
mg/day and 8 mg/day, respectively Because of the greater losses associated with
menses, Premenopausal women require 8.1 mg iron/day; the recommended intake is 18
mg/day. During pregnancy, though no menstrual losses occur, iron is needed for the
fetus, for expanding blood volume, and for tissue and storage such that the RDA for iron
is 27 mg/day. The RDA for iron is 9 mg/day during lactation.
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WITH AND WITHOUT ANEMIA
Iron deficiency occurs most often due to inadequate iron intake. Iron intake is frequently
inadequate in four population groups:
infants and young children (6 months to about 4 years), because of the low iron
content of milk and other preferred foods, rapid growth rate, and insufficient body
reserves of iron to meet needs beyond about 6 months.
Adolescents in their early growth spurt, because of rapid growth and the needs of
expanding red blood cell mass.
Females during childbearing years, because of menstrual iron losses.
Pregnant women, because of their expanding blood volume, the demands of Fetus
and placenta, and blood losses to be incurred in childbirth.
In addition, many nonpregnant females during child bearing years tail short of the RDA
for iron because of restricted energy (caloric) intake and inadequate consumption of iron
rich foods.
The need for iron is increased in other conditions and populations because of increased
iron losses or impaired iron absorption. Conditions associated with increased iron losses
include hemorrhage, renal disease, renal replacement therapy, decreased (faster than
normal) gastrointestinal transit time, steatorrhea. and parasites. Impaired iron absorption
may occur with protein energy malnutrition,renal disease, achlorhydria (the absence of
antacids, and parasites.
The gradual depletion of iron content in the body and demonstrates the fact that anemia
does not occur until iron depletion is severe. Iron deficiency can occur without anemia,
however. Symptoms of iron deficiency, mostly demonstrated in children, include pallor,
listlessness, behavioral disturbances, impaired performance in some cognitive tasks. some
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irreversible impairment of learning ability, and short attention span .
deficiency. Iron deficiency may impair the degradation of Yaminobutyric acid (GABA),
an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. or may inhibit dopamineproducing neurons .
impaired capacity to maintain body temperature.
1.8 SUPPLEMENTS
Oral supplements of ferrous iron are available in complexes with sulfate, succinate.
dextrans also can be given. Oral iron supplements provide nonherne iron, and thus
absorption of the iron is enhanced when ingested with a source of vitamin C or other
enhancing factors. Aminoacid iron chelates, such as iron glycine, are also marketed;
however, iron administered as achelate has not been shown to be absorbed better than
iron given as ferrous sulfate or ferrous ascorbate . Initial effects of oral iron supplements
on red blood cell counts and hemoglobin concentrations take about 2 weeks. Iron therapy
to build up body stores of iron may be needed for 6 months to 1 year.
References
1. Advanced Nutrition and human Metabolism By Sareen S.Gropper , Jack
L.Smith And James L.Groff
2. Food and Nutrition Board, Institution of Medicine, Dietary Reference
Intakes, Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 2001, pp. 290-393.
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2. IODINE
2.1 Introduction
Iodine is a mineral found in some foods. The body needs iodine to make thyroid
functions. The body also needs thyroid hormones for proper bone and brain development
during pregnancy and infancy. Getting enough iodine is important for everyone,
human body.
2.2 Sources
Iodine is found naturally in some foods and is also added to salt that is labeled as
‘iodized”. You can get recommended amounts of iodine by eating a variety of foods,
including the following:
Fish (such as cod and tuna), seaweed, shrimp, and other seafood, which are
generally rich in iodine.
Dairy products (such as milk, yogurt, and cheese) and products made from grains
(like breads and cereals), which are the major sources of iodine .
Fruits and vegetables, which contain iodine, although the amount depends on the
iodine in the soil where they grew and in any fertilizer that was used.
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Iodized salt, which is readily available in the United States and many other
countries. Processed foods, however, such as canned soups, almost never contain
iodized salt.
Dietary iodine can be bound to amino acids, or it can be free, usually in the form of
iodate or iodide ions. Iodide is the easiest form to absorb, so most of the bound iodine and
iodate is converted to iodide by glutathione. The iodide ions are easily absorbed through
the walls of the digestive tract in the stomach and small intestine. After it's absorbed,
most of it concentrates in the thyroid gland. Some of it also accumulates in the ovaries,
skin, and salivary, gastric and mammary glands. Dietary iodine is primarily bound to
amino acids, but sometimes can also be found free, as either iodate (IO3) or iodide (I++).
