applied

sciences
Article
Improving Performance of Cold-Chain Insulated
Container with Phase Change Material:
An Experimental Investigation
Li Huang 1, * and Udo Piontek 2
1 Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering College, Ningbo University, Fenghua Street 818,
Ningbo 315211, China
2 Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety, and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Osterfelder Strasse 3,
Oberhausen 46047, Germany; udo.piontek@umsicht.fraunhofer.de
* Correspondence: huangli@nbu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-574-8760-9510; Fax: +86-571-8760-9510

Received: 26 October 2017; Accepted: 27 November 2017; Published: 11 December 2017

Abstract: The cold-chain transportation is an important means to ensure the drug and food
safety. An cold-chain insulated container incorporating with Phase Change Material (PCM) has
been developed for a temperature-controlled transportation in the range of 2~8 ◦ C. The container
configuration and different preconditioning methods have been determined to realize a 72-h
transportation under extremely high, extremely low, and alternating temperature conditions.
The experimental results showed that the temperature-controlled time was extended from 1 h to more
than 80 h and the internal temperature maintained at 4~5 ◦ C by using a PCM with a melting/freezing
point of 5 ◦ C, while the container presented a subcooling effect in a range of −1~2 ◦ C when using
water as PCM. The experimental values of the temperature-controlled time agreed well with the
theoretical values.

Keywords: phase change materials (PCMs); insulated container; cold chain; temperature-controlled
time; thermal performance; preconditioning; drugs and food safety

1. Introduction
Drug and food safety have become more important issues with a growing population and demand
in recent years. In order to extend and ensure the shelf-life of pharmaceutical drugs or food, it is very
important to keep their temperature at a given range through the storage and transportation processes.
Such a temperature-controlled supply chain is called cold chain. Large quantities of drugs or food are
normally transported by refrigerated trucks, while small quantities are delivered by containers. There
are at least 1 million refrigerated road vehicles and 400,000 refrigerated containers worldwide [1]. They
run on a vapor compressor that is driven by electric or fuel energy, and release amounts of greenhouse
gas. It was reported that the cold chain is responsible for approximately 2.5% of global greenhouse gas
emissions when considering both direct and indirect effects [2].
Thermal energy storage based on phase change materials (PCMs) is an advanced energy
technology that has recently attracted increasing interest in cold-chain systems. PCMs are able
to absorb or release amounts of thermal energy during the phase transition process, maintaining the
internal temperature in an acceptable range. Many studies have indicated that the energy savings
can be achieved by utilizing PCMs in cold-chain systems. For example, Ahmed et al. added PCM
into the insulation layer of a refrigerated truck trailer. The inclusion of the paraffin-based PCM in the
standard trailer walls was studied as a heat transfer reduction technology. An average reduction of
16.3% in total heat transfer from the exterior to the refrigerated truck was achieved by adding PCM to
the insulation foam of the trailer walls [3].

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288; doi:10.3390/app7121288 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 2 of 12

Liu et al. developed an innovative refrigeration system incorporating PCM to maintain

refrigerated trucks at the desired thermal conditions. The PCM storage tank was charged by a
refrigeration unit when stationary and provides cooling when in service. An analysis showed that
delivery of refrigerated products can be made with a PCM system having a weight that is comparable
to that of an on board conventional refrigeration system, with less than half of the energy cost [4].
Fioretti et al. integrated an external PCM layer with a refrigerated container envelop to reduce
and displace the heat flux phase caused by the external climatic conditions. It was found that a
PCM-added layer helps to store the incoming heat load at a constant temperature during the melting
phase. A reduction on peak heat transfer rate of 5.55% and 8.57% during two experimental days was
observed in comparison with the reference [5].
Copertaro et al. presented the first numerical investigation of the energy behavior of a refrigerated
container envelope that was fitted with PCMs. An organic PCM named RT35HC manufactured by
Rubitherm® Technologies GmbH in Berlin in Germany, which has a melting peak temperature of 35 ◦ C,
was found to perform best on a typical summer day in Milan, Ancona, and Palemo. It was observed
that the heat load peak was reduced by 20% and the peak was delayed for 2~3 h [6].
The above-mentioned studies focus on the trucks or containers having a refrigeration system.
However, insulated containers integrated with PCMs are also an attractive alternative for cold-chain
systems. Such containers do not use any conventional refrigerators, but a thermal energy storage of
PCMs to control the internal temperature. The PCMs are normally preconditioned when stationary
and provide cooling or heating when in service. The temperature-controlled time is mostly within 48 h
due to the limited thermal capacity of PCMs and the poor insulation of the containers. For example,
the company EMBALL’ISO in Saint-Georges-de-Reneins in France provides a packaging comprising a
cardboard box, six vacuum insulation panels, and six PCM briquettes [7]. This packaging is normally
used for an isothermal transportation up to 48 h at extreme temperatures.
In China, it usually takes two to three days for the drugs or food transportation between cities
and the weather conditions could be very different in destination and departure sites. In order to meet
this challenge, an insulated container with PCM panels has been developed for a 72-h transportation
in the range of 2~8 ◦ C, which is the most common temperature range for cold-chain systems. Different
preconditioning methods have been determined for the application under various temperature
conditions. The thermal performance of the container without PCM and with different PCMs have
been experimentally investigated and compared with the results being theoretically calculated.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Configuration of Cold-Chain Insulated Container

