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Powder

Consolidation
Techniques
Blending or Mixing
• Blending a coarser fraction with a finer fraction
 Ensures that the interstices between large particles
are filled
 Good green density
• Mixing powders of different metals and other
materials
 To impart special physical and mechanical properties
• Mixing lubricants
 To improve the powder’s flow characteristics
 To reduce interparticle friction
 To reduce friction between particle & die wall
Blending or Mixing
• Binders such as wax or thermoplastic
polymers
 To improve green strength
• Sintering aids
 To accelerate densification on heating
Consolidation
• High performance components
 High density should be attained in the final product
• Three methods of powder densification
 Sinter densify a low density preform
 Press to a high density followed by sintering
 Simultaneous pressing & sintering
• Powders exhibiting good sintering can be shaped
using low pressure techniques
 Injection moulding
• Otherwise shaped using high pressures
 High external force deforms the particles to achieve
high density
 Main parameters to control density
• Means of delivering pressure
• Mechanical constraints
• Rate of pressurisation
Consolidation
• To impart shape to the powder
• Net shaping methods
 Pressing or die compaction (cold or hot)
 Metal injection moulding (MIM)
 Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)
• Bulk shaping methods
 Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
 Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)
 Rolling
 Extrusion
 Spray forming
Pressureless consolidation
• Organic binders are normally used
• Several forming methods are in use
 Injection moulding
 Tape casting
 Slip casting
 Extrusion
Injection moulding
• Widely used for Plastics forming
 Low cost
 High shape complexity possible
• Powder with a molten binder is injected
into a die
• Binders are thermoplastic mixtures
 waxes, polymers, oils, lubricants & surfactants
 A typical binder composition
• 70% paraffin wax and 30% polypropylene
 Binder content is ~40 vol.%
• The particles should be small to aid
sintering
 Average size below 20 m with near spherical
shapes
Powder injection moulding
A cross-sectional sketch of the operating
region in an injection moulding machine
Injection moulding
• After moulding, the binder is removed
 Debinding
• Debinding options
 Thermal, solvent & capillary extraction
• Frequently thermal debinding for metals
 Heated slowly to 600°C in air
 Binder decomposes & particles oxidise
 Oxidation provides handling strength
Injection moulding
• An alternative method is to
immerse the compact in a
solvent
 One of the binder
constituents dissolves
 Leaving some polymer to
hold the particles
• Sintered after debinding
• Compact has good
strength & microstructural
homogeneity
• Superior properties
compared to other
processing routes
Injection moulding
• Used for the production of
complex shaped, high
performance components
• Process characteristics
 Shape complexity, low cost, high
performance
• High sintered density
 suitable for high performance
applications
• Minimum density gradients
• Viable for all shapes that can
be formed by plastic injection
moulding
• More suitable for smaller sizes
& complex geometries
Slurry techniques
• Large shapes can be formed
• Moulding pressures are low
• Slip casting
 Small particles are dispersed in a low viscosity binder
 Agar gel is a common component
 Cast in a porous mould
• Mould is prepared using plaster of Paris
Slip casting
• Slurry remain in the mould for
several hours
 Large particles settle
 Density gradients form
• Drying step can take several days for
large products
Slip casting
• Slow process, but the tooling is
inexpensive
• Relatively large product
• Dimension tolerance approx ±1%
• Final dimensions are not uniform
• A typical binder
 mixture of water, alginate & surfactants
• Viscosity of the slurry is 10 Pa.s.
Tape casting
• Slurry is fed onto a moving plastic sheet that
passes through a controlled opening
• A blade levels the slurry to form a continuous
thin sheet
• Binders
 Acrylics, waxes, polyvinyl alcohol & polyvinyl butyral

A thin layer of powder-binder mixture is formed on a moving substrate,


which carries the tape into a drying oven prior to sintering
Extrusion
• Similar to injection moulding
• Powder-binder mixture is forced
under pressure through the nozzle
• Most appropriate for producing long
& thin structures
 Tubes & rods
Spray forming

An Al/Si spray-formed billet


(300 mm diameter x 2.5 m long)