Iodate is reduced to iodide by glutathione within the GI tract.
Dietary iodine, in the form of iodide, is rapidly absorbed by the stomach and upper small
intestine. In healthy individuals, absorption is highly efficient, greater than 90%. The
absorbed iodide, primarily bound to proteins, is transported by the blood to the thyroid
gland and other tissues. The thyroid gland utilizes about 80% of the absorbed iodide or
about 120 mcg daily. In healthy individuals, the freed up iodine resulting from the
conversion of T4 to T3 can be reused to make more at a later time, as needed.
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The thyroid hormones thyroine(T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) also are absorbed
unchanged , with bioavailability of about 75%, which allows T4 to be administered orally
Following absorption free iodide appears in the blood (see fig2 below) iodide is
distributed thought out the extra cellular fluid, from which it is capable of permitting all
tissues.
Goitrogens, are the substances existing naturally in certain foods that can interfere with
iodide absorption by blocking uptake from the blood into the thyroid gland. Foods that
are high in goitrogens include cabbage, kale, turnips, and other cruciferous vegetables,
along with sweet potatoes, cassava, peanuts, and soybeans. Anyone who already has an
iodine deficiency or underperforming thyroid gland needs to be careful not to overdose
consumption of these foods.
The thyroid gland traps iodide most aggressively, doing so by way of sodium dependent
active transport system against iodide gradient that is often 40 times the plasma
concentration.
The thyroid gland contains 7080% the total body iodide and takes about 120g of iodide
per day. Because the thyroid gland and its synthesis of the thyroid hormone are the focal
points iodide metabolism information on the transport of iodide into non thyroid tissues
active transport mechanisms.
The primary mode of iodine excretion is the urine. Small amounts of unused iodine can
also be found in the feces and sweat.
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Fig 2
The main function of iodide is for the synthesis of thyroid hormones thyroxin (T4) and
triiodothyronine(T3) by thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is made of multiple acini, also
called follicles. The follicles are spherical in shape and surrounded by a single layer of
thyroid cell. The follicles are filled with colloids, protienaceous materials. Both amino
acid and iodide are needed to synthesized thyroid hormone.
Iodine plays a major role in the body as an essential component of various thyroid
hormones. These hormones play a vital role in the regulation of various metabolic
childhood, these hormones are essential for normal cognitive and physical development.
Moreover, thyroid hormones are critically important for normal development of a baby
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during pregnancy. Women planning a pregnancy therefore need to be particularly aware
of their iodine levels and iodine intake from various foods.
grow and develop properly. Breastfed infants get iodine from breast milk. However, the
iodine content of breast milk depends on how much iodine the mother gets.
To make adequate amounts of iodine available for proper fetal and infant development,
several national and international groups recommend that pregnant and breastfeeding
women and infants take iodine supplements.
brain and nervous system. The effects of mild iodine deficiency during childhood are
more difficult to measure, but mild iodine deficiency might cause subtle problems with
neurological development.
Giving iodine supplements to children with mild iodine deficiency improves their
reasoning abilities and overall cognitive function. In children living in iodinedeficient
areas, iodine supplements seem to improve both physical and mental development. More
study is needed to fully understand the effects of mild iodine deficiency and of iodine
supplements on cognitive function.
affects women of reproductive age but can also occur during menopause. Very high doses
disease, but more study is necessary to confirm this. Check with your healthcare provider
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before taking iodine for this condition, especially because iodine can be unsafe at high
doses.
of thyroid cancer in people who are exposed to the radioactive iodine, especially children.
People with iodine deficiency who are exposed to radioactive iodine are especially at risk
potassium iodide as a thyroidblocking agent to reduce the risk of thyroid cancer in
radiation emergencies.
including before birth. A woman's adequate intake of iodine during pregnancy helps
ensure normal production of thyroid hormones, which are required for early formation
and growth of fetal organs. Without enough thyroid hormone, the risk of miscarriage,
stillbirth and birth defects increases. Insufficient iodine during pregnancy can also cause
an infant's weight to be abnormally low at birth.