As shown in Figure 1, the cold-chain insulated container is comprised of an insulator base,
an insulator lid, and double-layer panels filled with PCM. The seamless and leak-proof insulator base
was made with all-in-one foaming technology and has a high insulation performance. The external
dimension of the base is 540 × 420 × 480 mm and the internal 420 × 300 × 360 mm. The insulation
material has a sandwich structure, which consists of 10 mm polyurethane (PU), 10 mm vacuum
insulation panel (VIP), and 10 mm polyurethane (PU), namely the VIP layer is enclosed by PU material.
The thermal conductivity of the PU and VIP are 0.022 W/(m·K) and 0.005 W/(m·K), respectively.
Two layers of the PCM panels are inserted into the insulator base. The panels are made of
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and have an external dimension of 350 × 290 × 15 mm. Different
preconditioning methods have been determined with the construction of the double-layer PCM
panels, which contributes to a temperature-controlled transportation more than 72 h both at extreme
temperatures and at alternating temperature.
Water and an alkane mixture named OP5E manufactured by Ruhr New Material Technology Co.,
Ltd. in Hangzhou in China have been used as PCM in this paper. Their phase change temperature and
enthalpy were analyzed with a three-layer calorimeter. Figures 2 and 3 present the stored heat of water
 Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 3 of 13

Water and an alkane mixture named OP5E manufactured by Ruhr New Material Technology
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 3 of 12
Co., Ltd. in Hangzhou in China have been used as PCM in this paper. Their phase change
temperature and enthalpy were analyzed with a three-layer calorimeter. Figures 2 and 3 present the
andstored heatasofa function
of OP5E water and of of OP5E as ainfunction
temperature the caseof
of temperature in the
heating/cooling case of heating/cooling
respectively. The bars in the
respectively. The bars in the figures display the partial enthalpy of the material in a temperature
figures display the partial enthalpy of the material in a temperature interval of 1 K. The temperature,
interval of 1 K. The temperature, at which the maximal partial enthalpy appears, corresponds to the
at which the maximal partial enthalpy appears, corresponds to the melting/freezing point of the
melting/freezing point of the material. From Figure 2 it can be seen that water has a
material. From Figure 2 it can be seen that water has a melting/freezing peak at 0 ◦ C and the total
melting/freezing peak at 0 °C and the total enthalpy is 340 kJ/kg between −2 °C and 4 °C, while
enthalpy is 340 kJ/kg between −2 ◦ C and 4 ◦ C, while OP5E has a melting/freezing temperature at
OP5E has a melting/freezing temperature at 5~6 °C, and the total enthalpy is 235 kJ/kg between 2 °C
◦ C, and the total enthalpy is 235 kJ/kg between 2 ◦ C and 8 ◦ C (see Figure 3). Their technical
5~6and 8 °C (see Figure 3). Their technical parameters and the total mass used in the container are
parameters and the
given in Table total
1. The mass used
enthalpy in the
and the container
total are given
mass of water and in Table
OP5E 1. The
were usedenthalpy andtransfer
for the heat the total
mass of waterinand
calculation OP5E2.2.
Section were used for the heat transfer calculation in Section 2.2.

Figure 1. Configuration of the cold-chain insulated container with Phase Change Material (PCM).
Figure 1. Configuration of the cold-chain insulated container with Phase Change Material (PCM).
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 4 of 13

300 heat
Partial enthalpy distribution / J/g

cool 249
250
219

200

150

100
53 51
50
20 15
9 9 13
27 2 6 2 7 2 6 37 3 3 3 4 5 6 4 4 4 34 4 4
0
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Temperature / °C

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Partial
Partial enthalpy
enthalpydistribution
distributionofofwater.
water.

