Chapter 3

The rasa theory

 Chapter 3

The Rasa Theory

Introduction

The quest for identifying the course of the river naturally leads to the perennial
snows of the Western view and conceptual thought of the Indian tradition. Western scholars
study the problem of the good and the bad, and the beautiful whereas Eastern scholars deal
mainly with beauty in creative literature. Drama, both Eastern and Western, is an art and
has its origin from the natural tendency in man to express himself in play. Dramatic work
is a combined effort fructifying into a masterpiece and all other arts have to do maiden’s
service to it. It aims at an all-round perfection, which it does through the widest appeal to
the human heart for which purpose all the sciences as Acoustics etc are harnessed to its
service. And it is because of this appeal that persons of various tendencies, likes and
prodivities get pleasure simultaneously. As Hari Ram Mishra says,

Drama is the flowering of the national mind in the domain of literary art
and will naturally differ in different climes. Drama of any clime or region
is sure to prove itself as an art where humanity has tried to tend towards all
truth, all beauty and all goodness – in a word, towards an all-round
perfection. (9)

The fact that literature though it is bound by time and place, has a universal and
timeless appeal which means that there is something in a literary work that transcends time
and space across countries and continents. Readers of different countries, cultures, religion,
ideologies, passions and prejudices do appreciate and relish literature of altogether a
different place as it provides aesthetic enjoyment to them. Poetic experience is an
experience of the psyche, of the human sensibility which at least in the responses to the
basic vicissitudes of man’s life and destiny, does not vary with the colour of the skin, eyes
or hair.

In the words of T.N. Sreekantaiya as quoted by V.S. Seturaman,

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 It is observed that Indian Poetics and Western Poetics view their subject-
matter from somewhat different, if complementary, angles – the latter deals
with poetry as the expression of the poet’s mind while the former is chiefly
occupied with its culmination as a unique experience of the reader. The
reader re-creates for himself and re-lives the poet’s original experience.
Western poetics on the other hand studies how the multitudinous
impressions of the external world melt, alter and combine in the crucible of
the poet’s mind and emerge as a harmonious whole, shining with the added
gleam – the light that never was, on sea or land. It is the poet’s imagination
that works this magic. (67)

The most fascinating area of intersection between Indian and Western literatures,
however is to be found in the realm of poetics and aesthetics. Indian poetics is nothing but
Sanskrit poetics which is an immortal encyclopedia of the theories and doctrines about
poetry and drama. The development of Sanskrit poetics has been traced through its fairly
long and varied course of history, which covers an extensive literature of more than one
and half millennium. Sanskrit literature, where writings of a philosophical and speculative
nature are bound, has been a fertile field in which many books have been written to
enlighten the views of the readers on the nature and scope of poetry and on the nature of
poetic delight. A study of Sanskrit poetics from Bharata (5th century B.C) to Panditrāja
Jagannātha (17th century A.D) will bear witness to the existence of a highly developed
poetics in ancient India, with a rigorous scientific method for description and analysis of
literature.

Chronology

Bharat is the pioneer of Sanskrit poetics as well as an eminent scholar of dramaturgy and
his work Nāṭyaśastra, written in 1st century B.C, is an excellent guide of dramaturgy.
Bhāmaha’s Kāvyālaṁk āra (8th century B.C) is an attempt to deal with poetics separately
from dramatic theory and thus proves to be a landmark in Sanskrit poetics. He was the
exponent of the Alaṁkāra theory. Udbhaṭa, the author of Kāvyālaṁkārasaṁgraha which
supported the alāṁkara theory, flourished in the 8th century. He also wrote a commentary
on Bhāmaha namely Bhāmahavivaraṇa. Rudraṭa, who flourished in the 9th century, also

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contributed to the Alāṁkāra theory by writing Kāvyālaṁkāra. The next writer on poetic
theory was a well- known critic and poet Daṇdin. He wrote Kāvyādarśa where he devoted
attention to the Guna-Rīti aspect of poetry. His successor Vāmana build up the Guna –Rīti
concept. He belonged to the 9th century and his work is entitled as Kāvyālaṁkārasūtra. He
is a well-known protagonist of the Rīti theory and was the first to propound the concept of
soul of poetry. Dhvanyāloka of Ānandvardhana along with its commentary
Dhvanyālokalocana written by Abhinavgupta towards the end of the 10th century
revolutionized Sanskrit poetics. Emphasis shifted from the formal to the content aspect of
poetry. Importance was laid on the function of suggestion in poetic language which lead to
the concept of theory of Dhvani. Abhinavgupta wrote a commentary on Nāṭyaśastra named
Abhinavbhāratī. A few eminent scholars whose works are lost contributed in the form of
commentaries to Nāṭyaśastra of Bharat. They are: Bhatta Lollata of 8th century A.D and ́Śri
Śaṅkuka in the 9th century. Their works are not available today but their views are found
quoted in various treatises. They are quoted in Abhinavabhāratī of Abhinavgupta,
Kāvyaprakāśa of Mammaṭa and Kāvyānuśāsana of Hemacandra. Another such author is
Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka of 10th century A.D, who was the author of Hrdayadarpaṇa, which is now
lost but his name is mentioned in Dhvanyālokalocana. Another important work of the 10th
century is Daśarūpa of Dhanan͂jaya, which is a dissertation on the various forms of Sanskrit
drama. Bhaṭṭa Tauta’s work Kāvyakautuka which is now lost has its existence attested in
works like Abhinavbhāratī and Aucityavicāracarcā. Another work worth mentioning is
Kāvyamimāṁsā of Yāyāvarīya Rājaśekhara. It deals with the practical information
necessary from point of view of the poet like necessity of learning, qualifications of poet,
categories of poet, and poet’s borrowings from other poetical works, daily life of poet,
poetic license and poetic beliefs. Kuntaka’s Vakroktijīvita belonging to the 11th century
postulates the Vakrokti School. Mahimanbhaṭṭa in his work Vyaktiviveka strives to build a
critique of poetry based on the concept of logical inference and took great pains to prove
that what the dhvani-theorists considered as cases of suggestion were mere instances of
inference. His theory is sometimes known as Anumitivāda in Sanskrit. A noteworthy
scholar who flourished in the 11th century was King Bhoja of Dhārā. His Śṛṅgāraprakāśa
was a voluminous work which deals with all known concepts of poetic theory. Bhoja is

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also credited with another work namely, Sarasvatīkaṇṭhāsbharaṇa. Rudrabhaṭṭa’s work
Śṛṅgāratilaka is an examination of kāvya with emphasis on śṛṅgāra rasa.
Kṣemendra, the pupil of Abhinavgupta, wrote three works on poetry. They are
Auchityavicāracarcā, Suvṛttatilaka and Kavikaṇṭhābharaṇa. Out of these three works,
Auchityavicāracarcā is worth mentioning as it gives illustrations and counter-illustrations
to various aspects of auchitya propounded by the writer. Mammaṭa, the author of
Kāvyaprakāśa, who flourished in the 11th century, was a staunch follower of the Dhvani
School. His work takes the form of handbook with all the concepts and theories woven into
a harmonious whole. Hemacandra, who is believed to have flourished at the end of 11 th
century or at the beginning of 12th century, authored Kāvyānuśāsana which is compact and
compiled work of the exsisting knowledge. Vāgbhaṭa was the contemporary of Hemcandra.
His work Vāgbhaṭālaṁkāra is also designed to transverse the entire field of poetic theory.
Ruyyaka in the 12th century composed his treatise Alaṁkāra-sarvasva which is a study of
poetic figures. His Nātakamiṁāsā is a treatise on dramaturgy. Nāṭyadarpaṇa of
Rāmacandra and Guṇacandra (12th C.) and Bhāvaprakāśa of Sāradātanaya (13th C.) are two
important works on drama and rasa. Nāṭakalakṣaṇaratnakoṣa by Sāgaranandin (13th C.)
and Nāṭakaparibhāṣā by Śiṅgabhūpāla (14th C.) are worth mentioning works on dramatic
theory. Candrāloka of Jayadeva composed in 13th century was a manual designed to cover
the entire field of Sanskrit poetics. Viśvanātha‘s Sāhityadarpaṇa composed in the 14th
century deals with drama and poetry, where he lays stress on rasa ion poetry. Bhānudatta
(15th C.) composed two works, Rasamañjarī – dealing more with nāyaka-nāyikā and
śṛṅgāra rasa and Rasataraṅgiṇī – dealing with the general concept of rasa. He also wrote
Alaṁkāratilaka – a general work on poetics. Rūpagosyāmin (16th C.) composed a work
called Ujjvalanīlamaṇi focusing on bhakti-rasa. Alaṁkārakaustubha of Kavikarṇapūra, a
contemporary of Rūpagosyāmin, deals with all the concepts of poetry following
Kāvyaprakāśa. Alaṁkāraśekhara of Keśavamiśra(16th C.) is a treatise covering the entire
field of poetics and Rasapradīpa of Prabhākara(16th C.) deals with the concept of rasa.
Appayya Dīkṣita is credited with the authorship of three works; Kuvalayānanda – a
commentary on the chapter of poetic figures in Candrāloka of Jayadeva, Vṛittivārika and
Citramīmāṁsā which are incomplete.

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Paṇḍitrāja Jagannātha belonging to the 17th century composed a voluminous treatise
called Rasagaṅgādhara which deals with the entire field of poetics and attempts to bring
all the concepts of poetics within a single cover. Another striking feature of this work is
that the author gives logical reasoning while establishing the principles. With Jagannātha
the line of eminent Sanskrit writers on Sanskrit poetics draws to a close. Minor treatise like
Nāṭyapradipa of Sundaramisra (17th C.) on dramaturgy and Alaṁkarakaustubha of
Visvesvara (18th C.) on poetic figures were written but they were of less importance due to
lack of original thinking.
Even though Sanskrit poetics is spread over a vast horizon but still Bharat is
considered to be the architect who framed the infrastructure of Sanskrit poetics and his
treatise Nāṭyaśastra is the paramount of dramaturgy. Nāṭyaśastra marks the
commencement of Sanskrit poetics.

Nāṭyaśastra

Bharat conceived of drama as a gesamtkunstwerk, synthesis of all the arts and in

his great work Nāṭyaśastra, he gave to Sanskrit poetics a monumental treatise, full of
detailed suggestions for articulating libretto, stage effects, music dance and lustrionics into
an organism, the soul of which is the aesthetically experienced emotion i.e Rasa. The
Nāṭyaśastra is incredibly wide in its scope as primarily it deals with stagecraft but
gradually it has influenced music, dance and literature. The Nāṭyaśastra is an elaborate and
systematic discussion of all types of drama and their different parts. It throws light on the
theory of imitation, transportation, unities, manners, etiquette, acting, dance, music,
spectacle, costume, make-up, limb movements, diction, gestures, sentiments, characters
and several other pertinent topics. The Nāṭyaśastra is an ocean, certainly a confluence as
it explores art in conglomeration. The Nāṭyaśastra inspires as much veneration as
Aristotle’s ‘Poetics’ as these two seminal works are empirical in nature, being based on the
perceptive observations of facts in dramatic practices of their predecessors and
contemporaries. The Nāṭyaśastra contains 36 chapters and 5500 shlokas with aphorisms.
The creation of Nāṭyaśastra is considered mythical and divine. Brahma had created the
four Vedas but lower castes and women were not allowed to study them. Indra approached
Brahma and requested for an audible as well as visual object to please equally all the four

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castes, including the lowest. Brahma created the Natya Veda to meet the demand of a
plaything, a source of pleasure to minds weary of strife, wants and miseries of daily
existence. The Nāṭyaśastra was created by the combined effort of Brahma, who gave Natya
(Drama), Vishnu, who gave Abhinaya (Acting) and Mahesh, who gave Nritya (Dance).
Moreover, Brahma compiled together different aspects of each of the four Vedas in the
Nāṭyaśastra:

Jagrahpathyam rigvedata, Sambhyo geetameva cha,

Yajurvedadbhinayan, Rasanatharvanadapi.