Adequate iodine intake and normal thyroid hormone levels are especially important for
fetal brain development. Without enough iodine, nerve cells in the fetal brain could grow
at a reduced rate and slow production of a myelin a substance essential for conduction
of nerve impulses. A study in the July 2013 issue of "Lancet" evaluated iodine levels in
about 1,000 pregnant women and tested their children at ages 8 and 9 for verbal
intelligence and reading ability. Children whose mothers had the lowest iodine levels
during pregnancy were most likely to score poorly on the tests.
through breast milk or formula, or later as part of the diet. This helps keep thyroid
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hormone in a normal range and ensures the child's body is able to utilize energy and grow
at a normal rate. With inadequate iodine intake and low thyroid hormone levels, a child
could grow slowly, develop muscular disorders and have other physical problems.
An infant or child also needs to consume enough iodine for continued growth of his brain
reported that iodine deficiency during childhood can cause poor learning, slow mental
normal brain function. Iodine deficiency and low thyroid hormone, or hypothyroidism,
often causes slow mental function, sensitivity to cold, muscle weakness or intestinal
problems.
iodine. Although iodine's roles outside the thyroid are not fully understood, research
summarized in the August 2013 issue of "Thyroid" suggests that iodine may act as an
antioxidant, removing potentially harmful substances called free radicals from your
tissues and thereby reducing the risk of cancer and other disorders. For example, a report
published in the April 2005 issue of "Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia"
reported that diets high in iodine are associated with low breast cancer rates. The authors
suggest that iodine might prevent abnormal growth and division of breast cells, but
further research is still needed to confirm this.
2.4 EXCRETION
The kidneys have no mechanism to conserve iodide, and they therefore provide the major
route (~80% ~90%) for iodide excretion. The urinary output of iodide correlates closely
with both the plasma iodide concentration and diet such that daily urinary iodine can be
used to calculate iodine intake using the following formula:
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Daily iodine intake = Urinary iodine x 0.0235 x body weight, with urinary iodine
measured in µg/L and weight rneaseured in kg. Fecal excretion of iodide (up to 20% of
the total excreted) is relatively low, ranging from 6.7 to 42.1 µg/day . Some iodide is also
lost in sweat, a loss that can be of consequence in hot, tropical regions where iodide
intake is marginally adequate.
Because of its important link thyroid function iodide nutriture has been investigated
thoroughly. The minimum amount or requirement of iodide to prevent goiter is estimated
to be between 5075microgram/day or ~1microgram per kilogram of body weight.
The amount of iodine you need each day depends on your age. Average daily
recommended amounts are listed below in micrograms (mcg).
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N.B Getting low levels of iodine can cause some of the same symptoms as iodine
deficiency, including goiter (an enlarged thyroid gland). High iodine intakes can also
cause thyroid gland inflammation and thyroid cancer. Getting a very large dose of iodine
(several grams, for example) can cause burning of the mouth, throat, and stomach; fever;
stomach pain; nausea; vomiting; diarrhea; weak pulse; and coma.
The upper limits for iodine are listed below. These levels do not apply to people who are
taking iodine for medical reasons under the care of a doctor.
women, severe iodine deficiency can permanently harm the fetus by causing stunted
growth, mental retardation, and delayed sexual development. Less severe iodine
deficiency can cause lowerthanaverage IQ in infants and children and decrease adults’
ability to work and think clearly.
Goiter, an enlarged thyroid gland, is often the first visible sign of iodine deficiency.
Simple goiter is associated most often with inadequate dietary iodine and is characterized
by enlargement of the thyroid gland. The enlargement is caused by overstimulation by
TSH. Iodide deficiency causes depletion of thyroid iodine stores and therefore reduced
output of T4 and T3. As stated above, the decline in the blood level of T4 triggers release
of pituitary TSH, resulting in hyperplasia of the thyroid gland. The growth of the gland is
selfrestricting, however, because in its enlarged state it traps and processes available
iodide more efficiently. The gland returns to normal size over time (months to years) as
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dietary iodide is increased to adequate amounts. When the prevalence of goiter in any
population exceeds 10%, it is called endemic goiter
References
1. Advanced Nutrition and human Metabolism By Sareen S.Gropper , Jack
L.Smith And James L.Groff
2. Food and Nutrition Board, Institution of Medicine, Dietary Reference
Intakes, Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 2001, pp. 290-393.
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