140
distribution / kJ/kg

heat 122
120 cool
95
100

80 70
 50

Pa
20 15
9 9 13
27 2 6 2 7 2 6 37 3 3 3 4 5 6 4 4 4 34 4 4
0
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Temperature / °C
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 4 of 12
Figure 2. Partial enthalpy distribution of water.

140

Partial enthalpy distribution / kJ/kg

heat 122
120 cool
95
100

80 70

60

40 30
29 21
18
20 8 8 13
22 22 34 34 5 2 51 32 11 23 32 24
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Temperature / ℃

Figure3.3.Partial
Figure Partialenthalpy
enthalpydistribution
distributionofofOP5E.
OP5E.OP5E:
OP5E:ananalkane mixture
alkane manufactured
mixture byby
manufactured Ruhr New
Ruhr
Material Technology
New Material Co.,Ltd.
Technology in Hangzhou
Co.,Ltd. in China.
in Hangzhou in China.

Table
Table1. 1.Technical
Technicalparameters
parameters of
of water
water and OP5E.OP5E:
and OP5E. OP5E:ananalkane
alkanemixture
mixture manufactured
manufactured by by Ruhr
Ruhr
NewMaterial
New MaterialTechnology
TechnologyCo.,
Co., Ltd.
Ltd. in Hangzhou
Hangzhouin
inChina.
China.

Parameter Water OP5E

Parameter Water OP5E
Specific heat capacity/kJ/(kg·K) 4.2 2.0
Specific heat
Solidcapacity/kJ/(kg ·K)
density (−15 °C)/kg/L 4.2
0.996 0.88 2.0
Solid density (−15 ◦ C)/kg/L 0.996 0.88
Liquid density (20 °C)/kg/L 0.998 0.76
Liquid density (20 ◦ C)/kg/L 0.998 0.76
Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity liquid/W/(m·K)
liquid/W/(m ·K) 0.56
0.56 0.2 0.2
VolumeVolume expansion/%
expansion/% 0.3
0.3 13 13
Total Total massin
mass used used in the container
the container (kg) (kg) 10.87 8.28 8.28

2.2.Heat
2.2. HeatTransfer
TransferCalculation
Calculation
Thefollowing
The followingassumptions
assumptions were
were made
made for
for the
theheat
heattransfer
transfercalculations:
calculations:
(1) the ambient temperature and the air temperature inside the container distribute
(1) the ambient temperature and the air temperature inside the container distribute
homogeneously; and,
(2) homogeneously; and,
the PCM’s temperature keeps constant and distributes homogeneously during the phase
(2) the PCM’sprocess.
transition temperature keeps constant and distributes homogeneously during the phase
transition process.
Figure 4 shows the heat transfer schema of the container at a high ambient temperature as an
example.
Figure 4 shows the heat transfer schema of the container at a high ambient temperature as
an example.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 5 of 13

Qt

Ta T1

Tb
T2

VIP
PCM
PU

Figure 4. Heat transfer schema of the cold-chain insulated container at a high ambient temperature.
Figure 4. Heat transfer schema of the cold-chain insulated container at a high ambient temperature.
VIP: vacuum insulation panel; PU: polyurethane.
VIP: vacuum insulation panel; PU: polyurethane.

The average heat transfer area F of the container can be calculated according to Equation (1) as
follows:

F = Fa × Fb (1)

where Fa and Fb are the external and internal area of the container respectively. It was obtained that
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 5 of 12

The average heat transfer area F of the container can be calculated according to Equation (1)
as follows: p
F = Fa × Fb (1)

where Fa and Fb are the external and internal area of the container respectively. It was obtained that
F = 0.856 m2 by substituting data into Equation (1).
The overall heat transfer coefficient K of the container is obtained as follows:
1
K= (2)
1 δ1 δ2 δ3 1
α1 + λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + α2

where α1 and α2 are the heat transfer coefficient of air outside and inside the container. The air
flows outside and inside the container can be considered as natural convection since the containers are
normally transported in a closed cabin of refrigerated trucks or vans. The coefficient is 7.0~9.3 W/(m2 K)
for natural convection [8], here α1 = α2 = 8.0 W/(m2 K). λ1 , λ2 and λ3 are the thermal conductivity
of PU, VIP, and PCM, respectively, here λ1 = 0.022 W/(m·K), λ2 = 0.005 W/(m·K), λ3 = 0.2 W/(m·K).
δ1 , δ2 and δ3 are the thickness of PU, VIP, and PCM, respectively.
Heat is transferred from the ambient into the container or conversely by conduction and
convection. The heat flow q1 can be estimated with the overall heat transfer coefficient K, the average
heat transfer area F, the ambient temperature Ta and the air temperature Tb inside the container
as follows:
q1 = K × F × ( Ta − Tb ) (3)

Tb is taken as the maximum temperature allowed in the container under extremely high
temperature condition (Tb,max = 8 ◦ C) or the minimum temperature allowed under extremely low
temperature condition (Tb,min = 2 ◦ C).
The heat flow q2 caused by air leakage is obtained according to Equation (4):

q2 = β × q1 (4)

where β is the additional thermal load factor, here β = 0.2.