(Recitation from Rigveda, music and song from Samveda, histrionics from Yajurveda and
sentiments from Atharvaveda)

Other elements like expression of diseases, their symptoms and certain mental
moods etc. were taken from Ayurveda, representation of fights on stage was taken from
Dhanurveda, Gandharvaveda for preliminaries and actual performance of drama and
Sthapatyaveda for construction of the playhouse. The major objective of the Nāṭyaśastra
was the experience of dharma, artha, kama and moksha by the spectators. It is so
comprehensive and extensive that it has rightly been called the fifth Veda, which was
intended to impart Vedic wisdom in a delightful manner.

Chapters of Nāṭyaśastra

The Nāṭyaśastra is divided into 36 chapters consisting of 5500 slokas with

aphorisms. But each section details the aspects of the topic with a very refined analytical
skill. In chapter I and XXXVI Bharat discusses the origin of drama and its descent on the
earth. Chapter II is the description of the playhouse and chapter III the ways of worship to
the gods of the stage. Chapter IV has been devoted to the discussion of the chief
characteristics of class dance and chapter V to the preliminaries essential to a dramatic
performance. Chapter VI and VII deals with the theory of rasa and its elaborate elucidation.
It is the most important theory developed by Bharat. Rasa is produced when the spectators
feel the emotions of the actors. These two chapters are considered to be the landmarks in
the history of Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics. Chapters VIII, IX, X, XI and XII are

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concerned with the explanation of angika abhinaya such as gestures of minor limbs,
gestures of major limbs, gestures of other limbs, cari movements used in dance, fight etc
and mandal (circular) movements. Bharat even explains how eyes, eyebrows, nose, lips
and chin may be employed to convey the subtlest reactions of the mind and the inner-most
feelings of the heart like love, understanding, agony, distress fatigue, envy etc. Chapter
XIII is devoted to the description of different gaits (manner of walking) and chapter XIV
to zones and local usage. In chapter XV, Bharat discusses the vacika abhinaya, which is,
acting through voice, sound and possible metrical definitions and their illustrations. Thirty-
six laksanas or characteristics of poetic composition, four figures of speech, ten merits as
well as tem demerits of poetic expression form part of chapter XVII, whereas use of
languages as well as dialects and modes and manners of address have been discussed in
chapters XVIII and XIX respectively. Chapter XX is devoted to the classification of ten
types of plays. Chapter XXI is concerned with the analysis of plot-structure such as five
stages of action, five elements of plot, its five segments and the five explanatory devices.
Chapter XXII gives an account of four kinds of vrittis (styles of expression).

Chapter XXIII deals with the aharya abhinaya i.e. acting through the costumes and
make-up. Chapter XXIV is devoted to the discussion of sattvika abhinaya i.e. acting
through involuntary responses such as tears, trembling, horripilation and other such
manifestations. Chapter XXV is concerned with the dealings with courtesans whereas
chapter XXVI analyses citra abhinaya i.e. varied representation. It explains how gestural
changes are to be made in response to environmental changes for displaying moonlight,
sun, smoke, etc. chapter XXVII presents the criteria of success in the production of plays.
It gives an account of the various blemishes that may hinder the dramatic performances. It
also enlightens the chief qualities which an ideal spectator should possess. Chapters
XXVIII to XXXIII are devoted to the discussion of music, musical instruments, metres of
songs and talas (time measure) etc. chapters XXXIV and XXXV are concerned with the
elaborate discussion of various types of characters, both male and female, and the
assignment of different roles to them.

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Inception of Drama

Kavya is the generic value comprising of all forms of poetical compositions in Sanskrit.
Kavya is further classified into two types: Drsya (Audiovisual) and Sravya (Aural). Drsya
(Audiovisual) is further classified as Natya (Drama) and Nrtta (Representation by gestures
with a musical background). Drama is the representation of certain situations so as to
induce in the spectators a sense of identification with the hero and other characters by the
way actors renders them. Composing a drama is an art of presenting a story in the form of
a dialogue. As Aristotle puts forth his views with regard to define drama, the elements
going to make-up of the play consists of the fable, manners, diction, sentiments, decoration
and music. (2-3)

Comparing this definition with the definition given by Bharat, keeping in mind the word
“sentiments” leads to the concept of Rasa. Bharat defines representation as that art of an
actor by which he recreates the sentiments i.e rasa inherent in the original situation forming
the theme of the drama under enactment. Such sentiments are so created that a spectator of
taste could only resonate with them. Representation is possible in four ways: (i) Angika
Abhinaya (Physical) (ii) Vachika Abhinaya (Verbal), (iii) Aharya Abhinaya (Decorative)
and (iv) Sattvika Abhinaya (Emotional).

(i) Angika Abhinaya – Physical Representation

Angika Abhinaya means the physical movements that are made during the course
of the play. It consists of various movements of limbs, hands and feet, breast and
waist, hand and sides; and of the more delicate expressions conveyed through eyes,
brows, cheeks, the lips and the chin. Allardyce Nicholl notes, this physical action
is absolutely demanded on the stage, and it will be found that those plays which
most frankly embrace the physical action are likely to be most popular. (72)

(ii) Vachika Abhinaya – Verbal Representation

Vachika Abhinaya is the verbal execution of the play. It is the act of trying to
arouse similar feelings in the minds of the spectators through speech that the writer
might have felt while writing and the actor might have felt while acting, taking
care of intonation, pronunciation, tone, pause etc.

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(iii) Aharya Abhinaya – Decorative Representation
Aharya Abhinaya is the decoration or equipment that are used by the actors to
arouse a particular feeling or environment. It includes appropriate costumes,
makeup, props and decorating the stage.
(iv) Sattvika Abhinaya – Emotional Representation
Sattvika Abhinaya is that action of the actor in which he poses the same thinking
of the mind and carries the same import as that of a character in a manner so
realistic that it may appear natural to him or may similar to that of his own.
The four ways of representation, thus create the background for the manifestation of Rasa.
As Bharat maintains,
Rasa should never be denotes but manifested in various ways including the physical
movements, elaborate and delicate both; the tone of the speaker and his
accentuation of the words; the decorum to satisfy the effectiveness of the emotion
aimed at. (G.O.S, 12-13)

Theory of Rasa

Bharat’s Nāṭyaśastra contains a detailed theory of drama comparable to the Poetics

of Aristotle. Any work of art is read or viewed with the motive of experiencing aesthetic
pleasure. Bharat in Nāṭyaśastra describes this experience of aesthetic pleasure as ‘rasa’.
Etymologically rasa means ‘flavour’, ‘relish’, ‘gustation’, ‘taste’, ‘geschmack’, ‘saveur’.
Rasa is the simplest as well as the most complicated word so far its meaning is concerned.
It is very easy to comprehend its meaning but the most difficult to define it exactly. In
Sanskrit poetics is often compared to the body or the vesture and it’s sentiment to the soul
within. Bharat believes that the theme is the body of the drama and the rasas are the soul
that makes it alive. Rasa is the corner stone of Indian Aesthetics. There is no critic in
Sanskrit poetics, who does not mention rasa or does not recognize its importance in some
way or another. As Pro. P. Ramachandrudu says,

The Indian literary criticism has given the highest place to Rasa. Everything else
like Alankara, Guna, Riti, Vrtti and Parvrtti etc finds its place in a kavya so far as
it is useful for Rasa. That is the reason why only those poets who attained perfection
in depicting Rasa are given a very high place in India. Valmiki, Vyasa, Kalidasa

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 and Bhāva bhuti are the standing examples for such perfection. It is said in praise
of such poets –

Jayanti te sukrutino rasasiddhaha kavisvaraha

Nasty yesham yashakaye jaramarnajam bhayam. (11)

(Long live those poets who have attained fame through the use of Rasa, they fear not old
age and death to injure their fame)

Definitions of Rasa

Rasa is an aspect of which no scholar has disapproved, though every scholar has
tried to establish his own idea. They are of different views about rasa. Etymologically, the
word ‘Rasa’ is composed of two letters ‘Ra’ which means ‘to give’ and ‘Sa’ which means
‘motion’. Various meanings of rasa as given by V.S Apte are – ‘to flow’, ‘to make wet all
over’, ‘to taste’, ‘to relish’, ‘to soak’, ‘to saturate in liquid’, ‘water’, ‘potion’, ‘flavor’,
‘fluid’, ‘liquid’, ‘sauce’, ‘condiment’, ‘pleasure’, ‘delight’, ‘happiness’, ‘charm’,
‘interest’, ‘elegance’, ‘beauty’, etc. (465) The milk of cow is generally called Gorasa. It is
held in our mythological culture that beneath this vast earth, a legendary river called Rasa
flows and that region is called Rasatala. (Rasa = river + Tala = floor) (Mahabharat:
Banaparv, 188/69-70) Monier Williams mentions the meaning of Rasa according to its
usage as the part of speech. When used as verb it means – ‘to roar’, ‘to yerr’, ‘to cry’,
‘sound’, ‘reverberate’, ‘scream’. When used as noun it means – ‘juice of plants’, ‘fruit’,
‘any liquid or fluid’, ‘the best /the finest/ prime part of any thing’. (864) In Yaska’s Nirukta
as quoted by Gupteshwar Prasad, Rasa is used in the sense of essence. (3) The use of Rasa
is as old as the Vedas. Even in all the four Vedas the meaning of Rasa is interpreted in
different ways. In Rg-Veda Rasa means ‘water’, ‘juice of plant’, ‘liquor’, ‘drink’, ‘sap’. In
Yajur-Veda it means ‘joy’. In Sama-Veda it means ‘liquor’. In Arthrva-Veda it means ‘sap
of herbs’, ‘sap of grain’. In Satapatta Brahama the meaning of rasa is interpreted as
‘honey’, ‘syrup’, ‘elixir’, ‘mixture’, ‘juice’. Mention of rasa in Brhadaranyakopanishad is
found and it means ‘water’, ‘essential element’, ‘vital part’. The use of the word rasa is
traced back to the ages of the epics. In Ramayan it means ‘any mixture’, ‘elixir’ or

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‘portion’. There is a mention of all the important rasas in Ramayan. In Mahabharat rasa
means ‘milk’, ‘liquor’, ‘drink’, and ‘melted butter’.

