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Consolidation
Techniques
Blending or Mixing
• Blending a coarser fraction with a finer fraction
Ensures that the interstices between large particles
are filled
Good green density
• Mixing powders of different metals and other
materials
To impart special physical and mechanical properties
• Mixing lubricants
To improve the powder’s flow characteristics
To reduce interparticle friction
To reduce friction between particle & die wall
Blending or Mixing
• Binders such as wax or thermoplastic
polymers
To improve green strength
• Sintering aids
To accelerate densification on heating
Consolidation
• High performance components
High density should be attained in the final product
• Three methods of powder densification
Sinter densify a low density preform
Press to a high density followed by sintering
Simultaneous pressing & sintering
• Powders exhibiting good sintering can be shaped
using low pressure techniques
Injection moulding
• Otherwise shaped using high pressures
High external force deforms the particles to achieve
high density
Main parameters to control density
• Means of delivering pressure
• Mechanical constraints
• Rate of pressurisation
Consolidation
• To impart shape to the powder
• Net shaping methods
Pressing or die compaction (cold or hot)
Metal injection moulding (MIM)
Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)
• Bulk shaping methods
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)
Rolling
Extrusion
Spray forming
Pressureless consolidation
• Organic binders are normally used
• Several forming methods are in use
Injection moulding
Tape casting
Slip casting
Extrusion
Injection moulding
• Widely used for Plastics forming
Low cost
High shape complexity possible
• Powder with a molten binder is injected
into a die
• Binders are thermoplastic mixtures
waxes, polymers, oils, lubricants & surfactants
A typical binder composition
• 70% paraffin wax and 30% polypropylene
Binder content is ~40 vol.%
• The particles should be small to aid
sintering
Average size below 20 m with near spherical
shapes
Powder injection moulding
A cross-sectional sketch of the operating
region in an injection moulding machine
Injection moulding
• After moulding, the binder is removed
Debinding
• Debinding options
Thermal, solvent & capillary extraction
• Frequently thermal debinding for metals
Heated slowly to 600°C in air
Binder decomposes & particles oxidise
Oxidation provides handling strength
Injection moulding
• An alternative method is to
immerse the compact in a
solvent
One of the binder
constituents dissolves
Leaving some polymer to
hold the particles
• Sintered after debinding
• Compact has good
strength & microstructural
homogeneity
• Superior properties
compared to other
processing routes
Injection moulding
• Used for the production of
complex shaped, high
performance components
• Process characteristics
Shape complexity, low cost, high
performance
• High sintered density
suitable for high performance
applications
• Minimum density gradients
• Viable for all shapes that can
be formed by plastic injection
moulding
• More suitable for smaller sizes
& complex geometries
Slurry techniques
• Large shapes can be formed
• Moulding pressures are low
• Slip casting
Small particles are dispersed in a low viscosity binder
Agar gel is a common component
Cast in a porous mould
• Mould is prepared using plaster of Paris
Slip casting
• Slurry remain in the mould for
several hours
Large particles settle
Density gradients form
• Drying step can take several days for
large products
Slip casting
• Slow process, but the tooling is
inexpensive
• Relatively large product
• Dimension tolerance approx ±1%
• Final dimensions are not uniform
• A typical binder
mixture of water, alginate & surfactants
• Viscosity of the slurry is 10 Pa.s.
Tape casting
• Slurry is fed onto a moving plastic sheet that
passes through a controlled opening
• A blade levels the slurry to form a continuous
thin sheet
• Binders
Acrylics, waxes, polyvinyl alcohol & polyvinyl butyral
Class IV
Links
A collection of P/M components demonstrating the variety of
possible shapes and the four compaction classes
a) Class 1, b) Class 2, c) Class 3, and d) Class 4
Compaction
• There are several modes of pressing
• Several types of presses
Hydraulic, mechanical, rotary, isostatic,
anvil
• Automated compaction
Relative motions of punches, die, feed
shoe, core rods set to follow a
predetermined sequence
Compaction-Theory
• Main problem in pressing
Die wall friction with the powder
• Applied pressure decreases with depth in the powder
bed
• Important intrinsic characteristics of
powder affecting pressure-density-
strength relations
Hardness, work hardening rate, surface
friction, bonding between particles
• Extrinsic factors
Particle size, shape, lubrication & mode of
compaction
Fundamentals of compaction
Consider a cylindrical compact of
diameter D and height H
In that consider a small element of
height dH
Balance of forces along the axis
F=0=A(Pb-P)+Fn
(a) Length to thickness ratio limited to 2-4; (b) Steps limited to avoid density variation; (c) Radii
provided to extend die life, sleeves greater than 1 mm, through hole greater than 5 mm; (d) Feather-
edged punches with flat face; (e) Internal cavity requires a draft; (f) Sharp corner should be avoided;
(g) Large wall thickness difference should be avoided; (h) Wall thickness should be larger than 1 mm.
Design Guidelines for P/M
Parts - I
• Economics usually require large quantities
to justify cost of equipment and special
tooling
A minimum of 10,000 units are suggested
• P/M is unique in its capability to fabricate
parts with a controlled level of porosity
Porosities up to 50% are possible
• P/M can be used to make parts out of
unusual metals and alloys
Materials that would be difficult, if not
impossible to produce by other means
Design Guidelines for P/M
Parts - II
• The part geometry must permit ejection
from die after pressing
The part must have vertical or near-vertical
sides, although steps are allowed
Design features such as undercuts and holes
on the part sides must be avoided
Vertical undercuts and holes are permissible
• Because they do not interfere with ejection
Vertical holes can be of cross-sectional shapes
other than circular without significant difficulty
Design Guidelines for P/M
Parts - III
• Screw threads cannot be fabricated by
P/M
If required, they must be machined into the
part
• Chamfers and corner radii are possible
by P/M pressing
But problems arise in punch rigidity when
angles are too acute
Isostatic pressing
• Green compacts are subjected to
hydrostatic pressure in order to achieve
more uniform compaction
• Two variants:
Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
• The metal powder is placed in a flexible
container (rubber or sheet metal), then
pressurised by hydrostatic fluid
Fluid can be either a liquid or gas
Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)
• Complex shapes involving undercuts
or large length to diameter ratio
• Compaction pressures up to
1400 MPa can be used
• A rubber mould can create complex
shapes
• Two variants of CIP
Wet and dry bag techniques
Powder rolling
• A loose powder is gravity fed into the gap
between two rolls, which generate the green
sheet
• A binder can be added to enhance green strength
• The greater the reduction in thickness, the higher
the final density
• Green densities range from 60 to 90% of
theoretical
• Major problems
Slipping & cracking of feed material
• Generally used for the fabrication of sheets
Fe, Cu, Al, Mo, steel, stainless steel, Mo-Cu, NiTi, Co-Fe,
Cu-Pb & composite sheets can be fabricated
Shaping and compaction
options
Variable Range or options
Cycle type Continuous or discontinuous
Stress 0 to >3 GPa
Temperature -200 to 2000C
Pressing velocity 10-4 to 105 m/s
Tooling Hard or flexible
Pressing direction Uniaxial or isostatic
Additives None, lubricants, binders
Part complexity Single-level to multiple-levels