Spray formed IN718


Ni superalloy ring
Compaction
• Binder-assisted processes use the fluidity
of the binder
 Particles can not be packed closer than tap
density
• To achieve greater densities
 External pressure is required
• Increasing pressure provides better
packing
 Leads to low porosity
 Formation of new particle contacts
Compaction
• Application of high pressure to the
powder to form the required shape
• The conventional compaction method
is die pressing
 Opposing punches squeeze the powders
contained in a die
• Strength of the part after compaction
is adequate for handling
 But, far less than the sintered part
Stages of metal powder compaction
A sketch of density versus
compaction pressure during
metal powder compaction,
showing key stages & declining
compressibility
Compaction
• The point contacts undergo elastic
deformation
 A residual elastic energy is stored in the
compact
• High pressure increases density
 By contact enlargement through plastic
deformation
 The pressure causes localized deformation at
the contacts
• Giving work hardening
• Allowing new contacts to form
Data for the die compaction
of a spherical bronze powder
Compaction
• The interparticle contact zones take a
flattened appearance
• Subsequent bond strength depends on the
amount of shear
 Max shear stress at the centre of contact
• Cold welding at the interparticle contacts
 Contributes to the development of strength
Compaction
• As the compaction pressure
increases
 Relative volume undergoing
plastic deformation increases
• At low pressure
 Plastic flow is localized to
particle contacts
• At high pressure
 Homogeneous plastic flow
spreads
 Entire particle becomes work
hardened
 Particle CN increases
Fracture surface illustrates the polygonal
• From 6/7 increases to 14
particle shape after compaction
Compaction
• With considerable work hardening or with
brittle materials
 Densification by fragmentation
 Compact surface area increases
 Strength shows little improvement
• Small particles hinder compaction
 Higher interparticle friction & higher work
hardening rate
• At very high compaction pressures
(>1GPa)
 Massive deformation
 Leaving only small pores
 Little benefit beyond this level
• Response is similar to a dense solid
Compaction
• Release of pressure results in
relaxation
 Stored elastic energy is released
 Dimensional springback
• Springback increase is proportional
to square of compaction pressure
Stages of densification
• Pure rearrangement below 0.03 MPa
 5-10% decrease in porosity
• Plastic deformation at high pressure
 Porosity decreases below 10%
• Extensive work hardening at 50-100 MPa
 Over 90% of TD is difficult to achieve
 Ability to work hardening decreases
• Fragmentation may occur
• Variables controlling compaction
 Crystal structure, chemical bonding, friction, surface
state
• Extrinsic powder variables
 Particle size & shape
Conventional compaction
• Pressure is applied using hard tooling
• Typical tooling material
 Tool steel or cemented carbide
• Die wear is a problem
 Controlled by adding a lubricant to the powder
• Single action pressing
 Pressure is transmitted from only one punch
• Double action pressing
 Pressure is transmitted from both bottom & top punches
• Floating die
 Relative punch & die motions are such that both
punches work against the die centre simultaneously
 Better uniformity to powder pressing
Conventional compaction
• After compaction, the compact is removed
from the die
 A force is exerted to push the compact out of
die
• Ejection force
 Effect of powder lubrication is most
pronounced
• Ejection force decreases with increasing lubrication
• Stored elastic energy in the compact
presses against die wall
 Considerable die wear during ejection also
Compaction
• A general system of part classification
exists for declaring the shape complexity
• Part classification number increases
 As the number of compaction levels &
complexity of the pressing direction increases

Part class Levels Pressing


directions
1 One One
2 One Two
3 Two Two
4 Several Two
Class I

Thin bushings Thin gears Thin cams

Class IV

Compound gears Splined Bushings

Links
A collection of P/M components demonstrating the variety of
possible shapes and the four compaction classes
a) Class 1, b) Class 2, c) Class 3, and d) Class 4
Compaction
• There are several modes of pressing
• Several types of presses
 Hydraulic, mechanical, rotary, isostatic,
anvil
• Automated compaction
 Relative motions of punches, die, feed
shoe, core rods set to follow a
predetermined sequence
Compaction-Theory
• Main problem in pressing
 Die wall friction with the powder
• Applied pressure decreases with depth in the powder
bed
• Important intrinsic characteristics of
powder affecting pressure-density-
strength relations
 Hardness, work hardening rate, surface
friction, bonding between particles
• Extrinsic factors
 Particle size, shape, lubrication & mode of
compaction
Fundamentals of compaction
Consider a cylindrical compact of
diameter D and height H
In that consider a small element of
height dH
Balance of forces along the axis
F=0=A(Pb-P)+Fn