According to Bharat, “Rasa is an organic unity. It is like (i) Multi-taste spice

(condiment) (ii) Herbs (iii) Sweet substance (iv) Basic food. It is said by scholars that
‘itivratam tu natyasya shariram parikirtitam. Rasaha punaratma shariravibharvaka’ (The
drama is the body and rasa is its soul). The literary meaning of Rasa is given as ‘rasyate
aswadyate iti rasaha’ (That by which we relish or enjoy is rasa). It is even said that ‘vakyam
rasatmakam kavyam’ (The essence of poetic form is Rasa). Bharat also gives much
importance to Rasa. According to Bharat, “Rasa is the emotional element in the theme or
plot of drama which creates organized pattern”. The importance of Rasa as is mentioned
by Bharat in the line “Nahi rasat rute kaschita artha pravartate” (Nothing proceeds
without Rasa). Rasa is mentioned in the Caraka Samhita as associated with the taste buds.
Six types of rasas are mentioned in the Caraka Samhita. They are “Madhur amla lavana
katu kasaya tikta bhedata shadvidham”.

There are various, sometimes conflicting interpretations of rasa theory, with

particular controversy around the issue of identification. As mentioned by Chatterjee and
Lee,
In his article, ‘Rasa and taste’, Umberto Eco gives an overview of multiple
commentators on rasa theory, following Bharata’s eminent Sanskrit
treatise, the Natyashastra, and its canonical interpretation by
Abhinavagupta. According to Eco’s analysis, some modern interpreters of
rasa theory ‘presuppos[e] [a] sort of complete emotional identification
between actor and character and spectator and actor’, seeing parallels
between ‘the techniques of the actor described by Bharata [and]
Stanislavsky’s method’. Eco further connects this interpretation of rasa to
a ‘homeopathic’ sense of Aristotelian catharsis, wherein ‘the spectator of a
tragedy is genuinely seized by pity and terror, even to the point of paroxysm,
so that in suffering these two passions he is purged of them, and emerges
liberated by the tragic experience’. Other interpretations of rasa such as by
Raniero Gnoli and Pravas Jivan Chaudhury seem closer to an ‘allopathic’

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 sense of catharsis (McDougall), wherein ‘the tragic text places us [the
audience] at a distance from the passion that is represented, and we are
liberated from passions not by experiencing them, but by appreciating the
way in which they are represented’ (Eco 2007: 12). Writers such as Uttara
Coorlawala emphasize that emotional distance and aesthetic stylization are
crucial for producing rasa, seeing parallels between the techniques of rasa
and Brecht’s alienation effect. (Chatterjee & Lee, 133-134)
Though Rasa is defined by many, but ultimately the denouement is that Rasa deals
with the emotions present and felt by the audience and the entire tactics of triumphantly
arousing the same at the proper time.
Rasa Sutra
Rasa is generated by music, metre, dance, gesture, voice, tone, dress, make-up and
environment. Bhāva is the foundation of Rasa. Keeping all these in mind,Bharat gives a
definate sutra of how rasa is generated. His famous rasa-sutra is
‘ Vibhāva nubhāva sancarisamyogat rasanispatti’
i.e. through the co-mingling, co-appearance – samyogat – of vibhāva , anubhāva and
sancribhāva , maturing/ ripeness/ appearance/ production of rasa takes place/happens. This
sutra explains the genesis of Rasa as the outcome of the combination of Vibhāvas,
Anubhāvas and Sancaribhāvas. Vibhāvas stand for the determinates, Anubhāvas for the
consequents and Sancaribhāvas for the transitory mental states which are acessory to the
basic mental disposition.A pictorial representation of the rasa-sutra can be shown as under:

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 VIBHĀVA

ANUBHĀVA

SANCARIBHĀVA

RASA
(i) Vibhāva (Determinant)
The emotive state in the human setting consisting of the physical cause of
basic mental state. It is the objective condition which produces an emotion. The actors, the
dramatic situations, the environmental and seasonal background in which these channels
are employed, are called vibhāvas. That which makes known many kinds of meaning with
the help of verbal and bodily abhinaya is called vibhāvas. Mahesh Sharma rightly quotes
I. A Richards to explain vibhāvas:
Vibhāva is just like impulse and rightly says I. A Richards, Implulses are vehicles
on which a host of other elements – senstations, images, emotions and references
ride piggy back through the mind. (9)
There are two kinds of Vibhāvas. They are: Alambana and Uddipan. Alamban-
Vibhāva means a person or persons with reference to whom the emotion is manifested.
Actors in a play or characters in a novel may be Alamban for the spectators and the readers
respectively. Whereas in another situation one character may prove to be Alamban for

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another. Uddipan-Vibhāva means the circumstances that have excited the emotion. Mahesh
Sharma sums up the understanding of Vibhāvas by saying:
Vibhāvas are the stimuli such as the story, the stage and the actors responsible for
the awakening of the sthāyi i.e. the latent sentiment in the spectator. The vibhāvas
of two kinds: ālamban vibhāva is the basic stimulus capable of arousing the
sentiments, whereas ālamban vibhāva is the enhancing stimuli, the environment in
which the basic stimulus is located. For example in case of arousing the sentiment
of pity or karuna rasa, the perception of an old weak woman on the stage is the
ālamban vibhāva; and thatched hut in which the old woman is lying and the
surrounding atmosphere of neglect and poverty is ālamban vibhāva (9)
(ii) Anubhāva (Consequent)
The mimetic changes which are inspired by the basic mental state. They are
the bodily expression by which the emotion is expressed. It is a more effective way of
telling an emotion by showing its manifestation. They make the different kinds of
representations capable of being sensed by the spectators. If vibhāvas are the channels of
communication, the channels themselves are called anubhāvas.

(iii) Sthāyibhāva (Permanent Mental State)

Sthāyibhāva is also termed as Durable Psychological state. They are the
permanent emotions residing in the heart of every human being. Rasa arouses from the
sthāyibhāvas. For each rasa there is a permanent bhāva related which further develop into
the rasa. Bharat in Chapter VI of Nāṭyaśastra tells of the eight dominant bhāva in the
following sloka:

Ratirhasasch shokasch krodhotsaho bhayam tatha

Jugupsa vismayaschti sthyayibhāva ha prakirtita (N.S, 6.18)

Which means,

The dominant states are known to be the following: love, mirth, sorrow, anger, energy,
terror, disgust and astonishment.

The accounts of these Sthayibhāva are as below:

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 i. Rati
Rati refers to the deep rooted emotion of Amor (God of Love) existing in the mind
of a man by reference to a woman, or in the mind of a woman by reference to a
man. It has many forms from Raga, passing through Anuraga, Prem, Sneha, Mana,
Pranaya and finally attaining the strongest bond of love. It can be depicted as the
feelings arising in the minds of the opposite sex for each other.
ii. Hasya

Hasya refers to the cheerful state of mind. It arises out of a person’s ludicrous
senses, deformity, sudden slip of tongue or any other comic situation.

iii. Shoka
Shoka is caused due to loss of a particular asset. It can arise out of the loss of
property, dear one or beloved.
iv. Krodha
Krodha arouses due to serious offence of any kind. It reflects the hot temperament
of the individual. It arises as a result of personal offence or public offense and
killings.
v. Utsah (Hortitude)
Utsah represents energy. It arises from happy recollections, events of charity and
valour displayed by self or other person. Such a state of mind belongs only to
sublime characters.
vi. Bhaya

Bhaya arises in the mind of the person who is exposed to grave danger. it does not
transform into an emotion inn state of ordinary fear but when there is fear of life it
can be experienced clearly.

vii. Jugupsa
Jugupsa arises due to the hesitation one feels by horrid and ghastly scenes. One
experiences a feeling of nastiness on account of the sight of dirty, filthy and rotten
or terrific things.
viii. Vismaya

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 Vismaya arises due to astonishments caused by extraordinary things, supernatural
events etc.

All these emotions are inbuilt in human nature and are awakened by one or other
action and environment. When these emotions, actions and environment come together,
they successfully generate the respective rasa. Bharat lays much importance on
Sthāyibhāva. He says in the Nāṭyaśastra,

“The permanent emotions are like kings, because many depend on them. So also
the other bhāvas, being like servants that are subordinate to the person occupying
the position of the king, resort to the sthāyibhāvas as being subordinate to them (or
depending on them.” (N.S VII.8)

Adya Rangacharya in his work Introduction to Bharat’s Nāṭyaśastra gives a subtle

illustration in this context which is represented pictographically as below:

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 • Vibhāva - season, flower, ornaments or anything that is beautiful
• Anubhāva - looking side-ways, coy glance, sweet words
Rati • Sancaribahva - lassitude, suspicion, jealousy

• Vibhāva - pecularity of dress or speech

• Anubhāva - spouting, mimcking
Hasya • Sancaribhāva - smile, snicker, laughter, guffow

• Vibhāva - loss, death, calamity

• Anubhāva - tears, fainting, lamentations
Shoka • Sancaaibhāva - sorrow, trembling, fear

• Vibhāva - anger, violence, treachery

• Anubhāva - red eyes, rubbing hands, bitting lips
Krodha • Sancaribhāva - sweating, excitement, impatience

• Vibhāva - determination, strength, bravery

• Anubhāva - courage, arrogance
Utsah • Sancaribhāva - decision, arrogance

• Vibhāva - frightful things, lonely sights

• Anubhāva - trembling, pallor, loosing voice
Bhaya • Sancaribhāva - fainting, hurrying, standing rooted

• Vibhāva - bad news, loud lamentation

• Anubhāva - repulsion, spitting, turning up nose
Jugupsa • Sancaribhāva - fainting, illness, death

• Vibhāva - seeing unusual things, magic

• Anubhāva - wide or starring eyes, thrill, exclamations
Vismaya • Sancaribhāva - over-joyed, standing stunneds

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 McDougall, the exponent of Hormic Psychology in his book, An Introduction to
Social Psychology relates each emotional quality with the basic instincts found in human
beings. His relation of instincts with emotional qualities is as under:

SR.
NAME OF INSTINCT NAME OF EMOTIONAL QUALITIES
NO

1 Escape Fear

2 Pugnacity Anger

3 Repulsion Disgust

4 Parenl Tender Emotions

5 Appeal Distress

6 Sex Lust

7 Curiosity Wonder

8 Submission/Self abasement Feeling of subjection

9 Assertion Elation

10 Social/Gregarious Loneliness

11 Food seeking Appetite/Craving

12 Acquisition Ownership

13 Construction Creativeness

14 Laughter Amusement

For every Rasa McDougall tells that there is an instinct and an emotional quality
related to it. He says for Srngara rasa nos. 6,4,10, for Hasya rasa no. 14, for Karuna rasa
nos. 5, 8, for Raudra rasa no. 2, for Vir rasa nos. 1,9,12, for Bhayanaka rasa no.1 and for

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Adbhuta rasa nos.7, 13. For Shanta (Serene) rasa, he says it is a resignation from worldly
activities (nivrtti) and hence there is no room for inclination of mind (pavritti) in it. (134)

(iv) Sancaribhāva (Complementary Psychological State)

The transient emotions which are short lived. They are a series of diverse
emotions that feed the dominant emotion. They are subsidiary to the Sthāyibhāvas and
feed, nourish and intensify them. They appear and disappear in the midst of the sthāyibhāva
as waves rise and fall in an ocean. Bharat lists thirty-three Sancaribhāva. They are:

i. Nirveda – Indifference
It is a feeling upon oneself; such a feeling may be aroused by extreme indigence,
downtrodden condition brought by some curse, great misery or intolerance of a
rival’s glory, constant insults from the superiors, public censure, penal servitude,
separation or loss of some dear kinsman. It is also an outcome of the knowledge of
Truth or of the unreality of this world and other temporal relations. The existence
of despair is generally judged by tears and sighs and also by pensiveness.

ii. Glani – Debility

It is in the nature of moroseness or a particular kind of uneasiness. It arises from
mental worries, weakness due to illness, amorous indulgence, and loss of strength,
fatigue, paleness or languor. Lolling eyes and sleeplessness are some of the features
that exhibit the existence of this mental state.

iii. Sanka – Apprehension

It is a mental scruple born of the pricks of conscience which is guilty of some
offense like felony, or high treason. This mood is often created by the commission
of some sin or moral wrong. It is expressed by the presentation of unsteady looks,
hiding one’s face, parching throat, licking one’s own lips, turning of facial colour
and tremor. As an after effect of this feeling, the face generally becomes dull and
lusterless.

