Abrasive and Non-Traditional

Processes

1
 Abrasive Machining
• Material removal by action of hard, abrasive particles usually
in the form of a bonded wheel.

• Generally used as finishing operations after part geometry has

been established by conventional machining.

• Grinding is the most common and important abrasive process.

• Other abrasive processes are: honing, lapping, super-finishing,

polishing, and buffing
Why Abrasive Processes are Important

• Can be used on all types of materials

• Some can produce extremely fine surface finishes, to

0.025 m (1 -in)

• Some can hold dimensions to extremely close

tolerances
 Grinding
• Material removal process in which abrasive
particles are contained in a bonded grinding
wheel that operates at very high surface speeds

• Grinding wheel usually disk-shaped and

precisely balanced for high rotational speeds
 The Grinding Wheel
• Consists of abrasive particles and bonding
material

• Abrasive particles accomplish cutting

• Bonding material holds particles in place and

establishes shape and structure of wheel
 Grinding Wheel Parameters

• Abrasive material
• Grain size
• Bonding material
• Wheel grade
• Wheel structure
 Abrasive Material Properties

• High hardness

• Wear resistance

• Toughness

• Friability - capacity to fracture when cutting

edge dulls, so a new sharp edge is exposed
 Traditional Abrasive Materials
• Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) - most common abrasive
– Used to grind steel and other ferrous high-strength alloys

• Silicon carbide (SiC) - harder than Al2O3 but not as tough

– Used on aluminum, brass, stainless steel, some cast irons and certain ceramics

• Cubic boron nitride (cBN) – very hard, very expensive

– Suitable for steels
– Used for hard materials such as hardened tool steels and aerospace alloys

• Diamond – Even harder, very expensive

– Occur naturally and also made synthetically
– Not suitable for grinding steels
– Used on hard, abrasive materials such as ceramics, cemented carbides, and glass
 Grain Size

• Small grit sizes produce better finishes

• Larger grit sizes permit larger material removal rates

• Harder work materials require smaller grain sizes to cut

effectively

• Softer materials require larger grit sizes

 Bonding Material Properties
• Holds the abrasive grains and establishes the shape and
structural integrity of the grinding wheel
• Desirable properties are; strength, toughness, hardness and
temperature resistance.
• Must withstand centrifugal forces
• Must resist shattering during shock loading of wheel
• Must hold abrasive grains rigidly in place for cutting yet allow
worn grains to be dislodged to expose new sharp grains
• Must withstand high temperatures
 Bonding Materials
• Vitrified bond – consists chiefly of baked clay and ceramic materials. Most
common. They are strong, rigid, resistant to high temp relatively unaffected by
water and oil
• Silicate bond – consists of sodium silicate (Na2SO3). Limited to low heat
applications, e.g. Grinding of cutting tools.
• Rubber bond – most flexible of all bonding materials. Applied in cut-off wheels.
• Resinoid bond – made up of various thermosetting resin materials such as
phenol-formaldehyde. Has very high strength, used in rough grinding and cut-off
operations
• Shellac bond. Are relatively strong but not rigid. Suitable for applications
requiring good finish.
• Metallic bond – usually bronze, common for diamond and cubic boron nitride
grinding wheels.
11
 Wheel Structure

Figure: Typical structure of a grinding wheel.

 Wheel Structure
• Refers to the relative spacing of abrasive grains in wheel

• In addition to abrasive grains and bond material, grinding wheels

contain air gaps or pores

• Volumetric proportions of grains, bond material, and pores can be

expressed as:
Pg  Pb  Pp  1.0
 Wheel Structure

• Measured on a scale that ranges between "open" and

"dense."
– Open structure means Pp is relatively large and Pg is
relatively small
• recommended when clearance for chips must be provided

– Dense structure means Pp is relatively small and Pg is larger

• recommended to obtain better surface finish and dimensional control
 Wheel Grade
• Indicates bond strength in retaining abrasive grits during cutting

• Depends on amount of bonding material in wheel structure (Pb)

• Measured on a scale ranging between soft and hard

– Soft wheels lose grains readily - used for low materials removal rates and hard work

materials

– Hard wheels retain grains - used for high materials removal rates and soft work

materials
 Grinding Wheel Shapes

Some of the standard grinding wheel shapes: (a) straight, (b) recessed two sides, (c) metal
wheel frame with abrasive bonded to outside circumference, (d) abrasive cut- off wheel.
 Analysis of grinding process

Figure: (a) Geometry of surface grinding showing cutting conditions, (b) Assumed
longitudinal shape of chip, (c) cross-section of a single chip.
17
 Analysis of grinding process
• Cutting conditions in grinding are characterized by very high speeds and very
small cut sizes.
v  DN
• Where; V = surface speed of the wheel, N = spindle speed, D = wheel diameter
MRR  vwwd
• Where; vw = speed of the work past the wheel, d = depth of cut, w = width of cut
• Forces and Energy:
Fc v
U
vw wd
• U = specific energy, (J/mm3) Fc = cutting force = force needed to drive the work
past the wheel
0.5
 rg vw   d 
0.25