P is pressure on the top


Pb is pressure at the bottom
Fn is normal force
 is coefficient of friction between
powder & die wall
A is cross sectional area
The normal force can be given in terms of the
applied pressure with a proportionality constant z
Fn  πzPDdH
The friction force is calculated directly from the
normal force & 
Ff  πzPDdH
Pressure difference between the top & bottom
dP  P  Pb  Ff /A  4 zPdH/D
Integration w.r.t. compact height gives the pressure
at any position below x
  4 zx 
Px  P exp 
 D 
Fundamentals of compaction
• Equation is applicable
to a single action
pressing
• Double acting
compaction will have a
simultaneous pressure
profile from top &
bottom
 The distance x is the
distance to the nearest
punch
 More homogeneous
distribution
Fundamentals of compaction
• Pressure decay depends on
the compact height to
diameter ratio
• With a decreasing diameter The average compaction stress
 Pressure decreases more
rapidly with depth for a single ended pressing
• For homogeneous   P1  2z ( H / D)
compaction
 Small H/D ratio The average compaction stress
• The average stress for a double ended pressing
depends on
 Geometry (H/D)   P1  z ( H / D)
 Radial to axial pressure
distribution (z)
 Die wall friction ()
Fundamentals of compaction
• High average stress
 In short compacts with large diameter
 Lubricated die walls
• The most important parameter is
 H/D ratio
• Long parts (high H/D ratio)
 Cold isostatic compaction is the suitable
method
Particle bonding in the
green state
• Interparticle bonds
formed during
compaction provide
green strength
• Favourable conditions
for the formation of
bonds
 High initial packing
density
 Clean powder surface
• At sufficiently high
Copper powder after
compaction force
compaction at 140 MPa
 Shear forces will act to
disrupt surface films
Particle bonding in the
green state
• A wetting liquid can form pendular bonds
 Increased interparticle bond strength
 Agglomeration forces are stronger at lower
liquid contents
• Without wetting films
 Bonding relies on the interatomic &
electrostatic forces
 Forces are stronger with small powders & clean
surfaces
Particle bonding in the
green state
• Mechanical interlocking
makes the major
contribution to green
strength
• Interlocking is enhanced by
an irregular particle shape
 Better green strength with
rounded but irregular shape
• Water atomised powders
are preferred for uniaxial
die compaction
 High green strength
 Low cost
 High compressibility
Goals in compaction
• To achieve good compact properties
with minimal wall friction
 Low z value (the radial to axial force
ratio)
 Low H/D ratio
• Die compaction is unsuccessful, when
H/D>5
 Low compact height
• Single action pressing is suitable
• But, predominantly double action pressing
Goals in compaction
• The ratio zH/D is
a sensitive gauge
of pressing
operation
 z is the ratio of
radial stress to axial
stress
• Best pressing when
the ratio is small
Compact density
• Density gradients
result from
pressure gradients

Constant density lines in cylinders


of compacted copper powder
Copper density is 8.96 g/cm3
Compact density
• The other important factor
is H/D ratio
• As the ratio increases
 Density gradients increase
 Overall compact density
decreases
• In sintering
 Shrinkage varies inversely
with the green density
 Low green density results
in large shrinkage
 Creates problem in
dimensional control
• Non-symmetric change
• Minimal green density Pressure distributions in
variation is preferred compacted copper powder cylinders
Only right half is shown.
Applied pressure is 700 MPa.
The effect of compaction
pressure on density
• The higher the compaction pressure,
the higher will be the density
 The high density increases the strength
and elastic modulus
Influence of material &
powder characteristics
• Particle size affects the interparticle friction,
packing density & pore size
• Smaller particle sizes are more difficult to press
• Particle work hardening is retarded by larger
particle sizes
 Dislocation slip distances are larger
 Rate of densification is greater for larger particle sizes
• Small powders, hard powders & sponge powders
give more springback
 More susceptible to cracking
Influence of material &
powder characteristics
• Factors which affect
compressibility also
affect the green
strength
• Difficult to compact
high strength powder
• Copper is a low
strength material
 Low porosity
• Pre-alloyed stainless
steel exhibits rapid
work hardening
 High porosity
Influence of material &
powder characteristics
• Alloying additions
affect compressibility
• Carbon is a potent
strengthener
 Negative effect
• Chromium has lower
negative effect
• Mixed elemental
powders are more
Alloying a powder decreases the
preferred than pre- compressibility
alloyed powders Effect of various pre-alloying
ingredients to water atomised
iron powder
Influence of material &
powder characteristics
• A high particle
hardness hinders
compaction