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 iv. Asuya – Envy
It is incapacity to tolerate the virtues or accomplishments of another person. It is
generally caused by the display of the attainments of the rival, his opulence and
joys. It is to be expressed by the open declaration of the faults of the other, belittling
his merits and by means of one’s own attitude having downcast face, closed eyes
and knitting of brows. In moments of overpowering sublimity such a state of mind
results in censuring ones own self as well.

v. Mada - Intoxication of Pride / Inebriety

It is an infatuated state of mind caused by the use of stimulants. It’s after effects
vary according as the nature of the person differs. If he is noble and of harmonious
temperament, the influence of intoxicants induces him to sleep, if he is passionate,
he either indulges in music or bursts into pearls of laughter. If he is dominated by
inertia and belongs to a low class, he falls in hysterical fits, sheds tears or resorts to
random talks or loud shrieks and abuses. Inebriety has different stages as well: in
its initial stages it is depicted by means of indistinct voice, stammering speech,
disconnected talks or faltering pace, in its slightly advanced stage it is betokened
by waving of arms, tumbling down, staggered voice and reeling looks. In its
virulent form, which is to be shown only be reference to base characters it presents
a slip at every stage, loss of memory and frequency of sneezes and hiccups. In such
a state, the mouth of the person is sometimes full of foam or remains wide agape.

vi. Srama – Wearinessry

It is a state of fatigue due to exertion either physical or mental. Heavy breaths,
yawing, twisting of limbs, rubbing one’s own face or desire for massage are the few
ensuants of the exhausted condition.

vii. Alasya – Indolencetige

It is that state of mind which is produced by want of energy. It may be due to over-
work, hunger, uneasiness of mind or indisposition. With some characters, however,
it is a natural mood. In case of women such a condition is also a result of pregnancy.

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 It is to be brought forth by means of showing disinterest in every action, quiet
posture, moroseness or sleepy condition.

viii. Dainya – Depression

It is caused by mental worries, squalor or even by a particular type of disease. It is
depicted by uncleanliness, heaviness of the body and pallour and lack of energy.

ix. Cinta - Painful reflection

It is a mental state resulting from loss of power or wealth or from obstacles in course
of one’s success. It is generally shown by heavy sighs, meditation, and thinness of
body or by brooding mood. It also causes absent mindedness, recklessness and
inattention. It weighs heavy on one’s heart or corrodes the inner senses. Coupled
with this, fortitude should always be shown in higher characters of uttam prakrti.

x. Moha - Delusion of mind

It is occasioned by some divine frown, anger of someone superior, an unexpected
calamity, grave disappointment and reminiscences of previous associations,
privations and hostilities. It should be presented in the form of senselessness,
reeling sensation, sudden fall on the ground and staggering looks.

xi. Smrti - Recollection

It is recalling to mind the past experiences of pleasure and pain occasioned by
sleeplessness, physical illness or observation of similar such items or actual
references by another. The mental state is to be expressed by nods of head, knitting
of brows, investigating looks and inquisitive expression of face.

xii. Dhrti – Contentment

It is a delightful mood created by intense satisfaction or knowledge of truth,
acquisition of power, extreme devotion to God or Guru, practice of religion and
duty, and high standard of morality. This condition of mind is free from fear or

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 sorrow. It is to be shown in the shape of general indifference without extreme
passion for gaining some object or grief in case of want of something.

xiii. Vrda – Shame / Bashfulness

It is a state of both modesty and of shame. Any transgression of limits or sense of
repentance creates such a state of mind. It is expressed as a result of shyness and
the first affectation of love. It is shown by means of dullness in eyes, lowering of
the head, scratching of nails, muttering of words, scribbling of some text, rocking
a ring up and down in one’s own finger, gentle touches frequently done to one’s
own plait of hair, feeling one’s own clothes often or squeezing the frill of a garment
and similar other features.

xiv. Capalta – Insteadiness

It springs from affection, hatred, intolerance, envy and sense of opposition. It is in
the shape of the lack of uniformity of action and behavior. According to Bhojadev
it is an outcome of the desire to make one conspicuous. It, however, leads to
extreme, such as termagant speech, severe reprimands, vapulations, arrests,
assassinations and the like.

xv. Harsa – Joy

It is a state of light-heartedness, a pleasant mood. It owes its existence to the
achievement of a longed-for object, an association with a beloved or a dear
kinsman, prosperity or some favor shown by the superiors. It is expressed by means
of blooming face, sprightly glances, courteous speech, vivid smile, horripilation,
perspiration, thrilling limbs and even flow of cool tears.

xvi. Avega - Agitation/ Flurry

It is a state of perplexity or flurry. This mood is of frequent occurrence and has a
plurality of reasons behind it. The nature of flurry varies both in its kind as well as
in its after-effects according to the nature of its cause. It may be due to some
portentions phenomenon (utpata), a strong gale, a conflagration, torrential rain,

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 presence of some wild animal, and some dismal tidings invasions by an enemy or
some other physical injury. Sometimes even sudden and happy news can also cause
flurry.
Each of these types may have again different reasons to cause a peculiar type of
flurry, e.g an agitation occasioned by some veritable portent may be due to fall of
meteor, peals of thunder, lightning, appearance of a lodestar or an eclipse of the
Sun or the Moon. Such an agitation is to be portrayed by means of distress in limbs,
standing aghast, loss of facial colour or a wonderstruck posture. An agitation caused
by strong gust of wind be presented in the shape of veiling oneself, rubbing one’s
eyes, tightening one’s clothes or acceleration in pace of walking. The mood of
flurry brought out by excessive rainfall may be shown in the form of squeezing
one’s limbs, running away speedily, use of umbrellas, sticking up of garments and
the like. Conflagration resulting into flurry is to be put forth with an atmosphere
filled with smoke and the characters to be portrayed with their eyes watering with
tears, reddened face, a hurried exit and distressed limbs. The flurry caused by the
presence of wild beasts becomes remarkable by a quick exit, sudden shriek, and
fright, standing of hair on their ends, and constantly looking behind, with sighs and
shrieks, groaning lamentations, loud outbursts of cries, sudden departure from the
spot and stunned vacancy of mind, an agitation caused by the dismal tidings is to
be presented. Flurry occasioned by foreign invasion or an attack of thieves or
similar use of pressure is to be shown by a chaotic disturbance involving some
sudden action, resort to arms, scaring, indignation or in certain cases even with a
thoughtful brow. Hearing of some very good news may also cause flurry which
may be demonstrated by a sudden jump, clamping in a seat, embracing the news-
bearer, putting on a gala dress, jubilation, horripilation or even a flow of cool and
joyous tears. Bhojaraj has replaced Sambhrama for Avega and calls it a flurry
caused by particular type of appreciation.

xvii. Jadata - Stupefaction / Immobility

It is that mental condition in which all sense of appreciation is stupefied. It is caused
by protracted illness, witnessing of a horrid sight or hearing some grievous news.

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 It results in dumb-foundedness, steadfast gazes or loss of energy and physical
movements.

xviii. Garva – Arrogance/ Conceit

It is a mental attitude swollen with egotism. It springs from power, opulence, high
status and more from consciousness of one’s high rank and birth, handsome figure,
charming youth, dauntless courage, invincible strength or unparalleled learning,
skill or any other art. It is to be portrayed by means of contemptuous behavior with
others, irresponsiveness, gazing at one’s own self, sarcastic smiles, rough manners,
insulting demeanor, affected deportment, and disregard shown to elders,
presumptuous speech, and insolvent mode of walk and such other ways of
assumption of airs.

xix. Visada – Despondency

It is an attitude which shows an utter loss of vigour. It may be due to failures of
purpose, want of expendiments to achieve success or fall of some irremediable
misery. According to Jagannath, it is also an outcome at repentance for one’s own
wrong doings or offence to the Guru or the king. It may be exhibited by such actions
as attempting for alliance in quest of helpers, or finding out means. Even lack of
zeal, disinterest or failure of the persuasions of others also demonstrates a feeling
of despondency, which among the low characters specially causes physical
restlessness, parching of lips, drowsiness, heavy breaths or frequent licking of
either ends of the mouth.

xx. Autsukya – Impatience/ Eagerness

A mental attitude which craves to gain the desired object without further loss of
time is eagerness. It arises out from separation from one’s beloved, craze for the
union with the same or constant remembrance of the desired object. It becomes
evident by long sighs, lowered face, pensiveness, sloth and laziness.

xxi. Nidra – Sleep / Slumber

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 It is a state of stillness of mind. It arises from weakness, fatigue, exertion, indolence,
wakefulness, gluttony or anxiety. With low characters, it is somewhat natural too.
It is imitated by a show of yawning, closing of eyes, worn-out face, fir of
drowsiness, staggering looks, inhaling and exhaling of breaths, feebleness in limbs
and cessation of activities, snoring and snorting.

xxii. Apasmara – Dementedness/ Catalepsy

It is a diseased condition of mind caused by intolerable separation, extreme grief,
horror, and ghastly sight, possession by evil spirits, residence in desolated homes,
uncleanly habits or disturbance of humours. Throbbing, tremor, sighs, tumbling
down, random movements, perspiration, fit, foaming mouth, licking by tongue and
unseemly behavior are a few noted after-effects of the epileptic condition of mind.

xxiii. Supta – Dreaming

It is a conscious state of sleep. It follows slumber, long breaths, snoring, stillness
of limbs, closed eyes, inaction of outer organs and prattling are the symptoms which
proceeds from dream. Pandita-raja calls Supta as synonymous to dream and
considers prattling (Jalpa) as its after-effects. He disagrees with Bharat and thinks
closing of eyes, stillness of limbs and the like features to belong to sleep, and not
to dream as its distinctive characteristics.

xxiv. Vibodha – Awakening/ Wakefulness

It is a state of consciousness regained after sleep. Breach of slumber, indigestion
and tumult are the few causes of Vibodha. It is demonstrated by yawning, rubbing
the eyes, straightening of limbs and snapping of fingers. According to some
psychologists, state of wakefulness is also attained by loss of ignorance or removal
of nescience. Freedom from false notions also fosters the awakened attitude.

xxv. Amarsa - Animosity / Indignation / Wrath

It is a perturbed state of mind or an infuriated mental attitude. It is caused by
disobedience of the inferior, insolent treatment, insulting behavior or an