Fc  K1 
'
  
 vC   D 
F’c = cutting force on an individual grain, K1 = proportionality constant, depends on
strength of work and sharpness of the grains 18
 Analysis of Grinding
• In grinding, the specific energy is much greater than in

conventional machining because of 3 reasons;

– Grain-chip size effect

– Negative rake angles on individual grains

– Ineffective grain actions

• Temperatures at work surface;

0.5
 rg Cv 
Ts  K 2 d 0.75
  D0.25
 vw 
• K2 = constant of proportionality. 19
 Surface Finish
• Most grinding is performed to achieve good surface finish

• Best surface finish is achieved by:

– Small grain sizes

– Higher wheel speeds

– Denser wheel structure = more grits per wheel area

• The average chip length is given by; ,

lc  Dd

This assumes the chip is formed by a grit that acts through out the entire sweep arc
w'
• The grain aspect ratio is given by; rg  , its value ranges between 10 – 20.
t
4v d
• W’ = width of chip t = chip thickness t
vCrg D
• The number of active grits (cutting teeth) per square inch of the wheel;

nc  vwC , C = grits per area on grinding wheel surface, grits/mm2

 Three Types of Grain Action

• Cutting - grit projects far enough into surface to form a chip -

material is removed

• Plowing - grit projects into work, but not far enough to cut -
instead, surface is deformed and energy is consumed, but no
material is removed

• Rubbing - grit contacts surface but only rubbing friction

occurs, thus consuming energy, but no material is removed
 Grain Actions in Grinding

Three types of grain action in grinding: (a) cutting, (b) plowing, and (c) rubbing.
 Temperatures at Work Surface
• Grinding is characterized by high temperatures and high friction,

and most of the energy remains in the ground surface, resulting in

high work surface temperatures

• Damaging effects include:

– Surface burns and cracks

– Metallurgical damage immediately beneath the surface

– Softening of the work surface if heat treated

– Residual stresses in the work surface

 How to Reduce Grinding Temperatures

• Decrease infeed (depth of cut) d

• Reduce wheel speed v

• Reduce number of active grits per square inch on the

grinding wheel C

• Increase work speed vw

• Use a grinding fluid

 Causes of Wheel Wear
1. Grain fracture - when a portion of the grain breaks off,
but the rest remains bonded in the wheel
– Edges of the fractured area become new cutting edges

– Tendency to fracture is called friability

2. Attritious wear - dulling of individual grains, resulting

in flat spots and rounded edges
– Analogous to tool wear in conventional cutting tool

– Caused by similar mechanisms including friction, diffusion, and chemical

reactions
 Causes of Wheel Wear

3. Bond fracture - the individual grains are pulled out of

the bonding material

– Depends on wheel grade, among other factors

– Usually occurs because grain has become dull due to attritious wear, and

resulting cutting force becomes excessive

 Grinding Ratio
• Indicates slope of the wheel wear curve

VW
GR 
Vg

where GR = grinding ratio; Vw = volume of work material

removed; and Vg = corresponding volume of grinding wheel
worn
 Dressing the Wheel
• Dressing - accomplished by rotating disk, abrasive stick, or another
grinding wheel held against the wheel being dressed as it rotates

• Functions:
– Break off dulled grits to expose new sharp grains

– Remove chips clogged in wheel

 Application Guidelines

• To optimize surface finish, select

– Small grit size and dense wheel structure
– Use higher wheel speeds (v) and lower work speeds (vw)
– Smaller depths of cut (d) and larger wheel diameters (D) will also help

• To maximize material removal rate, select

– Large grit size
– More open wheel structure
– Vitrified (Shiny and non-porous) bond
 Application Guidelines
• For steel and most cast irons, use
– Aluminum oxide as the abrasive

• For most nonferrous metals, use

– Silicon carbide as the abrasive

• For hardened tool steels and certain aerospace alloys, use

– Cubic boron nitride as the abrasive

• For hard abrasive materials (e.g., ceramics, cemented

carbides, and glass) use
– Diamond as the abrasive
 Application Guidelines

• For soft metals, use

– Large grit size and harder grade wheel

• For hard metals, use

– Small grit size and softer grade wheel
 Four Types of Surface Grinding

(a) horizontal spindle with reciprocating worktable, (b) horizontal spindle with rotating worktable, (c)
vertical spindle with reciprocating worktable, (d) vertical spindle with rotating worktable.
 Surface Grinder

Surface grinder with horizontal spindle and reciprocating worktable (most common grinder type).
 Cylindrical Grinding

Two types of cylindrical grinding: (a) external, and (b) internal.