The total heat flow q is the sum of the heat flow q1 and q2 :

q = q1 + q2 (5)

The heat capacity ∆H of PCM can be determined as follows:

∆H = m × ∆h (6)

where m is the total mass of PCM and ∆h is the melting/freezing enthalpy of PCM in a given
temperature interval.
The heat loads that are transferred from the ambient into the container are primarily absorbed
by PCM. The air temperature inside the container maintains steady before the PCM are completely
melted or frozen. Therefore, the temperature-controlled time t can be estimated with the heat capacity
∆H of PCM and the total heat flow q:
∆H
t= (7)
q
It can be seen that the temperature-controlled time depends on the phase transition temperature
range, the melting/freezing enthalpy, and the mass of PCM that is used for the same container.

2.3. Experimental Method and Procedure

According to Chinese National Standard “Temperature control facilities of pharmaceutical
products cold chain logistics—Specification for performance qualification”, the container performance
2.3. Experimental Method and Procedure
According to Chinese National Standard “Temperature control facilities of pharmaceutical
products cold chain logistics—Specification for performance qualification”, the container
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 6 of 12
performance should be determined for a temperature-controlled range between 2 °C and 8 °C
under the following conditions:
should be determined for a temperature-controlled range between 2 ◦ C and 8 ◦ C under the following
(1) under extremely high temperature condition, the ambient temperature is set at 35 ± 2 °C;
conditions:
(2) under extremely low temperature condition, the ambient temperature is set at −20 ± 2 °C; and,
◦
(1) under
(3) under extremely
alternating high temperature
temperature condition,
condition, the ambient
the ambient temperatureisisset
temperature set at 35±±22 C;
at 35 °C for the
(2) under extremely low temperature condition, the ambient temperature is set at − 20 ± 2 ◦ C; and,
first half of the time and −20 ± 2 °C for the second half of the time.
(3) under alternating temperature condition, the ambient temperature is set at 35 ± 2 ◦ C for the first
A temperature-controlled
half of the time and −20chamber
± 2 ◦ C forwas used to
the second simulate
half the above-mentioned temperature
of the time.
conditions. Eight temperature sensors were put inside the container and one for the ambient, as
A temperature-controlled chamber was used to simulate the above-mentioned temperature
shownconditions.
in FigureEight
5. The time period,
temperature sensors in which
were one the
put inside of container
the measuring points
and one for firstly reaches
the ambient, as shown the
maximum or minimum
in Figure 5. The timetemperature allowed,
period, in which one ofwas taken as the
the measuring temperature-controlled
points time of
firstly reaches the maximum orthe
container. All oftemperature
minimum the tests were repeated
allowed, three
was taken as to
thefive times, and the typical
temperature-controlled results
time of were presented
the container. All of
in thisthe
paper.
tests were repeated three to five times, and the typical results were presented in this paper.

Figure 5. Arrangement of the temperature measuring points.

Figure 5. Arrangement of the temperature measuring points.
The PCM could be either solid or liquid at the initial state according to the service temperature
The PCM could
condition to takebe
fulleither solidof
advantage orthe
liquid attransition
phase the initial
ofstate according
the PCM. to the
Therefore, theservice temperature
PCM panels were
preconditioned to adapt to the three temperature conditions.
condition to take full advantage of the phase transition of the PCM. Therefore, the PCM panels
were preconditioned to adapt to the three temperature conditions.
2.3.1. Preconditioning for the Use at Extremely High Temperature
The PCM should be fully frozen at the initial state for the application under extremely high
temperature condition. Furthermore, the temperature of the PCM panels should not be too low to
subcool or freeze drugs or foods. The preconditioning was carried out as follows:
(1) place twelve PCM panels in a −20 ◦ C freezer or below for a minimum of 48 h to ensure PCM was
fully frozen;
(2) place all frozen water panels in a 4~5 ◦ C cooler for 60 h until the surface temperature reaches
0 ◦ C, or place all frozen OP5E panels in a 4~5 ◦ C cooler for 60 h until the surface temperature
reaches 5 ◦ C;
(3) insert the PCM panels and temperature sensors into the container;
(4) place the container and a temperature sensor into the temperature-controlled chamber; and,
(5) set the chamber temperature at 35 ◦ C and start the test.