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 impeachment of authority, status, learning or wealth, or an infringement of a right.
It is to be indicated by redness in eyes, furious inhaling of breaths, loud speeches,
harsh tone and taciturnity. At times, even a pensive pose, finding out of means of
retaliation or avenging for the wrong done goes to suggest a wrathful attitude.

xxvi. Avahitta - Constraint / Dissimulation

It consists in hiding one’s appearance or an attempt to appear in a manner different
from what it actually is. It is an outcome of shame, awe and cunning. Uttering
falsehood, giving circuitous replies, a sham show of fortitude, boldness and self-
assumption are the few characteristics which betray an attitude of dissembling.

xxvii. Ugrata – Ferocity/ Acrimony

It is an attitude of sternness caused by besieges arrest of an offender, false statement
or a reconitre with a foe. Panditrāja Jagannātha, however, calls it as a non-plussed
attitude, fall of vehemence which makes one feel in terms of what to do of this
person who wronged me thus in the past. The acrimonious attitude is shown by
attempts of belabouring, capturing, scolding and cudgeling.

xxviii. Mati - Resolve/ Determination

It is a mental attitude which forms definite conclusion gained by the study of the
Sastras, observation of facts, deduction from given data and a firm belief in one’s
own convictions. Removal of doubt, instructions to others, self-assurance and
acting upon conclusions drawn are the few features of the determined attitude of
the mind.

xxix. Vyadhi – Sickness

According to Bharat it is due to the disturbance in humours. It results in fever or
similar diseases. Pandita-raja defines sickness as a state of mental uneasiness
caused by constitutional sickness or a particularly malady in the shape of being
love-born or by a shock due to some severe loss. Bhojdeva has the same view.

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 Sluggishness of limbs, heavy respiration, debility, loss of energy is some of its
ensuants.

xxx. Unmada – Madness/ Derangement

It is a loss of mental equilibrium, a disorderly state of mind. Such dementedness is
often due to some shocking death of a kinsman, sudden loss of wealth and
possessions, continued woeful condition of life, unbearable grief, separation from
the beloved, fit of insanity, disproportion of bile, phlegm or the wind in the body.
It is to be depicted by untimely weeping, inopportune laughter, regular shouts,
random talks, wanton movements, rolling in mud, splashing in turbid water, beating
one’s own limbs, biting others, putting off clothes, throwing articles that are nearby
and through such other irrational deeds.

xxxi. Marana – Demise/ Mortality

What is to be understood by this state is not the actual cessation of life, which is the
etymological sense of the term. Death is forbidden to be presented on the stage. It
is therefore, the proximity of death, the condition of impending loss of further
breath which is the meaning of the term morality. It may be due to a fatal blow of
a weapon, fall from a height or an attack of an animal, incurable stage of illness,
deadly effect of some poison or snake bite. Rolling on bed, ghastly looks,
blackening of face and nails, moistening of nose, jolting quiver, convulsions,
senselessness and stupor are some of the usual features of a person in this state.

xxxii. Trasa – Alarm/ Fright

It is an afflicted state of mind. It is often caused by the roar of the clouds and of
fierce animals, thundering noise, bolt from the blue, trumpet-sound of a battle and
similar other circumstances. The after-effects of this mood are squeezing of the
limbs, scaring away from the odd situation, hiding oneself in a place of safety,
stunned condition of the body, choked voice, tremor, screaming and horripilation.

xxxiii. Vitarka – Trepidation/ Dubiousness

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 Want of determination presents the mental situation of doubt. Sometimes lack of
confidence is also responsible for the rise of this feeling. The situation is generally
expressed by means of lolling of head, inquisitive brows, searching looks, cautious
steps, careful statements and direct queries as well.

(v) Satvikabhāva (Involuntary Changes/Psychosomatic)

Satvikabhāvas are spontaneous psycho-physical consequents. Bharat describes
eight Satvikabhāvas. They are:

i. Stambha – Motionlessness/ Stupefaction

It is an outcome of wonder, grief, some disease, fear or an ecstatic joy.

ii. Swaid – Perspiration

It is a natural consequence of exercise, heat, exhaustion, sickness, anger, excessive
joy, bashfulness or restlessness.

iii. Romancha - Erection of hair

It is a physical state in which hair stand on their ends on account of the epidemic
contact or fear, excessive cold, joy or due to bodily infirmity or some disease.

iv. Swarbhanga - Halting tone

It is caused by an intoxicated state of mind, old age, sickness or by fear, anger or
joy.

v. Vaipathu – Trembling/ Tremour

It is a result of cold, fear, anger, joy, senility, some peculiar physical contact or
disease.

vi. Vaivarnya - Becoming pale/ Pallor

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 It is the change in the colour of the complexion or loss of bloom on the human face.
It is generally due to some hesitation, dejection, grief or failure of purpose. Change
of colour is wrought by intoxication, wrath and acrimony as well. In the latter case,
the face gets copper coloured and eyes are reddened. Any change in the normal hue
of the face is called vaivarnya

vii. Ashru - Shedding tears

Tears proceed from jubilance, lack of fortitude, smoke, and use of collirium,
yawning, grief or consternation; even steadfast gaze, extreme cold or certain
diseases are capable of producing tears. According to the poetic belief, tears
proceeding from excessive joy or ecstatic exultation are supposed to be cool and
are distinguished as Anandasru from what are known as Sokasru whih trickle out
on account of bereavement or grief, and are conceived to be hot.

viii. Pralya - Becoming incapable of any action/ Swoon

The state of Pralya may spring from some shocking event, unbearable grief,
extreme exertion, over-dose of stimulants, and use of poison, protracted
sleeplessness or physical strain caused by beating, flogging or some other grievous
hurt.

The Rasa-Sutra of Bharat is well explained in the words of Rama Kant Sharma,
Thus dominant emotions –Sthāyibhāvas, aroused by objects –
Anubhāvas, excited by excitants – Uddipanvibhāvas, manifested
through physical or movements consiquents – Anubhāvas,
nourished by transitory feelings – Sancaribhāvas. are relished by
the sympathetic readers or audience as Rasa. The reader is not
conscious of all these ingredients while relishing any sort of
sentiment. He only enjoys the sentiment as a fountain that gives him
thrill and pleasure. (Sharma, 28)

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Different Rasas

Bharat in Nāṭyaśastra emphasizes the fact that the object of art is pleasure. No
doubt, art can be didactic of full of philosophical speculations, but all must come through
a medium that is pleasurable. Rasa is the most vital element that arouses emotions and
gives instruction along with pleasure. Bharat in Chapter VI of Nāṭyaśastra gives the eight
rasa as:

Srngara Hasya KarunaRaudra Vira Bhayanaka

Bhibhatsyaadbhutasangno chetyashato natye rasaha smruta. (N.S 6.16)

Which means,

The eight Sentiments (rasa) recognized in drama are as follows: Erotic (Srngara),
Comic (Hasya), Pathetic (Karuna), Furious (Raudra), Heroic (Vira), Terrible (Bhayanaka),
Odious (Bibhatsa) and Marvellous (Adbhuta).

Afterwards he mentions the ninth rasa as ‘Shanta’ rasa. There are evidences of
support for the ninth rasa. Bharat, himself, in the Nāṭyaśastra mentions, “Evam nava rasa
drsta natyagnerlaksananvita”. Shanta rasa is experienced when all calm pervades. Shanta
rasa develops calmness of mind and a feeling of relaxation. Shanta rasa arises from the
desire to secure liberation of the self, which leads to the knowledge of truth and is
connected with the highest happiness.

Whether Bharat in Nāṭyaśastra has listed eight or nine rasas is controversial. But it
is widely accepted by scholars that santa rasa is a later addition and henceforth it forms an
immortal part of the rasa theory.

(i) Srngara Rasa

This rasa is called the Rasa-raj. It towers over all the other sentiments as it is the most
important emotion in human beings. It appeals to human mind as life is a never ending
quest for love and affection. Love is portrayed through rich imagery and there are different
meanings of love e.g. love between a mother and a child, love between siblings, love
between friends, love between a man and a woman, love between the Almighty and devotee

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and so on. The sthāyibhāva for sringara rasa is Rati (love). Bharat divides this rasa into two
kinds:

(i) Sanyoga (Sambhoga) Sringara (love in union)

Its vibhāvas are pleasant season, garlands, scent, anointments, ornaments, the
desired company, delightful music, parks, waterfalls etc. It should be
expressed by anubhāvas like loving looks, lifting eye-brows, side glances,
graceful steps and gestures etc. The reader while reading a text reacts with
these anubhāvas and the same impulses are communicated in his heart too.
The vyabhicari bhāva s are all most all except cruelty and disgust.

(ii) Viyoga (Vipralamba) Sringara (love in separation)

Vibhāvas are hermit like situation, swollen eyes, dried lips, disarrangement of
things etc and anubhāvas are dejection, fatigue, jealousy, anxiety, lassitude,
forgetfulness etc. these all bhāva s are found in Keats’ “Ode to Nightingale.”
Most of the times the vyabhicari bhāva s of karuna rasa and vipralambha
srngara seem same but there is one major difference in both of them. In
karuna rasa there is the sense of disinterestedness and no hope to get
something back but in the separation of vipralambha there is always a hope to
meet again.

True love is associated with purity. Youth is particularly emphasized for the generation of
Srngara rasa since it is the age where passion rules.

Viparlambha Sringara is further divided into four parts:

1. Puravaraga
The situation of hero and heroine inclining towards each other before actual union
is called Puravaraga (predisposition). So, Puravaraga is love before union. This is
generated by looking a person to be loved in picture, dream or hearing about
him/her from others.
2. Mana

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 Mana (anger in love) means anger or displeasure, generated by exceeding love or
jealousy. In this situation lover and beloved stay at the same place, but there is an
absence of exchange of kisses, embrace etc. It is further divided into two
categories Pranaya Mana and Irshya Mana. Pranaya Mana is the situation when
a sort of anger develops between the two lovers sometimes without any solid
reason and Irshya Mana is the situation of doubt, suspicion or jealousy among
each other may be due to presence of another person male or female between
them.
3. Pravasa
Third category of Viparalamba is Pravasa (sepration due to travel) or person
(Nayaka) being abroad. Departure may be occurred by business, by curse or by
some fear etc.
4. Karuna.
Fourth category is called Karuna (separation causing grief).
This happens when one of the lovers has died and hope of re-union declines.