Centerless Grinding

External centerless grinding.

 Creep Feed Grinding

• Depths of cut 1000 to 10,000 times greater than in conventional

surface grinding

– Feed rates reduced by about the same proportion

• Material removal rate and productivity are increased in creep feed

grinding because the wheel is continuously cutting

– In conventional surface grinding, wheel is engaged in cutting for only a portion of

the stroke length

 Creep Feed Grinding

Comparison of (a) conventional surface grinding and (b) creep feed grinding.
 Other Abrasive Processes

• Honing

• Lapping

• Superfinishing
 Honing
• Abrasive process performed by a set of bonded abrasive
sticks using a combination of rotational and oscillatory
motions

• Common application is to finish the bores of internal

combustion engines

• Surface finishes of 0.12 m (5 -in) or better

• Creates a characteristic cross-hatched surface that retains

lubrication
 Honing

The honing process: (a) the honing tool used for internal bore
surface, and (b) cross-hatched surface pattern created by the
action of the honing tool.
 Lapping

Uses fluid suspension of very small abrasive particles between

workpiece and lap (tool)

• Lapping compound - fluid with abrasives, general appearance

of a chalky paste

• Applications: optical lenses, metallic bearing surfaces, gages

 Lapping

The lapping process in lens-making.

 Superfinishing
Similar to honing - uses bonded abrasive stick
pressed against surface and reciprocating
motion
• Differences with honing:
– Shorter strokes
– Higher frequencies
– Lower pressures between tool and surface
– Smaller grit sizes
 Superfinishing

Superfinishing on an external cylindrical surface.

NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING AND
THERMAL CUTTING PROCESSES

1. Mechanical Energy Processes

2. Electrochemical Machining Processes

3. Thermal Energy Processes

4. Chemical Machining

5. Application Considerations
 Nontraditional Processes Defined
A group of processes that remove excess
material by various techniques involving
mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical
energy (or combinations of these energies)
• They do not use a sharp cutting tool in the
conventional sense
 Classification of Nontraditional Processes
• Mechanical - typical form of mechanical action is erosion of work
material by a high velocity stream of abrasives or fluid (or both)

• Electrical - electrochemical energy to remove material (reverse of

electroplating)

• Thermal – thermal energy usually applied to small portion of work

surface, causing that portion to be fused and/or vaporized

• Chemical – chemical etchants selectively remove material from

portions of work part, while other portions are protected by a mask
 Mechanical Energy Processes

• Ultrasonic machining

• Water jet cutting

• Abrasive water jet cutting

• Abrasive jet machining

 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

• Abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high velocity

against work by a tool vibrating at low amplitude and
high frequency

• Tool oscillation is perpendicular to work surface

• Abrasives accomplish material removal

• Tool is fed slowly into work

• Shape of tool is formed into part

Ultrasonic Machining
 USM Applications
• Hard, brittle work materials such as ceramics, glass,
and carbides
• Also successful on certain metals, such as stainless
steel and titanium
• Shapes include non-round holes
• “Coining operations” - pattern on tool is imparted to
a flat work surface
 Water Jet Cutting (WJC)
• Uses high pressure, high velocity stream of water directed at work surface for

cutting
 WJC Applications

• Usually automated by CNC or industrial robots to

manipulate nozzle along desired trajectory

• Used to cut narrow slits in flat stock such as plastic,

textiles, composites, floor tile, carpet, leather, and
cardboard
 WJC Advantages

• No crushing or burning of work surface

• Minimum material loss

• No environmental pollution

• Ease of automation
 Abrasive Water Jet Cutting (AWJC)
• When WJC is used on metals, abrasive particles must be
added to jet stream usually

• Additional process parameters: abrasive type, grit size,

and flow rate
– Abrasives: aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, and garnet (a silicate mineral)

– Grit sizes range between 60 and 120

– Grits added to water stream at about 0.25 kg/min (0.5 lb/min) after it exits
nozzle
 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

• High velocity stream of gas containing small

abrasive particles
 AJM Application Notes
• Usually performed manually by operator who directs nozzle

• Normally used as a finishing process rather than cutting

process

• Applications: deburring, trimming and deflashing, cleaning,

and polishing

• Work materials: thin flat stock of hard, brittle materials (e.g.,

glass, silicon, mica, ceramics)
 Electrochemical Machining Processes
• Electrical energy used in combination with chemical
reactions to remove material
• Reverse of electroplating
• Work material must be a conductor
• Processes:
– Electrochemical machining (ECM)
– Electrochemical deburring (ECD)
– Electrochemical grinding (ECG)
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

• Material removal by anodic dissolution, using electrode (tool) in

close proximity to work but separated by a rapidly flowing
electrolyte
 ECM Operation
• Material is depleted from anode workpiece (positive pole) and
transported to a cathode tool (negative pole) in an electrolyte bath