2.3.2. Preconditioning for the Use at Extremely Low Temperature

The PCM should be fully melted at the initial state for the application under a extremely low
temperature condition. Furthermore, the temperature of the PCM panels should not be too high to
overheat drugs or foods. The preconditioning was carried out as follows:
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 7 of 12

(1) place twelve PCM panels and the container in a 5~6 ◦ C cooler for 8 h;
(2) insert the PCM panels and temperature sensors into the container; and,
(3) place the container and a temperature sensor into the temperature-controlled chamber.
(4) set the chamber temperature at −20 ◦ C and start the test.

2.3.3. Preconditioning for the Use at Alternating Temperature

The PCM should be half melted and half frozen at the initial state for the utilization under
alternating temperature condition. It takes advantage of the construction of the double-layer panels in
this case. Therefore, one layer of PCM panels was fully frozen and the other was kept in the liquid
state. The preconditioning was carried out as follows:

(1) place six PCM panels in a −20 ◦ C freezer or below for 30 h;

(2) place six PCM panels in a 5~6 ◦ C cooler for 8 h;
(3) insert the six frozen PCM panels into the container near to the drug or food packing and the other
six cooled panels near to the insulator base.
(4) insert the temperature sensors into the container; and,
(5) place the container and a temperature sensor into the temperature-controlled chamber.
(6) set the chamber temperature at 35 ◦ C for the first half of the time and then −20 ◦ C for the next
half of the time and start the test.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Performance under Extremely High Temperature Condition

Figures 6–8 present the ambient temperature and air temperature inside the container without
PCM, with water as PCM and with OP5E as PCM under extremely high temperature condition,
respectively. It can be seen that the temperature-controlled time was less than 1 h (about 54 min) by
using the container without PCM. The performance was distinctly improved when incorporating
a PCM into the container. However, the most measuring points inside the container showed a
temperature at 1~2 ◦ C for the first 70 h by applying water as PCM. This would cause a subcooling of
drugs or food during the transportation. On the other hand, the air temperature inside the container
was controlled in the range of 2~8 ◦ C for 81 h by using OP5E as PCM. It kept at 4~5 ◦ C for most of
the time, which corresponds to the melting/freezing peak temperature of OP5E. In all three cases, the
measuring point, which firstly exceeded the maximum temperature of 8 ◦ C, was one of the points
in the corner of the container, namely T1, T2, T3, or T4. The reason was that the tightness between
the insulator base and lid is normally worse in the corner than elsewhere. Consequently, the heat
transfer was intensified in the corner by the air leakage. Furthermore, it was observed that the air
temperature in the container decreased firstly and then went up. The reason was that the container was
not pre-cooled before the test because of the limited operation condition. The air in the container had
the room temperature at the beginning and was firstly cooled when inserting the frozen PCM panels
into the container. The air temperature began to rise when heat was transferred from the ambient to
the inside of the container.
 the heat
the heat transfer
transfer was
was intensified
intensified in
in the
the corner
corner byby the
the air
air leakage.
leakage. Furthermore,
Furthermore, itit was
was observed
observed that
that
the air temperature in the container decreased firstly and then went up. The
the air temperature in the container decreased firstly and then went up. The reason was that the reason was that the
container was
container was notnot pre-cooled
pre-cooled before
before the
the test
test because
because ofof the
the limited
limited operation
operation condition.
condition. The
The air
air in
in
the container had the room temperature at the beginning and was firstly cooled
the container had the room temperature at the beginning and was firstly cooled when inserting the when inserting the
frozen
frozen
Appl. PCM
Sci. PCM panels
2017, 7,panels into the
1288 into the container.
container. The
The air
air temperature
temperature began
began to
to rise
rise when
when heat
heat was
was transferred
transferred
8 of 12
from the ambient to the inside of the
from the ambient to the inside of the container.container.

40
40 T1
T1
36
36 T2
T2
T3
T3
32
32 T4
T4
28
28 T5
T5

°C
Temperature/ /°C
T6
T6
24
24 T7
T7
Temperature 20
20 T8
T8
ambient
ambient
16
16
12
12
88
44
00
00 66 12 18
12 18 24
24 30
30 36
36 4242 48
48 54
54 60 60 66
66 72
72
Time / min
Time / min t = 54min
t = 54min

Figure
Figure6.6.
Figure 6. The
The ambient
The ambient temperature
ambient temperature and
temperature and air
and air temperature
air temperature inside
temperature inside the
inside thecontainer
the container without
container without PCM
without PCMunder
PCM under
under
extremely
extremelyhigh
extremely hightemperature
high temperaturecondition.
temperature condition.The
condition. Theshaded
The shadedpart
shaded partmeans
part means
means the
the
thecontrolled temperature
controlled
controlled temperature
temperaturerange of of
range
range 2
of
to 8 ◦ C.
2 to 8 °C.
2 to 8 °C.