(iii) Hasya Rasa

Laughter is the most vital factor in human life. It varies from lighthearted giggle to
a rapturous outbreak of laughter. The sthāyibhāva of this rasa is Hasya. The object of
ridicule is alambana of this sentiment. The dominant emotion of laughter is created by
incongruous costumes, comic actions, untoward movements, the unbridled speech,
absurd activities and change of voice. It is generated by possibilities of deformity.
Smile, tickled appearance, exhibition of teeth and similar features are the ensuants.
Contempt and disturbance (Udvega) are the auxiliary feelings.
According to Bharat, Hasya-rasa is of two kinds: (i) Atmastha (Subjective) and (ii)
Parastha (Objective). When one laughs at himself, it belongs to the former type; and
when one makes another laugh it is of the latter type. He further observes that generally
the comic sentiment is found among the low characters and among women at large. Yet
a humuorous character may be a high personage at times, a middling or a base person.
The mode of expressing humour, is therefore bound to differ in nature. For this reason,
humour is said to be capable of being expressed in six different ways:

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 a) Smita (Smile)

It is gentle laugh and the characters of royal blood laugh like a king and queen
etc. It is expressed by bashfulness and not showing the teeth.

b) Hasita (Gentle Laugh)

It is just laughter, it is also for high characters but here eyes are full blown and
slight teeth can be shown while laughing.

c) Vihasita (Laugh)

It is characteristic of the middle characters, it is a broad smile. It is expressed with

a loud laughter and later with the reddening of the face.

d) Upahasita (Loud Laugh)

It is the satirical laughter of the middle characters, in it the nose is distended and
shoulders and eyes are bent down.

e) Apahasita (Peals of Laughter)

It is silly laughter, it is meant for the base and lower characters, laughing on
wrong time and place without any reason, and finally they have tears in their eyes
due to the excess of laughing.

f) Atihasita (Cachinnation)
It is the most mean and boisterous laughter, with rolling down on ground, holding
sides, tears rolling down from eyes , patting someone else etc. Female should not
do this.
This description is so minute and shows the observation of the writer; it is very close
to the dramaturgy of English high, middle and low comedy. Hasya rasa is connected
with wit, humour and satire.

(iii) Karuna Rasa

Soka is the dominant emotion which develops into Karuna rasa. It deals with the
feelings of despair, heartbreak, hopelessness, death, separation from loved ones, etc. In
both Eastern and Western literature Karuna rasa is considered to be of the superior kind.
Aristotle speaks of Catharsis which the spectators receive as tragic relief and Bharat speaks

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of delight in Karuna rasa. Even a great epic like Ramayan begins with the sloka which
generates Karuna rasa. On seeing the death of a Kraunch couple, so much remorse and pity
filled Valmiki’s heart and he created the entire Ramayan.

(iv) Raudra Rasa

The sthāyibhāva of Raudra rasa is Krodha. The synonym for Raudra rasa is Lord
Shiva. Raudra rasa is reflected in the Tandav dance of Lord Shiva, which generates a havoc
in all the three worlds namely the sky, the earth and the nether world. The ultimate imitation
is the destruction or death at the universal level. Words can manifest anger as well as inflict
pain. Anger is a neutral term which can be applied to both evil and good. It is the rasa that
portrays the violent streak in a person. Raudra rasa not only depicts the human fury but
also the fury imposed by nature like unexpected natural calamities and disasters.

(v) Vir Rasa

The predominant emotion of zeal or utsaha develops into Vir Rasa when
manifested by means of the suggestive factors in a dramatic composition. The ancients
have observed that such zeal appears running in five channels of human mind and thus
presents five patterns when viewed objectively. The zeal may be in respect of giving gifts
(dana), in showing compassion (daya), in combating the enemy (yuddha), in observance
of duty(dharma) and in taking and practicing oath (pratigya). Thus the varied heroism may
produce five types of heroes and accordingly the five types of heroic sentiment as well. In
other words, the hero may have the munificent zeal, the sympathetic zeal, the bellicose zeal
and pratigya vir. Their suite of suggestive factors also varies accordingly.

(i) Dana Vir – Munificent Heroism

Here the mendicant or suppliant is the alambana. His counter-part or the other
alambana is the donor. The supplications expressing the need and indigence of the
beggar are the excitants (uddipana). Courteous behavior, pitiful speech, an
expression of donor’s regardlessness for the object to be parted with in gift are
some of the ensuants of the munificent heart. Garva (pride), Smrti (reminiscences
of the past glory), Harsha (joy), are the feelings that help the zeal. Horripilation is

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 the Sattvika bhāva here. The best example quoted by scholars for Dana Vir is the
character of Karana from the epic poem Mahabharat.
(ii) Daya Vir – Sympathetic Heroism
The oppressed person either human or non-human, who is bitterly suffering is the
one alambana, and the other is the person in whose heart sympathy for him has
arisen. The piteous cries of the sufferer, his pangs, his bewailing shrieks, moaning
sighs and sad plight are the causes which awaken it. Running for help, removing
the sufferer from the perilous situation, consoling words and readiness for self-
sacrifice and other such actions are the Anubhāvas. Perspiration, horripilation and
sometimes stupefaction present the Sattvika bhāva s here. The best example of
Daya Vir is the savior of the people – Jesus Christ.

(iii) Yuddha Vir – Bellicose Heroism

It is the arduous zeal to fight the opponent that turns into bellicose heroism. The
one alambana is the fighting hero and his counter-part (prati-nayaka) is the second
one, who offers him fight, picks quarrel with him and opposes his interest. It is
awakened by the blows of trumpet in the field of battle or the sound of the bugle
that accosts the warrior to fight. The insolent speech of the adversary, his
combatant attitude and rough behavior also act as excitants. Encountering
speeches, preparation for fight, flourish of arms, waving of banners, responding
trumpets and nearer approach are its ensuants. Extreme pride, anger, emuration
(asuya) are some of the auxiliary feelings to enhance the emotion. Change of voice
and stupefaction are the resultant states. The greatest yuddha vir remembered even
today is Arjuna, a victorious warrior, who led the war of Kurukshetra from the
Pandav army in the fantabulous epic Mahabharat.

(iv) Dharma Vir – Righteous Heroism

An ardent zeal for doing, at all events and costs, what one ought to do, and for
refraining from what one ought not to do is a heroism which is of righteous
character. In this case, one alambana is the hero and the other is the Duty itself.
Listening to the contents of the religious texts, study of the scriptural injunctions

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 or the percepts preached over by the preceptors, sages and seers are the excitants
that awaken the zeal. An attempt to sacrifice one-self, to forsake one’s dearest
object or otherwise to stake one’s own best interests, the declaration of vows and
intolerance of impious deeds are some of the consequences (anuubhāva s) of the
prevalence of such zeal. Dhairya (fortitude), Mati (reasoning), Garva (Pride or self-
assertion) are the sub-serving feelings. The monumental example for Dharam Vir
is Yudhistir, the eldest Pandav, who followed ethics and had precisely spoken a lie
only once in his entire life time.
(v) Pratigya Vir – Oath Bearer

A zeal to fulfill one’s vow at any cost is the key feature of such a hero. In this case,
one alambana is the hero and the other is the Duty itself. The hero is conscious of
his duties towards the society and towards himself too. The vow that the hero takes
is of ferocious nature and hard to keep. The monumental example of Pratigya Vir
is Bhishma, the son of Ganga and King Shantanu from the epic Mahabharat. He
took a vow of celibacy throughout his life time and maintained this vow at all
consequences and thus was granted the boon of deciding his death.

Vir Rasa epitomizes courage, intrepidity, boldness and all aspects of heroism. It has
a lively tempo and arouses the bravery and self-confidence in the as well.

(vi) Bhayanaka Rasa

The safety and well-being of one’s near and dear ones is known to be the most
primeval feelings perceived by man. Any symptoms of sabotage of any kind to the loved
ones gives rise to the Bhayanaka Rasa. The sthāyibhāva of Bhayanaka rasa is Bhaya.
Dreadful and terrible objects are responsible for arousing the feelings of fear and terror.
When the Raudra rasa is at its peak it transforms into the Bhayanak rasa. It is a preliminary
state of fear when suggested in a dramatic composition which gradually takes the shape of
terror. The object which frightens is the alambana e.g. horrific place, the appearance of
wild beasts, the shrieks of jackals and foxes, the howling of owls and the miserable plight
of one’s own relations. Loneliness of the spot, want of company, unarmed condition,
narration of horrific incidents and the roaring noise often excite the sentiment. Trembling,

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shrieking, pallid looks, bloodless appearance, shouting for help and scared face are the
after-effects of fear. Stupefaction, choking of voice, horripilation and quiver are the
Sattvika Bhāva s. Suspicion, swoon, agitation, inconstancy, uneasiness, epilepsy and even
apprehensions of the loss of life are the auxiliary feelings that promote this rasa.

(vii) Bibhatsa Rasa

The sthāyibhāva of Bibhatsa rasa is Jugupsa. All elements which arouse feelings of
disgust are responsible for arousing Bibhatsa rasa. When one notices something coarse and
graceless, beneath human dignity, the sight is sickening and arouses the feeling of disguist.
This rasa is not used in the romantic and comic plays, but it forms the chief role in tragic
dramas. Usually scenes after battle, dead bodies create a feeling of disgust. The ugly object
or the horrid scene is the alambana. It is generally arouse by filthy descriptions, obscene
sights and talks. Squalor of body, turning of face, conspuing at the sight and making wry
faces is the Anubhāvas. Agitation, capilepsy (Apasmara), retching sensation, disease and
apprehension of death are some of the feelings that remain ancillary to this emotion.
According to Dhananjan, Bibhatsa rasa is of three kinds: Kshobhana, Udvegi and Ghrana-
suddha. Out of them, Kshobhana presents the idea of blood, intestines, marrow and fat and
such other ghastly scenes; Udvegi presents loathsome scenes; full of putrid sights and the
last one has simple disgust which is due to aversion from sensual joys.

(viii) Adbhuta Rasa

The sthāyibhāva for Adbhuta rasa is Vismaya. Unexpected and supernatural

elements are responsible for generating Adbhuta rasa. It is full of wonder and curiosity,
which arouses out of superhuman activities, unrivalled beauty and fascinating and
enchanting things. This rasa is assisted by marvelous elements, which arouse feelings of
surprise and gradually develop into Adbhuta rasa. The wonderful objects or an unexpected
incident or performance of the impossible, like the feats of jugglers become the alambana
of the marvelous sentiment. The circumstances surrounding such an object or incident
excite the feeling. The unwinking gaze, broadening of eyes, use of interjections, twisting
of fingers are some of the expressions that ensue from the rise of the Adbhuta rasa. Stupor,
perplexity, dunbfoundedness and flurry are the ancillary feelings that support the

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sentiment. It is generally followed by such self-existent states as stupefaction, flow of tears,
horripilation and choked voice.

(ix) Shanta Rasa

The dominant emotion which develops into Shanta rasa is Nirveda. The realization
of God, transience of the world including mankind is the objects which awaken the
sentiment of peace. This rasa is responsible to provide a feeling of ecstasy, serenity and
peace. Shanta rasa is regarded as the one rasa which can transform life from violence to
peace, from darkness to light, from ignorance to awareness and from mortality to
immortality.

The universe realized as unsubstantial becomes the alambana. The study of the
Upanishadic texts, the visit to the penance-groves, meeting with sages and seers excites the
sentiment. Disinterest in the sensual pleasures (trshna, kshaya), indifference to friends and
foes alike, meditation and steadfastness of action are the Anubhāvas. Joy, reminiscence,
reasonableness and unmade are the ancillary feelings. Horripilation, perspiration, cool tears
and change of voice are the Sattvika bhāva s of Santa rasa. It represents complete harmony
between the mind, body, soul and the universe. It is a clear and cloudless steady state that
gifts a person eternity and takes awhole life to to achieve it.