• Electrolyte flows rapidly between two poles to carry off depleted

material, so it does not plate onto tool

• Electrode materials: Cu, brass, or stainless steel

• Tool has inverse shape of part

– Tool size and shape must allow for the gap
 Electrochemical Deburring (ECD)

• Adaptation of ECM to remove burrs or sharp corners on holes in

metal parts produced by conventional through-hole drilling
 Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)

• Special form of ECM in which grinding wheel with conductive

bond material augments anodic dissolution of metal part
surface
 Applications and Advantages of ECG

• Applications:
– Sharpening of cemented carbide tools

– Grinding of surgical needles, other thin wall tubes, and fragile

parts

• Advantages:
– Deplating responsible for 95% of metal removal

– Because machining is mostly by electrochemical action,

grinding wheel lasts much longer
 Thermal Energy Processes - Overview

• Very high local temperatures

– Material is removed by fusion or vaporization

• Physical and metallurgical damage to the new work

surface

• In some cases, resulting finish is so poor that subsequent

processing is required
 Thermal Energy Processes
• Electric discharge machining
• Electric discharge wire cutting
• Electron beam machining
• Laser beam machining
• Plasma arc machining
• Conventional thermal cutting processes
 Electric Discharge Processes
• Metal removal by a series of discrete electrical discharges
(sparks) causing localized temperatures high enough to
melt or vaporize the metal
• Can be used only on electrically conducting work
materials
• Two main processes:
1. Electric discharge machining
2. Wire electric discharge machining
 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

Electric discharge machining (EDM): (a) overall setup, and (b) close-up view of
gap, showing discharge and metal removal.
 EDM Operation
• One of the most widely used nontraditional processes

• Shape of finished work surface produced by a shape of

electrode tool

• Sparks occur across a small gap between tool and work

• Requires dielectric fluid, which creates a path for each

discharge as fluid becomes ionized in the gap
 Work Materials in EDM

• Work materials must be electrically conducting

• Hardness and strength of work material are not factors

in EDM

• Material removal rate depends on melting point of work

material
 EDM Applications
• Tooling for many mechanical processes: molds for plastic

injection molding, extrusion dies, wire drawing dies, forging and

heading dies, and sheet metal stamping dies

• Production parts: delicate parts not rigid enough to withstand

conventional cutting forces, hole drilling where hole axis is at an

acute angle to surface, and machining of hard and exotic metals

 Wire EDM

• Special form of EDM uses small diameter wire as electrode to cut

a narrow kerf in work
 Operation of Wire EDM
• Work is fed slowly past wire along desired cutting path,
like a band saw operation

• CNC used for motion control

• Dielectric required, using nozzles directed at tool-work

interface or submerging work part
 Electron Beam Machining (EBM)
• Uses high velocity stream of electrons focused on workpiece
surface to remove material by melting and vaporization
 EBM Operation
• EB gun accelerates a continuous stream of electrons to about 75%
of light speed

• Beam is focused through electromagnetic lens, reducing diameter

to as small as 0.025 mm (0.001 in)

• On impinging work surface, kinetic energy of electrons is

converted to thermal energy of extremely high density which
melts or vaporizes material in a very localized area
 EBM Applications

• Works on any material

• Ideal for micromachining
– Drilling small diameter holes - down to 0.05 mm (0.002 in)
– Cutting slots only about 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) wide

• Drilling holes with very high depth-to-diameter

ratios
– Ratios greater than 100:1
 Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

• Uses the light energy from a laser to remove material by

vaporization and ablation
 LBM Applications
• Drilling, slitting, slotting, scribing, and marking operations

• Drilling small diameter holes - down to 0.025 mm (0.001

in)

• Generally used on thin stock

• Work materials: metals with high hardness and strength,

soft metals, ceramics, glass and glass epoxy, plastics,
rubber, cloth, and wood
Laser beam cutting
operation performed
on sheet metal
 Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC)

• Uses plasma stream operating at very high temperatures to cut

metal by melting
 Operation of PAC
• Plasma = a superheated, electrically ionized gas

• PAC temperatures: 10,000C to 14,000C (18,000F to

25,000F)

• Plasma arc generated between electrode in torch and

anode workpiece

• The plasma flows through water-cooled nozzle that

constricts and directs stream to desired location
 Chemical Machining (CHM)
Material removal through contact with a strong chemical
etchant
• Processes include:
– Chemical milling
– Chemical blanking
– Chemical engraving
– Photochemical machining

• All utilize the same mechanism of material removal

 Steps in Chemical Machining
1. Cleaning - to insure uniform etching
2. Masking - a maskant (resist, chemically resistant to
etchant) is applied to portions of work surface not to be
etched
3. Etching - part is immersed in etchant which chemically
attacks those portions of work surface that are not
masked
4. Demasking - maskant is removed