36
36 T1
T1
32
32 T2
T2
T3
T3
28
28 T4
T4
24
24 T5
T5
°C
Temperature/ /°C

T6
T6
20
20 T7
T7
Temperature

16
16 T8
T8
ambient
ambient
12
12
88
44
00
-4
-4
00 66 12
12 18
18 24
24 30
30 36
36 42
42 48
48 54
54 60
60 66
66 72
72 78
78
Time // hh
Time

Figure 7.
Figure 7. The
The ambient
ambient temperature
temperature and
and air temperature
temperature inside
inside the
the container
container with
with water as
as PCM
PCM
Figure 7. The ambient temperature and air air
temperature inside the container with water water
as PCM under
under extremely
under extremely high temperature
high temperature condition.
condition.
extremely high temperature condition.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 9 of 13

40
T1
36 T2
T3
32
T4
28 T5
Temperature / °C

T6
24
T7
20 T8
ambient
16
12
8
4
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84
Time / h t = 81h

Figure8. 8.
Figure TheThe ambient
ambient temperature
temperature andand air temperature
air temperature insideinside the container
the container with as
with OP5E OP5E
PCMas PCM
under
extremely high temperature
under extremely condition.
high temperature condition.

3.2. Performance under Extremely Low Temperature Condition

Figures 9–11 present the ambient temperature and air temperature is inside the container
without PCM, with water as PCM, and with OP5E as PCM under extremely low temperature
conditions, respectively. It was observed that the temperature-controlled time was about 1 h (62
min) by using the container without PCM. This time was extended to 10 h when using water as
 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84
Time / h t = 81h

Figure 8. The ambient temperature and air temperature inside the container with OP5E as PCM
under extremely high temperature condition.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 9 of 12

3.2. Performance under Extremely Low Temperature Condition

3.2. Performance
Figures 9–11 under Extremely
present the Low Temperature
ambient Condition
temperature and air temperature is inside the container
without
Figures 9–11 present the ambient temperature and airastemperature
PCM, with water as PCM, and with OP5E PCM under extremely
is inside low temperature
the container without
conditions,
PCM, respectively.
with water as PCM,Itand waswith
observed
OP5Ethat the temperature-controlled
as PCM under extremely low temperaturetime was about 1 h (62
conditions,
min) by using the container without PCM. This time was extended to 10
respectively. It was observed that the temperature-controlled time was about 1 h (62 min) by using h when using water as
PCM and to 102 h when using OP5E as PCM. The air temperature in the
the container without PCM. This time was extended to 10 h when using water as PCM and to 102 h container dropped swiftly
to −6using
when °C andOP5E rose
as to
PCM.−1~−2
The°C airby applying in
temperature water. This phenomenon
the container dropped swiftlycould to be−caused
6 ◦ C andbyrose
the
subcooling ◦ of water. The nucleation of water did not occur until the air
to −1~−2 C by applying water. This phenomenon could be caused by the subcooling of water. Thetemperature in the container
decreased of
nucleation to water
−6 °C.did
Thenot
airoccur
temperature
until theincreased when water
air temperature in thebegan to freeze
container and amounts
decreased to −6 ◦ C.of The
heat
were
air released during
temperature increasedthewhen
liquid-solid phasetotransition.
water began freeze andThe temperature
amounts insidereleased
of heat were the container
during kept
the
liquid-solid phase transition. The temperature inside the container kept constant at −1~−2 C untilin
constant at −1~−2 °C until the nucleation process ended. On the other hand, the air temperature
◦
thenucleation
the container process
maintained at 4~5
ended. On °Cthefor thehand,
other first 60
thehair
and then decreased
temperature in theslowly to 2maintained
container °C after 102ath
4~5 C for the first 60 h and then decreased slowly to 2 C after 102 h when using OP5E asexceeded
when◦ using OP5E as PCM. In all three cases, the measuring
◦ point, which firstly the
PCM. In all
minimum temperature of 2 °C, was also one of the points in the corner
three cases, the measuring point, which firstly exceeded the minimum temperature of 2 C, was also as in the◦ case under
extremely
one high temperature
of the points in the cornercondition.
as in the case under extremely high temperature condition.