There is however, an opinion of certain authors like Bhatta Prabhakara who

believes that Santa Rasa can prevail only in Srvya Kavya and not in the dramatic literature.
But later rhetoricians like Panditrāja Jagannātha ably refuse this view and believe that even
the scenic art can, without prejudice, admit the ninth rasa. In actual practice also, the view
of Jagannātha finds support in plays like the Bhartrihari-Nirveda.

The importance of Rasa is explained by Bharat himself. He explicates in the

chapter VI of Nāṭyaśastra that

“Yatha bijadbhavedvruksho

vrukshotpushpam falam yatha

Tatha mulam rasaha sarve

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 tebhyo bhāva vyavasthita.” (N.S. 6. 36-38)

Just as a tree grows from a seed and flowers and fruits from a tree, to the sentiments
are the source (root) of all the psychological states and likewise psychological
states exits (as the source of all sentiments)

Rasa: Devta and Colour

Bharat in chapter VI of the Nāṭyaśastra mentions the colours and deties related to
the various rasas. Bharat was well aware of visual effects to arouse emotions in spectators
and so he gives importance to colours in creating Rasa. The sloka for the colours and
deties related to each rasa are as under :

Shyamo bhāva ti sringarah sito hasyah prakirtitah

Kapotah karunachaiva raudrah prakirtitah

Gauro virastu vignyeya krsnashachaiva bhayanaka

Nilavarnastu bibhatsah pitaschaivadbhutah smrutah.

Which means

The erotic sentiment is light green (syama), the comic sentiment is white ,the
pathetic sentiment ash-coloured, the furious sentiment red, the heroic sentiment light
orange, the terrible sentiment black, the odious sentiment blue and the marvellous
sentiment yellow.

Sringaro vishnudaivatyo hasyah pramathdaivata

Raudro rudradhidaivata karuno yamadaivata

Bibhatassya mahakala kalodevo bhayanaka

Viro mahendradevah syadadbhuto brahmadaivatah.

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 Visnu is the god of the Erotic, Pramathas of the Comic, Rudra of the Furious,
Yama of the Pathetic, Siva (Maha Kala) of the Odious, Yama (Kala) of the Terrible,
Indra of the Heroic and Brahma of the Marvellous Sentiment.

A stacked venn diagram of the colours and deties of various rasa is as under :

Sita

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Congruousness of Various Rasas

Bharat Muni, after the explicit elucidation of rasas, also bequeaths the compatibility
of the rasas. Barat Muni explains that appropriate amalgamation of rasa can haul the work
of literature to an alpine standard. The compatibility of the emotions depends on certain
logics and its own intrinsic nature. Bharat Muni has laid down clarion guidelines for the
combinations of friendly and unfriendly rasa within a single play. The tabular formation
for the demarcation between the friendly and the unfriendly emotions and their
juxtaposition as worked out by V.K Chari is as below:

BASIC RASA CONCORDANT RASA DISCORDANT RASA

(FRIENDLY) (UNFRIENDLY)

Erotic Love Heroism, the comic, wonder, Disgust, tragic grief a, fear,
fury. (demoniacal love, not fury (in normal cases),
normal) quietude (subsidence)

The Comic Erotic love, rage, fear. Grief, fear.

Grief Fear Rage, the erotic, the comic,

the heroic.

Rage Disgust, the heroic, the comic Wonder, fear, grief, the
erotic, quietude

The Heroic Wonder, Rage, the erotic Fear, disgust, grief, quietude

Fear Grief, disgust Rage, wonder, quietude, the

heroic, the comic

Disgust Fear Wonder, the erotic, the

heroic.

Wonder The erotic, the heroic Fury, disgust, fear, grief

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 Quietude b Wonder Fury, fear, disgust, grief, the
erotic, the heroic.

a. Depression, despair, distraction, etc. which go into the tragic sentiment, appear in
love-in-separation. But tragic grief itself is in congruous with its tone.
b. No emotion in its turbulent form can coexist with this mood.

SYNASTHESIS OR THE MIXING OF DISCORDANT EMOTIONS

Based on the Substratum Based on the Object Based on the moment of

Apprehension

By placing the opposite By directing the opposite Opposition between two

emotions in different emotions on different emotions is removed by
substrata, the opposite is objects. interposing a third, which is
removed, e.g., heroism in friendly to both.
the protagonist and fear in
the antagonist.

When two opposites are By introducing intervening

located in the same circumstances between the
character, one is rise of the one and the rise
subordinated to the other: of the other – circumstances
pity and rage in Othelo that would warrant a change
of attitude in the character
towards an object.

When Antipodal Coalesce?

Albeit Bharat Muni’s explanation for the usage and combinations of rasa is explicit,
when opposite rasas are combined, one of it subdues and the other prevails. The emanate
results are as under:

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 1. Love
Love + Disgust = Disgust
Love + Fear = Fear
Love + Rage = Rage
Love + Pathos = Pathos
2. Comic
Comic + Pathos = Comic
Comic + Fear = Fear
Comic + Rage = Rage
3. Pathos
Pathos + Rage = Rage
4. Rage
Rage + Wonder = Rage
Rage + Fear = Fear
5. Heroic
Heroic + Fear = Fear
Heroic + Disgust = Disgust
6. Fear
Fear + Any other emotions, friendly or unfriendly = Fear
7. Disgust
Disgust + Wonder = Disgust
8. Wonder
Wonder + Pathos = Pathos
9. Quietude
Quietude + Any other emotion = Nullifies that Emotion

Critics of the Rasa Theory

Though there are various critics on Bharat’s Nāṭyaśastra, the critical view of Abhinavgupta
is considered to be the most important one. As V.M Kulkarni quotes:

Abhinavgupta in his commentary on Bharat’s Nāṭyaśastra reproduces the views of

Lollata, Śri Śaṅkuka, Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka and Samkhyas and criticizes them. He himself

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 makes a categorical statement that all the sthāyins when presented on the stage are
pleasurable and that all rasas too are pleasurable. (46)

Abhinavgupta emphasizes that not one but all the rasas are equally important as life is not
always pleasurable or full of sorrows but a mixture and a balance of all emotions.

Lollata is of the view that rasas are numerous, although eight or nine are traditionally
accepted for the stage. His comments on Bharat’s Rasa –sutra in the following manner:

Lollata an early commentator of Bharat’s rasa-sutra explains that the sthayin itself,
when strengthened, intensified or fully developed becomes rasa. This means that
Lollata held the view that rasa is sukha-duhkhatmaka. (Kulkarni, 48)

Lollata sticks to the enunciation by Bharat Muni that sthayibhāvas become rasa when they
are combined with vyabhicaribhāva. But he makes an observation of his own that
sthayibhāva s are based upon deep rooted desire or instincts that ever present in the human
heart as vasana. Lollata takes a step forward in analyzing the psychological basis of sthayi
and vyabhicaribhāva. He is said to have initiated the thought as to who really experiences
the readers. His theory is famous as ‘Utpattivad.’

Śri Śaṅkuka says that acting is done on the basis of a written play or kavya. Reading
only yields literal meaning but meaning is fully communicated by acting. On seeing the
acting, the spectator can infer what the actual sthayibhāva of a person may have been. This
knowing or inferring the actual sthayibhāva upon seeing the mimetic action is called pratiti
and this pratiti is rasa. Śri Śaṅkuka postulates that the imitation of sthayibhāva s was what
actually occurred in the actor and that the act of anukarana or recreation of the sthayibhāva
s was basically responsible for aesthetic pleasure. The analysis of Śri Śaṅkuka is known as
‘Anumitivada’. Śri Śaṅkuka probably commented on the entire text of Bharat.

Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka conveys that the spectator’s psychology becomes a contributory

factor in the emergence of rasa and his theory is named as ‘Bhukti-vad.’ He says that there
is no birth of rasa in the actor nor the appearance of rasa. With great originality, he
postulates three phenomena, that of ‘bhāva katva’, ‘bhojakatva’ and ‘sadharanikarana’,
which when all come together bring rasa emergence. He explains that sadharanikarana is

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manifested by the agencies of vibhāvas. The spectator keeps away his personal likes or
dislikes because vibhāva is not something located in the real world which always invites
personal reactions. This depersonalized emotion is sadharanikarana which in turn leads to
further expansion of emotion. This expansion is known as ‘bhāva katva’ in which our
emotional state is distinctly new and different from memory, personal experiences, and
personal recollections. This bhāva katva or expansive feeling is enjoyed or is tasted by the
spectator, completing the whole process of rasa emergence and enjoyment. Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka
feels that the Rasa experience is greater than the yogic experience; because the milch cow
of speech (Vagdhenu), with great love and affection for the calves, the men of taste
(Sahrdayas), herself offers voluntarily the nectar – like milk, the Rasa, whereas the yogins
have to depend on the Nirvikalpaka Samadhi for the realization of the Atman.

Vagdhenurdugdham etam hi rasam yadbaltrusnaya

Tena nasya samaha sa syadyuhyuhate yogibhirhi yaha.

Abhinavgupta accepts sadharanikarana as the most cardinal of the changes that

leads to rasa. His first presumption is that only a sensitively appreciative person (sahrdaya)
can experience the joy of the rasa. Abhinavgupta suggests that the experience of a single
spectator is influenced by the experience of the whole watching community. Constant
experience without any obstruction is a unity and a wonder and therefore, he says that
bhāva is known as rasa when through natya experience (pratiti) all obstructions such as
personal likes and dislikes have been removed from it. He himself makes a categorical
statement that all the sthayins when presented on the stage are pleasurable and that all rasas
too are pleasurable.

Lollata and Śaṅkuka were content to analyze what went on the stage, Bhattanayaka
widened the perspective by including the psychology of the spectator and Abhinavgupta
postulated that every spectator’s consciousness is coloured by the same primordial desire
experienced by the spectators.

Kulkarni quotes the views of Sāmkhya:

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 Sāmkhya says that the worldly objects, capable of producing pleasure and pain are
external, but the sthayins awakened by the external objects are internal and of the
nature of either pleasure or pain. Thus, according to Samkhya’s view, rasa is of
dual nature – of amphibian nature – of pleasure and pain. (49)

To explain the rasasvada (aesthetic enjoyment or experience) Kulkarni quotes

Dhananjaya giving the following analogy:

“When children play with clay-elephants, etc.,

The source of their joy is their own utsaha

(dynamic energy). The same is true of spectators

Watching (the heroic deeds of) Arjuna and other

(Mahabharat) heros on the stage.”…… This

Aesthetic experience or enjoyment is a manifestation

Of that joy or bliss which is innate as

The true nature of the self (atman) because

Of the identification of the spectators with

Kavyartha (the characters, scenes & situations presented in the drama) (64)

Mamatta as quoted by V.M Kulkarni to show the importance of poet along with
rasa says,

Supreme is the poet’s speech which unfolds an altogether new creation,

which is free from the laws of niyati (destiny or nature), which consists of
delight and delight alone, which is completely independent of anything else
and which is charming on account of nine rasas. (67)

As V.M. Kulkarni concludes,

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 In literature (however) the aesthetic relish (of the suggested sense) through
the vibhāvas etc. is like the appearance of magic flower; it is essentially a
thing of the present moment, which does not depend on the past or the future
time. (55)

A Brief Analogue of Bharat’s Theory of Rasa and Aristotle’s Concept of

Catharsis

In Greek culture, Aristotle has made contributions to almost all arts and sciences.
His Poetics is a compendium which deals with the canons of criticism on various literary
forms evolved and developed by his time. The verdict of centuries stands justly and
sincerely in favour of Poetics. Bharat, in India, still stands as an honoured and authoritative
as he must have been in his time. His Nāṭyaśastra is compendium which sums up the
various traditions and views current in his time as well as his ideas and theories in
connection with Sanskrit Dramaturgy. It presupposes the development of different arts as
Histronics, Scenics, Music, Architecture etc. which have all been handled therein very
caustiously and carefully.