The densification rate of four


materials having different hardness
values
Influence of material &
powder characteristics
• A mixture of hard &
soft powders
• Compaction behaviour
is dominated by the
connectivity of the
hard powder
• Small concentration of
hard particles
 Little effect
• Insufficient
concentration of soft
powder The density of lead-steel powder
 Seriously degrade composites
compressibility
Lubrication
• To minimise die wall friction
 Lubricants are mixed with a metal
powder
• Reduced tool wear during pressing &
ejection
• A common lubricant is zinc stearate
 To avoid metallic contamination, wax
based stearates can be used
Ejection
• Ejection force increases with compaction
pressures
• There is a compact relaxation during
ejection (expansion due to springback)
 Usually less than 0.3% of the die dimension
 Expansion can cause failure in the compact
• Because of differential stresses & strains
• Such failures appear as layers (delamination)
Ejection
• Delamination may be reduced by application of
hold down pressure
 One third of compaction pressure
• The maximum stress developed during ejection
 m=g(1.27+1)
• g depends on the component shape
• (xi) equals zH/D
• Little delamination, when  is near 0.1
• As the ratio increases, the ejection stress will also increase
• To prevent delamination
 The maximum stress m must be below the green
strength
Tooling concerns
• Design & specification of the compaction
tools are very important
 For long life & proper functioning
• Shorter production runs
 Tool steels
• High volume production
 Cemented carbides
• Compact consisting of several levels of
thicknesses
 Requires independent control of tool motions
Tooling concerns
• Differing levels of compaction
 When, lower punch is a single
solid piece
• The green density depends on
apparent density, fill height &
compacted height
 G= AHo/H
• Compacted height can be
expressed as a function of
height change
 H=Ho-H
• So, G= AHo/ (Ho-H)
 Pressed density is higher for
the thin section
• Split lower punch
 Different relative
displacements
 Uniform final density
The multiple tool components needed to compact a
two-level cluster gear
Design Aspects

(a) Length to thickness ratio limited to 2-4; (b) Steps limited to avoid density variation; (c) Radii
provided to extend die life, sleeves greater than 1 mm, through hole greater than 5 mm; (d) Feather-
edged punches with flat face; (e) Internal cavity requires a draft; (f) Sharp corner should be avoided;
(g) Large wall thickness difference should be avoided; (h) Wall thickness should be larger than 1 mm.
Design Guidelines for P/M
Parts - I
• Economics usually require large quantities
to justify cost of equipment and special
tooling
 A minimum of 10,000 units are suggested
• P/M is unique in its capability to fabricate
parts with a controlled level of porosity
 Porosities up to 50% are possible
• P/M can be used to make parts out of
unusual metals and alloys
 Materials that would be difficult, if not
impossible to produce by other means
Design Guidelines for P/M
Parts - II
• The part geometry must permit ejection
from die after pressing
 The part must have vertical or near-vertical
sides, although steps are allowed
 Design features such as undercuts and holes
on the part sides must be avoided
 Vertical undercuts and holes are permissible
• Because they do not interfere with ejection
 Vertical holes can be of cross-sectional shapes
other than circular without significant difficulty
Design Guidelines for P/M
Parts - III
• Screw threads cannot be fabricated by
P/M
 If required, they must be machined into the
part
• Chamfers and corner radii are possible
by P/M pressing
 But problems arise in punch rigidity when
angles are too acute
Isostatic pressing
• Green compacts are subjected to
hydrostatic pressure in order to achieve
more uniform compaction
• Two variants:
 Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)
 Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
• The metal powder is placed in a flexible
container (rubber or sheet metal), then
pressurised by hydrostatic fluid
 Fluid can be either a liquid or gas
Cold isostatic pressing (CIP)
• Complex shapes involving undercuts
or large length to diameter ratio
• Compaction pressures up to
1400 MPa can be used
• A rubber mould can create complex
shapes
• Two variants of CIP
 Wet and dry bag techniques
Powder rolling
• A loose powder is gravity fed into the gap
between two rolls, which generate the green
sheet
• A binder can be added to enhance green strength
• The greater the reduction in thickness, the higher
the final density
• Green densities range from 60 to 90% of
theoretical
• Major problems
 Slipping & cracking of feed material
• Generally used for the fabrication of sheets
 Fe, Cu, Al, Mo, steel, stainless steel, Mo-Cu, NiTi, Co-Fe,
Cu-Pb & composite sheets can be fabricated
Shaping and compaction
options
Variable Range or options
Cycle type Continuous or discontinuous
Stress 0 to >3 GPa
Temperature -200 to 2000C
Pressing velocity 10-4 to 105 m/s
Tooling Hard or flexible
Pressing direction Uniaxial or isostatic
Additives None, lubricants, binders
Part complexity Single-level to multiple-levels

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