8 T1
T2
4 T3
T4
0 T5
Temperature / °C

T6
-4 T7
T8
-8
ambient
-12

-16

-20

-24
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Time / min t = 62min

Figure9.9.The
Figure Theambient
ambienttemperature
temperatureandandair
airtemperature
temperatureinside
insidethe
thecontainer
containerwithout
withoutPCM
PCMunder
under
Appl. extremely
2017, 7, low
extremely
Sci. lowtemperature
1288 temperaturecondition.
condition. 10 of 13

12
T1
8 T2
T3
4 T4
T5
Temperature / °C

0
T6
-4 T7
T8
-8 ambient
-12

-16

-20

-24
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
t = 10h Time / h

Figure 10.The
Figure10. Theambient
ambienttemperature and
temperature air air
and temperature inside
temperature the container
inside with water
the container as PCM
with water asunder
PCM
extremely low temperature
under extremely condition.
low temperature condition.

12
T1
8 T2
T3
4 T4
T5
0
perature / °C

T6
-4 T7
T8
-8 ambient
 -24
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
t = 10h Time / h

Figure
Appl. Sci. 10.1288
2017, 7, The ambient temperature and air temperature inside the container with water as PCM
10 of 12
under extremely low temperature condition.

12
T1
8 T2
T3
4 T4
T5
0

Temperature / °C
T6
-4 T7
T8
-8 ambient
-12

-16

-20

-24
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
t = 102h
Time / h

Figure11.
Figure 11.The
Theambient
ambient temperature
temperature andand air temperature
air temperature inside
inside the container
the container with as
with OP5E OP5E
PCMasunder
PCM
under extremely
extremely low temperature
low temperature condition.
condition.

3.3.Performance
3.3. Performanceunder
underAlternating
AlternatingTemperature
TemperatureCondition
Condition
Figures1212–13
Figures and 13show
showthe theambient
ambienttemperature
temperatureandandair
air temperature
temperature inside
inside thethe container
containerwithwith
water and with OP5E as PCM under alternating temperature conditions, respectively.
water and with OP5E as PCM under alternating temperature conditions, respectively. The container The container
withoutPCM
without PCMwas wasnot
nottested
testedunder
underthis
this condition
condition since
since thethe holding
holding timetime
was wasjustjust
oneone
hour hour at both
at both of
of the
the extreme
extreme temperatures.
temperatures. The most
The most measuring
measuring pointspoints
in the in the container
container indicatedindicated a temperature
a temperature below
2below
◦ C when2 °Cusing
when using
water aswater
PCM. as ThePCM. The air temperature
air temperature kept at 0 ◦kept
C foratthe
0 °C for36the
first firstat36−1h ◦and
h and C forat
−1 second
the °C for the second
36 h. It may36 h. Ita may
pose pose arisk
subcooling subcooling
to drugsrisk to drugs
or food. or food.
However, the However, the container
container incorporated
with OP5E maintained a stable internal temperature at 4~5 C for the first 72 h and dropped72toh2 and
incorporated with OP5E maintained a stable internal temperature
◦ at 4~5 °C for the first ◦C
dropped
after
Appl. 100 to 2 °C
h. 7, 1288
Sci. 2017, after 100 h. 11 of 13

36
T1
32
T2
28
T3
24
T4
20
T5
Temperature / °C

16
T6
12
T7
8
T8
4
ambient
0
-4
-8
-12
-16
-20
-24
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Time / h

Figure12.
Figure 12.The
The ambient
ambient temperature
temperature andand air temperature
air temperature inside
inside the container
the container with as
with water water
PCMasunder
PCM
under alternating temperature condition.
alternating temperature condition.

40
The experimental temperature-controlled
36 time of the container with OP5E
T1 was compared with
32 T2
that theoretically calculated according to the equations in Section 2.2. From Table 2 it can be seen that
28 T3
the deviation was within24an acceptable range of ±10%. The experiment error T4 mainly resulted from
20 T5
the inhomogeneous temperature distribution inside the container. In most cases, the temperature in
Temperature / °C

16
12 T6
the corner firstly exceeded8 the maximum or minimum temperature that was T8allowed because of the
air leakage. 4 T9
0 ambient
-4
-8
-12
-16
-20
-24
-28
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96102
 -20
-24
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72
Time / h

Figure 12. The ambient temperature and air temperature inside the container with water as PCM
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 11 of 12
under alternating temperature condition.