In Poetics, Aristotle coins the term Catharsis, which means an experience in the
mind of the spectator of tragedy, of outlet of emotions like ‘pity’ and ‘fear’. Aristotle
restricts this concept to the tragic form of drama and in the explanation part suggests that,
while witnessing the disastrous consequences in the life of the hero of the play, audience
automatically identifies himself in place of him. And this identification causes an
experience, in his mind, equally impressive and effective. The faculty of his emotions is
stirred to activity and the spectator himself experiences thrill or anger or excitement or
pain. These feelings through the purgatory function, result into the outlet of emotions like
‘pity’ and ‘fear’ which consequently give him a relieved and relaxed feeling at the end of
the dramatic performance.

Aristotle’s is the same theory as Bharat discusses in his concept of Rasa Charvana.
The overall, comprehensive quintessence effect of the relish of all Rasas is known as a
joyful experience. This pleasure is characterized as the best among all the joys on this earth
as it is compared to the divine pleasure (Brahmanand Sahodara). To go one step ahead of

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this experience, one must observe that the success of the concept of Catharsis or the theory
of Rasa is not in the final feeling of joy at the end of the dramatic performance, but in the
process of experience when the spectator is feeling the empathy with the characters on the
stage. This is where the form of modern drama acquires its significance. Modern English
drama does never aim at didactic functions, or at providing any lessons at the end. The
reflectory power of modern playwrights and the turbulence around them just instigate him
to picturize some situations and thus provoke the faculty of sensitivity first, and then evoke
the faculty of intellect and leave it unsolved forever. This intensive experience of realizing
the terrific turbulence and topsy-turvy around himself too, identifying the emotions of the
actors and feeling them strongly and thus experiencing the appeal of the dramatic
presentation, is as a matter of fact, the function of Catharsis or the Rasa principle. To sum
up in the words of Pathak:

Nāṭyaśastra and Poetics (330c.) – These two seminal works are emphirical in
nature, being based on perceptive observations of facts in dramatic practices of
their predecessors and contemporaries. (241)

Other than Aristotle Robert Gafrik notes other scholars who had spoken of emotions in
their works. To quote Gafrik,

Earl Miner relies on Aristotle’s Poetics to define the Western Literary system, but
fails to recognize that Aristotle himself had proposed an affective theory. In
Nicomachean Ethics (1105c) he spoke of eleven emotions (pathe): appetite
(epithumia), anger (orge), fear(phobos), confidence(thrasos), envy(phthonos),
joy(chara), love(philia), hate(misos), yearning(pothos) desire to emulate(zelos)
and pity(eleos). (73)

The emotions that are described are the basic emotions that reside in the humans and are
present from the times of the human existence. Another example that Gafrik quotes:

The problem of emotions was dealt with in detail, for example, also in Rene
Descarte’s Passions de lame (1649, Passions of the Soul). He recognized six
primitive emotions (passions, primitives): admiration, love, hatred, desire, joy and
sadness. (74)

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This indicates the presence of emotions in the western poetics and they also prove that
emotions have been identified and studied for years throughout various literatures.

Scientific Manifestations of Rasa Theory

The inquisitive nature of human beings has always pushed man to further think and
rethink about various aspects of any theory. Though emotions and feelings are a primitive
sensations in human beings, Bharat was the first to lay a copious and seriatim details about
the emotions and the circumstances responsible for the generation of the same. Science has
also taken interest in seeking the circumstances and environment responsible for the
generation of one particular emotion. To quote Sambhav Nath Trivedi,

In the documentary entitled “The Secret Life of The Brain” aired on the Discovery
Science Channel, neuroscientist Dr. Antonio R. Damasio rightly stated, “Emotions
are not the intangible and vaporous qualities that many presume them to be. Brain
systems work together to give us emotions just as they do with the sight and smell.
If you lose the ability to feel your life, and the lives of people around you, you can
be devasted.” (9)

Even neuroscience approves of the fact that emotions are an inseparable part of the
human existence, which Bharat had explained in detail many decades ago. A similar view
can be seen in Dr. Sreenath Nair’s work Rasa Theory and Neural Mechanism. He says that,
perception and its subsequent psychological reactions are neural functions of sensory
phenomenon caused by genetically mediated persistent neural connections causing cross-
wiring between brain maps.(1) He also links the generation of emotions with the
functioning of the brain and the senses. It is the brain that sends messages to the body to
react in a particular manner when particular events take place. Dr. Nair further explains the
connections between aesthetics, brain and responses given by the human being.

Aesthetic and emotional responses to sensory inputs depend upon hyper

connectivity between the cortices and limbic system, selectively fusiform gyrus and
angular gyrus. The hyper connectivity between these brain regions involves the
neural mechanism of metaphor, the same principle that explains synesthesia and
artistic creativity. It is also consistent with data suggesting that the right

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 hemisphere of the brain, which processes spatial and non-linguistic aspects of
language is more involved in the neural mechanism of metaphor. (1)

The brain and the sensory nerves are responsible for the reaction given by the body to a
certain activity or event. It is truly the brain that coordinates the entire body and produces
the impulses to react and response in a precise manner. Dr. Nair also takes into note the
derivations and experiences of a physiologist Zeki. He quotes,

Physiologist Zeki (1998) has noted that “the ability of the artist to abstract
the ‘essential features’ of an image and discard the redundant information
is essentially identical to what the visual areas [of the brain] themselves
have evolved to do”. The same neural principle is applicable to rasa acting
and according to Ramachandran there may be neurons in the brain that
represent sensuous responding to amplified forms or patterns producing a
correspondingly high limbic activation. (5-6)

Rasa generation is thus a process that involves the active participation of all the
sensory organs headed by the brain. The human brain reacts to an event or activity with the
emotional quotient that it feels. Ramachandran and Hubbard, as quoted by Dr. Nair
beautifully conclude to the same,

Rasa is ‘blending (samyoga) of different sensory qualia’ geared by the

symmetric others- actors/audience – through their discovering of
interesting objects like entities in the perceptual world of performance. (19)

Rasa Box Experiment

The rasa box experiment was devised way back in the 1980’s – 1990’s by Richard
Schechner and developed by associates of East Coast Artists - Michele Minnick, Paula
Murray Cole, Rachel Bowditch and team. Rasa boxes are a way to channel the different
rasas depicted in the Nāṭyaśastra. Rasaboxes focus on the movement of the actors, i. e body
movements rather than facial movements. The reason why the focus is on the body is that
sometimes actors wear masks and so it is difficult to express the emotion with the face. So,
at such times body expressions become the medium to express emotions. Currently they

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also run a website bearing the name Rasabox.org and to this date hold workshops for
training students as well as teachers using the rasabox experiment. There have been
additions and improvements to the experiment that were initially devised. An example of
the rasa box experiment is as below:

The rasa box experiment is practiced with a nine grid box labelled with each of the
rasa. The shant rasa is always at the center as it represents peace and harmony.

SRNGARA HASYA KARUNA

ADBHUTA SHANT RAUDRA

BIBHATSYA BHAYANAKA VIR

The actors are then asked to stand on one box and express the feelings associated
to the rasa mentioned in the box by means of dancing, body expressions, and facial
expressions, drawing etc. this is how the actors synchronize the body, mind and the soul.
This experiment hence prove the universality and timeless quality of the theory propounded
by Bharat as this is used in fine arts training even today.

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Rasa in all round

From the time of its composition, Natyasatra is held in high esteem. It is believed
that Bharat is an acronym of three syllables, ‘Bha’ = ‘Bhāva ’(mood), ‘Ra’ =
‘Raga’(melodic framework) and “Ta’ = ‘Tala’(rhythm). He was a connoisseur and so his
work is a complete in all senses. Bharat tells that plays should mix different rasas but one
rasa should dominate while others should subordinate them.

It is a fact that Rasa theory can be applied to modern literature and this fact proves
its universality, timeless quality and rich potential. Even today, dramas are written for
aesthetic pleasure. The Rasa Theory of Bharat knowingly or unknowingly is employed by
authors and relished by readers as well as spectators. If we remove the rasa from life, life
becomes inert and motionless like a beautiful wall clock, whose main spring has been
removed. Prof. Chaturvedi has rightly said,

As far as the question of the place of Rasa in a Kavya or Natya is concerned

Bharata feels that they (Kavya or Natya) should be replete with Rasa like
the garden which is covered by flowers in the spring season:

Pushpavkirnaha kartavyaha kavyeshu hi Rasaha budaihi. (19)

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Works Cited:

Apte, V. S. Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarasi Das, 1973. Print.

Chatterjee Sandra, Cynthia Ling Lee. "Solidarity-rasa/autobiography-abhinaya: South

Asian Tactics for Performing Queerness." Studies in South Asian Film and
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Chaturvedi, Prof. B.M. Some Unexplored Aspects of Rasa Theory. Trans. Pro. P. Sri
Ramachandrudu. Delhi: Vidhyanidhi Prakashan, 1996. Print.

Grafik, Robert. "World Literature and Comparative Poetics: Cultural Equality,

Relativism, or Incommensurability?" World Literature Studies (2013): 64-76.
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Kulkarni, V.M. Outline of Abhinavgupta's Aesthetics. Ahmedabad: Ashwin Kumar B

Shah, 1998. Print.

McDougall, William. An Introduction to Social Psychology. London, 1950. Print.

Mishra, Hari Ram. Theory of Rasa In Sanskrit Drama. Chhatarpur: Vindhyachal

Prakashan, 1996. Print.

Monier, William. Sanskrit English Dictionary. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1956.
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Nair, Dr. Shreenath. "Rasa Theory and Neural Mechnism." New Zealand Online
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Nicholl, H.J. Landmarks of English Literature. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing

House, 2006. Print.

Pathak, R.S. Comparative Poetics. 1. New Delhi: Creative Books, 1992. Print.

Prasad, Gupteshwar. I.A Richards and Indian Theory of Rasa. New Delhi: Sarup and
Sons, 1994. Print.

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Seturaman, V.S, ed. Indian Aesthetics An Introduction. Chennai: MacMillan India Ltd,
1992, 2005. Print

Scholars, Board of, trans. The Nāṭyaśastra of Bharatmuni. Delhi: Sri Satguru
Publications, n.d. Print.

Sharma, Mahesh. "The Eastern and Western Aesthetics: Re-routing Rasa Theory."
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uploadarticle/327.pdf>

Sharma, Rama Kant. Hardy and The Rasa Theory. 1. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons,
2003. Print.

Trivedi, Sambhav Nath Girish Ray. Emotions and its Communication; A Comparative
Study of Bharat's and Stanislavsky's Theory of Acting with Special Reference to
the Concept of "BHĀVA ", VIBHĀVA and ANUBHĀVA " and "BEING,
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