40
36 T1
32 T2
28 T3
24 T4
20 T5

Temperature / °C
16
12 T6
8 T8
4 T9
0 ambient
-4
-8
-12
-16
-20
-24
-28
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96102
Time / h t = 100h

Figure 13. The

Figure 13. Theambient
ambienttemperature
temperature and
and airair temperature
temperature inside
inside the container
the container with with
OP5EOP5E as under
as PCM PCM
under alternating temperature condition.
alternating temperature condition.

The experimental temperature-controlled time of the container with OP5E was compared with
Table 2. The experimental and theoretical values of the temperature-controlled time of the container
that theoretically calculated
with OP5E as PCM according
under different to the equations
temperature in Section 2.2. From Table 2 it can be seen
conditions.
that the deviation was within an acceptable range of ±10%. The experiment error mainly resulted
from the inhomogeneous temperature distributionTemperature-Controlled
Maximum or Minimum inside the container. In most cases, the
Time (h)
Ambient Temperature (◦ C) Temperature Allowed in maximum or minimum temperature Deviation (%)
temperature in the corner firstly exceeded ◦ the Experimental Theoretical that was
the Container ( C)
allowed because35 of the air leakage. 8 81 88 −7.95
−20 2 102 108 −5.56
35 ◦ C for the first 48 h and 8 ◦ C for the first 48 h and
Table ◦2. The experimental and theoretical values of the temperature-controlled
100 98 time of the container
+2.04
−20 C for rest time 2 ◦ C for the rest time
with OP5E as PCM under different temperature conditions.

4. Conclusions Maximum or Minimum Temperature-Controlled Time (h)

Deviation
Ambient Temperature (°C) Temperature Allowed in
A cold-chain insulated container the Container integrated
(°C) with PCM has been developed(%)for a
Experimental Theoretical
temperature-controlled
35 transportation in 8 a range of 2~8 ◦ C. A8172-h transportation
88 under−7.95
various
−20
temperature conditions has been achieved 2 with the high insulation
102 performance108 −5.56 and
of the container
the35double-layer
°C for the first 48 h panels.
PCM and 8Different
°C for the preconditioning
first 48 h and methods
100 have been determined
98 to+2.04
take full
−20 °C for rest time 2 °C for
advantage of the phase transition of the PCM. the rest time
The container performance depends largely on the phase transition temperature range, the
4. Conclusions
melting/freezing enthalpy, and the mass of that is PCM used. The container presented a subcooling
range of −1~2
effectAin acold-chain ◦ C for 72 h under extremely high temperature and alternating temperature
insulated container integrated with PCM has been developed for a
conditions by applying water
temperature-controlled as PCM. For
transportation in athe utilization
range of 2~8 at extremely
°C. low temperature,
A 72-h transportation the holding
under various
time was only 10 h. However, the temperature-controlled time was extended from 1 h to more than
80 h by using a PCM with a melting/freezing point at 5 ◦ C. Furthermore, the air temperature in the
container was maintained at a steady at 4~5 ◦ C for most of the time under extremely high, extremely
low, and alternating temperature conditions, which would contribute to extending the shelf-life of
drugs or food. The experimental values of the temperature-controlled time agreed well with the
theoretical values. The results showed that the insulated containers with PCM could be an attractive
alternative to refrigerated trucks or containers having a compressor for cold-chain systems.

Acknowledgments: This work was developed within the framework of the research project 2017C34002
“Development of isothermal packaging technology based on phase change materials (PCMs) and intelligent
monitoring system” funded by Science Technology Department of Zhejiang Province of China.
Author Contributions: Li Huang conceived and designed the experiments; Udo Piontek performed the
experiments and analyzed the data; Li Huang contributed materials and wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: There are no conflicts of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2017, 7, 1288 12 of 12

Nomenclature
F average heat transfer area of the container, m2
Fa external heat transfer area of the container, m2
Fb internal heat transfer area of the container, m2
∆h melting/freezing enthalpy of PCM, kJ/kg
∆H heat capacity of PCM, kJ
K overall heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 ·K)
m total mass of PCM, kg
q total heat flow, W
q1 heat flow rate, conduction and convection, W
q2 heat flow rate, air leakage, W
t temperature-controlled time, h
Ta ambient temperature, ◦ C
Tb air temperature inside the container, ◦ C
α1 air heat transfer coefficient outside, W/(m2 ·K)
α2 air heat transfer coefficient inside the container, W/(m2 ·K)
β additional thermal load factor
λ1 thermal conductivity of PU, W/(m·K)
λ2 thermal conductivity of VIP, W/(m·K)
λ3 thermal conductivity of PCM, W/(m·K)
δ1 thickness of PU, m
δ2 thickness of VIP, m
δ3 thickness of PCM, m

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